CONVERTIBLE  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES, 


Sufficiently  near  correctness  for  all  practical  purposes.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind, 
however,  that  in  those  receipts  which  evidently  call  for  a delicate  adjustment  of  propor- 
tions, they  will  not  answer.  See  WEIGHTS  and  MEASUHES. 


Wheat  flour,  1 pound  is  1 quart 
Indian  meal,  1 pound  2 ouncefl  are  1 
quart 

Butter,  when  soft,  1 pound  is  1 pint 

Loaf  sugar,  broken,  1 pound  is  1 quart. 
White  sugar,  powdered,  1 pound  12  oz.  are 
1 quart. 

Best  brown  sugar,  1 pound  2 ounces  are  1 
quart 

Ten  eggs  are  1 pound. 

When  “ wine-glass  ” is  used  in  this 
glass.  


Sixty  drops  are  1 tea-spoonful. 

Four  tea-spoonfuls  are  1 table-spoonfuL 
Two  dessert-spoonfuls  are  1 table-spoonful. 
A table-spoonful  is  £ ounce'. 

Eight  table-spoonfuls  are  1 gill. 
Thirty-two  table-spoonfuls  are  1 pint. 

A common-sized  sherry-glass  holds  $ gill. 

A common-sized  claret-glass  holds  1 gill. 

A teacup  holds  from  a gill  to  half  a pint 
A common-sized  tumbler  holds  \ pint 
>ok  without  specification,  it  means  sherry- 


COMPARATIVE  METRIC  AND  ENGLISH  TABLE  (APPROXIMATE). 


A meter 

— 

3.28  feet. 

A foot  - - 

.3048  meter. 

A kilometer 

— 

.62137  mile. 

A mile  = 

1.6093  kilometers. 

A sq.  meter 

— 

1.196  square  yards. 

A sq.  foot  = 

.0929  square  meter. 

An  are 

— 

3.953  square  rods. 

A sq.  yard  = 

.8361  square  meter. 

A hectare 

— 

2.471  acres. 

A sq.  rod  = 

.2529  are. 

A hectare 

= 

.00386  square  mile. 

An  acre  = 

.4047  hectare. 

A liter 

— 

1.0567  quarts. 

A sq.  mile  = 

259  hectares. 

A hectoliter 

2.837  bushels. 

A quart  = 

.9465  liter. 

A hectoliter 

— 

3.531  cubic  feet. 

A gallon  = 

3.786  liters. 

A stere 

— 

1.308  cubic  yards. 

A bushel  = 

.3524  hectoliter. 

A stere 

— 

.2759  cord. 

A cubic  foot  = 

.2832  hectoliter. 

A gram 

— 

15.432  grains. 

A cubic  yard  = 

.7646  stere. 

A kilogram 

— 

2.68  Troy  pounds. 

A cord  = 

3.625  steres. 

A kilogram 

— 

2.2046  av,  pounds. 

A grain  == 

.0648  gram. 

A tonneau 

— 

1.1023  tons. 

An  av.  ounce  = 

.0283  kilogram. 

A Troy  pound  — 

.373  kilogram 

An  av.  pound  = 

.4536  kilogram 

A ton  = 

.9071  tonneau. 

PROPORTIONATE  DOSES  FOR  DIFFERENT  AGES. 


Under 

4 year  1-1 5th  of  a full  dose. 

From  7 to  14  years  1-2  of  a full  dose. 

From 

A to 

1 “ l-12th 

44 

“ 14  to  20 

44 

2-3ds 

44 

1 to 

2 years  l-8th 

44 

“ 20  to  63 

44 

the  full  dose. 

44 

2 to 

3 “ l-6th 

44 

“ 63  to  77 

44 

ll-12ths  “ 

44 

3 to 

4 “ l-5th 

44 

After  77 

44 

5-6ths 

44 

4 to 

7 “ l-3d 

41 

“ 100 

44 

2-3ds 

ACCIDENTS 

AND  EMERGENCIES. 

If 

an  artery  is  cut,  red  blood  spurts. 

Compress  it  above  the  wound.  If  a vein  is 

cut,  dark  blood  flows.  Compress  it  below.  See  BLEEDING. 

If  choked,  go  upon  all  fours  and  cough. 

For  slight  burns,  dip  the  part  in  cold  water;  if  the  skin  is  destroyed,  cover  with 


varnish. 

For  apoplexy,  raise  the  head  and  body ; for  fainting  lay  the  person  flat. 
EVERYBODY  OUGHT  TO  READ  THE  SPECIAL  ARTICLES  ON  THESE  POINTS, 
BEFORE  THE  OCCASION  TO  USE  THEM  ARISES. 


DEPARTMENT  of 


44 


»4-»G£>i 

OP 

rsJmln6tlial  ^Mnivetiity, 

OHAMPAION.  ILLINOIS. 

Books  are  Not  to  be  Taken  From  the  Library  Room. 


N'ALS  SAY 

.ME’S 


DUML^ i it  b i CLOP/EDIA. 


REMOTE  STORAGE 


“ In  fact,  nothing  that  pertains  to  the  home,  whether  directly  or  indirectly,  is  foreign  to  its  purpose. 
Of  course  there  are  plenty  of  general  topics,  such'as  Clothing,  Drainage,  Floriculture,  Heating,  Venti- 
lation, etc.,  but  the  waiters  go  straight  to  the  mark,  which  is  the  ‘ practical  information  ’ promised  in  the 
title  of  the  work.  The  nearest  approach  to  a disquisition  is  Mr.  Geo.  Fletcher  Babb’s  admirable  article 
on  Decoration  as  Applied  to  Walls,  Floors  and  Furniture;  but  anybody  who  masters  its  condensed, 
unpretentious  exposition  of  principles,  will  find  it  one  of  the  most  practical  of  all  this  Cyclopaedia'.-, 
guides  to  right  living.  Mr.  Babb  is  one  of  half  a dozen  experts  whose  names  are  published  in  connection 
with  the  editor's,  and  are  a guarantee  of  the  soundness  of  their  doctrine.  In  the  Medical  Department, 
for  example,  we  have  Drs.  Austin  Flint,  Jr.,  Jacobi,  and  Lusk  ; in  the  Culinary  Department,  Mrs.  F. 
S.  Miller  and  Giuseppe  Rudmani  are  responsible  ; Col.  Geo.  E.  Waring,  Jr.,  deals  with  Drainage,  the 
Garden,  the  Dairy,  etc.,  etc.  Many  single  articles  produced  under  these  auspices  are  worth  the  price  of 
the  work,  and  there  are  very  few  households  in  which  the  compilation,  as  a whole,  would  not  have  a 
daily  usefulness.” — Nation. 

“ Throughout  its  various  departments  there  is  evidence  of  great  care,  accuracy  of  statement  and 
scientific  precision,  and  it  is  no  exaggeration  to  assert  that,  considering  its  scope  and  object,  it  is  the 
most  valuable  cyclopaedia  in  its  kind  that  has  hitherto  appeared  in  the  English  language.” — Boston 
Gazette. 

“ It  aims  to  give  a ‘shortcut’  to  the  knowledge  which  housekeepers  are  always  wanting  at  a 
moment’s  notice,  and  to  find  which  they  know  not  where  to  go.  That  the  book  is  highly  successful  in 
this  aim  appears  both  from  the  names  on  its  title-page,  and  from  or  examination  of  the  character  of  its 
contents.  . . . This  trustworthy  and  highly  useful  work  limits  itself  to  just  the  necessary  informa- 

tion which  may  be  got  within  a small  compass.  The  work  supplies  an  actual  need,  and  deserves  a kind 
reception  from  the  public.” — N.  Y.  Times. 

“ The  information  is  copious  and  valuable.” — N.  Y.  Tribune. 

“Turning  the  pages  of  the  handsome  volume  at  random,  one  finds  such  subjects  as  ‘Alcohol,’ 
‘Biscuit,’  ‘Cake,’  ‘ Canning  Fruits,’  ‘.Copper  Ware,’  ‘Decoration,’  ‘Drugs,’  ‘Food,’  ‘Furnishing,’ 
‘House,’  ‘ Infant,’  ‘ Mincemeat,’  ‘ Parrots,’  ‘ Potatoes,’  ‘Reed-Birds,’  ‘Sarsaparilla,’  ‘Snake  Bites,’ 

* Tea,’  ‘ Turkey,’  ‘ Velvet,’  ‘ Warming,’  ‘ White  Fish,’  ‘ Wine,’  etc.  This  will  show  the  great  value  of 
the  work.  So  far  as  we  know,  no  similar  publication  has  hitherto  been  issued  in  this  country,  and  we 
are  sure  the  book  will  meet  a ‘ felt  want.’” — Independent. 

“ The  purpose  has  been  to  confine  the  work  strictly  to  the  field  marked  out  by  its  title,  and  the 
first  impression  which  one  receives  upon  opening  it  is  one  of  surprise,  at  the  very  large  number  of  mat- 
ters about  which  practical  information  is  wanted  . . . the  work  will  be  really  invaluable.” — A”.  Y. 

Evening  Post. 

“ A book  for  emergencies.  . . . That  is  to  say,  that  from  jelly-bags  to  compound  fractures, 

the  matter  of  the  book  is  based  on  the  best  authorities,  and  that  with  it  the  operations  of  every  house 
can  be  carried  on  intelligently.” — N.  Y.  World. 

“ We  have  carefully  examined  it,  and  do  not  hesitate  to  say  that  a more  practical  and  useful  book 
for  the  house  and  family  has  never  been  published.  Its  information — covering  a whole  range  of  house- 
hold topics — is  just  what  every  household  needs,  and,  as  stated  in  the  title  of  the  work,  has  either  been 
directly  contributed,  or  thoroughly  strutinized  and  amended,  by  as  high  authorities  in  the  various 
departments  as  the  country  possesses. — "Rochester  Democrat. 

“ The  work  is  so  wide  in  its  range,  and  thorough  in  its  dealing  with  its  manifold  topics,  that  it  would 
be  harder  to  say  what  it  did  not  contain  than  to  tell  what  is  found  in  it.  It  is,  moreover,  capitally 
indexed,  so  that  its  consultation  is  rendered  very  easy.  The  completeness  of  the  Cylopaedia  is 
equaled  by  its  reliability.” — Cincinnati  Gazette. 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016 


https://archive.org/details/domesticcyclopdi00good_0 


A 


DOMESTIC  CYCLOPAEDIA 


Principally  Written  or  Revised  by  the  Following  Authorities: 


CALVERT  VAIJX,  Architect  of  the  Central  Park,  and  THOMAS  WISEDELL,  Architect:  LOCA  TING , 

BUILDING , AND  REPAIRING. 

LEWIS  LEEDS,  SANITARY  ENGINEER:  WARMING  AND  VENTILATION. 

COL.  GEORGE  E.  WARING,  of  Ogden  Farm:  DRAINAGE , THE  GARDEN , THE  DAIRY. 

GEORGE  FLETCHER  BARB,  Architect  : DECORA  TION  as  applied  to  Walls , Floors , and  Furniture. 

MRS.  ELIZABETH  S.  MILLER,  Author  of  “In  the  Kitchen,”  and  GUISEPPE  RUDMANI,  late 
Cook  in  the  Cooking  School,  St.  Mark’s  Place,  New  York,  and  Chef  de  Cuisine,  Newport : 

COOKING  AND  DOMESTIC  MANAGEMENT. 

AUSTIN  FLINT,  Jr.,  M.D.,  Professor  in  Bellevue  Medical  College : DIETETICS  AND 
ALCOHOLIC  BEVERAGES. 

ABRAHAM  JACOBI,  M.D.,  Professor  in  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons:  DISEASES  AND 

HYGIENE  OF  CHILDREN. 

WILLIAM  T.  LUSK,  M.D.,  Professor  in  Bellevue  Medical  College,  late  Editor  of  the  New  York 
Medical  Journal : general  medicine. 

S.  G.  PERRY,  D.D.S.:  THE  TEETH. 

ELWYN  WALLER,  Ph.D.,  Superintendent  of  Laboratory  in  the  Columbia  College  School 
of  Mines,  Chemist  to  the  New  York  Board  of  Health:  DOMESTIC  CHEMISTRY- 
DISINFECTING,  CLEANING , DYEING , Etc. 

LESLIE  PELL-CLARK,  Veterinary  Surgeon  of  Ogden  Farm:  THE  HORSE. 

JOHNSON  T.  PLATT,  Professor  in  the  Yale  Law  School: 

BUSINESS  FORMS  AND  LEGAL  RULES. 


OF 


IN  FORM  A TION 


EDITED  BY 


TODD  S.  GOODHOLME 


ILLUSTRA  TED. 


NEW  YORK 

HENRY  HOLT  AND  COMPANY 

1878 


Copyright  1877, 
By  Henry  Holt. 


New  York:  J.  J.  Little  & Co.,  Printer*!, 
10  to  20  ABtor  Place. 


remote  -storage 


HINTS  TO  THE  READER. 

It  is  hoped  that  this  book  may  reach  many  readers  besides  those  used  to  handling 
books  of  reference,  and  that  they  may  find  the  following  suggestions  of  use. 

Glance  through  the  book,  running  your  eye  over  each  page,  to  get  a general  idea  of 
what  it  contains.  Many  particulars  worth  knowing  cannot  be  ascertained  without  doing 
this. 

The  arrangement  of  the  main  topics  in  the  book  is  always  alphabetical,  and  that  of  the 
subdivisions  of  these  topics  is  nearly  always  so  ; but  in  a few  of  the  latter  cases,  the  alpha- 
betical arrangement  has  been  subordinated  to  some  other  arrangement  which  seemed  better 
fitted  to  the  topic  under  treatment.  For  instance,  under  Horse,  the  diseases  have  been 
given  alphabetically,  but  the  general  advice  regarding  selection  and  treatment  has  been 
given  in  the  order  in  which  the  knowledge  would  naturally  be  used. 

In  searching  for  a recipe  or  the  like,  look  first  for  the  general  term  (or  noun),  and 
not  for  the  qualifying  term.  For  example  : in  looking  for  Quince  Preserves,  turn  to 
“Preserves,”  not  to  “Quince  or  for  Oyster  Sauce,  turn  to  “Sauces,”  not  to  “Oyster.” 
In  some  few  cases,  the  recipe  has  come  more  naturally  under  the  qualifying  term. 

When  an  unusual  or  technical  term  is  used,  an  explanation  may  sometimes  be  found 
under  the  word  in  its  proper  alphabetical  place. 

In  all  cases  of  difficulty  consult  the  Index. 

In  consulting  the  medical  portion  of  the  book,  after  reading  what  is  said  about  the 
disease,  read  what  may  be  said  about  the  medicine  that  may  be  recommended  in  its  proper 
alphabetical  place  or  under  Drugs. 

Pains  have  been  taken  to  give  such  information  as  might  enable  an  intelligent  person  to 
act  effectively  in  sickness,  and  not  to  give  such  details  as  would  tempt  the  ignorant  to 
commit  the  folly  of  attempting  to  dispense  altogether  with  professional  aid.  Therefore  in 
any  case  where  directions  are  not  as  full  as  the  reader  could  wish,  it  is  probably  because 
no  advice  could  be  given  without  specific  knowledge  of  the  patient’s  constitution. 

The  generaL  articles  on  Bathing,  Drainage,  Exercise,  Food,  Diet,  House,  Ventilation, 
Warming,  Water,  and  other  hygienic  subjects  are  it  is  hoped  worthy  of  being  carefully 
read  and  even  studied  by  every  one  responsible  for  the  health  of  a household.  Those 
on  Children,  Infants,  Fevers,  the  Sick-Room,  Nursing,  and  Wet-Nursing,  are  in  a simi- 
lar category.  Special  emergencies  are  treated  of  in  their  proper  places,  but  these  articles 
furnish  some  rules  of  health  which  should  be  familiar  to  every  one. 

In  cookery  exact  proportions  are  so  important  that  we  have  generally  given  the  recipes 
in  terms  of  the  standard  tables  of  weights  and  measures.  Where  the  necessary  instru- 
ments are  not  at  hand,  consult  the  table  of  equivalent  weights  and  measures  printed  on 
first  inside  cover  page,  or  under  Weights  and  Measures. 

As  a rule,  a list  of  the  ingredients  needed  has  been  prefixed  to  each  recipe,  to  save  the 
necessity  of  reading  all  the  directions  before  knowing  if  the  ingredients  are  within  reach, 
and  to  lessen  the  danger  of  overlooking  any  in  getting  them  together. 

In  the  matter  of  -prices  of  articles  mentioned  in  the  book  much  difficulty  has  been 
found,  on  account  of  the  recent  great  fluctuations,  and  when  the  difficulty  was  fully 
realized,  the  attempt  to  give  prices  was  thereafter  abandoned.  Yet  in  such  cases,  for 
instance,  as  the  price-lists  under  Furnishing,  help  may  be  had  by  ascertaining  at  the 
stores  the  current  prices  of  a few  articles,  comparing  them  with  the  prices  given  in  the 
book,  and  applying  the  average  difference  to  the  general  estimates.  For  instance,  if  a 

55  M 

\ 


IV 


HINTS  TO  THE  READER. 


dozen  articles  in  the  stores  are  found  to  vary  on  an  average  twenty  per  cent,  from  the 
prices  given  in  a list  here,  it  may  be  safe  to  assume  that  the  cost  of  the  entire  list  would 
vary  at  the  same  rate. 


It  will  be  readily  understood,  that  most  of  the  best  authorities  in  housekeeping  are  per- 
sons not  known  to  the  public.  For  this  reason,  as  well  as  from  deference  to  their  modest 
wishes,  the  names  of  some  of  the  advisers  who  have  most  benefited  this  book  are  not 
published.  All  matters  of  household  management  that  touch  upon  the  domain  of  science, 
and  justify  the  attention  of  those  among  the  learned  whose  reputation  guarantees  their 
work,  have  been  submitted  to  such  authorities.  A large  portion  of  the  book  consists  of 
matter  originally  prepared  by  them  ; at  the  same  time  reference  has  been  had  to  the  fact 
that  the  learned  seldom  realize  what  portions  of  their  knowledge  can  be  understood  and 
applied  by  the  ignorant,  so  in  many  cases  the  matter  has  been  compiled  by  laymen,  some- 
times under  special  instruction,  and  then  submitted  for  revision. 

It  has  been  intended  to  acknowledge  all  recipes,  etc.,  directly  appropriated.  If  among 
so  many  advisers  (far  more  than  those  whose  names  appear)  this  has  occasionally  been 
neglected,  the  neglect  must  be  attributed  to  inadvertence. 

Of  the  illustrations,  many  are  original,  but  the  others  have  come  from  too  many  sources 
to  make  detailed  acknowledgment  practicable  ; some  attempt  at  acknowledgment  has 
been  made  in  the  articles  themselves.  The  principal  appropriation  has  been,  by  arrange- 
ment with  the  English  publishers,  from  the  great  cook-book  of  Miss  Acton.  A few  of 
those  cuts  seem  to  have  been  intended  more  for  ornament  than  instruction,  but  as  they 
came  in  the  entire  set,  and  as  the  world’s  approval  of  the  whole  was  no  longer  open  to 
question,  it  seemed  best  to  use  all. 

jpiiP*  Anybody  encountering  an  important  inaccuracy  or  omission  in  this  work  will 
confer  a great  favor  by  notifying  the  publishers,  in  order  that  it  may  be  corrected  in  future 
editions.  The  directions  and  statements  of  fact  in  the  book  cannot  fall  far  short  of 
twenty-five  thousand,  and  those  that  might  have  been  properly  included  are  probably 
ten  times  as  many.  In  such  a mass,  no  test  but  practice  can  absolutely  determine  what 
practice  requires. 


DOMESTIC  CYCLOPAEDIA, 


J8@"“  In  searching  for  a Recipe,  or  any  other  topic , you  will  be  more  apt  to  find  it  under 
the  general  tertn  (or  noun)  than  under  the  qualifying  term.  If  you  do  not  find  it  under 
one  head,  look  for  it  under  the  other.  For  example : in  looking  for  Quince  Preserves,  turn 
first  to  PRESERVES,  not  to  Quince;  or  for  Oyster  Sauce,  to  SA  UCE,  not  to  Oyster. 

If  in  glancing  through  an  article,  you  do  not  find  what  you  want,  see  if  there  is  not, 
at  the  end,  a cross-reference  to  some  kindred  article. 

A 


ABRASION. — A rubbing  off  of  the  outer 
surface  of  the  skin.  Wash  gently  to  remove 
foreign  matter,  grease  with  a little  sweet  oil 
or  pure  lard,  and  cover  for  a day  with  a cloth. 
Do  not  apply  salt  water,  camphor,  or  any  irri- 
tating remedy. 

ABSCESS. — An  accumulation  of  pus  or 
purulent  matter  following  inflammation  of  any 
tissue  of  the  body.  A superficial  abscess  is 
preceded  by  redness  and  swelling.  Taken 
early  it  can  often  be  dispersed.  Rest  the 
part,  bathe  it  with  warm  lotions,  and,  if  the 
skin  be  very  tense,  moisten  it  with  a mixture  of 
three  parts  of  sweet  oil  and  one  of  vinegar, 
or  a wash  of  two  drams  of  sugar  of  lead,  one 
dram  of  powdered  opium,  and  a pint  of  water, 
and  cover  with  a piece  of  wax  plaster.  In 
great  pain  apply  a soft  poultice,  renewed 
several  times  a day.  When  the  abscess  is  ripe, 
open  with  a lancet.  For  so-called  abscesses 
in  the  head,  see  Ear. 

ABSINTHE. — An  alcoholic  tincture  of  the 
leaves  of  the  Absinthe,  or  wormwood,  the 
roots  of  lingwood  and  aromatic  cane,  aniseed, 
leaves  of  dittany,  origan,  fennel,  mint  and 
balm  mint,  and  a little  essence  of  cumin.  It 
is  used  largely  by  the  French.  Taken  habi- 
tually in  excess,  it  is  apt  to  lead  to  softening 
of  the  brain  and  general  paralysis. 

ACACIA. — The  Flowering  Acacia.  A 
small  tree  very  pretty  in  foliage,  growing  any- 
where and  always  flowering  well.  When  in 
bloom,  in  June,  it  is  covered  with  a profusion  of 
pea-shaped  pinkish  white  flowers  clustered  on 
short  stems. 

Rose  Acacia,  smaller  than  the  flowering, 
but  more  beautiful.  It  has  clustered  branches 
of  pink  pea-shaped  flowers  ; is  easily  grown, 
and  requires  no  attention.  It  should  be  trained 
to  a single  stem,  but  its  tendency  to  throw  up 
suckers  renders  it  troublesome  in  a small  garden. 

ACCIDENTS. — Professor  Wilder,  of  Cor- 
nell University,  gives  these  short  rules  for 
action  in  case  of  accident : — 

For  dust  in  the  eyes,  avoid  rubbing;  dash 
cold  water  in  them  ; remove  cinders,  etc.,  with 
the' round  point  of  a lead  pencil. 

Remove  insects  from  the  ear  by  tepid  water ; 
never  put  a hard  instrument  into  the  ear. 


If  an  artery  is  cut,  compress  it  above  the 
wound  ; if  a vein  is  cut,  compress  it  below. 

If  choked,  go  upon  all  fours  and  cough. 

For  slight  burns,  dip  the  part  in  cold  water; 
if  the  skin  is  destroyed,  cover  with  varnish. 

For  apoplexy,  raise  the  head  and  body;  for 
fainting  lay  the  person  flat. 

For  more  detailed  remedies  in  special  cases 
see  articles  on  each  of  the  above  and  on 
Abrasion,  Bandages,  Bleeding,  Bruises, 
Burns,  Cuts,  Dislocations,  Drowning, 
Fractures,  Frost-bite,  Poisons,  Scalds, 
and  Sprains. 

ACCOUNT.  (See  Bill.) 

ACIDS — Vegetable  Acids  exist  in  many 
substances  used  as  food.  They  are  sour  to  the 
taste,  but  may  be  so  diluted  with  water  that  the 
sourness  is  not  perceptible  ; but  if  a piece  of 
blue  litmus  paper  (to  be  had  at  the  druggists,) 
be  dropped  in,  its  color  will  be  changed  to  red. 
The  principal  domestic  acids  are  the  follow- 
ing: 

Acetic  Acid,  represented  by  Vinegar. 

Citric  Acid,  giving  their  sourness  to  the 
lemon,  orange,  citron  and  cranberry,  and,  mixed 
with  malic  acid,  existing  also  in  the  gooseberry, 
red-currant,  strawberry,  raspberry,  and  cherry. 
It  is  extracted  from  lemon  juice,  and  sold  in 
the  form  of  crystals,  which  can  be  re-dissolved 
in  water,  flavored  with  a little  essence  of  lemon 
and  so  used  as  an  artificial  lemon  juice. 

Malic  Acid,  the  peculiar  acid  of  apples,  but 
found  in  most  American  fruits,  and  in  tomatoes. 

Oxalic  Acid.  Poison.  ( See  Oxalic  Acid.) 

Tannic  Acid  combines  with  iron  and  forms 
the  basis  of  most  writing  inks.  It  is  found  in 
the  bark  of  many  trees,  and  in  gall  nuts,  has  a 
weak  acid  taste,  and  is  astringent  and  bitter. 

Tartaric  Acid,  found  in  a pure  state  in 
grapes,  and  some  other  fruits.  It  is  a cheap 
substitute  for  citric  acid,  but  inferior.  It  is  one 
of  the  two  ingredients  composing  the  Soda  or 
Seidlitz  Powders. 

AERATED  BREAD. — Not  made  in  the 
household  but  at  some  bakeries.  After  the 
dough  is  mixed,  tubes  are  introduced  into  it 
and  are  connected  with  a reservoir  containing 
carbonic  acid  gas,  and  this  is  mechanically 
injected  throughout  the  bread  to  lighten  it. 


o 


AGAVE 


AIR 


The  so-called  aerated  bread  is  deficient  in  fla- 
vor, and  is  less  agreeable  and  digestible  than 
home-made  bread,  or  any  other  which  has  been 
raised  with  yeast  in  the  ordinary  way.  ( See 
Bread.) 

AGAVE. — A plant  known  popularly  as  the 
American  aloe  or  “ Century-plant,”  the  latter 
name  being  given  it  on  account  of  a mistaken 
idea  that  it  blooms  only  once  in  a century.  In 
this  latitude  it  reaches  maturity  at  a period 
varying  from  io  to  70  years,  and  then  blooms 
once ; as  soon  as  the  flowers  fall  the  plant 
withers  and  dies.  The  aloe  is  applied  to  many 
uses.  Pulque , the  well  known  Mexican  liquor 
is  made  by  fermenting  the  sap  drawn  from  in- 
cisions in  its  stem,  and  from  pulque  is  distilled 
a singularly  fiery  spirit  known  as  Vino  Mezcal. 
A coarse  sort  of  thread  known  as  the  pita  flax, 
is  made  from  the  fibres  of  its  leaves ; and  from 
an  extract  of  the  leaves  balls  are  made  which 
lather  in  water  like  soap.  It  grows  in  moder- 
ately rich  soil,  and  needs  protection  in  winter. 

AGUE. — Ague,  or  Intermittent  Fever,  or 
“ chills  and  fever  ” as  it  is  popularly  called,  is 
caused  by  a miasma  believed  to  be  due  to  de- 
caying organic  matter.  It  is  generated  most 
abundantly  in  marshy  ground,  and  is  capable 
of  being  wafted  along  plains  to  a considerable 
distance  from  its  source.  There  are  three 
kinds : the  Quotidian  Ague,  in  which  the  parox- 
ysms come  on  every  24  hours ; the  Tertian , in 
which  they  occur  once  in  48  hours  ; and  the 
Quartan,  in  which  they  occur  once  in  every  72 
hours.  Each  paroxysm  consists  of  a cold 
stage,  generally  beginning  with  pain  in  the 
head  and  loins,  weariness  of  the  limbs,  a sen- 
sation of  coldness  in  the  extremities,  stretch- 
ing and  yawning,  to  which  succeed  shivering 
and  violent  shakings  ; of  a hot  stage,  in  which 
there  is  intense  fever,  the  skin  becomes  red, 
and  very  hot  to  the  touch — the  pulse  being 
quick,  full,  and  hard,  accompanied  with  great 
thirst;  and,  finally,  of  the  sweating  stage, 
in  which  perspiration  comes  on,  first  showing 
itself  on  the  face  and  neck,  and  gradually  ex- 
tending over  the  whole  body.  This  latter 
always  affords  relief  and  marks  the  abatement 
of  the  paroxysm. 

Treatment.— Quinine  is  the  only  remedy  with- 
in reach  of  domestic  medicine,  in  a dose  of  10 
grains  for  an  adult  in  the  period  immediately  fol- 
lowing the  sweating  stage  of  the  last  paroxysm. 
It  is  desirable  that  sufficient  quinine  should  be 
given  to  produce  ringing  of  the  ears.  I f this  is  not 
effected  by  the  first  dose  it  should  be  repeated 
in  three  or  four  hours.  When  the  cold  stage, 
or  chill,  appears,  the  patient  should  be  put  in 
bed,  and  covered  sufficiently  with  bed-clothes. 
If  the  succeeding  paroxysm  is  not  prevented, 
the  same  course  should  be  pursued.  A third 
administration  of  quinine  in  large  doses  is 
rarely  required.  It  is  desirable  to  continue 
with  the  drug  in  doses  of  two  grains  three  times 
a day  for  some  weeks  after  the  chills  are 
broken.  The  bed-clothes  should  be  removed 
as  reaction  sets  in,  and  cooling  drinks  may  be 
given  if  called  for  by  the  patient.  Between  the 


paroxysms  the  patient  must  be  supported  with 
food  that  is  nourishing,  but  light  and  easy  of 
digestion,  such  as  veal  or  chicken  broth,  sago, 
rice,  gruel  with  a little  wine  in  it,  light  pud- 
dings, etc.  A glass  of  light  wine  may  also  be 
taken  now  and  then,  and  negus  acidulated  with 
lemon  juice.  As  the  chief  object  in  treating 
ague  is  to  brace  and  strengthen  the  system,  the 
patient  ought  to  take  as  much  exercise  between 
the  paroxysms  as  he  can  bear,  and  not  to  give 
up  to  the  indolence  which  is  one  of  the  accom- 
paniments of  the  disease.  Change  of  air  to  a 
high  and  dry  one  is  also  excellent,  and  some- 
times it  is  the  only  method  of  cure.  In  severe 
cases  of  ague,  other  treatment  is  required,  but 
they  demand  the  skill  of  an  experienced  phy- 
sician. 

AIR. — The  atmosphere  in  which  we  live  is  so 
thin  and  invisible,  and  so  totally  unlike  other 
objects,  that  we  are  apt  to  forget  that  it  is  a 
real  substance,  possessed  of  weight  and  power 
of  resistance,  and  that  as  one  of  the  most  es- 
sential of  all  foods,  it  plays  an  important  part 
in  the  economy  of  life.  We  are  immersed  in  this 
thin  elastic  fluid  as  a fish  is  in  clear  water, 
which  to  him  is,  no  doubt,  equally  invisible, 
and  it  presses  down  upon  the  earth  with  a 
force  proportionate  to  its  weight.  Upon  every 
square  inch  of  the  earth’s  surface  there  rests 
about  15  lbs  of  air.  Upon  the  body  of  a 
medium-sized  man,  having  a surface  of  2000 
sq.  inches,  the  atmosphere  presses  with  a force 
equal  to  30,000  pounds  ; a force  which  would 
crush  him  to  atoms  were  it  not  that  there  is 
air  also  within  the  system  which  exerts  an  equal 
outward  pressure,  and  thus  prevents  injury. 
Air  consists  of  two  elements,  oxygen  and  nitro- 
gen, and  a pair  of  compounds , Carbonic  acid  gas 
and  vapor  of  water.  Oxygen  and  nitrogen  are 
by  far  the  largest  constituents,  dry  air  contain- 
ing about  77  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  and  nearly 
23  of  oxygen  ; but  these  gases  are  not  com- 
bined as  oxygen  and  hydrogen  combine  to 
form  water,  but  are  simply  mixed  together ; 
and  although  various  influences  tend  to  mix 
them  so  perfectly  that  the  proportion  in  a given 
volume  at  different  places  is  nearly  the  same, 
it  is  not  absolutely  so,  and  one  of  the  gases 
may,  with  the  greatest  ease,  be  separated  from 
the  other.  Such  separation  takes  place,  in 
fact,  in  breathing.  We  draw  the  air  into  our 
lungs,  which  divide  it  into  its  two  component 
parts,  retaining  the  oxygen,  which  then  mixes 
with  our  blood  and  enters  into  our  entire  sys- 
tem, while  the  nitrogen  passes  out  of  the 
body  as  it  entered  it  without  undergoing  any 
change.  Oxygen  is  one  of  the  prime  essen- 
tials of  life,  alike  in  animals  and  plants,  and 
any  material  reduction  of  the  proportion  which 
it  bears  to  the  other  atmospheric  gases  means 
death  to  every  living  creature.  Nitrogen, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  a negative  or  inert 
substance,  its  chief  use  being  to  dilute  or 
temper  the  other  active  ingredients  to  a proper 
degree  of  strength.  Here,  then,  is  the  princi- 
ple by  which  the  relation  of  air  to  animal  life 
is  made  plain.  Bure  air,  in  its  normal  condi- 


ALABASTER 


ALCOHOL 


3 


tion,  Contains  about  twenty  parts  of  oxygen, 
seventy-nine  of  nitrogen,  and  one  of  aqueous 
vapor,  and  of  carbonic  acid  gas  ; and  any 
causes  which  decrease  the  proportion  of  oxygen 
injure  by  so  much  its  health-sustaining  qualities. 
By  breathing,  and  the  burning  of  fuel  and  lights, 
large  quantities  of  oxygen  are  removed  from 
the  air,  while  at  the  same  time  carbonic  acid 
gas  in  nearly  equal  bulk  takes  its  place.  In 
the  case  of  fuel,  if  the  combustion  is  perfect, 
the  air  that  has  been  changed  is  carried  up  the 
chimney ; but  not  so  in  respiration  and  illumina- 
tion, the  air  spoiled  by  these  processes  remains 
in  the  room  unless  removed  by  special  ventila- 
ting arrangements.  (See  Ventilation  and 
Warming.)  Air  is  also  contaminated  in  a con- 
siderable degree,  as  has  already  been  hinted, 
by  the  exhalations  of  the  human  being.  “Streams 
of  subtle  and  almost  intangible  putrescent  mat- 
ter,” says  Professor  Youmans,  “ are,  all  through 
life,  exhaling  from  each  living  animal  body  into 
the  air.  The  fluid  thrown  from  the  lungs  and 
skin  is  not  pure  water.  It  not  only  holds  in 
solution  carbonic  acid,  but  it  contains  also 
animal  matter  the  exact  nature  of  which  has  not 
been  determined.”  This  source  of  contamina- 
tion becomes  very  obvious  when  in  the  morning, 
from’the  pure  outer  air,  we  enter  an  unventilated 
bedroom,  where  one  or  two  people  have  slept 
the  night  before.  Every  one  must  have  ex- 
perienced the  sickening  odor  of  such  a room, 
and  not  only  is  the  atmosphere  vitiated,  but 
two  persons  occupying  a bed  for  eight  hours 
impart  to  the  sheets  by  insensible  perspiration 
not  less  than  a pound  of  watery  vapor  charged 
with  latent  animal  poison.  Gaseous  exhala- 
tions of  every  sort  also  escape  from  the  kitchen 
and  from  the  cellar,  if  perishable  substances 
be  kept  there,  and  are  diffused  through  the 
house ; from  the  imperfect  burning  of  gas-jets, 
also,  there  arise  emanations  most  injurious  to 
health.  Stoves,  furnaces,  and  steam  pipes  are 
fruitful  sources  of  deterioration ; and  the  in- 
troduction of  water  closets  into  our  houses,  and 
the  close  connection  of  the  sewers  with  our 
water  pipes  are  new  elements  of  danger.  In- 
deed it  is  scarcely  too  strong  an  expression  to 
say  that  every  thought  and  act  of  man,  every 
vital  change  in  his  body,  and  every  process 
by  which  he  regulates  the  condition  of  his  daily 
life,  is  accompanied  by  the  deterioration  of 
the  air  upon  which  his  health  depends.  The 
only  remedy  for  all  these  evils  lies  in  proper 
and  adequate  ventilation,  in  other  words,  in  the 
providing  of  such  artificial  means  as  will  insure 
the  constant  substitution  of  pure  air  for  that 
whose  oxygen  has  already  been  more  or  less 
consumed,  and  will  prevent  vitiated  air  from 
reaching  the  lungs.  No  subject  in  the  entire 
range  of  hygiene  and  domestic  economy  is  more 
important,  and  it  is  one  which  should  engage 
the  thoughtful  attention  of  every  head  of  a 
household.  At  this  point  we  have  only  dealt 
with  the  principles  of  the  subject ; their  practi- 
cal application  is  indicated  in  the  articles  on 
Drainage,  Ventilation,  and  Warming. 

AIi A B ASTER. — A substance  very  similar 


to  marble,  but  in  its  pure  state  more  transpa- 
rent. There  are  two  kinds.  One  is  a carbonate 
of  lime,  and  'therefore  of  the  same  composition 
as  marble,  but  has  been  formed  in  the  manner 
of  stalactites  by  water  dripping  in  a cavern  • 
though  very  transparent,  it  is  also  hard,  and 
consequently  little  used  for  sculpture.  The  other 
is  a sulphate  of  lime,  and  the  same  substance  as 
gypsum,  from  which  plaster  of  Paris  is  made. 
Gypseous  alabaster,  being  soft  and  easy  to  cut, 
and  often  very  transparent  and  beautiful,  is 
more  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  vases, 
clock-stands,  statuary,  and  similar  articles. 
Alabaster  is  apt  to  become  yellow,  especially 
if  exposed  to  smoke,  but  may  be  restored  by 
washing  with  soap  and  water  (cold)  and  after- 
wards polishing  with  shave-grass.  Grease  spots 
may  be  removed  by  rubbing  the  places  with 
powder  of  French  chalk.  As  alabaster  is  very 
fragile,  articles  made  of  it,  if  valuable,  should 
be  kept  under  glass.  Broken  parts  may  be 
joined  together  again  by  quicklime  mixed 
with  white  of  egg  to  a paste. 

ALBUMEN. — A substance,  familiarly  rep- 
resented by  the  white  of  eggs,  which  exists 
abundantly  in  all  animals,  and  in  the  juices, 
seeds,  grain,  and  other  parts  of  plants.  It  is 
iby  far  the  most  important  single  element  of 
food,  since  it  contains  nutritive  matter  in  a com- 
pact and  easily  digestible  form ; and  being  al- 
most without  flavor  may  enter  into  the  com- 
position of  foods  very  diverse  in  other  respects, 
w'hilst  it  is  adapted  to  every  variety  of  taste. 
Its  composition  is  the  same  in  all  other  forms 
as  in  the  blood  and  tissues  of  man  and  other 
animals ; therefore  it  is  incorporated  into  the 
system  with  the  greatest  ease,  though  it  is  ne- 
cessary that  it  first  be  decomposed,  so  as  to  form 
new  combinations.  White  of  eggs  is  almost 
pure  albumen  with  four-fifths  of  water,  and  for 
this  reason,  an  egg  is  in  proportion  to  its  weight 
the  most  nutritious  article  of  food  knowm  to  man. 
Though  albumen  exists  naturally  as  an  adhe- 
sive fluid,  mixed  with,  and  soluble  in,  water; 
yet  when  subjected  to  a temperature  of  1420, 
it  experiences  a striking  change  in  its  properties ; 
as  it  is  then  converted  into  a solid  no  longer 
soluble  in  water,  and  if,  after  coagulation,  it  be 
gradually  exposed  to  a higher  temperature,  it  is 
reduced  to  a firm,  transparent  solid.  Fluids, 
coffee  in  particular,  are  often  clarified  by  means 
of  albumen.  When  any  kind  of  it,  as  white  of 
eggs,  is  put  into  a muddy  liquid,  on  boiling  the 
liquid  the  albumen  coagulates  in  a flaky  man- 
ner, ^and,  entangling  with  it  the  impurities,  rises 
to  tKe  surface  as  scum,  or  sinks  to  the  bottom, 
according  to  the  weight  of  the  fluid  holding  it. 

ALCOHOL.— The  common  and  active  prin- 
ciple in  spirituous  liquors,  obtained  from 
sugar  by  fermentation.  When  the  produce  of 
fermentation  is  distilled,  the  spirit,  being  ex- 
tremely volatile,  rises  in  vapor,  and  in  passing 
through  a long  cool  tube  is  condensed  into  a 
liquid,  which,  however,  is  not  pure  alcohol,  for 
a quantity  of  water  and  other  impurities  rise 
with  it.  It  is  necessary  that  it  should  be  re- 
distilled and  pass  through  other  processes 


4 


ALE 


ALMONDS 


before  it  reaches  that  state  in  which  it  is  | 
called  rectified  spirit,  or  common  spirit  of 
wine , the  purest  form  in  which  it  is  manufac- 
tured on  a large  scale,  and  the  form  in  which  it 
usually  enters  into  alcoholic  liquors.  Few 
subjects  have  been  more  discussed  and  dis- 
puted about  than  whether  alcohol  and  alcoholic 
beverages  are  entitled  to  rank  as  food  or  nutri- 
ment ; but  the  best  opinion  .seems  now  to  be 
that  any  such  claim  is  inadmissible.  They 
cannot,  it  is  said,  replace  water  in  the  system, 
because  water  is  the  appointed  solvent  within 
the  living  body,  and  the  solvent  powers  of  al- 
cohol are  not  the  same  as  those  of  water ; what 
water  dissolves,  alcohol  may  not,  and  % tice  versa. 
Alcoholic  liquids  coagulate  and  precipitate  the 
pepsin  dissolved  in  the  watery  gastric  juice,  and 
if  not  quickly  absorbed  by  the  stomach  into  the 
blood,  they  would  in  this  way  put  a stop  to 
digestion.  It  is  argued  further  that  alcohol 
contains  no  nitrogen,  and  cannot,  therefore, 
be  transformed  into  tissue  or  flesh.  And  the 
assumption  that  alcohol  feeds  respiration  and 
supplies  heat  is  met  by  the  response  that  what 
heat  it  gives  rise  to,  is  immature  and  injurious, 
and  that  it  acts  in  such  a rapid  -way  as  to  pro- 
duce excitement  and  irritation  in  the  system. 
It  causes  temporary  stimulation,  but  this  is  exi 
tremely  transient,  and  is  followed  by  corre- 
sponding depression  and  retardation  of  the  vital 
powers.  This  is  a subject,  however,  which  is 
dividing  civilized  nations  into  two  hostile  and 
opposing  camps ; and  since  the  various  bever- 
ages into  which  alcohol  enters — ardent  spirits, 
wines,  ale,  beer,  and  the  like — are  in  well-nigh 
universal  use,  it  is  enough  to  add  that  their 
only  distinctive  feature  as  compared  to  other 
foods  lies  in  the  possession  of  this  element, 
and  that  their  strength  is  estimated  by  the 
amount  of  it  which  they  contain.  Alcohol  is  also 
used  as  an  illuminator,  though  not  in  its  pure 
state  (see  Burning  Fluid);  its  powerful 
solvent  qualities  make  it  extremely  useful  in 
medicine  ; and  it  is  much  used  by  naturalists 
in  preserving  their  “ specimens,”  since  it  does 
not  dissolve  either  albumen  or  muscular  fibre. 
Its  cleansing  properties,  especially  where  grease 
is  to  be  removed,  are  well  known  to  house- 
wives. 

ALE. — A liquor  manufactured  from  malt, 
which  is  usually  produced  from  the  parched  grain 
of  germinating  barley  by  a process  explained 
in  the  article  on  Brewing.  It  can,  however, be 
made  from  the  dried  germinating  grain  of 
wheat  and  other  cereals ; any  substance  con- 
taining sugar  being  capable  of  yielding  a \vort 
or  solution  which  may  be  fermented  and  con- 
verted into  ale  or  beer.  In  several  of  the 
English  pale  ales  the  proportion  of  alcohol  is 
as  high  as  io  per  cent.,  and  the  average  is 
from  5 to  7 per  cent.  So  that  a pint  of  good 
ale  contains  the  same  amount  of  alcohol  as  a 
bottle  of  claret.  These  ales,  with  those  of 
Scotland,  are  largely  imported,  and  are  general- 
ly much  superior  to  the  American  product. 
Burton  Ale , so  called  from  the  place  where  it 
is  made,  is  one  of  the  strongest  and  very  pop- 


ular. It  is  of  a somewhat  thick,  glutinous  con- 
sistence, and  sweetish  to  the  taste  ; and  a small 
quantity  of  it  produces  intoxication  in  those 
who  are  not  accustomed  to  it.  The  best  English 
ales  are  Bass  and  Allsopp’s.  Scotch  Ale , espe- 
cially the  Edinburgh  brands,  has  a pale  flavor  ex- 
tremely vinous  and  very  like  some  of  the  light 
French  wines.  It  is  mild  in  its  effect,  pale  in 
color,  and  the  taste  of  the  hops  does  not  pre- 
dominate as  in  the  India  Pale  Ale  (manufac- 
tured especially  for  the  Indian  market)  and  All- 
sopp’s. Scotch  ales  are  also  said  to  be  less 
liable  to  adulteration  than  the  English.  Amer- 
ican Ales  are  very  light,  rarely  containing 
more  than  3 per  cent,  of  alcohol,  and  resemble 
what  is  known  in  England  as  “ table  beer.” 
They  are  for  the  most  part  pure,  however,  and 
when  fresh  make  a very  mild  and  agreeable 
beverage.  The  best  are  made  in  the  limestone 
districts  of  the  Northwest. 

ALKALIES.— A class  of  substances  com- 
mon to  the  mineral  and  vegetable  kingdoms, 
and  embracing  some  of  our  most  familiar  house- 
hold materials,  such  as  soda,  ammonia,  and 
potash.  They  are  distinguished  by  a very 
nauseous  taste,  called  alkaline , which  cannot 
be  described  but  may  be  understood  by  tasting 
carbonate  of  soda;  they  change  vegetable  blues 
Jo  green,  and  yellow  ones  to  brown,  and  they 
neutralize  and  reverse  the  action  of  acids,  re- 
storing the  blue  color  to  such  vegetable  so- 
lutions as  have  been  rendered  red  by  them. 
Combined  with  acids,  they  produce  the  sub- 
stances known  as  Salts.  Potash  and  soda  are 
called  fixed  alkalies  because  they  are  not  evap- 
orated by  heat ; ammonia  is  the  volatile  alkali. 
With  fats  the  fixed  alkalies  produce  soaps.  ( See 
Ammonia,  Potash,  Soda,  Soap.) 

ALLOPATHY. — A term  invented  by  Hah- 
nemann to  designate  the  ordinary  practice,  as  op- 
posed to  Homeopath}'.  (See  Homeopathy.) 

ALLSPICE.  — So  called  because  it  is 
thought  to  combine  the  flavor  of  cinnamon,  nut- 
meg, and  cloves.  It  is  the  berry  of  a handsome 
tree  that  grows  to  the  height  of  twenty  feet  in 
the  West  Indies  and  South  America.  The 
fruit  is  not  allowed  to  ripen,  but  is  gath- 
ered while  yet  green;  when  dried  in  the  sun 
it  becomes  black.  I t is  less  expensive  than  the 
Oriental  spices,  is  agreeably  aromatic,  and  is  con- 
sidered the  most  mild  and  harmless  of  the  com- 
mon spices ; hence  it  is  much  used  in  cookery. 
The  best  comes  from  Jamaica.  The  essential 
oil  of  allspice  is  of  a deep  reddish-brown  color, 
and  extremely  pungent ; and  a few  drops  is  suffi- 
cient to  give  a flavor  to  gravy  or  to  mulled- 
wine 

ALMONDS. — There  are  two  kinds  of  al- 
monds, the  sweet  and  the  bitter,  but  they  are  con- 
sidered to  be  only  different  varieties  of  the  same 
species.  The  Sweet  A Imond  is  much  used  in 
dessert  and  confectionery.  The  Valentia  variety 
is  sweet,  large,  flat-pointed  at  one  extremity, 
and  compressed  in  the  middle.  The  Italian 
almonds  are  less  sweet  and  smaller.  The 
Syrian  or  Jordan  come  from  Malaga  and  are 
the  best.  Hard-shell  almonds  are  generally 


ALPACA 


AMERICAN  WINES 


5 


better  than  the  soft-shell  kinds,  if  for  no  other 
reason,  because  they  are  better  preserved.  The 
brown  skin  of  the  almond  easily  comes  off  by 
pressing  with  the  fingers,  when  they  are  put 
into  boiling  water;  they  are  then  dried  till  they 
are  brittle,  and  being  white  in  the  interior  are 
said  to  be  blanched.  Their  skin  sometimes 
disagrees  with  the  stomach,  and  for  this  reason 
almonds  should  be  blanched  when  brought  to 
the  table  as  dessert.  The  bitter  almond  is  used 
in  flavoring  many  preparations.  It  should,  how- 
ever, be  very  carefully  used,  as  in  process  of 
distillation  it  produces  a violent  poison. 

Sauce  (almond). — This  is  a Spanish  dish. 
Blanch  and  pound  sweet  almonds ; then  add 
enough  Bechamel  sauce  to  make  it  of  the  con- 
sistency of  thickened  gravy.  When  mutton 
chops  are  broiled  pour  this  sauce  over  them  and 
serve  at  once. 

Syrup  (of  almonds). — See  Orgeat. 

ALPACA. — A description  of  cloth  woven 
from  the  wool  of  the  Alpaca,  or  South  Ameri- 
can sheep,  extensively  manufactured  in  Eng- 
land and  used  chiefly  for  clothing.  It  is  also 
much  used  as  a covering  for  umbrellas,  being 
more  durable  and  finer  than  cotton  and  less 
expensive  than  silk.  English  alpaca  is  con- 
sidered the  best,  and  comes  in  double  and 
single  widths. 

AMARANTH. — Globe  Amaranth,  one  of 
the  hardy  garden  annuals.  It  requires  to  be 
brought  forward  in  a hot-bed,  but  when  grown 
makes  a fine  plant  which  blooms  all  summer. 
The  soil  for  it  should  be  moderately  rich  and 
moist.  The  flowers  are  purplish-red,  white,  or 
orange  ; and  when  dried  form  very  pretty  bou- 
quets for  winter.  They  can  generally  be  bought 
in  pots  at  the  florist’s. 

ALTERATIVES. — This  term  is  applied  to 
medicines  which  are  supposed  to  alter  the  nu- 
trition of  the  body  without  producing  any  phe- 
nomena. Thus,  small  doses  of  the  mercurial 
preparations  are  regarded  as  alterative. 

AMBERGRIS. — A substance  much  used 
in  the  composition  of  perfumes.  Its  origin  is 
not  yet  satisfactorily  ascertained,  but  it  is  sup- 
posed to  be  a morbid  secretion  in  the  sperm- 
aceti whale,  and  is  found  usually  on  the  sea- 
shore or  floating  on  the  sea.  It  is  found  occa- 
sionally in  masses  of  fifty  or  one  hundred  ounces, 
but  as  a general  thing  the  pieces  are  very  much 
smaller.  Ambergris  is  quite  similar  in  appear- 
ance to  amber ; but  it  is  opaque,  fatty,  and  in- 
flammable, remarkably  light,  melts  readily  when 
subjected  to  heat,  and  is  scarcely  soluble  in 
alcohol.  There  are  several  varieties : gray, 
black,  and  dark-brown  ; the  gray  is  the  best, 
easiest  to  break,  and  lightest,  and  has  the 
strongest  odor.  This  odor  is  so  powerful  that 
if  the  box  in  which  it  is  contained  be  left  open 
for  five  minutes,  it  will  perfume  the  whole  cham- 
ber. 

AMERICAN  WINES. — Until  a compara- 
tively recent  period  American  wines  were  seldom 
found  upon  American  tables,  and  even  now 
Catawba  is  the  only  one  that  can  be  said  to  be 
in  general  use,  yet  there  are  several  varieties 


of  both  white  and  red  wines  which  compare 
favorably  with  those  of  similar  grade  from  any 
part  of  the  world,  and  at  the  Paris  Exposition 
of  1867  it  is  said  by  Dr.  Edward  Smith  that 
none  of  the  less  expensive  vintages  met  with 
greater  acceptance  than  the  sparkling  wines  of 
our  Atlantic  coast.  It  is  usual  in  treating  of  the 
native  wines  to  class  them  as  wines  of  the  At- 
lantic coast  and  wines  of  the  Pacific  coast, — or, 
as  the  latter  are  commonly  called,  California 
wines.  The  wines  of  the  first  division  resemble 
those  of  Germany  and  France,  containing  more 
acid,  more  sprightliness,  flavor,  and  bouquet ; 
while  the  California  wines  contain  but  little  acid, 
a good  deal  of  spirits,  and  little  flavor  or  bou- 
quet, thus  more  nearly  resembling  the  wines  of 
Spain  and  Southern  Europe.  The  cause  of 
this  difference  is  to  be  found  partly  in  the  soil, 
but  chiefly  in  climatic  influences  : the  heat  of  a 
southern  or  semi-tropical  climate,  like  that  of 
California,  for  instance,  develops  a large  amount 
of  sugar  in  the  grape,  and  the  acids  are  corre- 
spondingly diminished.  (See  Wine.) 

Of  the  White  Wines,  Catawba  is  far  more  ex- 
tensively used  than  any  other.  It  varies  greatly 
with  the  different  locations  in  which  the  grape 
is  grown,  the  wine  of  New  York,  northern  Ohio, 
and  northern  Illinois  containing  less  spirits,  but 
a high  flavor  and  a good  deal  of  acid,  while  the 
wine  of  Missouri  and  further  south  is  smoother, 
heavier,  and  less  acid  and  astringent.  It  makes 
an  excellent  sparkling  wine,  equal  to  many  im- 
ported, and  in  this  form  it  is  chiefly  drunk.  As 
a still  wine  it  resembles  the  light  Rhine  and  Mo- 
selle wines  of  Germany,  though  it  has  a peculiar 
and  characteristic  flavor.  Next  to  the  Catawba 
the  most  popular  white  wine  is  the  Delaware. 
This  wine  is  of  a yellow  color,  fine  flavor,  and 
good  body,  closely  resembling  some  of  the  finer 
Rhine  wines  ; the  still  wine  is  best,  the  spark- 
ling being  somewhat  flat  and  acid.  Other  good 
white  wines,  which  we  can  only  mention,  are 
the  Iona,  Isabella,  Massasoit,  Maxatawney, 
Herbetnont , and  Louisiana.  The  two  latter  are 
produced  chiefly  in  the  Southern  and  South- 
western States. 

Among  the  native  Red  W ines,  Concord  fills 
the  same  place  as  Catawba  among  the  White. 
There  is  nearly  as.much  of  it  made  as  of  Catawba, 
and  Mr.  George  Hussman  says  of  it  in  the  new 
edition  of  the  American  Cyclopaedia  : “it  is  ef- 
fectually and  truly  the  poor  man’s  wine,  as  it 
can  be  produced  very  cheaply,  and  has  a pe- 
culiarly enlivening  and  invigorating  effect  upon 
the  system.  For  a light  summer  wine  it  has 
not  its  equal  as  yet,  and  it  ought  to  supplant 
all  the  cheap  French  clarets,  as  it  is  better, 
more  wholesome,  and  can  be  made  cheaper.” 
The  wine  if  fermented  in  the  barrels,  varies  from 
light  red  to  dark  red,  has  a strong  flavor  resem- 
bling strawberries,  is  slightly  astringent,  spright- 
ly, and  invigorating.  If  the  grapes  are  pressed 
as  soon  as  mashed,  the  juice  makes  a yellow 
wine,  which  is  now  coming  into  use  as  a sub- 
stitute for  Catawba.  Norton's  Virginia  (common- 
ly called  Virginia  Port),  is  generally  recognized 
as  the  best  medicinal  wine  made  in  America. 


0 


AMERICAN  WINES 


ANAESTHETICS 


It  is  dark  red,  almost  black,  very  heavy,  astrin- 
gent, and  of  a strong  aromatic  flavor.  It  is  un- 
surpassed as  a tonic  ; is  a remedy  for  chronic 
diarrhoea,  and  summer  complaints  in  children, 
and  is  said  to  act  as  a preventive  of  intermittent 
fevers  and  other  malarious  diseases.  Its  rep- 
utation extends  to  Europe,  and  it  is  generally 
regarded  as  one  of  the  best  red  wines  in  the 
world.  Other  good  red  wines  are  those  made 
of  the  Cynthiana,  Catawissa,  Wilder,  and 
Devereaux  grapes.  The  Catawissa  is  a claret 
wine  of  very  fine  flavor,  and  the  Devereaux  is 
an  excellent  dark  red  wine  of  the  Burgundy 
class.  Scuppernong  is  a wine  made  from  a 
grape  peculiar  to  the  Southern  States  ; it  is  pale 
yellow  in  color,  and  has  a strong  flavor  and 
heavy  body. 

Of  the  California  Wines,  Hock  is  most  con- 
sumed in  the  Atlantic  States,  where  it  is  often 
sold  as  Rhine  wine.  It  is  a bright  straw- 
color,  of  somewhat  variable  flavor,  and  though 
smoother,  is  far  stronger  and  more  apt  to 
intoxicate  than  the  Rhine  wines,  while  at  the 
same  time  it  lacks  their  enlivening  and  ex- 
hilarating qualities.  The  California  Port,  made 
principally  in  Los  Angeles,  is  dark  red,  strong 
and  sweet,  very  probably  made  so  by  the  ad- 
dition of  alcohol  and  sugar.  Angelica  is  a 
sweet  wine,  a favorite  among  ladies  ; it  is  not 
a pure  wine,  and  is  stronger  than  is  generally 
supposed,  since  alcohol,  distilled  from  the 
grapes,  is  added  to  it.  Madeira,  Sherry,  Claret, 
and  Muscatel  are  all  made,  though  in  com- 
paratively small  quantity  and  of  inferior  quality. 
The  sparkling  wines  of  the  Sonoma  Valley  are 
scarcely  if  at  all  inferior  to  the  Catawba  of  the 
Atlantic  States,  or  to  the  best  imported  French 
and  German  sparkling  wines. 

“ There  is  one  fact  about  California  wine,” 
says  Mr.  Charles  Nordhoff  in  his  work  on 
California,  “ which  entitles  it  to  the  preference 
of  wine-drinkers — it  is  pure  grape-juice.  The 
grape  grows  so  freely,  bears  so  abundantly, 
and  ripens  so  well,  in  this  State,  that  it  does 
not  pay  to  adulterate  the  grape-juice.  The 
wine-producer  can  better  afford  to  sell  the 
juice  of  his  grapes  than  he  could  to  manufac- 
ture any  artificial  compound.  What  may  be 
done  with  the  wine  when  it  gets  to  the  East  I 
do  not  know,  but  here  the  wine-maker  tells  you 
openly  this  (white  or  red  wine)  is  the  pure  juice 
of  the  grape  ; this  (port  wine)  has  such  a quan- 
tity of  brandy  added  to  it,  to  make  it  keep, 
and  to  make  it  port  wine  ; this  (Angelica)  has 
also  brandy.  The  brandy  is  made  in  the  vine- 
yard, from  the  grapes  which  yield  the  wine, 
and  is  added  by  the  vineyardist.  It  is  no  secret 
at  all ; and  I am  persuaded  that  he  who  wants 
pure  grape-juice  can  buy  it  in  California  with- 
out the  danger  of  being  cheated  by  adultera- 
tions.” 

Of  course,  as  in  the  case  with  foreign  wines, 
so  with  American,  a great  deal  depends  upon  the 
locality  in  which  the  grapes  are  grown  and  the 
attention  bestowed  upon  the  manufacture  of 
the  wine.  The  mere  fact  that  a certain  wine 
is  labelled  “Catawba,”  or  “Delaware,”  or 


“ Concord,*'  is  no  guarantee  that  it  will  corre- 
spond with  what  we  have  said  about  those 
wines  in  the  preceding  paragraphs.  It  may 
prove  serviceable,  therefore,  if  we  add  that 
“ Longworth’s  Catawba,”  the  “ Brotherhood 
Wines,”  and  the  “ Sonoma,”  are  brands  which 
have  a high  and  deserved  reputation.  The 
Brotherhood  Wines  include  Catawba,  sweet, 
dry,  and  sparkling ; Delaware,  sweet,  and  dry ; 
Concord,  and  several  kinds  of  Port,  including 
the  Virginia. 

AMMONIA  (Spirits  of  Hartshorn). — An 

alkali  which  is  the  result  of  decomposition  in 
animal  and  vegetable  substances.  It  exists 
almost  universally  in  the  air,  and  can  be 
obtained  in  many  ways  ; but  the  article 
of  commerce  usually  comes  from  the  dis- 
tillation of  coal  in  making  gas.  Ammonia 
has  properties  which  are  very  injurious  as 
food,  but  it  is  probably  for  household  pur- 
poses the  most  useful  of  drugs.  It  is  very 
powerful,  and  dissolves  grease  and  dirt 
with  the  greatest  ease.  For  washing  paint, 
put  a tablespoonful  in  a quart  of  moderately 
hot  water,  dip  in  a flannel  cloth,  and  then  wipe 
the  woodwork  ; no  scrubbing  will  be  neces- 
sary. For  taking  grease  spots  from  any 
fabric,  apply  ammonia  nearly  pure,  then  lay 
white-blotting  paper  over  them  and  iron 
lightly.  In  washing  lace,  put  about  twelve 
drops  in  a pint  of  warm  suds.  To  clean  silver, 
mix  two  teaspoonfuls  of  ammonia  in  a quart 
of  hot  suds ; put  in  the  silverware  and  wash, 
using  an  old  nail  brush  or  tooth  brush  for  the 
purpose.  For  cleaning  hair  brushes,  etc., 
simply  shake  the  brushes  up  and  down  in  a 
mixture  of  one  tablespoonful  of  ammonia  to  one 
pint  of  hot  water ; when  they  are  cleansed,  rinse 
them  in  cold  water  and  stand  them  in  the  wind 
or  in  a hot  place  to  dry.  For  washing  finger- 
marks from  looking-glasses  or  windows  put  a few 
drops  on  a moist  rag  and  make  quick  work  of 
it.  House  plants  will  flourish  surprisingly  if 
a few  drops  of  ammonia  are  added  to  each 
pint  of  water  used  in  watering.  A teaspoonful 
will  add  much  to- the  refreshing  effect  of  a 
bath.  Nothing  is  better  than  ammonia  water 
for  cleaning  the  hair;  in  every  case  rinse  off 
the  ammonia  with  clear  water.  For  removing 
grease  spots  from  clothing,  a mixture  of  equal 
parts  of  ammonia  and  alcohol  is  better  than 
alcohol  alone  ; and  for  taking  out  the  red 
stain  produced  by  acids  in  blue  and  black 
cloth,  nothing  is  so  effective  as  ammonia. 

ANAESTHETICS. — Substances  which  pro- 
duce insensibility  on  the  whole  or  part  of  the 
human  body.  They  are  much  used  in  surgical 
operations,  in  midwifery,  and  in  all  cases  where 
acute  pain  is  to  be  mitigated  or  nervous  excite- 
ment reduced.  It  is  impossible  to  overrate  the 
advantages  of  their  judicious  use  in  such  cases ; 
countless  lives  have  been  saved  by  them,  and 
their  discovery  has  enormously  diminished  the 
sum  of  human  suffering.  The  injurious  effects 
attributed  to  them  are  so  few  and  far  between 
as  to  count  as  nothing  in  comparison  with  the 
benefits  they  have  conferred  ; but  their  promis- 


ANCHOVY 


cuous  use,  and  the  administering  of  them  by 
unskilled  persons,  are  to  be  censured  in  the 
strongest  terms.  Fatal  results  under  such  cir- 
cumstances are  extremely  likely  to  follow ; and, 
in  case  a mistake  is  made,  certain.  ( See  Chlo- 
ral, Chloroform,  Ether,  and  Laughing 
Gas.) 

ANCHOVY. — A little  fish,  resembling  the 
sardine,  prepared  for  sale  by  salting  and 
pickling,  and  used  not  so  much  for  food 
as  for  a relish,  and  for  sauces  and  season- 
ing. In  choosing,  select  those  which  are 
small,  fresh  pickled,  white  outside  and  red 
within;  their  back  should  be  rounded,  not 
flattened.  To  serve  as  a relish , wash,  wipe 
dry,  and  remove  the  back  bone ; serve  with 
tarragon  or  parsley,  chopped  fine,  vinegar  and 
oil.  They  may  also  be  served  with  hard-boiled 
eggs,  chopped  or  quartered. 

Butter  (anchovy). — Strain  essence  of  ancho- 
vy through  a fine  sieve  and  knead  it  with  fresh 
butter,  or  salt  butter  that  has  been  previously 
kneaded  in  cold  water,  and  it  is  ready  for 
use. 

f Both  of  these  prepa- 

Essence  of  Anchovy.  J rations  can  be  pro- 

Paste  (Anchovy).  1 cured  at  the  grocery 
I stores. 

Sauce  (anchovy). — Take  six  anchovies,  a 
teacupful  of  drawn  butter,  and  a wineglass  of 
pale  sherry.  Soak  the  anchovies  in  cold  water 
two  hours  ; pull  them  to  pieces,  and  simmer  for 
half  an  hour  in  just  enough  water  to  cover  them  ; 
strain  the  liquor  into  the  drawn  butter,  boil  a 
minute,  add  the  wine ; heat  gradually  to  a boil, 
and  stew  five  minutes  longer.  Serve  with  boiled 
fish. 

Toast  (anchovy). — Slice  bread  the  day  after 
baking,  and  toast  it  evenly  and  quickly  ; remove 
the  crust ; spread  with  a little  butter  and  then 
with  anchovy  paste ; cut  in  triangles,  or  in  nar- 
row strips,  and  serve  hot. 

ANEMONE. — One  of  the  most  beautiful  of 
our  spring  flowers,  the  common  varieties 
growing  wild  hi  cool  wood-lands  and  pastures. 
The  foliage  is  most  ornamental,  and  the  tintings 
of  the  blossoms  exquisite.  The  colors  vary  ac- 
cording to  the  situation  where  it  blooms  ; in 
the  shade,  being  deep,  rosy  or  light  pink-pur- 
ple in  its  many  shades ; in  the  sun,  pure  white 
or  delicately  flushed  with  rose.  The  wild  ane- 
mone bears  a single  flower,  consisting  of  five 
petals  ; but  by  cultivation  the  stamens  have  been 
converted  into  petals  and  a double  variety  pro- 
duced. This  latter  is  the  kind  usually  cultivated 
in  gardens,  and  succeeds  well  if  the  exposure  is 
not  too  sunny.  The  bulbs  are  tender  in  this 
latitude,  and  should  be  kept  in  the  house  until 
spring,  in  a cool,  dry  place,  and  set  out  as  soon 
as 'the  ground  is  well  thawed.  They  bloom  af- 
ter the  earlier  bulbs  are  gone,  and  their  flowers 
last  a long  time. 

ANIMAL  FOOD.  (See  Food.) 

ANISE  SEED. — A spice  which  comes  from 
Egypt,  and  is  much  used  for  flavoring,  espe- 
cially in  confectionery;  also  as  a condiment. 
A mild  decoction,  made  by  steeping  the  seed 


APPLE  7 

in  hot  water,  is  often  given  to  infants  to  relieve 
colic  and  flatulence. 

ANTHRACITE. — The  densest  and  stoniest 
form  of  coal  and  much  the  purest.  Next  to  the 
diamond  it  approaches  nearer  than  any  other 
substance  to  pure  carbon,  and  it  emits  very 
little  smoke  or  gas  in  burning.  East  of  the 
Alleghanies,  it  is  substantially  the  only  coal 
used  for  domestic  purposes.  From  its  great 
density,  it  is  difficult  to  kindle,  the  whole  mass 
having  to  be  raised  together  to  the  point  of 
ignition ; but  when  once  thoroughly  fused,  it 
burns  with  an  intense  heat  for  a long  time, 
though  less  freely  in  a grate  than  in  a furnace 
or  close  stove.  Anthracite  burns  without  flame 
or  soot,  although  with  sulphurous  vapors  which, 
when  the  draft  is  imperfect,  are  liable  to  accu- 
mulate in  the  room,  to  the  serious  detriment  of 
the  inmates.  The  Anthracite  fire  is  objected 
to  by  some  as  producing  headache  and  other 
bad  symptoms  ; but  this  is  usually  a matter  of 
ventilation. 

ANTIDOTES.  (See  Poisons.) 

ANTS. — Ants  may  be  driven  away  by  scald- 
ing their  haunts,  and  putting  Scotch  snuff 
wherever  they  are  in  the  habit  of  going  for  food. 
Set  the  legs  of  cupboards  and  safes  in  pans 
of  water,  and  they  cannot  get  at  them. 

APOPLEXY. — The  bursting  of  a blood- 
vessel in  the  brain.  It  is  accompanied  with 
sudden  loss  of  sense  and  motion,  though  the 
mechanical  action  of  the  heart  and  lungs  still 
continues.  A person  attacked  falls  suddenly 
and  lies  without  moving,  breathing  deeply,  and 
sometimes  in  a peculiar  manner,  drawing  in  the 
cheeks  and  puffing  them  out  again ; the  eyes 
are  set  and  staring,  the  pupil  may  be  enlarged, 
contracted,  or  unaffected ; the  face  is  often  flush- 
ed and  purplish ; the  pulse  is  full,  strong,  and 
slow  and  hard.  If  such  symptoms  occur  in  a 
man  of  mature  life,  the  probability  of  its  being 
apoplexy  is  very  strong.  In  such  a case  a 
physician  must  be  sent  for  immediately ; and  all 
that  can  prudently  be  done  till  he  arrives  is  to 
loosen  the  collar,  raise  the  head,  and  drop  cold 
water  on  the  face.  Though  the  disease  often 
proves  fatal,  or  results  in  paralysis  (usually  upon 
one  side  of  the  body),  yet  it  is  not  always  so, 
and  sometimes  entire  recovery  takes  place. 
After  an  attack,  when  paralysis  has  not  resulted, 
the  diet  should  be  carefully  regulated ; animal 
food,  and  especially  fermented  liquors,  should 
be  entirely  dispensed  with;  the  bowels  must 
be  kept  open  by  laxative  medicines ; gentle 
exercise  assiduously  taken ; and  all  sudden  ex- 
ertions or  movements  carefully  avoided. — The 
premonitory  symptoms  of  apoplexy  are  giddi- 
ness, pain  in  the  head,  drowsiness,  noise  in  the 
ears,  loss  of  memory  and  muscular  power, 
nightmare,  and  the  like.  When  any  or  all  of 
these  occur,  especially  if  the  patient  has  had  a 
previous  attack,  medical  aid  should  be  at  once 
summoned.  The  above  symptoms,  however, 
while  they  may  excite  suspicion,  are  often  expe- 
rienced by  persons  suffering  from  a variety  of 
disorders. 

APPLE. — None  of  our  fruits  can  be 


8 


APPLE 


APRICOT 


brought  to  such  perfection,  or  may  be  pre- 
served with  such  ease  through  the  winter.  The 
best  eating  apples  are  the  Spitzenberg,  Bald- 
win, Winter  Pippin,  Red  Astrakhan,  Greening, 
Vandevere,  Pound  Sweet,  Roxbury  Russets, 
and  Grindstones.  Good  cooking  apples  can 
generally  be  bought  without  specifying  the 
kind.  The  hard,  acid  kind,  are  unwholesome 
if  eaten  raw  ; but  by  the  process  of  cooking 
the  greatest  part  of  the  acid  is  decomposed 
and  converted  into  sugar,  a process  which 
takes  place  naturally  in  the  sweet  kinds,  as  the 
fruit  ripens.  As  more  than  half  of  the  sub- 
stance of  apples  consists  of  water,  and  as  the 
rest  of  the  ingredients  are  not  of  the  most 
nutritive  kind,  this  fruit,  like  most  fruits,  is 
less  of  a nutrient  than  a luxury.  When  cooked 
they  are  slightly  laxative,  and  therefore  a use- 
ful adjunct  to  other  food. 

The  best  way  to  keep  apples  is  to  pluck 
them  about  a week  before  they  are  ripe,  so 
that  the  ripening  or  maturation  of  the  fruit 
shall  take  place  after  they  are  gathered. 
Some  dry,  moderately  cool  spot,  where  the  frost 
never  penetrates  should  be  chosen,  and  the 
apples  laid  on  shelves  in  such  a position  that 
they  will  not  come  in  contact  with  each  other. 
Choice  ones  may  be  wrapped  singly  in  paper 
and  put  into  glazed  jars  with  covers  ; or  packed 
in  baskets  with  dry  straw.  The  harder  kinds 
of  winter  apples  can  be  kept  several  months 
packed  away  in  barrels  and  out  of  the  frost. 

Baked  Apples.— Cut  out  blossom  end  of 
sweet  apples ; wash,  but  do  not  pare  ; pack 
them  in  a large  pudding  dish,  pour  a cupful  of 
water  in  the  bottom,  and  cover  closely  with 
another  dish  or  pan ; set  in  a moderately  hot 
oven,  and  steam  until  tender  all  through.  Pour 
the  liquor  over  them  while  hot,  and  repeat  as 
they  cool.  Eat  with  powdered  sugar  and  cream. 

Baked  Sweet  Apples.— The  “ Pound 
Sweeting  ” is  best  for  this  purpose.  Sour 
apples  may  sometimes  be  pared  and  cored  for 
baking,  but  sweet  apples  never.  Put  them  on 
pie  plates  with  a little  water  and  bake  very 
slowly,  until  they  are  perfectly  soft. 

Beurre  (Apple.)  (from  Blot) — Peel  and  core 
the  apples.  Cut  slices  of  stale  bread  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  then  cut 
them  again  of  a round  shape  with  a paste-cut- 
ter, and  of  the  size  of  the  apples.  Spread  some 
butter  on  each  slice  and  place  an  apple  upon  it. 
Butter  a bakepan,  put  in  the  apples  and  bread, 
fill  the  hole  made  in  the  middle  of  the  apple  by 
coring  with  sugar  ; place  on  the  top  of  the  su- 
gar a piece  of  butter  the  size  of  a hazel-nut,  and 
set  in  a warm,  but  not  quick  oven.  When  about 
half  done  fill  the  hole  again  with  sugar  and  a 

Eiece  of  cinnamon,  place  butter  on  top  as 
efore,  and  finish  the  cooking.  Serve  warm. 
Butter  (Apple.) — Boil  down  a kettleful 
of  cider  to  two-thirds  the  original  quantity. 
Pare,  cut  and  core  juicy  apples,  and  put  as 
many  into  the  cider  as  it  will  cover.  Boil  slowly, 
stirring  often,  and  when  the  apples  are  tender 
to  breaking,  take  them  out  with  a perforated 
skimmer,  draining  well  against  the  sides  of 


the  kettle.  Put  in  another  supply  of  apples, 
as  many  as  the  cider  will  hold,  and  stew  them 
soft.  Take  from  fire,  pour  entire  contents  of 
kettle  into  tub  or  large  crock  with  first  lot  of 
apples  ; cover  and  let  stand  twelve  hours  ; re- 
turn to  the  kettle  and  boil  down,  stirringall  the 
time,  until  the  mass  is  of  the  consistency  of 
soft  soap,  and  brown  in  color.  Spice  or  flavor 
to  taste.  Keep  in  stone  jars  in  a cool,  dry  place. 

Dried  Apples. — Use  winter  apples  ripe;  but 
firm,  pare,  quarter  and  core  them  ; divide  the 
quarters  lengthwise  in  two  or  three  pieces  ; 
spread  them  on  plates  or  racks  and  dry  in  a 
slightly  heated  oven.  A piece  of  coarse  muslin 
or  net  stretched  over  a frame  and  hung  from 
the  ceiling,  may  also  be  used  for  drying. 

When  the  fruit  is  to  be  stewed,  wash  it 
lightly,  cover  with  cold  water,  soak  over  night, 
and  stew  it  in  the  same  water. 

Fried  Apples.  — Use  Spitzenbergs  or 
Greenings,  quarter  and  core,  but  do  not  pare 
them  ; have  hot  drippings  ready  in  the  frying 
pan,  and  lay  the  apples  in,  the  skin  side  down  ; 
sprinkle  with  brown  sugar,  and  when  nearly 
cooked  turn  and  brown  thoroughly. 

Ice  (Apple). — Boil  dark  green,  unripe,  sour 
apples,  without  peeling  or  coring.  When  soft, 
drain  ; press  through  a sieve,  add  an  equal 
quantity  of  cream,  make  very  sweet,  freeze. 

Syrup,  Apple.  (See  Syrup.) 

Stewed  Apples. — (I)  Pare,  quarter  and  core 
sour  apples  and  nearly  cover  with  cold  water  ; 
cover  the  saucepan,  and  when  the  apples  begin 
to  boil,  stir  them  ; re-cover  and  boil,  stirring  oc- 
casionally until  perfectly  soft.  Sweeten  to  the 
taste,  and  pour  in  an  earthen  dish  to  cool. 

(II)  Put  a quart  of  hot  water  and  three  gills  of 
crushed  sugar  in  a milk  pan  ; when  boiling,  lay 
in  as  many  Spitzenbergs  or  Greenings — pared, 
quartered  and  cored — as  the  syrup  will  half 
cover  ; cover  the  pan  and  stew  slowly  until 
nearly  done  ; then  uncover,  and  as  the  quar- 
ters soften,  place  them  one  by  one,  rounded 
side  up  in  the  dish  in  which  they  are 
to  be  served.  Reduce  the  syrup  one-third  by 
boiling,  and  just  before  serving  pour  it  over 
the  apple.  This  is  delicious  with  roast  turkey 
or  fresh  pork,  hot  or  cold. 

Tea  (Apple). — Take  two  or  three  good  pip- 
pins, slice  thin,  pour  on  a pint  of  boiling  water, 
and  let  stand  till  cold.  Then  pour  off  the 
water,  and  sweeten  and  flavor  to  taste. 

Water  (Apple). — A pleasant  and  nutritious 
drink  for  the  sick.  Roast  two  or  three  apples 
thoroughly  ; put  them  into  a pitcher,  turn  on  a 
pint  of  boiling  water  and  add  a little  sugar. 

See  Compote,  Jam,  Jelly,  Pies,  Pre- 
serves, and  Puddings. 

APRICOT. — A fruit  native  to  Asia  and 
Africa,  where  it  forms  an  important  item  of 
food.  Its  cultivation  in  this  country  is  con- 
fined mostly  to  the  Southern  States,  though 
the  fruit  is  found  in  the  Northern  markets. 
The  young  fruit  makes  an  excellent  jam. 

Ice  (Apricot). — Take  very  ripe  apricots  ; 
pulp  them  through  a sieve,  and  proceed  as 
with  apple  ice,  described  above. 


ARBUTUS 


ARRACK 


9 


Jam  (Apricot). — Wash  the  fruit  thorough- 
ly, And  then  heat  it  slowly  and  moderately, 
after  which  stew  it  until  it  is  perfectly  tender; 
then  rub  this  stewed  fruit  through  a colander. 
Allow  to  every  pound  of  the  fruit  a pound  of 
granulated  sugar ; stir  the  sugar  in  thoroughly 
and  boil  the  whole  gently  until  it  is  very  clear. 
Put  it  up  in  tumblers,  with  the  tops  covered 
with  white  paper,  and  use  as  a preserve  or 
jelly.  , 

Jelly  (Apricot). — Take  two  quarts  of  apricots, 
take  out  stones,  cut  in  small  pieces,  and  lay 
them  in  a stew-pan  with  a clove,  well  pounded, 
and  the  juice  of  half  a lemon  ; cover  with  water, 
set  on  a moderate  fire,  and  boil  slowly  till  well 
cooked.  Turn  into  a thick  towel,  under  which 
place  a vessel  to  receive  the  juice,  and  when  it 
is  all  squeezed  out,  put  it  in  a stew-pan  with 
three-quarters  of  a pound  of  sugar  to  every 
pound  of  juice ; boil  to  a jelly.  This  can  be 
kept  a long  time  by  putting  in  pots  or  jars, 
covered  with  a piece  of  white  paper  dipped  in 
brandy,  and  set  in  a cool  closet. 

ARBUTUS  (Trailing). — A small  trailing 
plant,  sometimes  called  Mayflower  from  the 
season  of  its  blossoming,  and  also  known  as 
the  Ground-Laurel.  The  leaves  and  stems  are 
covered  with  reddish,  bristling  hairs ; and  it 
bears  a cluster  of  very  fragrant  white  or  pink 
flowers.  It  grows  wild  throughout  New  Eng- 
land, and  reaches  special  perfection  in  the  val- 
ley of  the  Connecticut ; but  is  seldom  success- 
ful in  garden  culture,  for  want  probably  of  proper 
attention.  In  England  it  is  found  in  all  the 
nurserymen’s  catalogues ; a fine  variety  has 
been  originated  called  E.  rabuncula,  the  flow- 
ers of  which  are  a rich  pink  and  larger  than  the 
common  species. 

ARGAND  LAMP.— Called  from  M.  Argand, 
a native  of  Geneva,  who  invented  it  in  1 780. 
Reflecting  on  the  cause  of  the  smoke  and  disa- 
greeable smell  arising  from 
the  burning  of  the  common 
oil-lamp,  Argand  correctly 
supposed  that  this  was  the 
result  of  imperfect  com- 
bustion, and  that  this  in 
turn  arose  from  want  of 
the  access  of  sufficient  ox- 
ygen. He  therefore  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  admit- 
ting air  into  the  centre  of 
the  flame,  and  for  this 
purpose  contrived  a wick 
in  the  form  of  a hollow 
cylinder,  through  which  a 
current  of  air  passes  up 
to  the  inside  of  the  flame. 
This  was  found  to  succeed 
perfectly;  the  combustion 
was  more  complete,  the 
smoke  was  greatly  dimin- 
ished, and  the  brilliancy 
of  the  light  increased. 
But  to  improve  the  effect 
still  further,  he  added  a 
glass  chimney,  open  at 


Argand  Lamp  for  Kero- 
sene Oil. 


Structure  of  the  Ar- 
gand Burner. 


V. 

V. 

bottom  and  surrounding  the  flame'^lK.a  short 
distance,  by  which  another  current  of  ShM^as 
made  to  pass  up  outside  of  the  burning  wick. 
Thus  every  part  of  the  thin  circular  flame  is 
between  two  currents  of  air,  which  supply 
enough  oxygen  to  create  a heat  sufficient  to 
consume  the  smoke  and  convert  it  into  light. 
In  the  cut,  the  dark  cir- 
cle in  the  centre  of  A,  the 
place  of  the  burner,  repre- 
sents the  interior  of  the 
hollow  cylinder  through 
which  the  air  ascends ; 
the  thin  dark  line  outside 
being  the  wick,  and  the 
double  external  line  being 
the  glass.  B represents  a 
sectional  view  of  the  burner 
with  the  wick  ; and  the  ar- 
rows show  the  direction  of 
the  current  of  air  between 
the  wick  and  the  glass.  The 
other  great  advantage  of  the 
Argand  lamp  is  that  while  in 
the  common  lamp  the  wick 
is  fed  by  capillary  attraction 
(or  suction),  in  it  the  reservoir  of  oil  is  placed 
above  the  level  of  the  flame,  thus  insuring  a 
steady  and  uniform  light  while  the  supply  of  oil 
lasts.  A few  improvements  have  since  been  made 
upon  the  original  plan  of  construction  ; but  the 
principle  remains  the  same,  and  has  been  in- 
troduced in  some  form  into  all  the  improved 
lamps.  The  Argand  is  so  manifest  an  improve- 
ment upon  the  common  style  of  lamps  that  it 
should  supersede  them  entirely  in  household 
use.  It  not  only  gives  a far  better  light,  but  it 
entirely  does  away  with  the  disagreeable  smell 
and  impure  air  which  result  from  the  imper- 
fect combustion  of  the  oil ; and  it  is  also  much 
easier  to  keep  clean  and  in  order.  Never  cut 
the  wick,  but  simply  scrape  it  with  the  edge 
of  a piece  of  card-board  or  stiff  paper. 

Argand  Burner. — The  principle  of  the  Ar- 
gand lamp  has  been  applied  to  the  construction 
of  a “ burner  ” for  gas.  It  has  all  the  advan- 
tages over  the  ordinary  gas-jets  which  the  lamp 
has  over  the  common  lamp,  and  should  be  used 
whenever  gaslight  is  made  use  of  for  work  or 
study. 

ARNICA. — A perennial  herbaceous  plarit, 
growing  wild  in  the  western  States  and 
throughout  the  cooler  parts  of  Europe.  The 
flowers,  and  in  fact  the  whole  plant,  have  a 
pungent,  disagreeable  odor,  and  an  acrid,  bitter 
taste.  Tincture  of  arnica,  is  a preparation  of  the 
flowers  in  alcohol.  It  is  much  used  as  a lotion, 
made  by  macerating  the  leaves  and  steeping, 
for  sprains  and  bruises,  for  which  it  is  an  ex- 
cellent remedy.  Apply  with  a sponge  or  piece  t 
of  old  cloth.  It  is  also  given  sometimes  for  low 
fevers  and  nervous  diseases.  Taken  internally, 
it  produces  rapidity  of  the  pulse,  headache, 
dizziness,-  spasms  of  the  muscles,  and  occasion- 
ally vomiting  and  diarrhoea. 

ARRACK. — An  East  Indian  name  for  all 
kinds  of  ardent  spirits,  though  it  is  usually  ap- 


10 


ARROWROOT 


ARTICHOKE 


plied  to  a very  strong  drink  fermented  from  rice. 
In  the  arrack  made  in  Ratavia,  molasses  and  tod- 
dy are  mixed  with  the  rice  before  it  is  fermented  ; 
after  fermentation  the  liquor  is  distilled,  and 
the  spirit  thus  produced  is  the  best  arrack  of 
commerce.  Other  varieties  come  from  Madras, 
Ceylon,  and  Goa.  Arrack  is  very  powerful,  and 
in  this  country  is  never  drunk  in  its  raw  state, 
but  is  used  in  punch ; also  for  medicine  and 
culinary  purposes.  In  the  latter  case  it  is 
flavored  with  anise  seed  and  other  aromatic 
herbs. 

ARROWROOT. — A well-known  food,  made 
from  various  tubers,  but  chiefly  from  the  roots 
of  the  palm  which  grows  plentifully  in  the  Ber- 
mudas, West  and  East  Indies,  and  other  parts 
of  the  world.  The  roots  are  dug  up  when  they 
are  about  a year  old,  and,  after  being  washed, 
are  beaten  to  a pulp,  which  is  soaked  in  water 
till  the  starch  has  had  time  to  settle,  when  the 
water  is  drained  off.  The  white  sediment  of 
the  starch  is  again  washed  with  water,  and, 
after  being  dried  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  forms 
the  pure  arrowroot.  Much  of  the  arrowroot 
sold  in  this  country  is  made  from  potatoes  : and 
it  may  also  be  made  from  wheat,  rice,  or  maize 
by  the  process  described  above.  On  many 
farms  in  which  arrowroot  is  bought  it  might 
easily  be  made  out  of  surplus  grain.  The  best 
comes  from  Bermuda,  but  is  liable  to  adulter- 
ation with  less  costly  preparations  of  starch. 
In  purchasing  arrowroot  it  should  be  observed 
that  when  very  smooth  and  floury  it  may  be 
suspected  of  containing  some  portion  of  the 
starch  of  wheat  or  potatoes,  of  inferior  nutri- 
tive value,  though  not  necessarily  injurious.  A 
teaspoonful  of  genuine  arrowroot  will  thicken 
a teacupful  of  hot  water  or  milk  ; while  double 
the  quantity  of  potato  starch  will  be  required 
to  jelly  the  same  quantity  ot  liquid  ; and  this  is 
a good  test.  The  nutritive  value  of  arrowroot 
is  small,  since  it  consists  almost  exclusively  of 
starch  ; but  it  is  very  useful  in  the  sick-room. 
The  stomach  will  tolerate  it  which  rejects 
nearly  everything  else.  ( See  Puddings.) 

Custard  (Arrowroot) — -A  grateful  dish  for  in- 
valids. Take  two  tablespoonfuls  of  best  Ber- 
muda arrow-root,  one  quart  of  milk,  and  a pinch 
of  salt.  Scald  the  milk,  sweeten  it  to  taste,  and 
then  stir  in  the  arrowroot,  which  must  first  be 
moistened  with  some  of  the  milk.  Let  it  boil 
up  once.  Flavor  with  lemon-peel,  orange  water, 
or  rose  water.  Pour  it  into  cups  to  cool. 

Gruel  (Arrowroot.) — Make  a thin  paste  of  the 
arrowroot  with  warm  water,  and  pour  into 
boiling  water,  flavoring  it  with  sugar,  salt,  and 
nutmeg.  A little  lemon  juice  may  also  be  added. 

Infants  (Arrowroot  for). — Take  a cupful 
of  boiling  water,  one  of  fresh  milk  with  two 
teaspoonfuls  of  white  sugar  dissolved  in  it,  two 
teaspoonfuls  of  arrowroot  wet  with  cold  water, 
and  a pinch  of  salt.  Stir  the  arrowroot  paste 
into  the  salted  boiling  water;  stir  and  boil  five 
minutes  or  until  it  is  clear : add  the  sweetened 
milk,  and  boil  slowly  ten  minutes,  stirring  all 
the  time.  If  the  child  has  fever  or  cannot 
digest  the  milk,  substitute  hot  water  for  it. 


ARSENIC.— Poison.— It  is  a white,  slight- 
ly sweetish,  insoluble  powder. — Symptoms. — 
Burning  pain,  tenderness, vomiting,  and  cramps 
in  the  stomach. 

Treatment. — Vomiting,  if  not  present,  to  be 
induced  by  draughts  of  hot  water,  tickling  the 
throat  with  a feather,  or  by  giving  ten  grains 
of  sulphate  of  zinc,  dissolved  in  a little  water. 
Demulcent  drinks,  such  as  milk,  the  white  of 
eggs  stirred  in  equal  parts  of  water,  or  flour 
and  water,  may  be  given  freely  to  envelop  the 
poison,  and  encourage  vomiting. 

Antidotes. — Hydrated  oxide  of  iron,  a table- 
spoonful for  an  adult — teaspoonful  for  a child 
— repeated  every  five  minutes  until  symptoms 
are  relieved.  Iron  rust  may  be  used,  but  is 
inferior  to  the  above.  Good  results  have  been 
obtained  by  swallowing  about  a pound  of  cas- 
tor oil  and  chalk,  rubbed  up  to  the  consistence 
of  cream.  Should  the  patient  survive,  a long- 
continued  bland  diet  will  be  necessary. 

ARTICHOKE. — A garden  vegetable  resem- 
bling the  thistle,  a delicious  and  nutritious 
food.  Plant  the  tuber  in  a well-prepared, 
rocky  soil,  about  five  feet  apart,  or  plant  seve- 
ral together  in  hills,  at  least  six  feet  apart. 
They  come  to  maturity  the  second  year,  and 
yield  very  abundantly.  The  part  eaten  is  the 
flower  head  in  an  immature  state;  what  is  called 
the  artichoke  bottom  is  the  fleshy  receptacle 
which  is  surrounded  by  the  bristles  and  seed- 
down,  vulgarly  called  the  choke.  To  cook. 
Clean  them  and  take  off  the  outer  leaves,  drop 
them  into  boiling  water,  with  parsley,  salt  and 
pepper.  They  are  cooked  in  about  an  hour,  or 
when  the  leaves  come  off  easily  ; then  take 
them  from  the  fire  and  drain,  taking  care  to  put 
them  upside  down.  After  being  thus  cooked, 
they  may  also  be  fried  or  stewed. 

Jerusalem  Artichoke — This  plant  is  in  no 
way  allied  to  the  artichoke,  but  is  of  the  same 
genus  as  the  sunflower  and  greatly  resembles 
it.  The  term  Jerusalem  is  probably  a corrup- 
tion of  girasolc,  the  Italian  name  for  sunflower ; 
and  it  is  called  artichoke  from  some  imagined 
agreement  of  its  taste  with  that  of  the  arti- 
choke. The  root,  which  is  the  part  that  is  eaten, 
consists  of  a cluster  of  tubers,  in  shape  some- 
what like  the  potato ; and  there  are  often  thirty 
or  forty  together.  It  is  extremely  prolific,  grows 
in  almost  any  soil,  requires  no  attention,  and 
produces,  under  favorable  conditions,  as  much 
as  2000  bushels  per  acre.  They  are  whole- 
some and  of  agreeable  taste,  nutritious  when 
they  do  not  disagree,  and,  though  not  often 
seen  on  the  table  now,  were  once  greatly  pre- 
ferred to  the  potato.  In  cooking,  prepare  and 
serve  them  exactly  like  the  potato.  The  large 
amount  of  farinaceous  matter  which  they  con- 
tain renders  them  a good  and  cheap  food  for 
horses,  hogs,  and  cattle.  And,  lastly,  they  make 
an  excellent  pickle.  They  are  good  too,  raw, 
sliced  with  a plain  dressing  of  vinegar,  oil,  salt 
and  pepper. 

A la  Reine. — Wash  and  wipe  the  artichokes, 
cut  off  one  end  of  each  quite  flat,  and  trim  the 
other  into  a point;  boil  them  in  milk  and  water, 


ASHES 


ASPHODEL 


11 


lift  them  the  instant  they  are  done,  place  them 
upright  in  the  dish  in  which  they  are  to  be 
served,  and  cover  them  with  nearly  half  a 
pint  of  cream  thickened  with  a dessertspoonful 
of  flour,  mixed  with  an  ounce  and  a half  of 


butter,  and  seasoned  with  a little  mace  and 
some  salt.  When  cream  cannot  be  procured, 
use  new  milk,  and  increase  the  proportion  of 
flour  and  butter. 

ASHES.— The  solid  refuse  which  remains 
after  the  burning  of  wood,  coal,  or  other  com- 
bustible materials.  They  are  strongly  alka- 
line, and  those  especially  which  come  from 
wood  can  be  put  to  many  uses.  Mixed  with 
lime  and  sand  (one  part  ashes,  one  of  lime,  and 
the  other  sand)  they  increase  the  strength  of 
building  - mortar,  and  prevent  its  cracking. 
Wood  ashes  also  supply  a valuable  manure. 
The  principal  use  to  which  they  are  put, 
however,  is  in  the  making  of  soaps.  Water 
soaked  through  them  gradually  becomes  a 
strong  lye  ; and  this  boiled  down  with  oil,  or 
grease  of  any  kind,  makes  a good  soap.  It  is 
from  ashes,  too,  that  the  potash  of  commerce  is 
derived.  ( See  Lye.) 

ASPARAGUS Though  not  very  nutri- 

tious, asparagus  is  easily  digested.  In  raising, 
the  seed  should  be  planted  in  dry  and  extremely 
rich  soil,  the  quality  of  which  must  be  kept  up 
by  powerful  manures.  Plant  in  the  spring,  in 
rows  about  a foot  apart  and  six  inches  from 
each  other  in  the  row,  and  leave  untouched 
except  by  thorough  weeding  during  the  first  two 
years.  Half  the  shoots  may  be  cut  in  the 
third  year,  and  should  be  cut  an  inch  or  two 
below  the  surface,  and  after  that  the  full  crop, 
as  long  as  the  bed  lasts,  which  will  be,  under 
proper  management,  from  ten  to  fifteen  years. 
Every  year  in  the  autumn,  the  beds  should  be 
replenished  with  manure,  dug  in  between  the 
rows  as  deep  as  possible  without  injuring  the 
roots  ; and  as  a protection  from  frost,  they 
should  be  covered  in  the  winter  with  pulver- 
ized manure,  straw,  or  barn-yard  litter. 

The  part  of  the  plant  which  is  eaten  is  the 
young  shoot,  when  from  four  to  six  inches  high. 
It  makes  excellent  soup  ( see  SOUPS),  but  is 
generally  eaten  boiled. 

Ambushed  Asparagus. — Cut  off  the  ten- 
der tops  of  fifty  heads  of  asparagus ; boil  and 
drain  them.  Have  ready  as  many  stale  biscuits 
or  rolls  as  there  are  persons  to  be  served, 
from  which  you  have  cut  a neat  top  slice  and 
scooped  out  the  inside.  Set  them  in  the  oven 
to  crisp,  laying  the  tops  beside  them,  that  all 
may  dry  together.  Meanwhile  put  into  a sauce- 
pan a sugarless  custard  made  as  follows — a 
pint,  or  less,  of  milk,  and  four  well-whipped  eggs; 
boil  the  milk  first,  then  beat  in  the  eggs ; set 
over  the  fire  and  stir  until  it  thickens,  when 


add  a tablespoonful  of  butter,  and  season  with 
salt  and  pepper.  Into  this  custard  put  the 
asparagus,  minced  fine.  Do  not  let  it  boil,  but 
remove  from  the  fire  as  soon  as  the  asparagus 
is  fairly  in.  Fill  the  rolls  with  the  mixture,  put 
on  the  tops,  fitting  them  carefully  ; set  in  the 
oven  three  minutes,  after  which  arrange  on  a 
dish.  To  be  eaten  hot. 

Boiled  Asparagus. — Wash  and  tie  evenly  in 
small  bundles : drop  in  boiling  water  slightly 
salted,  and  boil  twenty  minutes ; take  up  with 
a skimmer  and  place  on  buttered  toast  which 
has  first  been  quickly  dipped  in  the  hot  aspara- 
gus water.  Pour  over  it  a little  melted  butter, 
with  pepper  and  salt,  or  some  drawn  butter. 
Boiled  asparagus  when  cold  makes  a good 
salad,  with  a plain  or  mayonnaise  dressing. 

Eggs  and  Asparagus.-Cut  tender  asparagus 
into  pieces  half  an  inch  long,  and  boil  twenty 
minutes,  then  drain  till  dry  and  put  into  a sauce- 
pan containing  a cupful  of  rich  drawn  butter; 
heat  together  to  a boil,  season  with  pepper  and 
salt,  and  pour  into  a buttered  dish.  Break  half 
a dozen  eggs  over  the  surface,  put  a bit  of  but- 
ter upon  each,  sprinkle  with  salt  and  pepper, 
and  put  in  the  oven  until  the  eggs  are  set. 

Fried  Asparagus.— Blanch  the  asparagus  a 
couple  of  minutes,  and  then  drain  it ; dip  each 
piece  in  batter  and  fry  it  in  hot  fat.  When 
done,  sprinkle  with  salt,  and  serve  hot.  This 
is  nice  and  easy  to  prepare. 

Stewed  Asparagus — Professor  Blot  recom- 
mends this  : Select  young  and  tender  shoots, 
cut  them  in  pieces  about  half  an  inch  long, 
and  blanch  for  three  minutes.  Take  off  and 
drain  ; and  then  put  them  in  a saucepan  on 
the  fire  with  two  or  three  tablespoonfuls  of 
broth  ; stir  now  and  then  for  a couple  of  min- 
utes, add  a teaspoonful  of  flour;  stir  again, 
and  as  soon  as  the  whole  is  thoroughly  mixed, 
add  an  ounce  of  butter,  salt,  pepper,  and  chop- 
ped parsley.  When  the  butter  is  melted,  serve. 

ASPHALTUM. — A bituminous  substance, 
of  about  the  consistency  of  resin,  and  some- 
times called  mineral  pitch.  It  exists  in  a nat- 
ural state  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  and  in 
France  in  sufficient  quantities  to  be  used  exten- 
sively in  building.  Artificial  asphaltum,  chiefly 
used  in  the  United  States,  is  made  generally 
from  the  refuse  tar  of  the  gas-house  mixed  with 
slaked  lime  and  gravel,  in  the  proportions  of 
25  parts  of  tar,  50  parts  of  slaked  lime  in  fine 
powder,  and  75  parts  of  gravel.  These  must 
be  thoroughly  incorporated  by  boiling.  It 
makes  excellent  sidewalks,  floors  for  stables, 
cattle-stalls,  heneries,  water-tight  tanks,  roofs, 
and  the  like,  being  not  only  cheap  and  easy 
of  preparation  but  impervious  to  vermin ; and 
gas-pipes  covered  with  it  are  protected  from 
corrosion. 

ASPHODEL. — A hardy  perennial  garden 
plant,  easy  of  culture,  and  of  very  rapid  in- 
crease. It  may  be  raised  from  seed  or  by  pro- 
pagation, by  planting  in  the  spring  in  a rich 
damp  soil ; it  grows  about  three  feet  high,  dies 
down  every  winter,  and  sprouts  up  again  in  the 
spring.  The  flowers  of  one  species  of  asphodel, 


12 


ASTER 


AZALEA 


the  King's  spear , are  yellow,  and  grow  numer- 
ously on  a long  spike,  reaching  nearly  to  the 
ground.  There  is  another  variety  called  white 
or  blanched  asphodel,  which  is  very  pretty. 
The  plant  of  this  latter  is  smaller  than  that  of 
the  yellow,  which  is  the  common  variety. 
Both  bloom  about  midsummer,  and  last  six 
weeks. — Asphodel  was  planted  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  sepulchres  by  the  ancients,  who  had 
a superstition  that  the  manes  of  the  dead  drew 
nourishment  from  its  roots. 

ASTER. — A perennial  plant  very  popular  for 
garden  culture,  and  offering  an  extraordinary 
variety.  Full  two  hundred  species  are  known 
to  florists,  and  these  include  every  variety  of 
colors  and  shades.  In  culture,  the  seed  should 
be  sown  in  a hot-bed  about  the  middle  of  April, 
and  transplanted  to  the  garden  about  a month 
later.  They  require  a dry,  rich  soil,  and  mod- 
erate exposure  to  the  sun ; and  a very  pretty 
effect  is  produced  by  planting  in  suitable  beds, 
setting  the  plants  one  foot  apart  each  way. 
The  best  varieties  are  Chinensis,  Dwarf , Chry- 
santhemum, German,  Hedgehog,  Paluy,  Flow- 
ered, Pyramidal,  and  Ranunculus ; but  choice 
is  practically  unlimited.  The  Chinese,  who 
have  given  great  attention  to  the  culture  of 
asters,  raise  them  exclusively  in  pots. 

ASTHMA.— A spasmodic  disease  of  the 
lungs  characterized  by  quick,  laborious  breath- 
ing, which  is  generally  performed  with  a pecu- 
liar kind  of  wheezing  noise.  Sometimes  the 
difficulty  of  breathing  is  so  great  that  the 
patient  is  obliged  to  keep  in  an  erect  posture, 
otherwise  he  is  in  danger  of  suffocation.  A 
horizontal  position  is  always  aggravating  to  it, 
and  for  this  reason  more  distress  is  usually  felt 
at  night  by  the  asthmatic  patient  than  at  any 
other  time.  A paroxysm  of  asthma  usually  hap- 
pens after  exposure  to  the  damp,  violent  emo- 
tional excitement,  unusual  exercise  of  any  kind, 
or  the  taking  of  some  food  which  the  stomach 
cannot  digest.  Persons  in  the  decline  of  life  are 
more  liable  to  asthma  than  the  young.  It  seldom 
admits  of  cure,  and  on  the  other  hand  it  rarely 
shortens  life,  except  when  proper  precautions 
are  neglected  in  case  of  paroxysms. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  paroxysms 
consists  in  administering  narcotics  and  anti- 
spasmodics,  if  possible  as  soon  as  the  first  symp- 
toms are  felt.  Ether,  chloral  and  laudanum  in 
small  doses  are  the  best ; and  strong  coffee  some- 
times does  good.  Stramonium  leaves,  smoked  as 
tobacco  when  a paroxysm  is  threatened,  has  an 
excellent  effect  in  some  cases,  but  should  be  used 
with  caution  when  there  is  disease  of  the  heart. 
In  chronic  asthma,  associated  with  Bronchitis 
such  things  as  promote  expectoration  should 
be  used  : as  the  syrup  of  squills,  or  gum-ammo- 
niac. A teaspoonful  of  the  squills  may  be 


taken  three  times  a day,  and  a couple  of  pills 
made  of  2 grains  each  of  assafoetida  and  gum- 
ammoniac  at  bedtime.  Regular  exercise,  easy 
habits,  and  a light  and  uniform  diet  will  be 
found  very  effective  in  ameliorating  the  acute- 
ness of  the  disease. 

ASTRAL  OIL. — A refined  and  purified  form 
of  the  kerosene  oil.  It  is  nearly  odorless, 
burns  more  steadily,  and  has  the  great  advan- 
tage over  the  common  oil  that  it  is  entirely  safe 
under  all  the  usual  conditions  of  domestic  use. 
The  frightful  danger  to  which  common  kero- 
sene subjects  all  who  use  it,  should  banish  it 
from  the  household  ; and  we  know  of  no  substi- 
tute which  fulfils  all  the  conditions  of  safety 
and  economy  so  well  as  the  “ astral  oil.” 

ASTRINGENTS. — Those  medicines  which 
produce  contractions  of  the  fibres  with  which 
they  come  in  contact.  When  given  internally 
they  contract  the  walls  of  the  blood-vessels, 
and  thus  are  useful  in  passive  hemorrhages. 
When  employed  locally,  the  contraction  they 
produce  makes  them  useful  in  restraining  dis- 
charges of  blood  and  mucus. 

(a)  Diluted  sulphuric  acid,  20  minims ; com- 
pound tincture  of  cardamom,  40  minims ; 
infusion  of  roses,  1 ounce.  Mix,  and  give 
twice  a day  for  discharges  of  blood  or 
mucus. 

(b)  Decoction  of  logwood,  1 ounces  ; com- 
pound tincture  of  camphor,  30  to  60  drops. 
Mix,  and  give  after  each  loose  motion,  in 
diarrhoea  with  copious  watery  discharges. 

(c)  Tincture  of  matico,  30  to  40  minims ; 
chalk  mixture,  1 ounce.  Mix,  and  give  as 
directed  at  (b). 

(d)  Gallic  acid,  40  grains ; tincture  cinna- 
mon, 1 ounce;  syrup  simple,  3 ounces. 
Tablespoonful  every  3 hours  for  passive 
uterine  hemorrhage. 

AVIARY.  (See  Bird  Cage.) 

AZALEA. — One  of  the  most  beautiful  of  our 
native  shrubs.  It  is  hardy,  and  in  some  of  its 
numerous  species  is  found  everywhere  from 
Maine  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  bush  grows 
from  four  to  ten  feet  high,  is  beautifully  pro- 
portioned and  leaved,  and  bears  profuse  umbel- 
led  clusters  of  white,  orange,  purple,  or  varie- 
gated flowers,  some  of  which  are  unsurpassed 
by  any  other  of  our  plants.  In  cultivation  the 
azalea  loves  shady  spots,  and  a sandy,  loamy  soil. 
The  two  best  varieties  are  Nudi-flora  and  Vis- 
cosa,  the  former  bearing  pink  flowers  and  bloom- 
ing in  May;  the  latter  with  white  flowers  and 
blooming  in  July.  The  best  for  in-door  culture 
are,  Charles  Quint , Fieldcn , Minerva , Puncta- 
ta, and  Narcissiflora.  Plant  these  latter  in 
pots  in  the  spring,  in  rich  loamy  soil,  and  water 
them  plentifully  but  not  too  often.  Florists 
always  have  them. 


BABY 


BAKING 


13 


B. 


BABY.  (See  Infant.) 

BACON. — That  part  of  the  hog  which  in- 
cludes the  thin  portions  of  the  ribs  and  belly. 
This  is  preserved  in  several  ways,  generally  by 
rubbing  in  salt  and  saltpetre  and  drying,  and  also 
quite  frequently  by  smoking.  In  curing,  rub 
a mixture  of  four  pounds  of  salt  and  half  a 
pound  of  saltpetre  into  every  part  of  the  pork 
and  repeat  the  process  at  regular  intervals  for 
about  three  weeks,  during  which  time  the  flesh 
should  be  kept  in  a cool  place.  Afterwards 
remove  and  dry.  In  England,  the  preparation 
of  bacon  is  different.  There,  instead  of  the 
hair  being  scalded  off  the  hog  as  with  us,  it  is 
singed  or  burned  off  with  straw  and  then  rub- 
bed smooth  with  cold  water  and  dressed.  When 
cooled  through,  the  parts  designed  for  bacon 
have  the  spare  ribs  and  other  bones  taken  out, 
and  are  then  covered  with  fine  salt  mixed  with 
saltpetre,  four  pounds  to  half  a pound ; a pound 
of  brown  sugar  is  added  to  give  flavor.  The 
flitches,  as  the  several  parts  are  now  called, 
are  laid  upon  one  another  and  resalted  with 
the  mixture  daily  for  about  three  weeks,  the 
top  piece  being  transferred  to  the  bottom  each 
time.  They  are  then  hung  up  to  dry  or  slightly 
smoked,  after  which  they  are  ready  for  use. 
Bacon  has  been  called  “ the  poor  man’s  food,” 
and  in  those  portions  of  the  country  where  fresh 
meat  cannot  be  procured  regularly  it  forms  one 
of  the  staple  articles  of  diet ; but  when  it  has 
been  properly  cured  and  properly  prepared  for 
the  table,  it  forms  a dish  worthy  of  the  daintiest 
taste.  Good  bacon  has  a peculiarly  rich  and 
appetizing  flavor,  and  when  eaten  with  a due 
proportion  of  fresh  vegetables,  is  one  of  the 
most  wholesome  and  digestible  of  foods.  In 
choosing  bacon  select  that  which  has  a thin 
rind,  with  firm  fat  which  should  be  tinged  red 
by  the  curing ; the  flesh  should  be  of  a clean 
red,  without  intermixture  of  yellow,  and  adher- 
ing firmly  to  the  bone. 

To  Cook. — Bacon  is  generally  fried  or  boiled. 
There  is  a kind  called  breakfast  bacon  which, 
when  cut  into  thin  slices  and  fried,  either  by 
itself  or  with  liver,  is  very  palatable ; in  the 
country  it  is  generally  boiled  in  “ chunks  ” with 
some  vegetable  or  vegetables.  When  bacon 
is  found  to  be  very  salt,  it  should  be  soaked  in 
cold  water  before  cooking. 

BAIN-MARIE,  or  Water  Bath. — A large 
vessel  containing  hot  water,  much  used  in 
English  and  French  kitchens  for  warming 
food  or  for  keeping  it  warm  when  cooked.  It 
has  the  great  advantage  over  the  oven  or  open 
fire  that  its  heat  is  nearly  uniform  and  is  not 
drying.  The  pot  or  kettle  or  sauce-pan  con- 
taining the  food  should  be  set  in  the  bain-marie, 
( and  as  the  fire  is  only  in  contact  with  the  latter 


vessel,  the  inner  one  can  never  be  heated  to  a 
temperature  higher  than  2120  Fahr.,and  the 


amount  of  heat  can  be  regulated  very  easily  by 
pouring  in  cold  water  or  increasing  the  fire. 
The  water-bath  can  be  bought  at  most  house- 
furnishing shops,  or  in  its  absence  a large 
sauce-pan  may  be  made  to  serve  the  purpose. 

BAIZE. — A coarse,  open,  woollen  cloth, 
woven  like  flannel,  sometimes  with  a long  nap 
on  one  side  and  sometimes  without,  according 
to  the  uses  to  which  it  is  intended  to  be  put. 
It  is  warm  and  soft,  and  is  generally  used  for 
lining  clothes  and  for  table-covers  and  the  like. 
It  is  usually  dyed  green. 

BAKING. — The  process  of  cooking  in  a 
close  heated  oven.  The  difference  between 
baking  and  roasting  is  simply  that  in  the  one 
case  the  air  within  the  oven  is  confined  and 
unchanged  while  in  the  other  it  is  carried  off 
by  a current  and  constantly  replaced  by  fresh ; 
but  this  is  a very  important  difference  and 
affects  both  the  quantity  and  flavor  of  the 
articles  cooked.  Baking,  as  applied  to  meats,  is 
an  economical  method  of  cooking,  but  it  parches 
and  hardens  the  outside  and  leaves  a flavor 
which  a delicate  palate  can  always  detect. 
Nearly  all  so-called  “roast”  meats,  however, 
are  simply  baked,  and  it  is  a process  not  likely  to 
be  given  up  in  our  kitchens.  The  reader  is 
i earnestly  recommended  to  read  the  article  on 
Roasting.  Meats  and  fish  are  much  improved 
in  the  baking  when  covered  with  a piece  of 
buttered  paper.  In  baking  bread  and  pastry 
the  foregoing  objections 
do  not  apply  of  course  ; 
but  it  is  a process  whose 
success  demands  close 
attention.  More  food  is 
“ spoiled  in  the  bake  ” 
probably  than  by  all  the 
other  methods  of  cooking 
combined ; yet  intelli- 
gence and  careful  atten- 
tion make  it  one  of  the 
most  certain  processes  of  the  kitchen.  One  of 
the  best  modes  of  baking  with  which  we  are  ac- 
quainted, is  by  means  of  a jar,  resembling  in 
form  that  shown  above,  well  pasted  down,  and 
covered  with  a fold  of  thick  paper,  and  then 
placed  in  a gentle  oven.  It  should  be  borne 


Nottingham  Jar. 


14 


BAKING  POWDERS 


BANDAGES 


in  mind  that  each  oven  has  a temperature 
of  its  own,  and  that  some  dishes  require 
more  heat  than  others.  Watch  the  object  in 
process  of  baking  from  time  to  time,  especially 
at  the  beginning,  so  as  to  turn  it  round  if 
one  side  is  cooking  faster  than  the  other,  and 
also  to  regulate  the  temperature  if  necessary. 
Special  directions  will  be  given  in  the  case  of 
each  article  of  food. 

BAKING  POWDERS These  consist  of 

carbonate  of  soda  and  tartaric  acid,  which 
evolve  the  necessary  gas,  when  in  contact 
with  water,  to  make  the  bread  light,  leaving 
behind  a residue  of  tartrate  of  soda.  Many 
different  kinds  of  baking  powders  are  sold  by 
grocers  under  various  names,  and  the  incon- 
venience of  keeping  a supply  of  yeast  always 
at  hand  has  brought  them  into  general  use. 
Even  when  pure  it  is  doubtful  if  they  should 
be  used  for  making  all  the  bread  of  a family ; 
but  unfortunately  many  of  the  manufactured 
powders  contain  alum  in  considerable  quanti- 
ties. The  safest  plan,  therefore,  is  to  make 
them  at  home. 

Take  twenty  teaspoonfuls  of  cream-tartar  and 
ten  of  carbonate  of  soda;  roll  smooth  and  mix 
well  together.  Keep  in  a jar  or  bottle  tightly 
corked,  and  use  three  teaspoonfuls  to  a quart 
of  flour. 

BALM. — An  herb,  the  leaves  of  which  are 
usually  brought  in  a dried  state  from  the  south 
of  France  and  from  Italy.  In  its  matured  state 
it  has  a mild  aromatic  smell,  and  an  infusion 
of  it  makes  a very  useful  drink  in  fevers. 

BALSAM. — One  of  the  hardy  annuals  most 
often  found  in  gardens,  where  it  is  popularly 
called  “ Lady’s  slipper.”  The  seed  should  be 
sown  in  April  in  a hot-bed,  or  in  the  house,  and 
transplanted  to  the  garden  in  May.  They  will 
grow  vigorously  in  any  moderately  rich  soil, 
and  when  once  started,  will  spring  up  fresh 
each  year  in  great  numbers.  The  plant  is  from 
one  to  two  feet  high,  and  the  different  varieties 
have  white,  red,  pink,  flesh-color,  red  and  pur- 
ple, and  variegated  flowers, — blooming  from 
June  to  October.  There  are  also  single  and 
double  varieties,  the  double  being  most  effec- 
tive. Plant  the  slips  at  least  two  feet  apart. 

BALSAMS. — A class  of  substances  much 
used  in  medicine,  but  also  entering  into  the 
composition  of  varnishes,  etc.  They  are  both 
solid  and  fluid  ; and  consist  of  resin  of  some 
kind,  volatile  oil,  and  cinnamic  acid,  without 
the  last  of  which  they  are  not  balsams. 
The  balsam  of  Peru,  benzoin,  and  the  bal- 
sam of  Tolu  are  genuine  balsams  ; the  once 
famous  Copaiba  balsam  is  not  a balsam  at  all. 
Peruvian  balsam  is  largely  used  as  a stimulant 
application  to  sluggish  ulcers.  The  compound 
tincture  of  benzoin  is  likewise  used  for  the 
same  purpose.  The  syrup  of  Tolu  is  an 
agreeable  mixture  much  used  in  formulae  for 
cough  mixtures.  The  following  preparation 
is  strongly  recommended  for  recent  wounds 
and  bruises  : Take  of  powdered  benzoin  three 
ounces;  balsam  of  Peru,  two  ounces;  hepatic 
aloes,  powdered,  half  an  ounce;  rectified  spirits 


of  wine,  one  quart.  Digest  them  in  a gentle 
heat  for  three  days  and  then  strain  and  bottle. 
This  preparation  is  also  administered  internally 
to  relieve  coughs,  asthma,  and  other  complaints 
of  the  breast.  The  dose  is  from  20  to  60  drops, 
three  times  a day. 

BANANA — A variety  of  the  plantain,  found 
in  the  West  Indies  and  South  America,  and 
throughout  the  tropical  regions  of  both  hemis- 
pheres. In  the  countries  where  it  grows  it  is 
almost  always  the  staple  food,  occupying  the 
same  place  there  as  the  cereals  with  us.  No 
other  product  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  affords 
so  much  nutriment  from  a given  space  of  ground 
as  the  banana,  and  no  other  food  is  so  peculiarly 
adapted  to  support  life  in  the  tropics.  It  is 
estimated  that  a quarter  of  an  acre  planted  in 
bananas  will  produce  enough  for  a family  of  five 
the  year  round.  It  grows  in  thick  clusters  of 
1 50  to  200  to  the  cluster.  It  is  eaten  raw,  either 
alone  or  cut  in  slices  with  sugar  and  cream,  or 
wine  and  orange  juice.  It  is  also  roasted,  fried 
or  boiled,  and  is  made  into  fritters,  preserves, 
and  marmalades.  It  is  dried  in  the  sun  and 
preserved  as  figs ; meal  is  extracted  from  it  by 
pounding  and  made  into  something  resembling 
bread ; and  the  fermented  juice  affords  an  ex- 
cellent wine.  With  us  it  is  brought  to  the  table 
as  dessert,  and  proves  universally  acceptable. 
The  best  kind,  when  they  can  be  procured 
fresh,  are  the  “ lady-fingers  ” as  they  are  called. 
They  are  found  in  our  markets  from  March  to 
October. 

BANDAGES. — Strips  of  linen,  muslin,  or 
flannel,  of  various  widths  and  of  any  length, 
much  used  in  medicine  and  surgery.  The  best 
material  for  bandages  is  stout,  unbleached  mus- 
lin ; but  a strip  of  sheeting,  or  strip  of  an  old 
petticoat  or  dress,  will  usually  answer  every 
purpose.  As  the  manner  in  which  the  band- 
age is  bound  round  the  limb  makes  all  the  dif- 
ference in  the  comfort  of  the  patient,  the  fol- 
lowing directions  in  relation  to  the  use  and 
application  of  bandages  taken  from  Druitt’s 
“ System  of  Modern  Surgery ,”  a standard  au- 
thority with  physicians  and  surgeons,  may  be 
of  service. 

“1.  Bandages  usually  consist  of  strips  of 
linen,  calico  or  flannel,  varying  in  breadth  from 
one  to  three,  five  or  more  inches,  and  in  length 
from  one  to  six,  eight  or  twelve  yards.  Some- 
times they  are  made  of  India-rubber  web,  or 
of  a substance  like  stockings;  but  for  most 
purposes,  stout  unbleached  calico,  or  thin  fine 
calico,  will  answer.  They  are  generally  rolled 
up  longitudinally  for  use,  and  hence  have  re- 
ceived the  name  of  rollers.  Bandages  may  often 
be  made  of  handkerchiefs,  or  square  pieces  of 
linen. 

“ II.  The  chief  uses  of  bandages  are,  1st, 
to  keep  on  dressings,  to  protect  a diseased  part 
from  injury,  and  put  some  little  restraint  upon 
its  motions;  2dly,  to  afford  a support  to  relax- 
ed muscles,  ligaments,  and  vessels.  Deprive 
any  part  of  its  normal  support,  and  varicose 
veins  and  dropsical  effusions  are  sure  to  oc- 
cur ; and  conversely  many  chronic  swellings  of 


BANDAGES 


15 


the  limbs  and  joints  may  often  be  cured  by 
the  proper  applications  of  bandages  alone. 

“III.  The  Roller. — In  applying  this  to 
any  limb,  it  should  be  held  as  represented 


in  Fig.  2,  and  should  be  passed  from  one 
hand  to  the  other  as  the  limb  is  encircled 
with  it.  Begining  at  the  extremity  of  the 
limb,  it  should  be  applied  most  tightly  there 


Fig.  3* 


and  a very  little  more  loosely  as  it  ascends. 
Very  little  of  it  should  be  unfolded  at  a 
time  and  each  fold  should  overlap  about  a 
third  of  the  previous  one.  When  the  limb 


pins  or  stitches,  as  shown  in  Fig.  I,  by  merely 
splitting  up  the  end  of  the  bandage  into  two  tails 
which  may  be  turned  opposite  ways  round  the 
finger  and  be  tied  in  a bow. 


Fig.  2. 


increases  in  size  the  bandage  must  turn  on 
itself  after  the  manner  depicted  in  Figs.  3 and 
5- 

“ IV.  Bandage  for  the  Finger.— This  is 
a simple  strip  of  linen  that  may  be  wound 
round  the  finger  a few  times  with  the  requisite 
tightness.  It  must  be  fastened  neatly  without 


“ V.  For  the  Hand. — A bandage  about  two 
inches  wide  may  be  passed  like  a figure  of 
eight  round  the  hand  and  wrist,  excluding  the 
thumb,  Fig.  2,  and  may  be  finished  by  one  or 
two  circular  turns  around  the  wrist. 

“ VI.  For  the  Forearm. — After  applying  it 


Fig.  4. 


about  the  hand  and  wrist  as  just  described, 
carry  it  up  the  forearm,  and  in  every  turn  fold 
the  bandage  sharply  and  smoothly  back  upon 
itself,  in  such  a way  that  it  may  lie  smoothly  on 
the  limb.  (Fig.  3.) 


“VII.  For  the  Foot.  Let  the  roller  be  first 
passed  round  the  flat  of  the  foot — between  the 
toe  and  heel — and  then  carried  up  round  the 
ankle,  and  back  again  round  the  foot  exactly  as 
depicted  in  Fig.  4. 


0 


1G 


BANDAGES 


The  bandage  should  always  be  brought  up 
on  the  inner  side  of  the 
instep  as  shown  in  Fig. 
4,  in  order  to  support 
the  arch  of  the  foot.' 

“VIII.  For  the  Leg. 
— After  the  foot  and 
ankle  have  been  well  en- 
veloped, let  the  bandage 
be  carried  up  the  leg,  and 
be  turned  sharp  on  itself 
on  the  calf,  in  order  that 
it  may  lie  closely  and  the 
folds  not  be  separated. 
(Fig.  5 ) 

“IX.  For  the  Knee. — 
To  support  the  knee,  in 
ordinary  cases,  a bandage 
maybe  passed  round  it  in 
a figure-of-eight  form,  ex- 
cluding the  patella,  or 
knee-pan.  (Fig.  6.) 

If  that  bone  is  to  be 
covered  the  bandage  must 
be  passed  lightly  over  it 
afterwards,  several  times, 
making  turns  when  nec- 


essary, to  procure  smoothness.  When  it  is 
merely  wished  to  keep  on  dressings  or  give 
slight  support,  the  four  tailed  bandage  shown 
in  Fig.  7 may  be  used.  A piece  of  linen  a 
yard  and  a half  long  and  eight  or  nine  inches 
wide  is  split  up  in  the  middle  at  each  end  to 
within  a few  inches  of  the  centre.  The  centre 
being  then  placed  on  the  patella,  or  knee-pan, 
the  four  tails  are  brought  under  the  knee, 
crossed,  and  tied  two  and  two. 


Fig.  6. 


“ X.  For  the  Groin. — Having  passed  a roller 
round  the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen  and  se- 
cured it  with  a stitch,  bring  it  in  front  of  the  af- 


Fig.  7. 


fected  groin,  then  round  the  back  of  the  thigh, 
next  round  the  abdomen  and  so  on  in  a figure- 
of-eight  form  with  the  folds  crossing  each  other 
over  the  groin. 


“XI.  For  the  Axilla  pit  or  shoulder). 

In  order  to  keep  on  dressings  put  the  centre  of 


a common  handkerchief  folded  crosswise  under 
the  arm  pit,  cross  it  over  the  shoulder,  and 
carry  the  ends  one  before  and  one  behind  the 
chest  to  tie  under  the  opposite  arm-pit. 

“XII.  FortheHead. — A roller  having  been 
carried  horizontally  round  the  forehead  and  back 
of  the  head  and  secured  by  a stitch,  let  it  be  car- 
ried from  the  side  vertically  over  the  head  and 
under  the  chin.  At  the  point  of  crossing  on  either 
side,  let  it  be  secured  by  a stitch.  In  bandaging 
the  head  care  should  always  be  taken  to  comb  the 
hair  so  that  it  will  lie  smoothly  and  comfortably ; 
and  likewise  to  arrange  the  bandages  so  that  the 
pressure  may  tell  exactly  where  it  is  required.” 
Bandages  should  always  be  applied  with  an 
equable  pressure  throughout,  and  not  too  tight- 
ly. Any  person  possessed  of  the  slightest  in- 
enuitv  or  neatness  of  hand,  would,  after  a few 
ints  from  a good  hospital  nurse  or  a surgeon, 
learn  the  essentials  of  bandaging  in  a very  short 
time.  Bandages  such  as  the  above,  may  be 
rendered  hard  and  strong  by  smearing  their 


BANK 


BASIL 


17 


successive  turns  with  gum,  plaster  of  Paris, 
glue,  paste,  or  white  of  egg,  which  speedily 
sets,  serving  the  double  purpose  of  bandage 
and  splints.  (See  Fractures.) 

BANK. — It  is  well  for  the  inexperienced  to 
know  that  banks  do  not  pay  money  to  holders 
of  checks  and  drafts  unless  some  officer  knows 
the  holder  to  be  the  person  he  professes  to  be. 
They  even  often  decline  checks  payable  to 
bearer,  unless  they  are  satisfied  that  the  holder 
came  by  them  properly.  Neither  do  banks 
take  from  unintroduced  strangers  deposits 
subject  to  check,  though  they  will  usually  re- 
ceive cash  from  a stranger,  giving  him  in  turn 
for  it  a “ Certificate  of  Deposit  ” payable  to 
bearer  or  to  the  order  of  any  person  named. 
These  certificates  of  deposit  can  be  indorsed 
and  passed  from  hand  to  hand  or  sent  by  mail, 
just  as  checks  are.  (See  Check.) 

BANTING’S  CURE. — The  name  given  to 
a system  of  dietetics  devised  by  William  Bant- 
ing, a London  merchant  (though  it  is  identical 
with  that  previously  recommended  by  Brillat- 
Savarin),for  the  cure  of  corpulence.  Its  merits 
have  been  very  energetically  disputed,  and  it 
has  lately  as  a whole  fallen  rather  into  disre- 
pute ; but  Banting  cured  himself  by  it,  and  was 
evidently  an  enthusiastic  believer  in  its  efficacy. 
The  method  consists  in  the  use  of  a large  pro- 
portion of  nitrogenous  animal  food,  and  absti- 
nence from  all  farinaceous,  saccharine,  or  oily 
matters,  which  conduce  to  the  production  of  fat 
in  the  human  system.  He  especially  forbids 
the  use  of  bread,  pastry,  potatoes,  milk,  butter, 
beer;  sweet  wines,  such  as  port  wine,  cham- 
pagne, and  the  like  ; pork,  herrings,  eels,  sal- 
mon and  other  fat  fish  and  meats ; and  recom- 
mends lean  meat,  poultry,  game,  fruit,  dry 
toast,  claret,  dry  sherry,  madeira,  all  green 
vegetables,  except  parsnips,  beets,  turnips,  and 
carrots  ; permitting  the  moderate  use  of  soft- 
boiled  eggs  and  cheese.  He  rightly  considered 
diet  the  principal  agent  in  reducing  corpulence  ; 
and,  unlike  those  who  profess  to  be  his  follow- 
ers, left  the  qua.7itity  of  food  to  the  natural 
appetite. 

BARBERRY.— A species  of  berry  which 
grows  wild  in  woods  and  shady  places,  and 
though  not  very  abundant,  can  generally  be 
found  in  market  in  September  and  October. 
The  fruit  is  crimson  in  color,  grows  in  clusters, 
and  has  small  roundish  seeds.  It  is  extremely 
acid  and  sour,  but  makes  a cooling  and  grateful 
drink ; and  is  used  for  pickles,  sweetmeats, 
jellies,  soups,  and  garnishing.  The  leaves  of 
the  plants  are  eaten  as  a salad  and  taste  some- 
thing like  sorrel.  The  jellies  and  sweetmeats 
made  of  barberries  are  considered  very  whole- 
some and  strengthening  to  the  stomach.  (See 
Jam,  Jelly,  and  Preserves.) 

BARLEY. — One  of  the  cereals,  next  in  im- 
portance to  wheat,  over  which  it  has  the  advan- 
tage that  it  can  be  grown  over  a greater  range 
of  climate,  at  less  cost  of  labor,  and  with  the 
certainty  of  much  larger  returns.  On  fairly 
good  soil  it  frequently  yields  as  much  as  40  to 
1,  and  in  California  three  or  four  successive 
. 2 


crops  are  reapedf  rom  one  sowing.  Barley  was 
one  of  the  chief  articles  of  food  among  the 
ancients,  is  still  used  largely  on  the  continent 
of  Europe,  'and  to  a considerable  extent  in 
Scotland  and  Northern  England;  but  with  us 
it  is  rarely  used  except  for  feeding  cattle  and 
barn-yard  stock,  and  for  the  manufacture  of 
beer.  Barley  hulled  and  ground  makes  a coarse, 
heavy  kind  of  bread,  wholesome  to  eat,  and  not 
disagreeable  in  taste.  Its  nutritive  value  is  not 
equal,  however,  to  wheaten  bread ; and  de- 
spite its  cheapness  it  is  not  very  likely  to  be- 
come soon  a staple  article  of  our  diet.  The 
only  forms  in  which  it  is  used  in  cooking  are 
the  preparations  described  below. 

Pearl  Barley,  the  kind  kept  in  the  stores,  is 
the  small  round  kernel  which  remains  after  the 
skin  and  outer  portions  of  the  kernel  have  been 
ground  off.  For  this  purpose,  the  Spring  bar- 
ley is  chosen  ; it  is  steamed  to  soften  the  skin, 
dried,  and  passed  through  a mill  of  a peculiar 
kind  to  take  off  the  husk,  all  except  what  lies 
in  the  deep  furrow  of  the  seed.  It  makes  ex- 
cellent broth,  is  much  approved  as  the  farin- 
aceous ingredient  in  puddings,  and  when  boiled 
with  new  milk  and  flavored  with  sugar,  and  oc- 
casionally spices,  makes  a delicate  and  deli- 
cious food  more  nutritious  than  rice. 

Patent  Barley  is  the  pearl  barley  ground  to 
flour. 

Infants  (Barley  for). — Barley  will  often  agree 
with  infants  when  their  stomachs  reject  milk. 
To  prepare,  take  two  tablespoonfuls  of  pearl 
barley,  carefully  washed,  soak  it  half  an  hour  in 
a little  lukewarm  water,  then  stir  it  without 
straining  into  two  cupfuls  of  boiling  water.  Add 
a pinch  of  salt ; simmer  an  hour,  stirring  often; 
then  strain,  and  sweeten  with  two  teaspoonfuls 
of  white  sugar.  This  is  an  excellent  substitute 
for  milk  during  infantile  diarrhoea. 

Sugar  (Barley). — Properly  speaking,  barfey 
sugar  is  sugar  boiled  in  barley  water  till  it  is 
of  such  consistence  that  it  will  solidify  when 
cold.  When  done  flavor  with  lemon  peel,  pour 
into  a greased  dish,  and  as  it  cools  cut  into 
such  shapes  as  may  be  desired.  Ordinary 
sugar  candy  is  also  sometimes  called  barley 
sugar.  (See  Candy.) 

Water  (Barley),  is  a very  soothing  and  nu- 
tritious drink  for  the  sick.  To  make,  take  two 
ounces  of  pearl  barley,  put  it  in  half  a pint  of 
boiling  water,  and  let  it  simmer  five  minutes  ; 
then  pour  off  the  water,  add  two  quarts  of  boil- 
ing water,  two  ounces  of  sliced  figs,  and  two  of 
stoned  raisins,  and  boil  till  it  is  reduced  to  a 
quart.  Strain,  and  it  is  ready  to  drink.  A simpler 
way  is  to  take  two  and  a half  ounces  of  pearl 
barley  and  boil  ten  minutes  in  half  a pint  of 
water ; strain  off  this  water,  add  two  quarts  of 
boiling  water,  and  boil  down  to  one  quart.  Then 
strain,  and  flavor  it  with  sugar  and  slices  of 
lemon  or  nutmeg. 

BASIL. — A highly  aromatic  herb,  often  used 
in  cooking,  with  a flavor  resembling  cloves.  It 
grows  wild  nearly  everywhere,  and  there  are 
two  or  three  varieties.  The  common  kind  is  sel- 
dom made  use  of,  but  there  is  a large  species, 


18 


BASS 


BATH 


the  leaves  of  which  are  used  very  generally  in 
flavoring  salads  and  soups,  especially  mock- 
turtle  soup. 

BASS. — A family  of  fish,  of  which  there 
are  about  a dozen  varieties  caught  in  American 
waters.  The  best  salt-water  bass  are  the  Sea- 
bass,  or  blue-bass,  the  Striped-bass,  or  rock-fish, 
and  the  Bar-fish.  Of  the  fresh-water  species, 
the  best  are  the  Black-bass,  the  White-bass  of 
Lake  Erie,  and  the  Rock-bass.  In  the  seacoast 
markets  those  who  ask  simply  for  bass  will  get 
the  striped  or  streaked  bass,  and  it  is  one  of 
the  most  delicious  of  fish.  They  are  to  be 
had  at  all  times  of  the  year.  For  frying, 


those  from  one-half  to  one  pound  weight  are 
best;  for  broiling,  select  those  weighing  about 
three  pounds  and  split  them  in  half;  for  boil-| 
ing,  take  those  weighing  from  four  to  eight 
pounds.  The  very  large  fish  are  generally 
coSfse  and  rather  dry  eating. 

Baked  Bass.— Take  a fish  weighing  six  or 
eight  pounds  ; it  should  be  cooked  whole  to 
look  well.  After  cleaning,  fill  the  body  with  a 
dressing  made  of  bread-crumbs,  pepper,  salt, 
onion,  and  parsley,  and  a little  salt  pork  chop- 
ped fine,  the  whole  mixed  with  one  egg;  sew  it 
up  and  lay  it  in  a large  pan.  Put  one  pint  of 
water  and  a little  salt  into  the  pan,  and  bake  an 
hour  and  a half,  basting  often  with  butter  and 
flour, — then  dish,  being  careful  to  take  the  fish 
up  whole.  Shake  into  the  gravy  a little  flour,  a 
teaspoonful  of  butter,  and  two  spoonfuls  of  to- 
mato or  walnut  catsup;  boil  a moment,  and 
pour  it  over  the  fish.  Worcestershire  is  also  a 
nice  sauce  for  baked  bass. 

Boiled  Bass. — Take  a fish  weighing  seven  or 
eight  pounds ; clean  and  scrape  off  the  scales ; 
wash  it  in  salt  and  water, — then  place  in  fish- 
kettle,  with  enough  boiling  water  to  cover  it. 
Boil  it  half  an  hour,  and  serve  hot  with  an- 
chovy, caper,  matelote  or  tomato  sauce. 

Frying  and  Broiling. — Proceed  as  in  general 
directions  given  under  Frying  and  Broiling. 

BASTING. — This  is  the  most  important  of 
all  the  requisites  for  roasting,  and  it  is  for  want 
of  its  being  properly  done  that  roast  meats  are 
so  constantly  spoiled.  In  fat  meats,  such  as 
beef,  mutton,  or  pork,  their  own  dripping,  after 
it  has  run  into  the  well  of  the  pan,  is  the  best 
thing  for  the  purpose  ; but  in  poultry,  veal,  and 
game,  there  is  nothing  coming  out  which  will 
serve,  and  they  must  be  basted  either  with  plain 
butter,  mutton,  or  beef  dripping,  water  and 
salt,  milk , melted  butter,  or  sometimes  with 
cider,  ale,  or  wine.  The  process  consists  sim- 
ply in  pouring  the  liquid,  or  spreading  the  fat, 
over  the  entire  surface  of  the  roasting  meat. 

BATH. — The  skin  of  the  human  being  is 
not  merely  an  outward  covering  for  the  body, 


but  an  organ  the  proper  performance  of  whose 
work  is  of  vital  importance  to  good  health.  Its 
seven  million  pores  are  not  a useless  part  of 
the  animal  economy,  but  form  the  sluices 
through  which  the  system  throws  off  a portion 
of  its  waste  and  deleterious  matter  ; this  matter 
is  removed  in  the  form  of  an  imperceptible 
watery  vapor,  mixed  with  a few  saline  and 
gaseous  substances,  and  the  quantity  capable 
of  being  gotten  rid  of  in  this  way,  in  the  space 
of  twenty-four  hours,  amounts  in  round  num- 
bers to  twenty  ounces.  The  retention  of  this, 
by  leason  of  the  inability  of  the  skin  to  per- 
form its  functions,  is  of  course  productive  of 
great  injury  to  the  system,  throwing  more  than 
their  due  share  of  work  on  the  other  secretive 
organs.  The  only  method  of  keeping  the  skin 
clear  and  in  proper  working  order  is  bathing 
with  sufficient  frequency.  Bathing  not  only 
removes  the  matter  which  the  skin  has  already 
discharged,  but  stimulates  its  activity  and  in- 
creases its  efficiency.  The  temperature  of  the 
water  is  a highly  important  circumstance,  and 
medical  writers  usually  classify  baths  as  cold, 
warm,  and  hot. 

Cold  Bath. — The  cold  bath  is  taken  in  water 
which  is  cold  as  compared  with  the  normal  heat 
of  the  body,  or  at  a temperature  of  330  to  65°. 
The  effect  of  such  a bath  on  a person  in  good 
health  is,  on  first  plunging  in,  a sensation  of  ex- 
treme cold  (the  duration  of  which  depends  on 
the  temperature  of  the  water  and  the  condition 
of  the  bather),  and  is  followed  by  a reaction 
which  brings  on  a sensation  of  warmth  and  a 
feeling  of  lightness  and  vigor.  By  degrees,  if 
the  body  continue  to  be  immersed,  the  bather 
again  begins  to  feel  cold,  chilliness,  accompanied 
by  shivering,  comes  on,  the  pulse  grows  feebler 
and  slower,  and  the  whole  body  becomes  lan- 
guid and  powerless.  The  time  to  leave  the 
bath  is  during  the  period  of  warmth,  before  the 
second  chilliness  begins  ; and  immediately  on 
stepping  out  the  bather  should  rub  himself  dry 
with  a coarse  towel,  and  continue  rubbing  till 
the  skin  is  in  a glow.  The  ultimate  effect  of 
the  cold  bath  has  been  differently  described  by 
different  physicians,  and  some  are  strongly  op- 
posed to  its  use  at  all ; but,  where  it  agrees,  it 
is  tonic  and  bracing,  it  improves  the  digestion, 
stimulates  the  skin,  and  renders  the  circulation 
more  active  and  vigorous.  It  also  hardens  the 
system  and  causes  it  to  be  much  less  sensitive 
to  changes  of  temperature,  being  on  this  ac- 
count an  excellent  protection  against  taking 
cold  on  exposure.  Its  beneficial  effect  depends 
much  on  the  strength  of  the  reaction  ; if,  there- 
fore, on  coming  out  of  the  cold  bath,  the  person 
feels  dull  and  chilly,  or  complains  of  headache, 
or  a sensation  of  tightness  across  the  chest, 
the  cold  bath  disagrees,  and  should  be  discon- 
tinued or  modified. 

But  many  persons  experiencing  these  symp- 
toms seem  to  need  just  the  sort  of  stimulus  the 
cold  bath  gives.  This  they  can  get  by  applying 
cold  water  with  a wash-rag  to  a square  foot  or 
two  of  the  skin  at  q time,  rubbing  the  space 
into  a glow  with  a towel,  and  repeating  the 


BATH 


19 


process  until  the  whole  body  has  been  bathed,  i 
The  writer  knows  instances  where  this 
method  has  cured  people  too  sensitive  to  cold. 

The  diseases  for  which  cold  baths  are  valu- 
able as  a remedy  are  morbid  irritability  and  ' 
sensibility,  accompanied  by  general  debility ; 
also  for  asthma,  in  the  intervals  between  the 
paroxysms,  when  the  system  is  in  other  respects 
in  a proper  condition  for  it.  When  there  is  a 
tendency  to  colds  and  rheumatism,  the  cold  bath 
is  an  excellent  preventive ; for  this  purpose 
it  should  be  used  continuously  throughout  the 
year.  It  is  improper  in  the  case  of  those  who 
have  a tendency  to  consumption,  or  who  are 
constitutionally  liable  to  bowel  complaints.;  and 
it  should  never  be  ventured  on  by  any  one 
suffering  from  chronic  inflammation  of  the  mu- 
cuous  membranes  of  the  bronchia  and  intestinal 
canal.  The  best  time  for  taking  a cold  bath  is  in 
the  early  morning  just  after  rising.  But  per- 
sons of  feeble  circulation  in  whom  reaction 
does  not  readily  follow,  had  better  not  take  a 
cold  bath  before  their  breakfast  is  digested. 

( See  Douche  Bath.) 

Warm  Bath. — This  includes  all  baths  rang- 
ing in  temperature  from  66°  to  950.  Its  effect 
is  very  different  from  that  of  the  cold  bath. 
There  is  no  shock,  but  the  temperature  is  grate- 
ful to  the  bather;  the  blood  circulates  more 
rapidly,  and  a gentle  glow  pervades  the  body  ; 
the  skin  absorbs  water,  is  softened,  and  throws 
off  the  scales  of  decomposed  matter  which  may 
have  accumulated  on  it ; pain  is  allayed,  and 
nervous  irritation  is  soothed.  The  warm  bath 
is  especially  grateful  and  beneficial  after  exces- 
sive muscular  exertion,  or  after  the  fatigue  and 
excitement  of  travelling.  It  refreshes  and  tran- 
quillizes the  system ; but  on  the  other  hand  it 
has  none  of  the  tonic  influence  of  the  cold  bath, 
and  its  frequent  use  tends  to  relax  and  debili- 
tate, while  rendering  the  system  more  sensible 
to  changes  of  temperature.  The  best  tempera- 
ture for  the  bath  of  a healthy  person  is  what  is 
called  tepid,  and  it  is  also  the  most  agreeable. 
A distinctly  warm  bath  taken  just  before  going 
to  bed  will  probably  cure  any  tendency  to  wake- 
fulness, especially  if  the  wakefulness  come  from 
over  use  of  the  brain.  No  bath  whatever 
should  be  taken  while  digestion  is  going  on — 
say  in  less  than  two  hours  after  a meal. 

Hot  Bath. — This  has  a temperature  ranging 
from  98°  (blood-heat)  to  r 1 2°.  1 1 is  a very  power- 
ful stimulant,  and  should  never  be  used  by  per- 
sons in  a good  state  of  health.  Even  in  cases 
of  disease,  it  should  only  be  taken  under  a physi- 
cian’s advice.  As  the  object  is  to  stimulate  the 
vital  actions,  the  bather  should  never  remain 
long  enough  in  the  bath  to  produce  exhaustion,— 
the  average  time  is  from  ten  to  fifteen  minutes. 
The  best  way  to  obtain  the  full  beneficial  effect 
of  the  hot  bath  is  to  commence  with  tepid  water 
and  gradually  increase  the  temperature.  The 
hot  bath  is  chiefly  used  where  it  is  desirable  to 
produce  abundant  perspiration,  when  it  should 
be  followed  by  rolling  the  patient  in  blankets. 

Shower  Bath. — When  cold  water  is  used,  the 
effect  of  this  bath  is  similar  to  that  of  the  ordi- 


I nary  cold  bath,  but  the  shock  from  the  shower 
bath  is  greater  than  that  from  simple  immersion, 
especially  if  the  quantity  of  water  be  large,  the 
temperature  low,  and  the  fall  considerable.  Its 
! effects  are  also  more  speedy,  and  extend  more 
to  the  internal  organs  than  those  of  the  com- 
mon bath.  When  the  result  is  beneficial  the 
glow  is  felt  almost  immediately,  consequently 
when  recourse  is  had  to  it,  the  bather  should 
withdraw  immediately  after  the  shock ; if  its 
use  is  prolonged  it  quickly  lowers,  and  at  last 
destroys  the  sensibility,  and  is  then  highly  in- 
jurious. For  delicate  persons,  the  tepid  shower 
bath  is  preferable ; and  salt  added  to  the  water 
is  an  improvement.  When  used  for  hygienic 
purposes  the  best  time  to  take  the  shower  bath 
is  immediately  after  rising  in  the  morning. 

Sponge  Bath. — Sponging  the  body  off  with 
water  and  a sponge  or  cloth  is  as  effectual, 
though  perhaps  not  as  pleasant,  as  any  other 
form  of  bathing,  and  may  be  resorted  to  when 
bathing  conveniences  are  not  at  hand.  It  is 
frequently  adopted  in  cases  of  fever,  to  cool 
the  surface  of  the  body;  but  as  its  action  is 
powerful  it  is  rather  venturesome  to  employ  it 
except  as  directed  by  the  physician.  Sponging 
is  also  used  successfully  as  a tonic  to  ward  off 
disease.  It  is  found  especially  serviceable 
when  a person  is  disposed  to  asthma  or  is  suf- 
fering from  a cough.  For  this  purpose  the 
chest  may  be  sponged  daily,  and  afterwards 
well  rubbed  and  dried,  so  as  to  produce  a glow 
on  the  surface.  In  some  cases  vinegar  and 
water,  or  salt  and  water  are  preferable,  and 
then  much  rubbing  is  not  necessary.  This  is 
an  excellent  method  for  bathing  very  young 
children.  In  the  country  or  in  the  city  houses 


Sponging  Bath. 

on  high  ground,  in  both  of  which  places  econo- 
my of  water  is  apt  to  be  an  object,  or  in  all 
cases  where  expedition  is  desirable,  the  follow- 
ing arrangement  is  recommended  : Have  a tin 

pan  made  six  inches  deep,  half  an  inch  shorter 
than  the  width  of  the  bath  tub  at  the  top,  and 
wide  enough  to  extend  a good  distance  be- 
yond the  faucets.  On  the  two  short  sides  and 
on  one  of  the  long  sides,  let  it  have  a rim  an 
inch  wide  with  the  edge  of  the  rim  rolled  over 
a substantial  wire  to  give  strength.  Slide  this 
pan  under  the  faucets.  It  will  be  supported  by 
the  edges  of  three  sides  of  the  bath-tub  coming 
under  its  rim.  Supply  it  from  the  faucets  and 
pour  the  water  over  the  body  from  a large 
sponge.  Thus  very  little  water  need  be  used 


20 


BATH  BRICK 


BEAR-MEAT 


and  its  temperature  can  be  easily  regulated. 
With  most  people  it  will  be  best  to  begin  with 
it  pretty  warm  and  to  let  the  cool-water  faucet 
run  so  as  to  cool  it  gradually  while  it  is  being  ap- 
plied. If  the  outlet  of  the  tub  is  stopped  be- 
fore the  bath  is  begun,  the  water  thus  poured 
over  the  body  and  collected  in  the  tub,  will  be 
all  that  is  needed  for  the  feet.  It  is  well  to 
wash  the  face  in  cool  water  before  beginning 
on  the  rest  of  the  body. 

Sea  Bathing. — Although  the  most  important 
effects  of  bathing  are  produced  by  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  water,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
the  effect  of  simple  fresh  water  is  very  differ- 
ent from  that  of  the  sea.  Where  the  object  is 
to  bring  on  a reaction,  and  to  stimulate  and 
brace  the  system,  sea  bathing  is  greatly  to  be 
preferred.  The  manner  of  going  into  the  bath, 
and  the  time  of  remaining  in  it,  depend  chiefly 
on  the  condition  of  the  bather.  Some  plunge 
in  at  once  in  order  to  obtain  the  full  advantage 
of  the  shock ; others  are  recommended  to  take 
at  first  one  or  two  dips,  to  test  the  power  of  re- 
action, and  gradually  to  immerse  the  entire 
body  in  water.  In  any  case  the  head  should  be 
wet  thoroughly  before  the  feet  become  chilled. 
Moving  about  as  much  as  possible  while  in  the 
water  is  highly  advantageous,  and  if  the  bather 
can  swim,  all  the  better.  On  coming  out,  the 
body  should  be  quickly  and  well  dried  with  a 
coarse  towel,  and  the  clothes  put  on  without 
delay ; though  this  precaution  is  not  so  neces- 
sary as  when  bathing  in  fresh  water,  as  the  par- 
ticles of  salt  remaining  on  the  skin  after  the 
water  has  dried,  stimulate  it  even  more  than 
rubbing.  The  most  common  error  in  the  prac- 
tice of  sea  bathing,  and  one  which  should  be 
carefully  avoided,  is  remaining  so  long  in  the 
water  that  the  heat  of  the  body  is  lowered  be- 
low the  proper  degree,  and  the  consequence  is 
a feeling  of  chilliness  that  is  both  disagreeable 
and  injurious.  The  only  time  of  the  year  adapt- 
ed for  sea  bathing  on  our  coasts,  north  of 
Florida,  is  the  summer  and  autumn  months  ; 
the  best  time  of  day  depends  on  the  locality 
and  on  the  state  of  the  tide,  which  should  be 
taken  at  the  full.  Under  no  circumstances, 
however,  should  a bath  be  taken  in  less  than 
three  hours  after  a hearty  meal.  ( See  Russian, 
Sitz,  Turkish,  and  Vapor  Baths.) 

BATH  BRICK. — A preparation  of  calcare- 
ous earth,  sold  in  the  shape  of  a brick.  It  is 
much  better  than  sand  for  scouring  knives  and 
forks,  brass  and  tin  ware,  and  the  like  : the 
particles  are  not  so  hard,  but  are  readily  crushed 
into  smaller  pieces  in  the  process  of  rubbing, 
and  do  not  leave  scratches,  while  they  have 
sufficient  hardness  to  remove  a portion  of  the 
surface.  In  using,  scrape  off  a portion  with  a 
knife,  and  apply  with  a damp  cloth  or  cork; 
when  it  can  be  had,  a corn  cob  makes  the  best 
of  all  scrubbers. 

BEANS. — The  only  beans  used  to  any  ex- 
tent in  cooking  are  the  string  or  “ snap,”  the 
Lima,  and  the  kidney.  All  these  are  easily  raised; 
they  will  grow  abundantly  in  the  open  fields 
along  with  corn.  But  to  obtain  them  at  their 


best  they  should  be  planted  as  soon  as  the 
frost  is  out  of  the  ground,  in  a rich  deep  soil 
which  they  do  not  exhaust  and  in  which  they 
grow  rapidly.  Plant  three  at  a time,  in  holes 
three  inches  deep ; three  feet  apart  for  the 
dwarf,  and  four  feet  for  the  running  vine. 
When  the  leaves  above  the  seed  leaves  are 
fully  out,  hoe  between  the  plants  to  loose  the 
soil  and  remove  the  weeds  ; after  they  get  a 
foot  high  the  weeds  cannot  hurt  them.  Snap 
or  string  beans,  grown  either  as  “ pole  beans  ” 
or  as  “ bush  beans,”  are  plucked  young  and 
eaten  in  the  pods.  They  are  ready  for  the  mar- 
ket in  the  South  about  the  first  of  April  and  con- 
tinue, with  a succession  of  crops  until  Novem- 
ber. The  Lima  and  kidney  beans  come  in 
about  the  ist  of  May,  and  continue  throughout 
the  year,  although  during  the  winter  months 
they  are  apt  to  be  hard  and  dry. 

To  Dry. — Lima  beans  pulled  while  young  and 
tender  and  dried  in  the  sun,  may  be  put  away 
and  kept  for  use  at  any  time.  They  should  be 
thoroughly  soaked  before  using. 

Kidney  Beans. — Shell  into  cold  water;  boil 
until  tender  with  a piece  of  fat  bacon.  Serve 
bacon  and  beans  together. 

Lima  or  Butter  Beans. — Shell  into  cold 
water;  let  them  lie  awhile,  and  then  put  into 
a pot  with  plenty  of  boiling  water,  and  a little 
salt,  and  boil  fast,  until  tender.  Drain,  and 
butter  well  when  dished,  peppering  to  taste. 

Pork  and  Beans. — Put  a quart  of  dried 
white  beans  over  the  fire  with  two  quarts  of 
cold  water;  after  boiling  a few  minutes  drain 
and  add  the  same  quantity  of  boiling  water. 
When  the  skins  begin  to  crack,  drain  the  beans 
and  put  them  in  a “bean  pot”  or  in  a deep 
baking  dish  ; place  in  the  centre  a pound  of 
sweet  pork,  the  rind  carefully  scored  in  small 
squares  ; pour  a quart  of  hot  water  over  the 
whole  and  bake  slowly,  for  three  hours. 

Some  persons  think  this  dish  improved  by  a 
spoonful  or  two  of  molasses  added  while  baking. 

Salad  of  Snap  Beans. — Boil  as  above  till 
tender;  put  them  in  a crockery  dish,  a few  at  a 
time,  and  sprinkle  with  salt  and  pepper;  then 
cover  over  and  leave  to  stand  three  or  four 
hours.  Drain  out  the  water ; put  the  beans  in 
a salad-dish  with  sweet  oil,  vinegar,  and  parsley 
chopped  fine  ; and  serve  cold. 

String  Beans. — Prepare  by  breaking  off 
both  ends,  and  after  “stringing”  pare  both 
edges  with  a sharp  knife.  Then  cut  the  beans 
into  pieces  an  inch  long,  soak  in  cold  water  with 
a little  salt  for  twenty  minutes  ; drain  them  and 
put  into  a sauce-pan  of  boiling  water,  boil 
quickly  about  forty  minutes,  or  until  tender. 
Drain  in  cullender  until  water  ceases  to  drip 
from  them  ; and  dish  with  a large  spoonful  of 
butter.  The  taste  of  beans  is  greatly  improved 
by  boiling  a bit  of  bacon  with  them  ; though  it 
is  not  necessary. 

BEAR-MEAT.— The  flesh  of  the  black 
bear  is  the  only  kind  ever  offered  for  sale  in 
our  markets,  and  this  can  generally  be  had  in 
the  late  fall  or  winter  months,  some  years  in 
great  plenty.  It  is  very  nutritious  and  heating 


BEAR-SKIN 


BEDS  AND  BEDDING 


21 


to  the  blood,  digests  easily,  and  has  a decided 
but  very  savory  taste.  The  flesh  of  a young 
bear,  nearly  grown  and  rather  fat,  is  considered 
the  best.  It  can  be  had  cut  into  steaks,  but  is 
best  roasted.  Cook  like  beef  or  venison,  and 
serve  with  some  highly-spiced  sauce. 

Bear-Hams. — These  can  be  had  at  any 
time,  preserved  like  pork,  and  make  a very 
popular  and  excellent  dish  for  exceptional 
occasions.  Cook  and  serve  like  ordinary  hams. 

BEAR-SKIN. — A very  thick  woollen  cloth, 
with  a long  nap  or  pile,  dyed  various  colors, 
and  used  for  making  overcoats,  cloaks,  and 
other  heavy  clothing.  It  should  be  shrunk 
thoroughly  before  cutting. 

BED-BUGS.  (See  Bugs.) 

BEDROOMS. — Rooms  devoted  to  sleeping 
purposes  should  above  all  things  be  light, 
cheerful,  and  thoroughly  ventilated.  A third 
of  our  lives  is  necessarily  spent  in  these  rooms, 
and  where  the  current  practice  of  reserving  the 
parlor  for  “company”  obtains,  a great  deal  more. 
An  ample  supply  of  fresh  air  should  be  secured 
at  all  times  and  everywhere,  but  its  necessity 
is  peculiarly  urgent  in  the  case  of  bedrooms. 
We  are  much  more  susceptible  to  injurious 
influences  when  asleep  than  when  awake,  and 
these  accumulate  with  startling  rapidity  in  an 
unventilated  chamber  in  which  two  or  more 
persons  spend  the  night.  An  excellent  plan  is 
to  open  the  window  above  and  below ; lowering 
the  upper  sash,  with  an  opening  over  the  door, 
is  also  very  effective.  But  if  the  bedroom 
have  no  fireplace,  it  should  be  connected  by 
tubes  with  the  chimney-flue.  At  the  same 
time  the  prevalent  notion  that  a bedroom  to 
be  healthful  must  be  cold  is  altogether  mistaken. 
No  room  should  be  slept  in  in  winter  that  has 
not  had  afire  in  it  at  least  three  times  a week, 
and  it  is  all  the  more  wholesome  if  it  have  one 
every  day.  Warmth  is  in  itself  necessary  to 
any  thorough  ventilation  ; and  the  temperature 
of  a bedroom  should  not  be  suffered  to  fall 
below  40°.  ( See  Furniture.) 

BEDS  AND  BEDDING.— For  beds  an 
elastic  material  is  required,  with  a variation  in 
its  heat-conducting  powers  according  to  the 
season  of  the  year  and  the  age  of  the  individual. 
Thus,  the  infant  and  the  aged,  in  both  of  whom 
vitality  is  low,  require  the  slowest  conductor 
that  can  be  procured,  especially  in  the  winter 
season.  For  the  middle-aged  on  the  other 
hand,  the  same  material  which  is  desirable  for 
the  first  and  last  periods  of  life,  would  be  much 
too  warm  and  relaxing.  In  the  order  of  their 
conducting  powers  the  various  materials  for 
beds  stand  as  follows,  beginning  with  the 
warmest  or  slowest  conductor : I st,  down;  2d, 
feathers;  3d,  wool ; 4th,  wool-flock ; 5th, 
hair;  6th,  cotton-flock  ; 7th,  “ excelsior  ; ” 8th, 
sea-moss;  9th,  paper-shavings ; and  10th, 
straw.  Hence  it  follows  that  the  first  two  are 
peculiary  fitted  for  the  very  young  and  the  old ; 
while  wool  and  hair,  holding  an  intermediate 
position,  are  best  adapted  for  healthy  persons 
of  middle  age.  Where  a particularly  cool  mat- 
tress is  required,  as  for  those  who  perspire 


freely,  or  for  warm  weather,  the  sea-moss  and 
paper-shavings  are  the  best  materials  ; and  as 
the  latter  can  be  obtained  everywhere,  a mat- 
tress made  of  it  is  often  a very  grateful  addition 
to  the  furniture  of  a bed.  Feathers  and  down 
were  formerly  almost  universally  employed  for 
beds  in  this  country,  but  their  place  is  now 
largely  supplied  by  wool  and  hair,  which  are 
sufficiently  soft  for  comfort  and  not  hot  enough 
to  promote  perspiration.  Wool  mattresses  are 
very  healthy  and  pleasant  to  lie  upon,  though 
at  first  they  feel  rather  hard  and  unyielding 
to  those  accustomed  to  feathers ; by  placing  a 
spring  mattress  under  them  they  are  rendered 
yielding  enough  for  any  one.  The  best  of  all 
materials  for  beds,  however,  is  hair.  It  is 
more  healthy  than  feathers,  more  comfortable 
than  any  of  the  cheaper  materials,  and  is 
equally  serviceable  in  summer  and  winter. 
Mattresses  of  it  can  be  made  thick  or  otherwise 
according  as  springs  or  other  mattresses  are 
used ; and  though  expensive,  the  same  hair 
can  be  made  over  several  times  and  so  made 
to  do  many  years’  service.  Straw  mattresses 
are  seldom  used  except  for  putting  under  hair 
or  feather-beds  ; where  used  ior  a top  mattress 
the  straw  is  generally  mixed  with  moss  or 
cotton.  F or  the  cheaper  kinds  of  beds  the  mate- 
rial called  “ excelsior  ” is  superior  to  any  other. 

Springs  add  greatly  to  the  comfort  of  a bed, 
and  they  can  be  had  now  in  any  style  and  at 
almost  any  price.  Their  cost  is  but  little  more 
than  that  of  an  under  mattress,  which  can  then 
be  dispensed  with.  But  the  “ spring  mattress  ” 
should  never  be  used ; it  almost  inevitably 
becomes  the  harbor  of  bed-bugs  and  other 
vermin  which  cannot  be  got  at  without  destroy- 
ing the  mattress.  The  “ woven-wire  mattress,” 
a recent  invention,  is  probably  the  most  perfect 
apparatus  of  the  kind  ever  devised,  and  though 
expensive,  will  stand  many  years  of  ordinary 
use.  The  only  objection  to  it  we  have  heard 
is  that  when  used  long  by  heavy  people  it  is 
liable  to  “ sag.” 

Pillows  are  seldom  made  of  any  other 
material  than  feathers,  though  hair,  sponge,  or 
chipped  cork,  is  occasionally  used.  Feather 
pillows  should  never  be  stuffed  very  full,  as 
this  gives  them  a hardness  and  inelasticity 
which  is  peculiarly  disagreeable  and  also  in- 
jurious. In  buying  them  it  is  best  to  choose 
the  feathers  first  and  have  them  made  up  to 
suit ; select  goose  or  chicken  feathers  of  the 
softest  and  most  downy  kind.  Hair  pillows 
are  cooler  than  feather,  though  not  so  soft 
and  yielding.  They  are  recommended  for 
persons  with  a tendency  to  fulness  in  the  head, 
and  for  all  young  children.  It  is  necessary  to 
make  them  lower  than  those  made  of  feathers. 
An  excellent  pillow  for  invalids  or  feeble 
persons  is  sold  at  the  drug  stores  in  the  shape 
of  an  india-rubber  sack,  which  can  be  inflated 
with  air  to  any  desired  degree  of  flexibility. 

Sheets  were  formerly  almost  universally 
made  of  linen,  but  experience  has  proved  that 
cotton  is  much  better.  Linen  in  any  shape, 
when  brought  into  contact  with  the  skin,  con- 


22 


BEDSTEAD 


BEEF 


ducts  away  the  heat  of  the  body  very  rapidly. 
In  winter  in  our  climate  linen  sheets  are 
scarcely  endurable  on  account  of  their  cold- 
ness ; and,  being  comparatively  impervious  to 
air,  and  therefore  confining  perspiration,  are 
inferior  at  all  times  to  cotton. 

The  best  material  for  sheets  is  “ Russian 
sheeting  ; ” it  will  last  twice  as  long  as  any 
other,  and  though  yellow  at  first  will  soon 
bleach.  It  is  a mistake  to  make  sheets  exactly 


Figure  of  a Choice  Animal  for  Beef. 

to  fit  the  bed.  They  should  be  about  a yard 
larger  each  way  than  the  bed. 

Pillow-Cases  of  linen  are  very  pleasant  to 
the  head,  and  may  be  appropriately  used  with 
cotton  sheets.  They  are  a luxury  at  best,  how- 
ever, rumpling  easily  and  requiring  more  fre- 
quent change  than  cleanliness  alone  would  call 
for.  A popular  method  of  arrangement  is  to 
make  the  pillow-cases  of  cotton  and  cover  the 
pillows  during  the  day,  while  they  are  not  in 
use,  with  linen  “shams” — simple  squares  of 
linen  which  may  be  very  tastefully  ornamented. 


Blankets  are  treated  of  in  a separate  article. 
(See  Blankets.) 

The  materials  of  which  beds  and  bedding 
are  composed  are  peculiarly  liable  to  attract 
moisture  and  become  damp,  and  this  is  an- 
other reason  why  bedrooms  should  be  thor- 
oughly ventilated.  To  sleep  in  a bed  not 
perfectly  dry  is  to  invite  disease  ; therefore  all 
bed-clothes  should  be  carefully  aired  everyday. 
The  bed  itself  should  be  turned  over,  and  the 
sheets,  blankets,  and  other  cov- 
ering, spread  out  on  chairs  for 
at  least  an  hour  each  morning. 

BEDSTEAD.— The  different 
woods  of  which  bedsteads  are 
made,  and  various  other  styles, 
are  treated  of  in  the  article  on 
Furniture.  We  have  only  to 
add  here  that  there  is  perhaps 
no  single  article  on  which  a large 
amount  of  money  makes  so  little 
show,  and  that  a comparatively 
plain  bedstead,  constructed  on 
proper  principles,  has  a much 
better  effect  than  some  of  the 
most  elaborate  and  costly  of  cur- 
rent styles. 

Iron  Bedsteads  are  made  to 
fold  together  in  small  space,  and 
are  extremely  durable  and  easy 
to  keep  clean.  For  these  rea- 
sons, they  serve  admirably  for 
servants’  rooms,  or  any  rooms 
where  ornament  is  not  sought 
after ; though  wooden  cots  are 
preferable,  as  they  do  not  rust. 

Bureau  Bedstead. — A bedstead 
so  constructed  as  to  fold  up  into 
the  exact  resemblance  of  a bu- 
reau or  bookcase.  It  is.designed 
for  sitting-rooms,  or  bed-cham- 
bers used  as  sitting-rooms  ; and 
though  rather  clumsy  to  handle 
subserves  the  purpose  admir- 
ably. It  is  patented  and  held  at 
rather  high  prices. 

Sofa  Bedstead  is  constructed 
on  the  same  principle  as  the  one 
above-named,  and  is  a sofa  by 
day  which  can  be  converted  into 
a very  comfortable  bed  at  night. 
The  sofa  bed  harbors  bugs. 

BEEF. — In  nearly  all  parts  of 
the  world  beef  is  popularly  re- 
garded as  the  most  nutritious 
kind  of  flesh,  and  although  this  opinion  was 
formed  without  the  aid  of  science,  it  is  so  far 
true  that  in  the  carcass  of  the  ox  or  cow  there 
is  a larger  proportion  of  flesh-forming  material 
than  in  that  of  any  other  animal.  It  is  ofcloser 
texture  than  any  other  kind  of  meat,  so  that  if 
bulk  merely  be  taken  as  the  measure,  there  is 
more  nutriment  in  a given  quantity  of  beef ; 
and  it  is  also  fullest  of  red  blood  juices.  Be- 
sides this,  the  flavor  of  beef  is  richer  and  fuller 
than  that  of  any  other  meat,  so  that  its  use  not 
only  affords  greater  enjoyment,  but  a sense  of 


BEEF 


23 


satisfaction  is  obtained  from  a smaller  quantity. 
It  is  also  among  the  most  digestible  of  meats, 
as  it  requires  only  about  two  hours  and  three 
quarters. 

The  ox  or  cow  which  is  designed  for  beef 
is  usually  divided  by  the  butcher  into  parts 
as  shown  in  the  cut  on  the  opposite  page, 
and  subdivided  when  retailed.  The  names 
which  we  have  here  given  to  the  different 
pieces  are  those  commonly  in  use  in  the  city 
of  New  York  and  vicinity  ; and  although  they 
differ  somewhat  in  a few  instances  from  those 
in  use  in  various  other  cities,  yet  they  will 
probably  be  sufficiently  well  understood  by 
experienced  butchers  in  all  parts  of  the 
country. 

i.  Porterhouse  steak  ; 2.  Sirloin  ; 3.  Mid- 
dle ribs;  4.  Fore  ribs;  5.  Lump;  6.  Mouse 
buttock  ; 7.  Chuck  ribs  ; 8.  Round  ; 9.  Clod  ; 
10.  Shoulder;  11.  Brisket;  12.  Thin  flank; 
13.  Thick  flank  ; 14.  Leg  ; 15.  Shin  ; 16.  Neck, 
or  sticking-piece. 

In  choosing  beef  select  that  which  has  a 
loose  grain  with  bright  red,  lean,  and  yellowish 
fat ; this  will  be  ox  beef.  Good  cow-beef  has 
a little  firmer  flesh,  whitish  fat,  and  meat 
not  quite  so  red.  Inferior  beef,  that  which 
comes  from  ill-fed  cattle  or  cattle  too  old 
for  food,  may  be  known  by  a dark  red 
color,  a hard,  skinny  fat,  and  in  old  animals  a 
horny  gristle  running  through  the  meat  of  the 
ribs.  A very  good  test  of  beef  and  one  easily 
applied,  is  to  press  the  lean  meat  with  the 
finger ; when  the  dent  made  by  the  pressure 
rises  up  quickly,  the  meat  is  from  an  animal 
in  its  prime,  but  when  it  rises  slowly  or  not  at 
all,  the  animal  was  old  and  the  meat  is  of  in- 
ferior quality.  One  rule  which  housekeepers 
should  bear  in  mind  always  is,  that  the  best  meat 
and  the  prime  parts  are  cheapest  in  the  end. 
There  is  a greater  proportion  of  gristle,  bone, 
and  hard  meat  in  the  inferior  joints  ; they  may 
serve  as  the  basis  of  soups,  stews,  and  the  like, 
but  it  is  false  economy  to  buy  them  for  roast- 
ing or  boiling 

To  Corn  Beef. — Take  the  thick,  lean  parts 
and  cut  into  pieces  of  five  to  ten  pounds  each ; 
those  with  a streak  of  lean  and  a streak  of  fat 
are  the  choicest.  For  each  twenty  pounds  of 
beef  take  three  pounds  of  common  salt,  an 
ounce  of  saltpetre,  and  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
brown  sugar ; pour  in  enough  water  to  cover 
the  whole.  Beef  may  also  be  corned  by  simply 
rubbing  in  salt  that  has  been  dried  before  a fire. 
For  ten  pounds  of  beef  take  a pound  and  a half 
of  common  salt,  rub  in  thoroughly,  and  set  the 
meat  in  a salting  dish  and  keep  in  a cool  place  ; 
the  brine  that  melts  should  be  returned  upon 
the  meat  every  day,  and  if  it  is  desired  to  have 
it  red,  add  a little  saltpetre.  The  length  of 
time  it  is  to  remain  in  the  salt  depends  upon 
how  long  it  is  to  be  kept,  usually  from  three  to 
ten  weeks. 

To  Smoke  Beef. — In  cool  weather  hang  up 
the  beef  for  three  or  four  days,  till  it  is  tender, 
but  take  care  that  it  does  not  begin  to  spoil ; 
then  cure  in  pickle  as  in  corned  beef,  adding  a 


little  pepper  and  allspice ; afterwards  roll  it 
tightly  in  a cloth  and  hang  for  a fortnight  or 
three  weeks  in  the  chimney-place  or  over  a 
smouldering  wood  fire.  The  lower  part  of  the 
thigh  is  the  best  piece  for  this  purpose ; and 
it  will  keep  for  a long  time. 

A la  Mode  Beef. — I.  Take  a round  of 
beef;  remove  the  bone,  and  trim  away  all 
the  gristle  you  can  reach,  and  the  rough 
outer  edges.  The  meat  should  then  be 
tied  up  round  with  a strong  string  or  strip 
of  muslin.  Have  ready  a pound  of  fat  salt 
pork,  cut  into  strips  about  the  size  of  the 
middle  finger  and  long  enough  to  reach  through 
the  round  of  beef.  Put  half  a pint  of  vinegar 
into  a sauce-pan  over  the  fire ; season  with 
three  or  four  minced  shallots  or  button  onions, 
two  teaspoonfuls  of  mustard,  one  of  nutmeg, 
one  of  cloves,  half  a teaspoonful  of  allspice, 
half  a teaspoonful  of  black  pepper,  a bunch  of 
sweet  herbs  cut  fine,  and  a tablespoonful  of 
brown  sugar.  Let  all  simmer  five  minutes  then 
boil  up  once,  and  pour  while  scalding  hot  upon 
the  strips  of  pork,  which  should  be  laid  in  a 
deep  dish.  Let  all  stand  together  until  cold. 
Remove  the  pork  to  a plate,  and  with  the 
liquor  remaining  in  the  dish  mix  enough  bread- 
crumbs to  make  a tolerably  stiff  force-meat. 
With  a long  thin-bladed  knife,  make  numerous 
incisions  in  the  beef,  and  into  these,  thrust  in 
the  strips  of  pork  so  far  down  that  the  upper 
ends  are  just  level  with  the  surface,  also  work 
into  each  cavity  a little  of  the  force-meat. 
Proceed  thus  until  the  beef  is  fairly  riddled 
and  plugged  with  the  pork.  Fill  the  hole  from 
which  the  bone  was  taken  with  the  dressing 
and  bits  of  pork,  and  rub  the  upper  side  of  the 
meat  with  the  force-meat.  Put  into  a baking 
pan,  with  a little  water  to  prevent  burning ; 
turn  a large  pan  over  it  to  keep  in  the  steam, 
and  roast  slowly  for  five  or  six  hours — allowing 
half  an  hour  to  each  pound  of  meat.  Do  not 
remove  the  cover  except  to  baste  (which  must 
be  done  often)  until  fifteen  minutes  before  you 
draw  it  from  the  oven.  Set  away,  with  the 
string  or  band  still  about  it,  and  pour  the  gravy 
over  the  meat.  When  cold,  lift  from  the  gravy, 
cut  and  remove  the  string,  and  send  the  meat 
to  the  table  cold,  garnished  with  parsley  or 
nasturtium  blossoms.  Carve  in  extremely  thin 
slices.  This  dish  will  keep  for  a week  in 
winter,  and  in  summer  too,  if  kept  in  the 
refrigerator. 

II.  A simpler  way  of  making  a la  viode  beef 
is  this  : Take  a round  of  beef  and  cut  numer- 
ous holes  entirely  through  it ; roll  strips  of  raw 
salt  pork  in  a seasoning  made  of  half  a tea- 
spoonful each  of  thyme,  cloves,  salt  and  pep- 
per ; then  draw  these  strips  through  the  holes 
in  the  beef.  Put  half  a dozen  small  onions 
into  a sauce-pan  with  a quarter  of  a pound  of 
butter  and  two  tablespoonfuls  of  milk,  and 
stew  until  soft  (or  the  onions  can  be  cooked 
separately);  then  put  these  onions  with  the  beef 
into  a pot,  pour  on  just  enough  hot  water  to 
cover  them,  and  let  it  boil  slowly  four  or  five 
hours.  Just  before  taking  up  add  a pint  of 


24 


BEEF 


claret  or  port  wine.  This  dish  may  be  served 
either  warm  or  cold. 

Baked  Beef.— Our  so-called  roast  meats  are 
almost  invariably  baked.  To  bake  beef, 
select  as  for  roasting.  Have  about  a quarter 
of  an  inch  of  cold  water  in  the  bake-pan,  and 
dash  a little  boiling  water  over  the  meat  just 
before'putting  into  the  oven.  If  the  meat  is 
preferred  rare,  allow  a quarter  of  an  hour  to 
each  pound ; if  well  done,  almost  twenty  min- 
utes. The  thin  portions  of  the  meat  should 
be  covered  with  paper  or  it  will  be  cooked  to 
death ; Professor  Blot  also  recommends  that 
a sheet  of  buttered  paper  be  placed  over  the 
top.  This  paper  will  keep  the  top  of  the  meat 
moist,  and  prevents  it  burning  or  drying ; it 
should  be  basted  often  or  it  will  scorch. 
Serve  on  a hot  dish  like  roast  beef. 

Boiled  Beef. — -If  the  meat  be  fresh  put  it 
into  boiling  water  at  the  start  ; if  salt,  put  in 
cold  water.  Let  it  boil  gently  but  steadily,  and 
if  there  be  occasion  to  add  more  water  be 
careful  that  it  is  boiling  water;  remove  the 
scum  as  it  rises,  especially  at  the  start.  A 
tablespoonful  of  salt  added  brings  the  scum  to 
the  surface.  The  time  allowed  for  boiling  is  a 
quarter  of  an  hour  to  each  pound  of  meat,  and 
when  once  thoroughly  done  do  not  let  it  boil  a 
moment  longer. 

Bouilli  (Beef). — Put  six  pounds  of  brisket 
or  round  (whole)  into  a pot,  with  three  carrots, 
one  turnip,  an  onion,  and  some  celery,  all  cut 
small ; cover  with  cold  water  and  set  on  to 
boil ; as  the  scum  rises  remove  it  carefully. 
Keep  it  simmering  for  three  or  four  hours, 
adding  hot  water  as  the  water  boils  away ; 
then  draw  off  most  of  the  soup  and  set  it  aside 
to  cool.  To  the  soup  more  vegetables,  pre- 
viously cut  small  and  boiled  by  themselves, 
may  be  added  ; or  it  may  be  served  in  a tureen 
with  vermicelli.  The  meat,  from  which  the 
bones  should  be  removed,  may  then  be  served, 
garnished  with  the  vegetables  boiled  with  it. 
A sauce,  made  of  the  soup  thickened  with 
flour  and  butter  and  flavored  with  mustard  and 
the  vinegar  of  pickled  walnuts,  is  sometimes 
served  with  the  meat. 

Corned  Beef,  Boiled. — The  brisket  is  the 
most  economical  piece  for  a family  dinner,  but 
the  round  is  excellent.  Wash  the  meat  in 
three  or  four  waters  (cold)  and  scrape  all  the 
salt  from  the  outside  ; put  into  a pot  and  cover 
with  cold  water  ; allow  twenty  minutes  to  each 
pound,  and  turn  the  meat  three  times  while 
cooking.  When  done,  drain  very  dry,  and 
serve  with  drawn  butter.  Turnips  or  cabbage 
should  be  served  with  corn-beef ; they  may  be 
boiled  with  it,  or  separately. 

Corned  Beef,  Boiled  witli  Peas. — Take 
six  or  eight  pounds  of  corned  beef,  wash  in  cold 
water;  put  it  in  a large  pot  filled  with  cold 
water,  and  add  two  quarts  of  dried  peas.  Let 
them  boil  till  soft,  and  then  season  with  sweet 
herbs ; or  it  may  be  served  with  no  other 
seasoning  than  a little  pepper  and  the  salt  of 
the  meat. 

Dried  Beef  (with  Cream). — Chip  the  beef 


thin  and  fine,  with  a knife,  or  on  the  potato 
slicer;  measure  a pint,  without  pressing;  cover 
with  cold  water ; heat  slowly  and  if  very  salt 
let  it  simmer  a moment;  drain  off  the  water, 
add  a gill  of  rich  cream  and  season  with  pepper. 
Lacking  cream,  use  milk  with  one  ounce  of 
butter  and  a teaspoonful  of  flour.  Served  on 
split  crackers  or  toast  it  requires  more  dressing. 

Hash  (Beef). — Chop  cold  roast  beef  or  steak 
or  boiled  corned  beef  fine  ; add  half  as  much 
mashed  potatoes  (or  potatoes  cut  into  bits),  a 
little  melted  butter,  pepper,  salt,  and  milk. 
Turn  all  into  a frying-pan  and  stir  together 
until  it  is  heated  through  and  smoking  hot,  but 
not  until  it  browns  ; put  into  a deep  dish  and 
if  stiff  enough  shape  as  you  would  mashed 
potatoes  into  a hillock.  Or,  cease  stirring  for  a 
few  minutes,  and  let  a brown  crust  form  on  the 
under  side ; then  turn  out  whole  into  a flat 
dish,  the  brown  side  uppermost.  Or,  mould 
the  mixture  into  flat  cakes  ; dip  these  in  beaten 
eggs,  and  fry  in  hot  drippings. 

Heart  (of  Beef). — Wash  the  heart  well,  and 
cut  into  half-inch  squares ; stew  them  ten  min- 
utes in  enough  water  to  cover  them  ; throw  in 
a little  salt  to  draw  out  the  blood,  and  skim  it 
off  as  it  rises  to  the  surface.  Take  out  the 
meat  and  strain  the  liquor ; then  return  the 
meat  to  it  with  a sliced  onion,  a tablespoonful 
of  catsup,  some  parsley,  a pinch  of  cayenne 
pepper,  a head  of  celery  chopped  fine,  and  a 
large  lump  of  butter.  Stew  until  the  meat  is 
tender,  and  then  stir  in  a tablespoonful  of 
browned  flour.  Boil  up  once,  and  serve  hot. 

Kidneys  (of  Beef).— Cut  the  kidney  in  four 
pieces,  trim  off  as  carefully  as  possible  the 
cartilage  and  fat  that  are  inside.  Trim  and 
cut  into  thin  slices  ; place  on  the  fire  with 
enough  cold  water  to  cover ; as  soon  as  they 
boil,  remove  them  and  carefully  wash  in  plenty 
of  cold  water  ; drain  them  free  of  water,  put 
them  in  a sautoir  with  2 oz  butter,  and  2 
oz  onion,  cut  fine  ; brown  well  over  a sharp 
fire,  then  add  1 oz  of  flour,  shaking  it  well 
together,  a gill  and  a half  of  gravy  or  broth, 
a glass  of  Madeira,  and  two  tablespoonfuls 
chopped  and  blanched  parsley.  Boil  a minute 
or  two.  Dish  up  on  an  oval  cronstade,  ar- 
range six  or  eight  heart-shaped  croutons. 

Liver  (of  Beef). — Cut  in  slices  half  an  inch 
thick,  pour  boiling  water  over  it,  and  boil 
it  with  half  as  much  salt  pork  cut  in  thin 
slices,  and  dipped  in  flour ; then  cut  up  the  liver 
and  pork  into  small  bits,  put  them  into  a 
frying-pan,  with  a little  butter,  pepper  and  salt, 
and  stew  three  or  four  minutes.  Serve  hot. 

Pie  (Beef). — Take  cold  roast  beef  or  steak, 
cut  into  thin  slices  and  put  a layer  into  a pie- 
dish;  shake  over  it  a little  flour,  pepper  and 
salt,  and  add  a tomato  or  an  onion  cut  very  fine  ; 
then  another  layer  of  beef  and  seasoning;  and 
so  on  until  the  dish  is  filled.  If  you  have  any 
beef  gravy,  put  it  in ; if  not,  a little  beef  drip- 
pings, and  water  enough  to  make  sufficient 
gravy.  Have  ready  a dozen  potatoes,  boiled 
and  mashed,  half  a cup  of  milk  or  cream,  and  a 
little  butter  and  salt ; mix.  Spread  it  over  the  pie 


BEEF 


25 


as  a crust,  an  inch  thick ; then  brush  it  over 
with  egg,  and  bake  half  an  hour. 

Pie  (Beef  steak  with  Oysters). — Cut  three 
pounds  of  tender  beef  into  little  steaks  ; brown 
quickly  in  a frying  pan;  place  them  in  layers  in 
a baking  dish,  leaving  the  centre  open  ; fill  this 
with  parboiled  oysters,  seasoned  with  salt  and 
pepper ; pour  nearly  all  the  fat  from  the  frying 
pan  ; stir  in  a heaped  tablespoonful  of  flour ; 
add  gradually  a pint  of  thin  gravy  or  broth  and 
some  of  the  oyster  liquor ; season  with  mush- 
room catsup  and  Harvey  sauce  ; simmer  until 
thickened,  pour  it  over  the  beef ; in  half  an  hour 
cover  with  puff  paste  and  bake  an  hour  and  a 
half. 

Pie  (Beef,  with  Potato  Crust). — Take  cold 
roast  or  corned  beef,  cut  in  bits,  season  with 
pepper  and  salt,  and  spread  a layer  in  the  bot- 
tom of  a pie-dish ; over  this  put  a layer  of 
mashed  potato,  and  stick  bits  of  butter  thickly 
all  over  it ; then  another  layer  of  meat ; and  so 
on  till  near  the  top  of  the  dish.  For  the  crust 
take  a large  cupful  of  mashed  potato,  two 
teaspoonfuls  of  melted  butter,  a well-beaten 
egg,  two  cups  of  milk,  and  beat  all  together 
until  very  light ; work  in  just  enough  flour  to 
enable  you  to  roll  it  out  in  a sheet,  and,  hav- 
ing added  to  the  meat  and  potato  in  the  dish  a 
gravy  made  of  warm  water,  butter,  milk,  and 
catsup,  mixed  with  cold  gravy  or  drippings, 
cover  the  pie  with  a thick  crust,  cutting  a slit 
in  the  top.  Bake  half  an  hour.  The  pie  looks 
better  brushed  over  with  beaten  egg  before  it 
goes  to  the  oven. 

Pie  (Beef  Steak) Take  a sirloin  steak,  beqt 

until  very  tender,  take  ofif  all  the  fat,  cut 
strips,  three  inches  long  and  one  broad.  Stew 
in  enough  water  to  cover,  adding  one  medium- 
sized onion,  grated,  with  salt  and  pepper  to 
taste.  Boil  until  half  done,  thickening  the  gra- 
vy with  browned  flour.  Put  in  a deep  dish, 
the  sides  of  which  have  been  lined  with  rich 
paste ; cover  with  the  same,  slit  the  top,  and 
bake  until  a light  brown.  It  may,  if  desired,  be 
seasoned  with  tomato  catsup,  or  Chili  sauce, 
and  slices  of  hard-boiled  egg  added  to  the  beef. 

Roast  Beef. — The  best  pieces  to  roast  are 
the  sirloin  and  thick  ribs.  Rub  a little  salt  on 
it  and  first  turn  the  bony  side  to  the  fire  till  it 
gets  heated  : then  present  the  other  side.  The 
meat  should  be  placed  as  close  to  the  fire  as 
possible  without  burning  it,  especially  till  the 
outer  crust  is  formed ; the  sooner  this  crust 
is  achieved  the  better  and  more  juicy  will  be 
the  meat.  Baste  frequently,  at  first  with  salt 
and  water,  afterwards  with  the  drippings.  If 
the  roasting-piece  be  thick,  allow  about  twenty 
minutes  to  the  pound — if  thin,  a little  less  ; in 
frosty  weather  the  total  time  will  have  to  be 
increased  by  half  an  hour.  Roast  beef  may  be 
served  simply  in  its  own  drippings,  with  the 
fat  skimmed  off,  and  this  is  the  best  way ; but 
if  “ made  gravy  ” is  desired,  pour  off  the  drip- 
pings half  an  hour  before  the  meat  is  done, 
and  thicken  with  a little  brown  flour,  seasoning 
with  salt  and  pepper  to  taste.  It  may  also  be 
served  with  fried  potatoes  placed  all  around  the 


meat  on  the  same  dish,  or  iH\  a separate  one, 
with  horse-radish,  grated  an ovmixed  with  the 
drippings ; or  with  stuffed  tom^pok,  placed 
round  the  meat  and  covered  with  th^dtiupiflgs, 
with  mustard  used  as  a sauce,  or  with  Yorkshire 
Pudding. 

Steak  (Beef). — The  tenderloin  anjl  fillet 
make  the  best  steaks,  but  the  sirloin  of  a very 
good  animal  will  furnish  them  only  a little 
inferior.  Steaks  almost  equal  to  those  from 
the  sirloin  may  be  obtained  from  the  rump  ; 
the  next  in  favor  are  those  cut  from  the  hip. 
Generally  speaking  the  best  thickness  for 
steaks  is  about  three  quarters  of  an  inch. 
In  preparing  to  cook  do  not  pound  or  beat 
the  steak  with  a steak-mallet,  or  stick  it  with 
a knife  under  the  impression  that  you  are 
making  it  tender  ; for  if  by  this,  or  any  other 
means,  you  make  it  more  tender  than  be- 
fore, you  do  so  at  the  sacrifice  of  taste,  juici- 
ness, and  appearance.  It  is  much  to  be 
preferred  that  when  you  buy  your  steak  you 
obtain  it  tender  in  the  first  place  by  having 
it  cut  from  a good  animal.  If  the  steak  is 
not  a tender  cut,  such  as  one  taken  from  the 
round,  for  example,  it  is  better  to  stew  than  to 
broil  it. 

Steak  (Beef)  to  Broil. — First  be  careful  to  see 
that  the  fire  is  quite  clear,  and  at  the  same 
time  not  too  great.  Now  open  wide  the 
draughts  so  the  smoke  will  be  well  carried  ofif. 
Have  the  gridiron  very  clean  and  smooth, 
make  it  warm  and  rub  it  over  with  a piece  of 
suet ; now  lay  on  the  steak,  sprinkle  a little 
salt  on  the  fire  to  make  it  lively,  and  put  the 
gridiron  over  it,  keeping  it  close  down  on  the 
range  a few  minutes  to  carbonize  the  surface 
of  the  steak,  then  turn  it  to  carbonize  the  other 
surface.  Now  it  is  necessary  to  expose  the 
steak  to  less  heat,  which  may  be  done  by  turn- 
ing on  their  edges  two  bricks  and  placing  the 
gridiron  on  them.  The  steak  should  be  turned 
often  and  carefully  without  sticking  a fork 
into  it  on  any  account  (tongs  are  best  for 
this  purpose).  Do  not  use  salt  or  pepper 
while  cooking,  as  it  liberates  the  juice,  which 
is  thus  lost  in  the  fire.  When  the  steak 
feels  rather  firm  to  the  touch  it  is  rare,  and 
if  it  is  so  to  be  served,  remove  from  the 
fire  to  a hot  dish  upon  which  an  ounce  of 
butter  has  been  melted  (with  a teaspoonful 
of  lemon  juice  if  desired),  and  salt  and 
pepper  to  taste.  Turn  the  steak  on  its  dish, 
and  send  to  the  table  at  once. 

Steak  (Beef)  with  Eggs. — Cut  the  steak 
into  pieces  of  convenient  size,  dip  them  in 
beaten  eggs,  rolled  in  bread-crumbs,  and  then 
broil.  Serve  either  with  potatoes  or  with  to- 
mato catsup. 

Steak  (Beef)  with  Onions. — Broil  the 
steak,  as  above.  Cut  up  six  onions  quite  fine ; 
put  them  into  a sauce-pan  with  a cup  of  hot 
water,  a tablespoonful  of  flour,  enough  salt 
and  pepper  to  season,  and  a tablespoonful  of 
butter ; let  it  stew  until  the  onions  are  quite 
soft,  and  then  turn  the  whole  over  the  steak 
quite  hot. 


26 


BEEF 


Steak  (Beef)  with  Oyster  Sauce. — Broil 

the  steak  as  above.  Put  the  liquor  of  a 
quart  of  oysters  into  a sauce-pan,  with  two  table- 
spoonfuls of  butter  mixed  with  a little  flour,  and 
let  it  come  to  a boil ; turn  in  the  oysters  ; let  this 
boil  up  once,  and  then  turn  it  over  the  steak, 
and  serve  hot. 

Stewed  Beef. — Beef  may  be  stewed  either 
whole  or  cut  into  small  pieces ; the  cheaper  joints 
will  answer  very  well.  There  are  many  receipts 
for  stewing  ; this  is  excellent  and  economical. 
Take  a leg  or  shin  of  beef,  leaving  all  the 
meat  on,  and  put  into  a pot  with  about  a gallon 
of  water,  adding  a tablespoonful  of  salt.  Let  it 
simmer  very  slowly  for  several  hours,  till  the 
beef  is  soft  and  falls  from  the  bone,  and  the  wa- 
ter is  reduced  to  about  two  quarts.  Then  pare 
some  potatoes,  quarter  them,  and  throw  in  with 
two  teaspoonfuls  of  black  pepper,  two  of  sweet 
marjoram,  and  two  of  thyme.  Add  some  celery  or 
celery  sauce,  if  it  is  to  be  had,  and  more  salt  if 
needed.  Stew  until  the  potatoes  are  thorough- 
ly done.  Finally  throw  in  some  dry  bread, 
broken  into  small  pieces  ; and  when  this  is 
soaked  dish  the  whole  and  serve. 

n.  A more  elaborate  dish  may  be  made  from 
five  or  six  pounds  of  rump  or  ribs.  Take  a 
half-pound  piece  of  salt  pork,  cut  it  into  bits, 
and  place  in  a sauce-pan  with  four  sprigs  of 
parsley,  two  of  thyme,  a clove  of  garlic,  a sprig 
of  sweet  basil,  two  cloves,  three  carrots  cut  in 
pieces,  salt,  and  pepper ; put  the  piece  of  beef  on 
the  whole,  wet  with  a glass  of  broth  and  one 
of  white  wine  ; season  with  six  or  eight  small 
onions  ; place  in  a moderately  heated  oven, 
and  put  paste  around  the  cover  to  keep  it  air- 
tight. Simmer  about  six  hours  ; then  dish  the 
meat  with  the  onions  and  carrots  around  it, 
strain  the  gravy  on  the  whole,  and  serve. 
Almost  any  piece  of  beef  maybe  cooked  in  this 
way. 

Shin  of  Beef. — Put  a shin  of  beef  into  a 
pot  with  eight  quarts  of  cold  water  and  a 
tablespoonful  of  salt ; just  before  it  comes  to  a 
boil  skim  it  carefully ; let  it  boil  all  day,  and 
as  the  water  boils  away,  add  just  enough  (hot) 
from  time  to  time  to  keep  it  from  burning. 
When  the  meat  is  boiled  to  shreds,  turn  it  out 
into  a pan  and  pick  out  every  piece  of  bone; 
then  put  back  into  the  pot,  season  well  with 
pepper  and  salt,  cloves,  allspice,  and  a little 
sweet  herbs,  and  let  it  simmer  half  an  hour; 
empty  into  a deep  dish  and  set  it  away.  When 
cold  it  will  be  as  hard  as  cheese,  and  will  keep 
a week  in  summer  (on  ice),  and  a month  in 
winter.  Serve  cold  with  baked  potatoes. 

Tea  (Beef). — Take  half  a pound  of  lean  beef; 
cut  into  small  pieces,  add  a pint  of  cold  water 
and  soak  for  two  hours.  Let  the  whole  simmer 
for  half  an  hour,  then  strain  it.  This  prepara- 
tion is  superior  in  nutritive  properties  to  the 
various  extracts  of  beef  now  sold. 

Tongue  (Beef),  Boiled. — A tongue,  if  salted 
or  dried,  must  be  soaked  for  some  hours  before 
cooking.  Then  put  with  cold  water  into  a 
sauce-pan,  and  bring  slowly  to  a boiling  point ; 
clear  off  the  scum  from  the  surface,  and 


remove  the  sauce-pan  from  the  fire  so  far  as  to 
reduce  the  boiling  to  a gentle  simmering.  If 
dried,  a tongue  will  require  about  four  hours 
boiling,  if  simply  salted,  only  three  hours. 
While  hot,  the  outer  skin  of  the  tongue  must 
be  peeled  off,  and  it  is  then  ready  for  serving. 
Boiled  turnips  are  a good  accompanying  dish. 
Boiled  tongue  is  also  excellent  when  cold. 

Tongue  (Beef),  Roasted. — Parboil  a tongue 
that  has  only  been  salted  a few  days  ; roast  in 
the  usual  way  before  a hot  fire,  basting  with 
red  wine ; spread  butter  over  it  when  placed 
on  dish.  Serve  with  a rich  gravy  or  some 
sweet  sauce. 

Tongue  (Beef),  Stewed. — Simmer  it  two 
hours  in  water  just  sufficient  to  cover  it;  then 
peel  it  and  put  back  into  the  water,  adding  to 
it  a half  spoonful  each  of  pepper,  mace  and 
cloves,  tied  up  together  in  a piece  of  muslin. 
Cut  three  or  four  turnips  and  capers  very  small, 
slice  three  carrots,  and  add  them  also  to  the 
meat,  with  half  a pint  of  beef  gravy  or  drip- 
pings, a wineglass  of  white  wine,  and  a bunch 
of  sweet  herbs.  Stew  all  together  slowly  for 
an  hour  and  a half  longer;  and  then  take  out 
the  spices  and  sweet  herbs,  and  thicken  the 
gravy  with  browned  flour  and  a bit  of  butter. 

Tongue  (Beef),  to  Pickle. — Mix,  in  four 
gallons  of  water,  a pound  and  a half  of  brown 
sugar  and  two  ounces  of  saltpetre  or  saleratus  ; 
if  it  is  to  last  a month  add  six  pounds  of  salt, 
if  all  summer,  nine  pounds.  Boil  all  together 
gently  till  done,  skim,  and  then  let  it  cool.  Put 
the  meat  in  the  vessel  in  which  it  is  to  stand, 
pour  in  sufficient  of  the  pickle  to  cover  it,  and 
set  it  away  for  use.  Once  in  two  months  the 
pickle  should  be  drained  off,  boiled  and  skim- 
med, and  have  half  a pound  of  salt  and  two 
ounces  of  sugar  added  to  it.  This  pickle  is 
excellent  for  preserving  either  beef,  pork, 
tongues,  or  dried  beef. 

Tripe  (Beef),  to  prepare. — Scrape  and  wash 
several  times  in  boiling  water;  then  soak  it  a 
week  in  salt  and  water,  changing  the  water 
every  day.  Boil  it  eight  or  ten  hours,  till  ten- 
der; and  then  pour  spiced  hot  vinegar  over  it. 
Tripe  can  generally  be  had  of  the  butchers  al- 
ready prepared. 

Tripe  (Beef),  Broiled. — Cut  in  slices  of  con- 
venient size,  dip  them  in  lukewarm  butter,  roll 
in  bread-crumbs,  place  on  a gridiron,  and  set  it 
on  a moderate  fire.  Turn  the  tripe  over  as 
often  as  is  necessary  to  broil  it  well,  and  serve 
with  tomato  sauce. 

Tripe  (Beef),  Fried.— The  honeycomb  is  the 
best  for  this.  Cut  into  convenient  pieces,  wash 
them  in  salt  and  water  (cold),  and  wipe  dry; 
dip  them  in  eggs  and  bread-crumbs,  or  Indian 
meal  batter,  and  fry  in  hot  fat.  'I  his  dish  is 
greatly  improved  if  served  with  oyster  sauce 
poured  over  it. 

Tripe  (Beef),  Stewed.— Professor  Blot 
recommends  this  : Put  in  a stew-pan  two  ounces 
of  salt  pork  cut  in  bits,  three  carrots  cut  in 
slices,  eight  small  onions,  four  cloves,  two  bay- 
leaves,  two  cloves  of  garlic,  a piece  of  nutmeg, 
four  sprigs  of  parsley,  tw'O  of  thyme,  a dozen 


BEE-KEEPING 


27 


stalks  of  chives,  six  pepper-corns,  the  fourth 
part  of  an  ox-foot  cut  in  four  pieces,  salt,  pepper, 
about  two  ounces  of  ham  cut  in  bits,  then  three 
pounds  of  double  tripe  on  the  whole  ; spread 
tw.o  ounces  of  fat  bacon  cut  in  thin  slices  over 
the  top ; wet  slightly  with  half  white  wine  and 
half  water,  or  water  only  if  you  choose ; put 
the  cover  on,  and  if  not  air-tight,  put  some 
paste  around  ; set  in  a slow  oven  for  six  hours, 
then  take  the  tripe  out,  strain  the  sauce,  skim 
off  the  fat  when  cool ; then  put  the  tripe  and 
sauce  again  in  the  pan,  warm  well,  and  serve 
in  crockery  plates,  or  bowls  placed  in  chafing- 
dishes,  as  it  is  necessary  to  keep  it  warm  while 
eating.  It  is  good  with  water  only,  but  better 
with  the  wine. 

BEE-KEEPING. — The  apiary  or  place  for 
keeping  the  bee-hives  should  be  well-sheltered 
and  with  a southern,  eastern,  or  south-eastern 
exposure  so  as  to  get  the  sunshine  during  the 
day;  it  should  also  be  selected  with  reference 
to  the  natural  food  of  bees  and  whether  it  is 
likely  to  be  in  sufficient  abundance.  Gardens, 
fruit-trees,  or  flowers,  should  be  in  the  vicinity  ; 
and  there  should  be  no  large  surfaces  of  water 
near,  lest  the  bees,  overcome  by  cold  or  fatigue, 
should  be  compelled  to  alight  on  them,  or  be 
driven  down  by  the  wind.  Foul  smells  are 
annoying  to  bees,  and  therefore  they  should 
never  be  placed  near  barn-yards,  stables,  pig- 
styes  or  the  like.  The  hives  should  be  placed 
in  a row  on  a raised  platform  elevated  a few 
inches  or  a foot  above  the  earth,  and  should 
be  not  less  than  two  feet  apart.  1 1 is  considered 
best  to  have  a separate  platform  for  each  hive, 
in  order  to  prevent  bees  wandering  into  other 
hives  than  their  own ; and  each  hive  should  be 
painted  in  a different  color  so  as  to  help  the 
bees  in  identifying  them.  When  the  hives  have 
been  once  located  they  should  not  be  removed 
more  than  a few  feet ; for  the  bees  when  first 
flying  forth  mark  all  the  surrounding  objects  as 
guides  for  their  return,  and  if  any  serious 
change  is  made  they  lose  their  way  and  fly  off. 
There  are  many  kinds  of  bee-hives,  some 
held  under  patents  and  very  ingeniously  con- 
trived, but  those  most  commonly  used  are 
simply  tall  square  boxes,  placed  on  a platform 
so  as  to  leave  a small  shelf  in  front.  The 
chamber  hive  is  made  with  two  compart- 
ments,— the  lower  for 
the  residence  of  the 
bees,  the  upper  to  hold 
the  boxes  in  which  the 
bees  deposit  their  hon- 
ey after  having  filled 
the  lower  part.  It  is 
sometimes  made  larger 
at  the  top  than  at  the 
bottom  to  keep  the  hon- 
eycomb from  slipping 
down ; and  it  is  also  fur- 
nished with  inclined  bot- 
tom boards  to  roll  out  the  worms  that  fall  upon 
them.  The  dividing  hives  are  made  with 
several  apartments  so  as  to  enable  the  bee-keep- 
er to  multiply  the  number  of  colonies  without 


the  trouble  of  swarming  and  hiving.  The 
partitions  are  designed  so  as  to  separate 
the  brood  combs ; a part  of  the  bees  are 
divided  off  and  placed  by  themselves  to  go 


Dividing  Hives. 


on  making  honey  and  multiplying  in  every 
respect  like  a natural  swarm.  In  practice, 
however,  this  is  not  found  always  to  work, 
as  occasionally  in  one  apartment  there  will 
be  no  brood  from  which  to  raise  a queen. 
Swarming  hives  are  sometimes  used ; they 
are  made  in  sections,  so  that  by  closing  all 
or  a part  of  them  the  space  which  the  bees 
occupy  is  lessened,  they  are  crowded  out, 
and  their  swarming  hastened.  Now,  s warmers 
are  so  arranged  as  to  allow  the  bees  to  go  on 
accumulating  honey  and  increasing  in  number, 
and  in  theory  not  swarm  at  all.  A hive  of  bees 
is  put  into  a bee  house  and  empty  hives  con- 
nected with  it  so  that  as  one  becomes  filled  the 
bees  may  pass  on  to  the  adjoining  one.  Ordinary 
straw  hives  are  best  of  all,  however,  on  account 


Straw  Hive. 


of  the  protection  they  afford  against  the 
heat  of  summer  and  the  cold  of  winter.  Bees 
require  a warm  temperature.  They  appear 
to  have  the  faculty  of  perceiving  the  ap- 
proach of  cold  weather  or  rain,  and  are  seldom 
caught  in  a shower  unless  at  a great  distance 
from  home.  Cold  is  their  great  enemy,  and  in 
this  climate  the  hives  must  be  kept  well  shel- 
tered and  warm  during  the  winter.  In  order 
to  protect  the  ordinary  hives,  cover  them  with 
a thatch  of  straw  or  heavy  cloth  about  the  end 
of  October,  or  earlier  if  the  season  be  inclement. 
This  is  very  essential,  and  well-covered  hives 
are  always  in  a better  condition  the  following 
spring  than  such  as  have  not  been  covered.  As 
the  frost  comes  on,  the  aperture  at  which  the 
bees  enter  should  be  narrowed  so  as  to  admit 
the  passage  of  only  one  bee  at  a time.  A very 
little  air  will  suffice  for  them  in  winter,  when 


28 


BEE-KEEPING 


BEER 


they  are  mostly  in  a semi-torpid  state ; and  it 
were  better  for  them,  during  severe  weather, 
if  the  hive  were  entirely  under  cover,  as  many 
are  lost  from  being  enticed  to  quit  the  hive 
by  the  sunshine  of  a clear  day.  The  dead  bees 
and  other  dirt,  which  the  living  at  this  season 
are  not  able  to  move  for  themselves,  should  be 
removed  with  a crooked  wire.  Great  care 
must  be  taken  not  to  let  snow  or  ice  close  up 
entirely  the  apertures  of  the  hives,  as  in  that 
case  the  bees  will  inevitably  be  smothered. 

The  feeding  of  bees  in  winter  is  an  impor- 
tant branch  of  bee-keeping.  To  the  hives 
whose  stock  of  honey  is  sufficient  for  supply- 
ing it,  no  further  attention  need  be  given  till 
the  breeding  season  arrives ; this,  in  warm 
locations,  will  come  about  the  end  of  May,  and 
in  those  which  are  cold,  a month  later.  The 
young  bees,  for  a short  time  before  they  leave 
their  cells  and  for  sometime  after,  require  to 
be  fed  regularly  ; and  if  the  honey  in  the  hive  be 
exhausted,  and  the  weather  such  that  the  bees 
cannot  go  forth  to  collect  food,  they  kill  and 
throw  out  some  of  their  larvae.  To  prevent 
such  accidents  it  is  advisable  if  it  should  rain 
for  two  successive  days  to  feed  all  the  bees 
indiscriminately  during  the  breeding  season. 
The  way  to  decide  whether  the  bees  will  need 
feeding  is  to  examine  the  hives  about  the ! 
beginning  of  October,  and  if  a large  hive  does 
not  weigh  thirty  pounds,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  allow  them  half  a pound  of  honey  or  the 
same  quantity  of  sugar  made  into  syrup,  every 
day  until  the  required  amount  is  stored.  Brown 
sugar  dissolved  in  water,  and  boiled  to  evapor- 
ate the  water,  is  a good  food  for  bees.  The 
syrup  should  be  boiled  until  it  begins  to  be 
brittle  when  cooled.  This  or  common  sugar 
candy  may  be  fed  to  the  bees,  in  the  hives  or 
under  them ; if  fed  to  them  in  the  liquid  state 
it  may  be  introduced  into  the  hives  in  shallow 
dishes,  a couple  of  small  sticks  being  laid 
across  the  surface  to  enable  the  bees  to  eat 
without  getting  into  it. 

The  worst  foe  that  the  bee-keeper  has  to 
contend  with  is  the  bee  moth,  which  remains 
in  hiding  during  the  day  and  may  often  be 
found  around  the  hive,  but  hovers  about  during 
the  evening  trying  to  enter  the  hive  and  deposit 
its  eggs.  The  best  safeguard  against  this  pest 
is  to  have  the  hive  well-jointed  and  painted, 
the  entrances  not  too  large,  the  bees  numerous 
and  vigorous,  and  to  examine  the  hive  daily 
from  the  beginning  of  May  until  September  or 
October.  Many  moths  may  be  destroyed  by 
catching  them  in  shallow  dishes  containing 
sweetened  water  and  a little  vinegar.  Hollow 
sticks,  and  similar  things  are  often  placed  on 
the  bottom  board,  where  the  worms  hatched 
from  the  eggs  may  take  refuge  and  be  destroyed. 
These  caterpillars  at  first  are  not  thicker  than 
a thread  and  are  of  a yellowish  white  color 
with  a few  brownish  specks.  They  live  in  the 
wax,  eating  it,  and  fill  the  comb  with  webs, 
protecting  themselves  from  the  bees,  meanwhile, 
by  a silken  sack  which  they  spin  and  in  which 
they  lodge.  It  is  necessary  to  look  often  under 


the  bottom  of  the  hive,  and  under  the  blocks 
or  shells  on  which  it  rests. 

The  honey  may  be  taken  from  the  “ chamber  ” 
or  “dividing”  hives  almost  without  molesting 
the  bees;  but  from  the  ordinary  hives  it  is 
taken  generally  by  suffocating  the  bees  with 
sulphur,  chloroform,  or  tobacco  smoke.  When 
sulphur  is  used,  smear  linen  rags  with  melted 
sulphur,  place  a few  pieces  under  the  hive,  and 
burn  them  slowly.  In  a few  minutes  the  bees 
will  fall  to  the  floor  of  the  hive,  where  they 
may  be  removed  and  buried  to  prevent  resuscita- 
tion. The  combs,  being  thus  cleared  of  bees, 
may  be  cut  out  at  leisure.  When  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  bee  is  desired,  the  following  method 
of  obtaining  the  honey  is  a good  one  : Having 
ascertained  the  weight  of  the  hive  and  deter- 
mined on  the  amount  of  honey  to  be  taken  out, 
begin  the  operation  as  soon  as  it  is  dark  by 
inverting  the  full  hive  and  placing  over  it  one 
of  exactly  the  same  size.  A sheet  must  be 
tied  round  the  whole  to  prevent  the  bees  from 
molesting  the  operator.  The  hives  being  thus 
arranged,  beat  the  sides  of  the  lower  hive 
gently  with  a stick ; the  bees  will  then  ascend 
into  the  upper  hive,  which  may  be  known  by  a 
loud  humming  noise  inside.  The  bees  may  also 
be  driven  up  by  smoking  slightly  with  burning 
paper.  When  all  the  bees  have  ascended,  the 
upper  hive  may  be  placed  upon  the  pedestal 
from  which  the  full  hive  was  removed,  when 
the  latter  is  taken  into  the  house  and  the  honey 
extracted.  Particular  care  must  be  taken  to 
cut  only  one  comb  at  a time,  and  not  to  take 
too  much.  When  a sufficient  quantity  has 
been  obtained,  the  hive  must  be  placed  over 
the  one  containing  the  bees,  which  must  be 
reversed,  and  both  left  in  that  position  till  morn- 
ing; it  will  then  be  found  that  the  bees  have  taken 
possession  of  their  former  hive,  and  if  the  sea- 
son prove  favorable  they  will  be  able  to  make  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  comb  and  honey  to  replace 
that  which  was  lost.  If  the  honey  is  taken 
early  in  the  season,  immediately  after  the  first 
swarming,  the  whole  of  it  may  be  cut  out,  and 
the  bees  will  probably  make  enough  honey  for 
their  winter  store  ; but  in  this  case  the  hive 
cannot  be  expected  to  be  full  of  honey,  because 
the  bees,  in  June  and  July,  are  chiefly  occupied 
in  breeding ; and  thus  one  if  not  two  swarms 
are  lost. 

BEER. — Properly  speaking  beer  includes 
all  the  liquors  made  from  malted  grain,  and  it 
is  so  applied  in  England ; but  in  this  country 
the  name  “ ale  ” is  given  to  the  heavier  spiritu- 
ous kinds,  and  by  beer  is  meant  only  the  light 
fermented  beverages,  and  decoctions  from  vari- 
ous roots.  These  are  very  numerous,  and  they 
are  made  differently  in  different  parts  of  the 
country;  but  the  following  recipes  may  be 
recommended  : — 

Dandelion  Beer. — Take  .'-Water,  2 galls; 
dandelions,  f peck;  molasses,  i quart;  yeast, 
i pint. 

Put  two  gallons  of  water  into  a pot,  and  add 
a peck  of  dandelions  ; boil  them  about  2 hours ; 
strain  it  into  a jug  or  keg,  and  add  i quart  of 


BEER 


BEET 


29 


molasses  and  a pint  of  good  yeast.  Set  it  to 
ferment  twelve  hours  ; then  bottle  it  and  tie 
down  the  cork,  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Ginger  Beer.— (I.)  Take  .-Water,  9 galls; 
sugar,  10  lbs ; ginger-root,  1 1 oz  ; lemon-juice, 

9 oz ; honey,  | lb ; yeast,  3 pints  ; egg,  white 
of,  1 ; essence  of  lemon,  ^ oz. 

Take  nine  gallons  of  water,  ten  pounds  of 
brown  or  white  sugar,  eleven  ounces  of  bruised 
ginger-root,  nine  ounces  of  lemon-juice,  half  a 
pound  of  honey,  and  three  pints  of  yeast ; boil 
the  ginger  half  an  hour  in  a gallon  of  the  water, 
then  add  the  rest  of  the  water  and  the  other 
ingredients,  and  set  it  aside.  When  cold,  strain 
it  and  add  the  white  of  one  egg  beaten,  and 
half  an  ounce  of  essence  of  lemon.  Let  it 
stand  four  days,  then  bottle,  and  it  will  keep 
many  months. 

(II.)  Take  .--Water,  1 gall ; ginger,  2 oz  ; mo- 1 
lasses,  1 pt ; yeast,  \ pt. 

(III.)  (Simpler). — Take  one  gallon  of  warm 
water,  two  ounces  of  ginger,  one  pint  of  molas- 
ses, and  half  a pint  of  good  yeast.  Put  this 
into  a stone  jug  ; shake  it  up  well  ; set  it  to 
rise  for  twelve  hours ; then  cork  it  tight,  or 
bottle,  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Lager.  ( See  Lager  Beer.) 

Quick  Beer. 

Take  fourteen  pounds  of  molasses  and  six 
ounces  of  hops,  and  boil  them  two  hours  in 
eleven  gallons  of  water ; when  cooked  suffi- 
ciently, add  one  pint  of  good  yeast.  Let  it 
work  in  a tub  covered  up  for  sixteen  hours ; 
when  the  working  is  over,  put  it  into  a cask, 
and  let  it  work  there  three  or  four  days  ; then 
bung  it  down,  or  pour  it  from  the  cask  and 
bottle  it.  The  beer  will  be  fit  to  drink  in  a 
week,  and  will  be  as  strong  as  porter.  If  a 
weaker  beer  for  table  use  is  desired,  use  more 
water  in  proportion  to  the  other  ingredients. 

Sassafras  Beer. — Take:-'&o\Wng  water,  2 qts ; 
cream-tartar,  2 tablespoonfuls ; oil  of  sassafras 

10  drops;  oil  of  wintergreen,  10  drops;  oil 
of  spruce,  10  drops;  cold  water,  8 qts;  yeast, 

1 pt ; sugar. 

Pour  two  quarts  of  boiling  water  upon  two 
large  spoonfuls  of  cream-tartar,  and  add  ten 
drops  of  oil  of  sassafras,  ten  drops  of  oil  of 
spruce,  ten  drops  of  oil  of  wintergreen ; then 
add  eight  quarts  of  cold  water  and  a pint  of 
good  yeast,  and  sweeten  to  taste.  Let  it  stand 
twenty-four  hours  and  then  bottle  it.  This 
makes  a delicious  summer  beverage. 

Spruce  Beer. — Take  : — Boiling  water,  18 
gals;  molasses  or  sugar,  12  lbs;  essence  of 
spruce,  14  oz;  yeast,  1 pt. 

A very  wholesome  effervescing  beer  made 
of  molasses  and  the  extract  of  the  spruce  fir. 

Brown  Spruce  beer  is  made  thus  : add 
to  eighteen  gallons  of  boiling  water  twelve 
pounds  of  molasses  and  fourteen  ounces  of 
spruce.  Let  the  mixture  cool,  and  when 
lukewarm,  add  one  pint  of  yeast  and  set  aside 
to  ferment ; in  warm  weather  less  yeast  will 
suffice.  While  the  fermentation  is  going  on 
remove  the  yeast  by  skimming,  and  when  the 
fermentation  becomes  languid,  which  usually 


happens  in  two  days,  put  the  beer  into  stone 
bottles  and  tie  the  corks  down  with  pack  thread. 
White  Spruce  beer  is  made  in  the  same 
way,  except  that  white  or  brown  sugar  is  used 
instead  of  molasses,  and  it  has  a very  superior 
flavor.  Spruce  beer  will  counteract  any  ten- 
dency to  the  scurvy. 

Sugar  Beer. — Take  .--Hops,  i'/2  lbs;  boiling 
water,  1 1 galls  ; sugar,  14  lbs ; yeast,  r pt. 

Procure  a ten-gallon  cask,  fit  its  head  in,  put 
a cock  into  the  side  one  inch  above  the  bottom, 
then  make  a hole  in  the  top  and  stop  it  with  a 
cork.  Put  a pound  and  a half  of  hops  into 
any  convenient  vessel  and  pour  over  them 
eleven  gallons  of  boiling  water  (if  you  have  a 
large  enough  pot  it  is  best  to  boil  the  hops  and 
water  five  minutes);  strain  off  the  liquor  and 
add  to  it  fourteen  pounds  of  sugar;  mix  one 
pint  of  good  yeast  with  this,  and  pour  the 
whole  into  the  cask  through  the  hole  in  the 
top.  It  will  soon  ferment,  and  the  yeast  will 
appear  through  the  hole  in  the  head;  as  this 
works  out  let  it  fall  back  again  into  the  cask. 
In  summer  it  will  require  about  three  weeks  to 
complete  the  fermentation,  and  as  this  slackens 
towards  the  latter  part,  the  cork  should  be 
kept  in  the  hole  most  of  the  time  to  prevent 
the  access  of  too  much  air;  but  the  cork 
should  be  removed  now  and  then  to  let  the 
fixed  air  inside  escape.  When  the  fermenta- 
tion has  stopped,  and  the  sweet  taste  of  the 
sugar  is  barely  perceptible,  drive  the  cork  in 
tight,  and  in  four  days  the  beer  will  be  fit  for 
draught  or  for  bottling.  Care  must  be  taken 
to  fermeht  sufficiently,  but  not  so  long  that  the 
liquor  becomes  flat,  as  then  it  • soon  sours. 
White  sugar  makes  beer  of  the  purest  flavor 
and  palest  color,  but  brown  will  answer. 

BEET. — The  common  beet  is  grown  in 
several  varieties  for  table  use,  differing  from 
each  other  in  size,  shape,  color,  and  sweetness. 
The  large  red  kind  is  called  the  blood-beet, 
and  is  much  cultivated,  but  the  “ small  red  ” 
and  the  “ long  yellow  ” are  the  sweetest  and 
most  delicate  and  have  the  richest  color  when 
served.  Beets  must  be  grown  in  a rich,  light, 
sandy  soil  which  they  can  penetrate  easily. 
Plant  as  soon  as  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground 
in  rows  eighteen  inches  apart ; they  can  be 
obtained  earlier  in  the  season  by  raising  the 
seeds  in  a hot  bed  till  they  are  four  or  five 
inches  high  and  then  transplanting  them  to  the 
garden. 

Mangel-Wurzel  is  a very  large  and  coarse 
variety  of  the  beet  which  is  extremely  prolific 
and  easily  cultivated,  and  makes  excellent  food 
for  cattle  and  especially  for  milch  cows.  The 
sea  beet  is  a perennial  and  one  of  the  most 
valuable  plants  known  for  greens.  It  thrives 
in  gardens  without  any  care  at  all,  and  is  grown 
from  seeds  which  it  produces  in  great  abun- 
dance. The  season  for  beets  begins  about  June 
1st  and  continues  throughout  the  year. 

Boiled  Beets. — Set  in  a pan,  cover  them 
with  cold  water,  place  over  a good  fire  and  boil 
till  tender.  They  will  require  one  hour  in 
summer  and  three  in  winter.  Beets  must  not 


30 


BEGONIA 


BEVERAGES 


be  bruised  or  have  the  skin  broken  before 
being  cooked,  or  they  will  lose  their  color  and 
most  of  their  good  qualities.  A little  salt  add- 
ed to  the  water  improves  them.  When  done, 
rub  off  the  skin,  and  split  them  lengthwise  if 
young,  or  slice  them  round  if  large  ; butter  well 
in  the  dish,  and  season  to  taste  with  salt 
and  pepper.  Hot  beets  are  not  very  healthy 
if  eaten  in  any  considerable  quantity ; they 
may  be  sliced  when  cold,  and  served  in  vine- 
gar. 

Pickled  (or  Canned)  Beets. — Boil  as  above  ; 
when  done  put  them  in  jars  and  cover  them 
with  very  salt  water.  When  cool,  put  the  jars 
in  a boiler  full  of  cold  water;  set  on  the  fire 
and  boil  from  twenty  to  thirty  minutes,  then 
seal  them  immediately;  set  the  jars  away  in  a 
dark,  cool  closet,  and  use  as  required. 

Salad  (Beet). — Boil  in  the  usual  way;  when 
cold,  peel  and  slice  them;  serve  in  vinegar, 
salt  and  pepper,  and  a little  oil. 

Stewed  Beets. — Boil  young  sweet  beets 
till  nearly  done  ; skin  and  slice  them.  Serve 
in  a gravy  made  as  follows  : Put  into  a sauce-  i 
pan  two  tablespoonfuls  of  butter,  two  of  vinegar, 
some  salt  and  pepper,  and  add  one  shalot 
minced  and  a little  parsley  ; set  on  the  fire  and 
let  it  simmer  twenty  minutes,  shaking  the  sauce- 
pan occasionally. 

BEGONIA. — A very  pretty  plant  for  house 
gardening.  The  two  best  species  are  B.  incar- 
nata  and  fuchsoidia.  The  former  is  an  ever- 
green shrub,  with  thick  stems,  and  large,  droop- 
ing clusters  of  pink  flowers  in  winter^  it  shows 
to  great  advantage  if  well  cared  for,  and  is  one 
of  the  best  window  plants.  The  latter  is  often 
called  “ coral  drop,”  and  resembles  the  former 
somewhat  in  appearance,  but  produces  in  all 
seasons  its  drooping  coral  flowers.  Plant  them 
in  a compost  made  of  equal  quantities  of  loam 
and  leaf  mould,  with  a little  sand  mixed  in. 
Put  them  in  the  warmest  possible  situation 
where  they  will  get  plenty  of  sun  and  light ; 
but  water  seldom  and  sparingly. 

BELLADONNA.  — Poison  — Symptoms : 
Delirium,  drowsiness,  feeble  pulse,  sometimes 
faintness  and  convulsions.  Antidotes : Lime 
water,  of  which  a half  tumbler  may  be  given  at 
a time.  An  emetic  is  appropriate  in  cases  in 
which  the  mistake  is  recognized  soon  after  the 
poison  has  been  swallowed. 

Belladonna,  even  when  given  in  medical 
doses,  may  produce  alarming  symptoms  in  in- 
dividual cases,  but  these  disappear  spontane- 
ously on  discontinuing  the  remedy. 

The  name  is  given  to  the  medicinal  extract 
of  the  atropa  belladonna , which  is  much  used 
in  practice,  in  moderate  doses.  It  is  prescribed 
in  certain  spasmodic  nervous  affections,  such 
as  epilepsy  and  chorea;  for  the  relief  of  pain, 
either  of  the  cutaneous  or  visceral  nerves  ; for 
habitual  constipation  and  incontinence  of  urine  ; 
to  check  certain  secretions,  and  to  prevent  sup- 
puration. As  an  anodyne  it  is  inferior  to 
opium ; and  the  claims  made  in  its  behalf  as  a 
preventative  of  scarlet  fever  are  not  proven. 
One  of  the  most  striking  effects  of  a sufficient 


dose  of  belladonna  is  the  dilation  of  the  pupil 
of  the  eye  ; it  also  produces  a peculiar  dryness 
of  the  tongue  and  throat  and  marked  quickening 
of  the  pulse-beats. 

BENZINE. — A colorless  liquid,  lighter  than 
petroleum,  and  obtained  from  that  oil  in  process 
of  refinement.  It  is  sometimes  used  as  a burn- 
ing fluid,  but  is  extremely  dangerous ; also  as  a 
substitute  for  turpentine  in  mixing  paints,  but 
its  chief  value  in  the  household  comes  from  its 
power  of  dissolving  fats,  wax  and  paraffine; 
every  kind  of  grease  spot  on  clothes  may  be 
removed  by  it.  In  using,  saturate  a woolen  rag 
and  rub  over  the  spot,  renewing  several  times. 
Benzine  must  never  be  used  near  a fire  or  light 
of  any  kind  ; for  it  is  so  inflammable  as  to  take 
fire  at  a considerable  distance.  Keep  it  in  a 
dark,  cool  place. 

BEVERAGES. — Besides  wines  and  malt 
l liquors,  there  are  various  beverages  in  more  or 
less  general  use.  Several  of  these  are  de- 
scribed under  Beer,  and  others,  such  as  lemon- 
ade, orangeade,  orgeat,  and  sherbet,  are  given 
i in  their  proper  places ; but  there  are  others  still, 
which  cannot  be  classified  and  which  therefore  it 
will  be  most  appropriate  to  group  together  here. 

Eau  SucrA — Sugar  and  water,  a beverage 
made  by  dissolving  enough  sugar  in  water  to 
sweeten;  it  is  much  used  in  France,  and  is 
considered  very  wholesome  and  refreshing.  It 
is  customary  to  drink  it  just  before  bedtime. 

Lait  SucrA — Take: — Milk,  sugar,  and  lemon. 
Milk  well  boiled  with  sugar  and  flavored  with 
lemon.  It  should  be  drunk  cold. 

Summer  Beverage. — Take: — Ale, or  porter, 
I bottle;  water,  io  qts ; brown  sugar,  i lb; 
ground  ginger,  2 oz. 

I.  An  agreeable  and  cooling  beverage  for  hot 
weather  may  be  made  by  mixing  a bottle  of  ale 
or  porter  with  ten  quarts  of  water,  adding  a 
pound  of  coarse  brown  sugar  and  two  ounces 
of  ground  ginger.  Bottle  and  cork  tightly  and 
set  away  for  a few  days.  This  is  not  exactly 
ginger  beer,  but  if  set  on  ice  it  is  a cooling  and 
pleasantly  acid  drink. 

n.  A not  her  cooling  beverage  may  be  made  by 
mixing  half  an  ounce  of  cream  of  tartar  in  a 
quart  of  boiling  water,  and  adding  sugar  and 
a bit  of  lemon  peel.  Strain  when  cold,  and  set 
away  till  wanted. 

III.  Still  another  excellent  summer  drink  may 
be  made  by  bruising  any  fruit,  such  as  cherries, 
currants,  strawberries,  raspberries,  and  the  like, 
and  adding  water  and  sugar  to  taste ; strain  it 
after  standing  half  an  hour,  and  keep  it  in  a 
cool  place.  By  dissolving  fruit  jelly  in  water 
and  letting  it  cool,  a delicious  beverage  may  be 
secured. 

Whey  (acidulous). — Take  .--Milk,  1 cup- 
ful ; citric  acid  or  lemon  juice,  a few  drops.  A 
pleasant  and  wholesome  beverage  is  made  by 
adding  to  a cupful  of  milk  a little  solution  of 
citric  acid,  or  lemon  juice,  which  will  curdle  the 
milk.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  add  too  much 
of  the  juice  : an  experiment  or  two  will  show 
the  necessary  quantity. 

Beverages  for  the  Sick.-i. Tamarinds  soaked 


BILBERRIES 


BILL  OF  EXCHANGE 


31 


in  hot  water  and  sweetened  to  taste  make  an 
admirable  beverage  for  invalids.  To  be  drunk 
cold.  2.  Nitre  Whey.  This  is  sometimes 
given  to  the  sick  to  promote  perspiration.  To 
make  : dilute  half  a pint  of  new  milk  with  an 
ecpial  quantity  of  hot  water  ; boil  together,  and 
while  boiling,  pour*  in  a dessertspoonful  of  the 
sweet  spirits  of  nitre.  Sweeten  it  and  let  the 
patient  take  it  as  warm  as  it  can  be  drunk. 

BILBERRIES. — A small  purplish  red  fruit 
somewhat  similar  to  whortleberries,  but  gener- 
ally smaller.  They  grow  upon  a good-sized  tree, 
are  very  abundant  in  various  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, and  usually  ripen  about  the  latter  part  of 
August  or  first  of  September.  Whortleberries 
of  the  smaller  kinds  are  sometimes  sold  as 
bilberries , but  they  differ  in  flavor,  the  latter 
being  much  more  acid. 

BILIOUS  FEVER.— A term  applied  to  re- 
mittent fever,  a disease  due  to  malarial  poison- 
ings. 

Symptoms — Resemble  those  of  intermittent 
fever,  except  that  there  is  no  cessation  of 
fever,  but  simply  an  abatement,  or  diminu- 
tion. Length  of  remission  varies  from  6 to  12 
hours.  The  remission  usually  occurs  in  the 
morning.  Disease  may  last  fourteen  or  fifteen 
days,  and  end  in  an  attack  of  sweating,  or  it 
may  merge  into  low  fever. 

Treatment. — Diminish  the  fever  by  giving 
cold  drinks,  sponging  the  body  with  cool  water, 
mildly  acting  upon  the  bowels  with  cream  of 
tartar  water.  During  the  remission  give  ten 
grains  of  quinine,  and  let  the  patient  have 
nourishing  broths,  raw  eggs,  and  stimulants  if 
much  depressed.  To  complete  the  cure  the 
directions  given  for  patients  convalescent  from 
intermittent  fever,  will  be  found  appropriate. 
After  this  fever,  proper  care  should  be  taken 
to  prevent  a relapse.  For  this  purpose  the 
patient  should  continue  to  take  the  Peruvian 
bark  for  some  time  after  he  is  well.  He  should 
also  confine  himself  to  a simple  diet,  avoiding 
confections,  trashy  fruits,  and  all  kinds  of  flat- 
ulent food.  The  treatment  of  remittent  fever 
should  always  be  confided  to  a physician. 

BILL. — This  term  is  usually  applied  to  what 
is  legally  called  an  account.  It  is  a statement 
in  writing  of  the  items  of  goods  sold  to,  or 
work  done  for,  another  person. 

It  may  be  in  the  following  form  : 

New  York,  May  9,  1876. 

Mr.  John  Doe, 

1876.  To  Richard  Roe,  Dr. 

April  1,  To  binding  3 vols.  in 

cloth,  at  75c $2  25 

April  15,  To  2 packages  of  let- 
ter paper,  at  $2  ^ 4 00 


$6  25 

An  account  like  the  foregoing,  rendered  to 
a debtor,  is  usually  termed  a bill. 

An  open  account  is  an  account  detailing  the 
transactions  between  persons  having  mutual 
dealings,  of  which  the  balance  has  not  been 
struck,  or  an  account  which  has  not  been  ac- 
cepted by  both  parties. 


A stated  account  is  an  account  which  has 
been  accepted  by  both  parties.  Acceptance 
by  the  debtor  need  not  be  expressed  in  words. 
If  an  account  is  not  objected  to  within  a reas- 
onable time  after  it  is  received,  it  is  presumed 
in  many  cases  that  it  has  been  accepted.  (See 
Receipt  and  Law.) 

BILL  OF  EXCHANGE.— A bill  of  ex- 
change, or  draft,  as  it  is  often  called,  is  defined 
to  be  a written  order,  or  request,  by  one  per- 
son to  another,  for  the  payment  of  money,  at 
a specified  time,  absolutely,  and  at  all  events. 
The  person  who  draws  the  bill  is  called  the 
drawer.  The  person  to  whom  it  is  addressed 
is  called  the  drawee,  and,  after  he  has  accepted 
it,  the  acceptor.  The  person  to  whom,  or  to 
whose  order  the  bill  is  made  payable  is  called 
the  payee.  When  payable  to  the  order  of  the 
payee,  it  is  transferred  by  endorsement  and  de- 
livery, in  the  same  manner  as  a promissory 
note,  payable  to  order  (see  Promissory  Note,) 
and  the  payee  thereupon  becomes  the  endorser, 
and  the  person  to  whom  it  is  transferred,  the 
endorsee,  or  holder. 

The  following  is  a common  form  : 

$iooo.t°a.  New  York,  May  1,  1876. 

“ Thirty  days  after  sight  pay  to  the  order  of 
John  Doe,  the  sum  of  one  thousand  dollars, 
for  value  received,  and  charge  the  same  to  the 
account  of  Richard  Roe. 

To  Messrs.  Smith  Brothers, 

“ St.  Louis,  Missouri. 

Here  Richard  Roe  is  the  drawer  and 
Smith  Brothers  the  drawees,  and,  after  they 
have  accepted  it  by  writing  the  word  “ac- 
cepted,” and  their  signature  across  the  face  of 
the  bill,  with  the  date,  the  acceptors.  John  Doe 
is  the  payee,  and,  after  endorsement,  the  endor- 
ser. So  many  days  after  sight  means  so  many 
days  after  acceptance. 

When  the  bill  is  payable  at  sight,  or  a cer- 
tain number  of  days  after  sight,  as  in  the  form 
given,  it  must  be  presented  to  the  drawer  for 
his  acceptance  without  unreasonable  delay, 
otherwise,  in  case  of  non-acceptance,  the  rem- 
edy against  the  drawer  and  endorser  may  be 
lost.  When  payable  at  a certain  period  after 
date,  it  need  not  be  presented  by  the  holder 
for  acceptance  until  then,  although  it  is  advisa- 
ble to  present  it  without  delay,  as  thereby,  if 
accepted,  the  additional  security  of  the  ac- 
ceptor is  obtained,  and,  if  not  accepted,  the 
drawer  and  endorsers  become  liable  immedi- 
ately. When  the  drawee  refuses  to  accept  the 
bill,  it  should  be  protested  (see  Protest , under 
Law)  for  non-acceptance,  and  notice  thereof 
given  to  the  drawer  and  endorsers,  in  the  same 
manner  as  in  case  of  non-payment  of  a promis- 
sory note.  (Which  see.)  Bills  payable  at  sight, 
ora  certain  time  after  date,  or  after  sight,  are 
entitled  to  days  of  grace,  but  in  nearly  all  of 
the  States,  bills  payable  on  demand  are  not. 

Bills  of  exchange  are  governed  by  the  same 
rules,  with  regard  to  negotiability,  transfer, 
endorsement,  presentment,  and  notice  of  non- 
payment, as  promissory  notes.  (See  Promis- 
sory Note.) 


32 


BILL  OF  FARE 


BIRDS 


BILL  OF  PARE.  (See  Breakfast, Lunch, 
Dinner,  Supper,  ani>  Tea.) 

Bills  of  fare  are  annexed  for  each  sea- 
son, showing  articles  in  market  in  New  York. 
The  New  York  market  represents  a fair  aver- 
age for  the  most  thickly  populated  parts  of  the 
country.  Readers  elsewhere  will,  of  course, 
have  to  allow  for  local  differences.  The  arti- 
cles in  each  group  are  in  alphabetical  order. 


I.  SPRING. 
March,  April,  May. 


Shell  Fish. 

Clams,  hard  crabs,  lobster, 
mussels,  oysters,  prawns,  scal- 
lops, shrimps,  terrapins,  tur- 
tle. 

Fish, 

Bass  (black,  striped  and 
sea),  blue  fish,  cod,  eels,  had- 
dock, halibut,  herrings,  mack- 
erel, muscalonge,  pickerel, 
pompan,  prawns,  salmon,  shad 
(North  River),  sheepshead, 
shrimps,  skate,  smelts,  soles, 
turbot,  trout  (brook,  lake  and 
salmon.  (May  to  July). 

Meat . 

Beef,  lamb,  mutton  sweet- 
breads, veal. 

Poultry. 

Capons,  chickens,  ducks, 
geese  and  turkeys. 


Game. 

Ducks  and  geese  until  May 
ist,  pigeons,  plover,  snipe, 
squabs,  after  April. 

Vegetables. 

Asparagus,  Jerusalem  arti- 
chokes, lettuce,  potatoes 
(sweet  and  white),  radishes, 
spinach,  sprouts,  watercress- 
es,  and  all  the  vegetables  of 
the  Winter  list. 

Fruit. 

The  Winter  list,  with  the 
addition  of  pie  plant,  pine- 
apple, strawberries. 

Nuts. 

The  Winter  list,  with  the 
addition  of  Brazil  nuts. 


II.  SUMMER. 
June,  July,  August. 


Shell  Fiske 

Clams,  soft  crabs,  lobster, 
turtle  in  August- 

Fish. 

Bass  (black  and  sea),  blue 
fish,  eels,  flouyders,  haddock, 
herring,  mackerel,  musca- 
longe, salmon,  sheepshead, 
turbot,  trout  (brook,  lake  and 
salmon). 

Meat. 

Beef,  lamb,  mutton,  veal. 

Poultry. 

Chickens,  ducks. 


Game. 

Snipe,  woodcock  after  July 
3* 

V egetables. 

String  beans,  beets,  cab- 
bage, cauliflower,  carrots, 
corn,  cucumbers,  egg  plant, 
lettuce,  macaroni,  okra,  on- 
ions, green  peas,  potatoes, 
rice,  radishes,  summer  squash, 
tomatoes,  turnips. 

Fruits. 

Apples,  apricots,  cherries, 
currants,  gooseberries,  grapes, 
lemons,  oranges,  . peaches, 
pears,  pineapples,  raspber- 
r es,  strawberries,  imported 
dried  fruits. 


III.  AUTUMN. 

September,  October,  November. 


Shell  Fish. 

Clams,  soft  crabs,  lobster, 
mussels,  oysters,  scallops,  tur- 
tle, terrapin. 

Fish. 

Black  bass,  blue  fish,  floun- 
ders, mackerel,  muscalonge, 
perch,  pickerel,  pike,  salmon, 
sheepshead,  skates,  smelts, 
soles,  sturgeon,  trout  (brook, 
lake  and  salmon),  white  fish. 

Meat . 

Beef,  lamb,  mutton. 

Poultry . 

Capons,  chickens,  ducks, 
geese,  turkeys. 


Game . 

Brant,  duck,  goose  Sep.  to 
May,  prairie  chicken,  ruff 
grouse  Sep.  to  Jan.,  venison 
until  Feb.,  quail  and  rabbits 
Oct.  i to  Jan.  i,  snipe,  wood- 
cock July  3 to  Feb.  i. 

Vegetables. 

Artichokes,  beans,  (Lima 
and  other  shell-beans)  beets, 
broccoli,  cabbage,  cauliflower, 
carrots,  celery,  corn,  cucum- 
bers, egg-plant,  lettuce,  maca- 
roni, okra,  onions,  potatoes 
(white  and  sweet), rice,  squash, 
tomatoes,  turnips. 


Fruits. 

Apples,  bananas,  blackber- 
ries, dates,  figs,  grapes,  lem- 
ons, oranges,  peaches,  pears, 


plums,  prunes,  quinces,  rai- 
sins. 

Nuts. 

Black  walnuts,  chestnuts, 
hazel  nuts,  shell  barks. 


IV.  WINTER. 

December,  January,  February. 


Shell  Fish. 

Clams,  mussels,  oysters, 
scallops,  terrapins,  turtle. 

Fish. 

Bass  (black  and  striped),  blue 
fish,  cod,  eels,  flounders,  had- 
dock, muscalonge,  perch,  pick- 
erel, pike,  salmon,  skate, 
smelts,  sturgeon,  white  fish. 

Meat • 

Beef,  mutton,  pork. 

Poultry. 

Capons,  chickens,  ducks, 
geese,  turkeys- 

Game. 

Brant  until  May,  duck,  wild, 
until  May,  and  wood  duck  un- 
til Jan.,  geese  until  May,  prai- 
rie chicken, ruff  grouse,  snipe, 
venison  until  Feb.,  quail,  rab- 


bits until  Dec.,  woodcock  un- 
til Feb. 

V egetables. 

Artichokes,  beets,  dried 
beans,  broccoli,  cabbage,  car- 
rots, celery,  macaroni,  onions, 
parsnips,  potatoes  (sweet  and 
white),  rice,  salsify,  turnips, 
winter  squash,  all  canned 
fruit. 

Fruit. 

Apples,  bananas,  cranber- 
ries, dates,  figs,  ginger,  lem- 
ons, oranges,  pears,  prunes, 
raisins.  All  kinds  of  canned 
fruits,  and  compotes  of  dried 
fruits. 

Nuts . 

Almonds,  black  walnuts, 
butternuts,  cocoanuts,  Eng- 
lish walnuts,  filberts,  pecan 
nuts,  shell  barks. 


BIRD-CAGE. — The  sma'ler  bird-cages, such 
for  instance  as  are  used  for  canary  birds,  are 
usually  made  entirely  of  wire  ; those  of  larger 
sizes,  for  mocking-birds,  parrots,  and  the  like, 
are  made  partly  of  wire  and  partly  of  wood. 
They  should  be  kept  scrupulously  clean,  neg- 
lect on  this  point  occasioning  the  loss  of  many 
pet  birds  and  the  injury  of  others ; and  in 
order  to  ensure  this,  they  should  be  washed 
every  day,  and  dipped  occasionally  in  lime- 
water.  Whatever  the  bird  that  is  kept  in  con- 
finement, the  bottom  of  the  cage  should 
always  be  covered  with  clean  gravel  and  sand, 
and  they  should  be  put  in  fresh  every  few 
days.  Sand  not  only  affords  a more  natural 
and  pleasant  footing  for  the  birds,  but  they 
also  obtain  from  it  certain  substances  which 
they  seem  to  use  medicinally,  and  without 
which  it  is  impossible  for  them  to  remain 
healthy  in  confinement  for  any  length  of  time. 
Most  cages  are  now  made  with  removable 
bottoms,  which  greatly  facilitates  the  clean- 
ing of  them  and  the  introduction  of  food. 
When  the  paint  begins  to  wear  off  a wire  cage, 
it  should  at  once  be  repainted,  or  it  will  soon 
rust  away. 

BIRDS.— The  flesh  of  birds  differs  from 
that  of  most  four-footed  animals,  chiefly  in 
the  relative  quantity  of  fat  and  in  the  quality 
of  the  juices.  The 'fat  of  birds  is  generally 
found  by  itself,  just  under  the  skin,  and  in 
various  parts  of  the  interior  of  the  body  ; and 
as  it  has  a flavor  which  is'  not  agreeable,  it 
enters  but  little  into  the  food  of  man.  'I  he 
juices  are  deficient  in  red  blood,  and  have  a 
more  delicate  flavor  than  that  of  adult  animals, 
but  do  not  differ  greatly  from  those  of  young 
animals.  The  flesh  of  fowls  differs  little  in 
structure  from  that  of  animals,  and  is  quite  as 


BISCUITS 


33 


rich  in  nitrogenous  or  flesh-forming  elements, 
but  is  relatively  poorer  in  fat  and  salts.  It  is 
regarded  as  a light  food,  better  fitted  for  invalids 
than  strong  men,  or  as  an  adjunct  to  other 
kinds  of  flesh ; but  this  is  due  rather  to  its 
delicacy  or  absence  of  flavor,  which  leads  man 


to  prefer  beef  or  mutton  as  a permanent  diet, 
than  to  any  real  deficiency  of  nutriment  as  a 
food.  It  is  in  reality  one  of  the  most  nutritious 
of  foods,  and  could  enter  with  advantage  more 
largely  into  the  family  diet. 

The  flesh  of  all  birds  is  sufficiently  similar  to  em 


able  us  to  distinguish  it  readily  from  other  kinds 
of  meat;  but  there  are  also  very  appreciable  dif- 
ferences according  to  the  nature  of  the  bird, 
its  breed  and  feeding.  The  flesh  of  the  domestic 
fowl  differs  very  greatly,  both  in  fulness  and  deli- 
cacy of  flavor,  in  different  specimens  ; and  the 
flesh  of  a graminivorous  is  easily  distinguished 
from  that  of  a carnivorous  bird.  The  flesh  of  the 
former  is  always  wholesome  and  agreeable,  while 
that  of  the  latter  is  almost  invariably  rank  and 
disagreeable.  The  flavor  of  wild  birds  is  fuller 
and  stronger  than  that  of  the  domesticated  bird, 
and  the  flesh  is  richer  in  nitrogenous  and 
generally  poorer  in  fat-producing  matter.  The 
structure  is  also  closer  and  firmer,  so  that  in 
the  fresh  state  it  is  regarded  as  hard  and  tough  ; 
and  it  is  desirable,  and  sometimes  necessary,  to 
allow  decomposition  to  commence,  in  order 
to  cause  a separation  and  softening  of  the  fibres. 
While  a domestic  fowl,  therefore,  is  usually 
eaten  quite  fresh,  a wild  fowl  is  kept  for  many 
days  or  even  weeks,  before  it  is  cooked.  The 
flesh  of  the  male  bird,  whether  domesticated  or 
wild,  generally  has  a fuller  flavor  than  that  of  the 
female  ; and  the  capon  retains  some  of  the 
strength  of  flavor  of  the  male  bird  with  much 
of  the  delicacy  of  the  female.  ( See  Poultry. 
For  Pet  Birds  see  their  names.) 

BIRTH.  ( See  Infant.) 

BISCUITS. — In  making  biscuit, great  care 
must  be  taken  to  get  the  exact  proportions  of 
the  several  ingredients, — too  much  or  too 
little  of  soda  or  of  lard  inevitably  spoils  them. 
The  flour  used  should  be  the  best  and  at  least 
three  months  old;  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
make  light  biscuits  with  new  flour.  The  flour 
3 


should  always  be  sifted.  The  oven  too  should 
be  carefully  looked  after,  for  upon  its  being  of 
the  right  temperature  will  depend  much  of  the 
success  of  the  baking. 

Flavored  Biscuit. — Make  biscuits  as  in  di- 
rections for  French,  Hard,  or  Soda,  and  flavor 
with  any  kind  of  essence,  or  with  orange  or 
lemon  peel  grated. 

French  Biscuit. — Take:-¥\ovn,  6 lbs  ; butter, 
6 oz ; milk,  i y2  pts  ; sugar,  I y2  teaspoonfuls ; 
eggs,  6 ; yeast,  y gill  of  distillery  or  i pt.  of 
home  brewed. 

Take  six  pounds  of  flour ; six  ounces  of  butter ; 
a pint  and  a half  of  new  milk ; a cup  and  a half  of 
sugar;  six  eggs  and  y gill  of  brewers  or  y2 
pt.  home  brewed  yeast.  Melt  the  butter  in  the 
milk ; beat  the  eggs  and  add  them.  Then  add 
all  the  other  ingredients,  mix  thoroughly,  set  it 
to  rise,  and  when  very  light  mould  into  small 
biscuits,  and  bake  till  brown  in  a quick  oven. 

Graham  Biscuits. — Take  .--Graham  flour,  3 
cupfuls  ; white  flour,  1 cupful ; milk,  1 y2  cupfuls ; 
lard,  2 tablespoonfuls ; sugar,  1 tablespoonful ; 
soda,  1 teaspoonful ; cream-tartar,  2 teaspoon- 
fuls ; salt,  y2  teaspoonful. 

Take  three  cups  of  Graham  flour  ; one  cup  of 
white  flour  ; one  and  a half  cupfuls  of  milk ; 
two  tablespoonfuls  lard ; one  tablespoonful 
of  white  sugar;  one  teaspoonful  soda;  two 
teaspoonfuls  cream-tartar ; half  a teaspoonful 
of  salt.  Rub  the  soda  and  cream-tartar  into 
the  flour  and  sift  all  together  before  they  are 
wet;  then  add  the  salt  and  sugar;  next  the 
lard,  rubbed  rapidly  and  lightly  into  the  pre- 
pared flour ; and  lastly  pour  in  the  milk.  Knead 
the  dough  rapidly  and  with  as  few  strokes  as 


34 


BISCUITS 


BLACKBERRIES 


possible,  since  handling  injures  the  biscuits. 
The  dough  should  be  very  soft ; if  the  flour 
stiffens  it  too  much  add  more  milk.  Roll  out 
lightly,  cut  into  cakes  at  least  half  an  inch 
thick,  and  bake  in  a quick  oven.  These  are 
good  cold  as  well  as  hot. 

Hard  or  Plain  Biscuits. — Take Flour,  i qt; 
butter,  4 tablespoonfuls ; salt,  yi  teaspoonful. 

Take  one  quart  of  flour  ; rub  four  tablespoon- 
fuls of  butter  into  two-thirds  of  the  flour ; add- 
ing half  a teaspoonful  of  salt ; wet  this  latter 
with  sweet  milk  till  a dough  is  formed  ; roll  it 
out  repeatedly,  sprinkling  on  the  reserved 
flour  till  all  is  used.  Cut  into  round  cakes, 
half  an  inch  thick,  and  bake  in  a quick  oven. 

Potato  Biscuit. — Take  .--Potatoes,  io;  milk 
2 cupfuls ; white  sugar,  2 tablespoonfuls ; ]/2 
cupful  home-made  yeast ; melted  butter,  4 table- 
spoonfuls ; flour ; salt. 

Take  ten  potatoes  pared,  boiled  soft,  and 
mashed  fine ; add  two  cupfuls  of  lukewarm  milk  ; 
two  tablespoonfuls  of  white  sugar ; half  a cup 
of  yeast ; and  enough  flour  to  make  a thin 
batter.  Stir  together  and  set  it  to  rise  till  light, 
— four  or  five  hours  ; then  add  four  tablespoon- 
fuls of  melted  butter,  a little  salt,  and  enough 
flour  to  make  a soft  dough.  Let  this  rise  four 
hours  longer,  roll  out  in  a sheet  about  an  inch 
thick,  and  cut  into  cakes ; set  to  rise  one  hour 
and  bake  in  a moderately  quick  oven. 

Risen  Biscuit. — Take  .--Milk,  3 pts  ; butter 
or  lard,  1 teacupful ; home-made  yeast,  1 teacup- 
ful ; white  sugar,  2 tablespoonfuls ; salt,  I tea- 
spoonful. Flour. 

Take  three  pints  of  warm  milk;  one  level 
cupful  of  lard  or  butter  melted ; one  cupful  of 
yeast ; two  heaping  tablespoonfuls  of  white 
sugar,  one  teaspoonful  of  salt.  Flour.  Mix 
over  night,  and  set  to  rise  ; in  the  morning  roll 
it  out  into  a sheet  three  quarters  of  an  inch 
thick,  cut  into  round  cakes,  set  these  closely 
together  in  a baking-pan,  let  them  rise  twenty 
minutes,  and  bake  in  a quick  oven  till  brown. 

Short  Biscuit. — -Take:-¥\owr,  1 qt;  butter,  % 
lb ; milk  ; water. 

Take  one  quart  of  flour  ; a quarter  of  a pound 
of  butter,  melted  in  a little  boiling  water ; add 
cold  milk  enough  to  make  a stiff  dough ; work 
into  small  biscuits,  and  bake  them  in  a quick 
oven. 

Soda  Biscuit. — Take  /-Flour,  3 pts  ; milk,  1 
pt ; lard,  2 tablespoonfuls  ; soda,  1 teaspoonful ; 
cream-tartar,  2 teaspoonfuls  ; salt,  ]/2  teaspoon- 
ful. 

Take  three  pints  of  flour ; one  pint  of  sweet 
milk ; two  tablespoonfuls  of  lard ; one  tea- 
spoonful of  soda ; two  teaspoonfuls  of  cream- 
tartar  ; half  teaspoonful  of  salt.  Mix  and  bake 
as  directed  for  Graham  biscuit.  These  are 
light  and  delicious.  Serve  hot. 

Sour-Milk  Biscuit. — Take  /-Flour,  1 qt ; 
sour  milk,  1 pt ; soda,  1 teaspoonful. 

Take  one  quart  of  flour ; one  pint  of  sour 
milk ; one  teaspoonful  of  soda  mixed  with  the 
milk  until  it  froths.  Stir  it  into  the  flour  cold, 
mix  it  quickly,  and  bake  twenty  minutes  in  a 
hot  oven. 


Yorkshire  Risen  Biscuits. — Take  :-^J¥\W,  1 
qt ; flour,  enough  to  make  batter ; home-made 
yeast,  1 teacupful ; salt,  l/2  teaspoonful ; soda,  '/2 
teaspoonfuls ; eggs,  2 ; butter,  1 tablespoonful. 

Make  a batter  with  flour  and  one  quart  of 
milk  boiling  hot ; when  milk  warm,  add  one 
teacupful  of  yeast,  and  half  teaspoonful  of  salt. 
Set  it  in  a moderately  warm  place  and  let  it 
rise  till  very  light ; then  stir  in  a good  half  tea- 
spoonful of  soda,  two  eggs,  and  a tablespoonful 
of  melted  butter.  Add  flour  enough  to  make  a 
dough  stiff  enough  to  mould;  make  it  into 
small  round  cakes,  let  it  rise  fifteen  minutes, 
and  bake  in  a slow  oven. 

BISON.  ( See  Buffalo.) 

BITTERS. — Formerly  it  was  supposed  that 
there  was  one  peculiar  principle  common  to  all 
bitter  plants ; but  chemists  are  now  of  opinion 
that  there  are  various  bitter  principles  having 
different  properties,  and  that  the  bitter  taste 
proceeds  from  principles  varying  perhaps  in 
each  plant.  The  bitter  is  intense  in  quassia 
and  Peruvian  bark ; scarcely  less  so  in  hops, 
gentian,  and  broom ; and  it  is  found  in  various 
degrees  of  strength  in  coffee,  in  squills,  and  in 
the  bark  of  many  of  our  trees.  Many  varieties 
of  the  bitter  principle  are  deadly  poisons,  as 
strychnia,  the  bitter  of  Nux  Vomica;  the 
Morphia  of  opium  ; and  the  Nicotin  of  tobacco. 
Bitters  are  used  in  medicine  as  tonics  chiefly, 
and  sometimes  as  aperients.  Various  kinds  of 
“Bitters”  are  used  in  this  country  to  stimulate 
the  appetite,  being  usually  taken  with  sherry- 
wine.  They  are  used  in  the  preparation  of  the 
peculiar  American  drinks  called  “cock-tails." 
Bitters  in  the  American  market  are  generally 
patented  and  made  from  secret  formulae.  They 
are  alcoholic  liquids,  flavored  with  Angostura 
bark,  orange  peel,  Angelica  roots  and  seeds, 
or  similar  articles.  Those  most  in  use  are  the 
“ Stoughton  ” and  “ Angostura.” 

BITUMINOUS  COAL.— A kind  of  coal 
containing  bitumen  or  pitch,  and  burning  with 
much  flame  and  smoke.  It  is  much  used  in 
manufacturing  processes,  and  is  the  material 
from  which  illuminating  gas  is  distilled.  Good 
bituminous  coal  burns  freely  and  pleasantly  in 
an  open  fire,  with  a cheerful,  bright  flame, 
producing  carbonic  acid  in  large  quantity,  a 
small  proportion  of  sulphurous  vapor,  and 
other  ordinary  constituents  of  smoke.  It  is 
more  healthy  for  household  use  than  anthracite, 
inasmuch  as  it  promotes  ventilation  better  by 
free  burning,  and  does  not  throw  off  the  deadly 
carbonic  oxide  gas  with  which  anthracite  poisons 
the  air.  The  one  great  objection  to  bituminous 
coal  is  that  it  is  dirty  and  smoky ; but  this  can 
be  obviated  by  a properly  constructed  heating 
apparatus.  It  is  the  kind  of  fuel  that  is  in 
almost  universal  use  in  England  and  other 
European  countries,  and  also  in  the  Western 
States.  It  is  less  expensive  than  anthracite, 
but  a good  quality  cannot  always  be  procured 
where  anthracite  has  the  market. 

BLACKBERRIES. — This  useful  and  deli- 
cious fruit  grows  wild  in  great  abundance 
throughout  the  country,  but  of  late  several 


BLACKBERRIES 


BLACK  FISH 


35 


varieties  have  begun  to  be  regularly  cultivated  in 
the  garden.  The  choicest  of  these  are  the 
Lawton , Kittatinny , Wilson's  early,  and  Dor- 
chester. The  Wilson’s  Early  ripens  ten  days  to 
two  weeks  earlier  than  any  other  variety ; the 
Dorchester  follows  closely  after  it,  and  is  a 
much  sweeter  and  finer-flavored  fruit ; but  the 
Lawton  is  the  largest  and  best  that  cultivation 
has  yet  produced.  The  wild  varieties  are 
much  smaller  than  these,  have  more  seeds, 
and  not  nearly  so  rich  a flavor ; yet  even  they 
make  excellent  jam,  jelly,  puddings  and  the 
like.  Blackberries  begin  to  ripen  about  the 
loth  of  July  and  last  till  the  ist  of  September; 
they  are  at  their  best,  however,  from  about  the 
middle  of  July  to  the  middle  of  August. 
Eaten  at  this  time,  cold,  with  sugar  and  cream, 
they  are  only  inferior  to  strawberries  in  flavor, 
and  quite  as  wholesome.  {See  Compotes, 
Jam,  Jelly,  Pies  and  Puddings.) 

To  Dry. — Dry  carefully  in  the  sun,  like  ap- 
ples, and  keep  in  a cool,  dry  place.  This  is  a 
cheaper  way  than  any  other  of  preserving  them, 
and  they  make  excellent  pies. 

Blackberry  Cordial. — Put  the  berries  in  a 
kettle  over  the  fire,  with  a very  small  quantity 
of  water  in  the  bottom  of  the  kettle ; let  them 
boil  soft.  Strain  them  through  a bag,  pressing 
them  hard,  until  the  juice  is  all  separated  from 
the  seed.  Put  the  juice  on  the  fire  again, 
and  sweeten  to  the  taste  with  white  sugar ; 
throw  in  a little  bag  of  stick  cinnamon.  Let  it 
boil  half  an  hour ; take  it  off,  and  stir  in 
enough  brandy  or  whiskey  to  make  it  of  the 
desired  strength.  Bottle  when  cold  and  seal 
with  wax. 

Blackberry  Jam. — To  each  pound  of  berries 
allow  a pound  of  sugar.  Mix  them  well  togeth- 
er and  let  them  stand  half  an  hour ; then  boil 
slowly,  mashing  them  and  stirring  frequently. 
When  they  have  boiled  half  an  hour,  take  a 
little  of  the  syrup  up  in  a cup  and  set  it  in  a 
dish  of  cold  water ; if  it  shows  the  consistency 
of  stiff  jelly,  take  the  whole  from  the  fire,  if 
not,  boil  till  it  does. 

Blackberry  Jelly. — The  following  is  strongly 
recommended  by  “ Marion  Harland  : ” Put  the 
berries  in  a stone  jar;  set  this  in  a kettle  of 
tepid  water,  and  put  it  upon  the  fire.  Cover 
up  tightly,  and  let  it  boil,  until  the  fruit  is 
broken  to  pieces ; strain,  pressing  the  bag  (a 
coarse,  stout  one)  hard,  putting  in  but  a few 
handfuls  at  a time,  and  between  each  squeezing 
turning  it  inside  out  to  scald  off  the  pulp  and 
skins.  To  each  pint  of  juice  allow  a pint  of 
sugar.  Set  the  juice  on  alone  to  boil,  and 
while  it  is  warming  divide  the  sugar  into 
several  different  portions,  and  put  into  shallow 
pie-dishes  or  pans  that  will  fit  into  your  ovens ; 
heat  in  these,  opening  the  ovens  now  and  then 
to  stir  it  and  prevent  burning.  Boil  the  juice 
exactly  twenty  minutes  from  the  moment  it 
begins  fairly  to  boil.  By  this  time  the  sugar 
will  be  so  hot  you  cannot  bear  your  hand  in  it. 
Should  it  melt  around  the  edges  do  not  be  alarm- 
ed ; the  burned  parts  will  only  form  into  lumps 
in  the  liquid  and  can  easily  be  taken  out.  Throw 


the  sugar  into  the  boiling  juice,  stirring  rapidly 
all  the  while  ; it  will  hiss  as  it  falls  in  and  melt 
very  quickly.  Withdraw  the  spoon  when  you 
are  sure  the  sugar  is  dissolved.  Let  the  jelly 
just  come  to  a boil,  and  take  the  kettle  from 
the  fire  instantly.  Roll  your  glasses  or  cups 
in  hot  water,  and  fill  with  the  scalding  liquor. 
The  jelly  will  “ form  ” at  once.  Set  the  cups  in 
the  sun,  and  as  the  contents  shrink,  fill  up  one 
from  another.  When  fully  settled,  put  brandied 
tissue-paper  over  the  top  of  each  glass,  paste 
a thick  paper  over  it,  and  keep  in  a dry  place. 

Blackberry  (Stewed,  Nantucket.)— Take 
good  ripe  blackberries  and  put  them  in  a pre- 
serving kettle  without  water  ; heat  slowly  and 
stew  until  cooked.  Allow  a heaped  spoonful 
of  flour  to  every  quart  of  fruit ; mix  a little 
sugar  with  it;  stir  it  in  and  stew  until  it  thick- 
ens. Pour  into  moulds  and  place  on  ice.  This 
is  a delicious  dessert,  with  cream  and  sugar. 

Blackberry  Syrup.  — Take : — Blackberry 
juice,  I qt ; loaf  sugar,  X lb ; nutmegs,  cinna- 
mon, and  allspice,  X oz  each  ; cloves,  i table- 
spoonful ; brandy,  X pint. 

Take  one  quart  of  blackberry  juice;  half  a 
pound  of  loaf  sugar  ; quarter  of  an  ounce  each 
of  nutmegs,  cinnamon,  and  allspice ; a table- 
spoonful of  cloves.  Pulverize  the  spice,  and 
boil  all  for  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes.  When 
cold,  add  half  a pint  of  brandy.  This  is  excel- 
lent for  summer  complaint  and  cholera. 

Blackberry  Vinegar. — Put  the  berries  into 
a stone  jar,  and  mash  them  thoroughly ; add 
enough  cider-vinegar  to  cover  it  well;  stand  in 
the  sun  all  day  and  in  the  cellar  all  night,  stir- 
ring well  now  and  then ; strain,  and  put  as  many 
berries  in  the  jar  as  were  in  it  before,  pour  the 
strained  vinegar  over  them,  mash,  and  set  in 
the  sun  all  day ; strain  a second  time  next  day 
To  each  quart  of  this  juice  add  one  pint  of 
water  and  mix  ; then  to  each  three  pints  of  this 
mixed  juice,  add  five  and  a half  fiotmds  of 
white  sugar.  Place  over  the  fire  and  stir  until 
the  sugar  is  dissolved.  Let  it  come  to  a boil; 
remove  the  scum;  and  then  take  off  and  strain. 
Bottle  while  warm,  and  seal  with  wax. 

BLACK  FISH. — The  name  popularly  given 
to  tautog.  It  abounds  all  along  the  Atlantic 
coast  from  Long  Island  to  Maine,  and  though 
somewhat  dry  in  flavor,  is  a favorite  for  cook- 
ing. Some  do  not  like  it  boiled,  but  it  is  one 


of  the  best  of  fishes  for  baking.  It  is  generally 
found  alive  in  market,  weighs  from  one  to  five 
pounds,  and  is  in  season  from  June  to  Decem- 
ber. Those  weighing  about  a pound  are  best 
for  frying ; and  for  baking  those  weighing  three 
or  four  pounds  are  the  choicest.  For  cooking, 
See  Bass  and  Blue  Fish. 


36 


BLACKING 


BLANC-MANGE 


BLACKING.  — Can  generally  be  bought 
cheaper  than  it  can  be  made  at  home.  The 
following  recipes,  however,  are  excellent : 
Harness  (Blacking  for). — Take:- Mutton  suet, 
2 oz ; beeswax,  6 oz ; sugar  candy,  6 oz ; soft 
soap,  2 oz;  indigo,  i oz;  turpentine,  I gill. 

An  excellent  blacking  for  harness  is  made  by 
melting  two  ounces  of  mutton  suet  with  six 
ounces  of  beeswax  ; add  six  ounces  of  sugar 
candy,  two  ounces  of  soft  soap  dissolved  in 
water,  and  one  ounce  of  indigo  finely  powdered  ; 
when  melted  and  well  mixed,  add  to  the  whole 
a gill  of  turpentine.  Apply  with  a sponge  and 
polish  with  a dry  brush. 

Shoes  (Blacking  for). — Take  .--Ivory  black,  3 
oz  ; molasses,  2 oz  ; sulphuric  acid,  1 oz  ; gum 
arabic,  1 oz ; sweet  oil,  1 teaspoonful ; vinegar, 
1 pt. 

Mix  three  ounces  of  ivory  black;  two  ounces 
of  molasses;  one  ounce  of  sulphuric  acid;  one 
ounce  of  gum  arabic  dissolved  in  a little  water ; 
a tablespoonful  of  sweet  oil  ; and  a pint  of 
vinegar.  Stir  together  thoroughly.  This  will  be 
liquid  blacking.  It  may  be  made  into  a paste  by 
putting  in  only  a little  more  than  half  a pint  of 
vinegar. 

Stoves  (Blacking  for). — Take  .--Black  lead, 
Yz  lb ; eggs,  whites  of  3 ; sour  beer  or  porter. 

Mix  half  a pound  of  black  lead  with  the  whites 
of  three  eggs,  well  beaten  ; then  dilute  to  a thin 
paste  by  stirring  in  sour  beer  or  porter.  Apply 
with  cloth  or  brush,  and  rub  with  dry  brush. 

BLACK  LEAD. — A familiar  substance, 
much  used  for  giving  a black,  shiny  appearance 
to  grates,  fenders,  stoves,  and  other  articles  of 
cast-iron  furniture.  Notwithstanding  its  name, 
it  has  no  connection  with  metal  lead ; it  is  sim- 
ply a mineral  substance  dug  out  of  the  earth  in 
many  parts  of  the  world,  in  lumps,  and  reduced 
to  powder  for  household  use.  There  are  sev- 
eral qualities  of  black  lead,  but  the  highest  in 
price  is  the  cheapest ; the  poorer  kinds  are 
much  adulterated,  and  there  is  no  known  sub- 
stance the  addition  of  which  does  not  impair 
the  quality.  The  test  is  to  observe  the  bright- 
ness of  the  polish  it  will  give  with  least  trouble. 

BLACK  PUDDING.— A kind  of  sausage 
very  popular  in  Scotland,  made  of  hogs’  blood 
with  groats  and  various  kinds  of  herbs  such  as 
onions,  shallots,  thyme,  sage,  garlic,  marjoram, 
and  parsley,  to  which  lumps  of  fat  are  added. 
The  whole  is  inclosed  in  a piece  of  the  intestine 
of  the  pig  and  boiled,  but  it  is  usual  before 
eating  it,  to  cook  it  further  by  frying  it,  with  or 
without  previously  warming  it  by  immersion  in 
hot  water.  When  quite  fresh,  black  puddings 
are  savory  and  agreeable  ; but  as  blood  decom- 
poses rapidly,  they  are  liable  to  become  tainted 
before  being  cooked,  and  when  still  apparently 
fresh,  and  if  kept  long  after  being  cooked,  they 
lose  their  pleasant  flavor  and  become  sour  and 
acid.  The  negroes  of  the  Southern  States  make 
a preparation  similar  to  this  in  “ hog-killing  ” 
times. 

BLANCHING  (French,  Blanche).— To  ren- 
der white  ; also  to  remove  hulls  or  skins  from 
vegetables,  etc.,  as  almonds.  It  is  accom- 


plished by  putting  them  in  cold  water,  bring- 
ing to  a boil,  and  then  plunging  in  cold  water. 

BLANC-MANGE  (Almond).— Take  .-Milk, 
1 qt;  gelatine,  1 oz ; almond, 3 oz;  rose-water,  1 
tablespoonful,  white  sugar,  Y of  a cupful. 

Take  one  quart  of  milk  ; one  ounce  of  gela- 
tine ; three  ounces  of  almond  (with  three  or 
four  bitter  ones  among  them)  blanched  and 
pounded  in  a mortar,  with  a tablespoonful  of 
rose-water ; three  fourths  of  a cup  of  white 


sugar.  Heat  the  milk  to  boiling;  turn  in  the 
gelatine,  which  should  have  been  previously 
soaked  for  an  hour  in  a cup  of  the  milk;  add 
the  pounded  almonds,  and  stir  all  together  ten 
minutes  before  putting  in  the  sugar.  As  soon 
as  the  gelatine  has  dissolved,  remove  from  the 
fire  ; strain  through  a thin  muslin  bag,  pressing 
hard  to  get  the  flavor  of  the  almonds ; wet  a 
mould  with  cold  water,  pour  the  blanc-mange 
into  it,  and  set  in  a cold  place  till  solid. 

Arrowroot  Blanc-Mange. — Take  .--Arrow- 
root, 4 tablespoonfuls;  milk,  1 pt;  sugar,  and 
some  flavoring  essence. 

Wet  four  tablespoonfuls  of  best  Jamaica 
arrowroot  with  a little  cold  water  ; pour  over  it 
one  pint  of  boiling  milk,  stirring  all  the  time ; 
sweeten  and  flavor  (with  any  sort  of  essence) 
to  taste.  Turn  it  into  the  sauce-pan  ; stir  con- 
stantly while  it  just  comes  to  a boil ; then 
remove  from  the  fire,  turn  into  a mould,  and  set 
where  it  will  cool.  Serve  cold  with  sugar  and 
cream. 

Chocolate  Blanc-Mange  — Take:- Milk,  1 qt ; 
gelatine,  1 oz ; eggs,  3 ; grated  chocolate,  4 
tablespoonfuls  ; sugar,  nearly  a cupful ; vanilla, 
2 tablespoonfuls. 

Take  a quart  of  sweet  milk;  one  ounce  of 
gelatine,  soaked  in  a cup  of  the  milk  an 
hour ; three  eggs,  whites  and  yolks  beaten 
separately ; four  heaping  tablespoonfuls  of 
grated  chocolate  ; not  quite  a cupful  of  sugar ; 
and  two  teaspoonfuls  of  vanilla.  Heat  the 
milk  to  boiling ; pour  in  the  gelatine  and  milk 
and  stir  until  it  is  dissolved.  Stir  the  sugar 
into  the  beaten  yolks  ; then  beat  the  chocolate 
into  this,  and  pour  slowly  upon  the  mixture  the 
boiling  milk,  stirring  steadily  until  all  is  in. 
Return  the  whole  to  the  saucepan  and  heat 
gently,  stirring  carefully,  till  it  almost  boils. 
Then  remove  from  the  fire,  turn  into  a bowl, 
and  whip  in  lightly  and  briskly  the  beaten  whites 
with  the  vanilla.  Pour  off  into  moulds,  and  set 
away  to  cool. 

Cornstarch  Blanc-Mange. — Take  .--Corn- 


BLANKET 


BLEEDING 


37 


starch,  3 oz;  milk,  one  qt;  sugar,  2 tablespoon- 
fuls ; lemon  peel. 

Put  two  tablespoonfuls  of  sugar,  a few  pieces 
of  lemon  peel  ancj  a quart  of  milk  (having  re- 
served one  gill)  over  boiling  water ; when 
a film  covers  it  pour  in  the  gill  of  milk  in 
which  the  corn  starch  has  been  smoothly 
mixed ; stir  until  thick  and  leave  it  for  five 
minutes  to  cook  thoroughly.  Pour  into  a 
mould  wet  with  cold  water.  Serve  cold  with 
sugar  and  cream. 

Moss  Blanc-Mange. — Take:  Irish  moss, 
1 teacupful;  milk,  3 qts;  sugar;  flavoring  es- 
sence . 

Put  a teacupful  of  Irish  Moss  into  a dish 
and  pour  boiling  water  over  it;  leave  it  to 
stand  about  ten  minutes.  Then  wash  it  out 
and  throw  it  into  cold  water  to  rinse  it. 
Put  it  into  about  three  quarts  of  milk,  and 
boil  ten  minutes  or  till  it  thickens.  Add  sugar, 
and  flavor  to  taste.  Strain  through  a very 
fine  sieve  or  cloth  into  the  moulds  and  set 
away  to  cool. 

Rice-Flour  Blanc-Mange. — Take  .--Ground 
• sice,  4 tablespoonfuls ; milk,  1 qrt ; eggs,  whites 
of  three ; sugar ; lemon. 

Wet  four  tablespoonfuls  of  ground  rice  and 
a pinch  of  salt  with  a little  milk,  and  stir  into 
a quart  of  boiling  milk.  Sweeten  to  taste  with 
refined  sugar,  and  flavor  to  taste  with  lemon. 
Boil  eight  minutes,  stirring  all  the  time,  then  cool 
it,  and  add  the  whites  of  three  eggs  whipped  to  a 
froth.  Replace  it  on  the  fire,,  and  stir  con- 
stantly till  boiling  hot ; then  turn  it  into  moulds 
and  set  away.  This  is  an  excellent  dish  for 
the  sick. 

Wheat-Flour  Blanc-Mange. — Make  same 
as  cornstarch  or  rice-flour  blanc-mange. 

BLANKET. — Bed  blankets  are  of  various 
sizes  and  qualities.  In  buying  get  them  amply 
large,  as  nothing  is  more  uncomfortable  than 
scant  bed-clothes ; the  large  blankets  are  best 
also,  because  they  are  generally  made  of  better 
kinds  of  wool  than  the  smaller  ones.  To  be 
durable,  blankets  must  have  weight,  a closeness 
of  fabric,  and  a sufficient  quantity  of  wool  in 
them;  it  is  necessary  therefore  in  choosing 
to  look  not  merely  at  the  nice  appearance  of 
the  pile,  but  also  to  the  weight  and  texture. 
Fine  blankets  are  made  stouter  and  heavier 
than  coarse  ones.  Horse  blankets  are  made 
of  cheap  wool  and  are  woven  very  closely. 

BLEACHING.— The  process  by  which 
colors  or  discolorations  are  removed  from  fabrics 
and  raw  materials  and  their  natural  whiteness 
restored. 

Linen  and  Cotton. — When  cotton  and  linen 
are  discolored  by  washing,  age,  or  lying  out  of 
use,  the  best  way  of  restoring  their  whiteness 
is  to  spread  them  out  on  the  grass  and  expose 
to  the  dews  and  winds.  If  a quicker  process 
is  desired,  soak  the  cloth  twelve  hours  in  a 
lye  made  by  dissolving  one  pound  of  soda  in  a 
gallon  of  boiling  hot  water ; then  boil  for  half 
an  hour  in  the  same  liquid.  A mixture  must 
now  be  made  of  chloride  of  lime  with  eight 
times  its  quantity  of  water,  which  must  be 


well  shaken  in  a stone  jar  now  and  then  for 
three  days ; then  allow  it  to  settle  and,  when 
it  is  drawn  off  clear,  steep  the  cloth  in  it  for 
thirty-six  hours,  and  then  wash  out  in  the 
ordinary  manner. 

Wool. — In  bleaching  wool  it  is  necessary  first 
to  free  it  from  its  natural  grease;  this  is  done  by 
scouring  it  with  water  mixed  with  stale  wine. 
In  usihg  alkaline  lyes  for  this  purpose,  great 
caution  must  be  used  ; for  though  wool  is  in- 
soluble in  water  it  is  capable  of  being  dis- 
solved by  a strong  alkali.  Sulphurous  acid, 
or  the  vapor  produced  by  burning  sulphur,  is 
likewise  employed  for  whitening  wool. 

BLEEDING. — The  ordinary  cases  of  bleeding 
which  come  from  cuts  and  similar  accidents  are 
treated  of  elsewhere  ( see  Cuts);  but  it  is  very 
desirable  that  every  one,  even  children,  should 
understand  that  in  all  cases  of  severe  bleeding 
the  only  thing  which  can  be  safely  depended  on 


is  pressure.  Pressure  of  any  kind  properly 
applied  will  do ; but  if  nothing  else  is  at  hand 
and  the  bleeding  is  rapid,  press  your  finger  on 
or  into  the  bleeding  place  (as  shown  in  the  cut) 
and  keep  it  there  till  you  can  have  assistance. 

A “ vessel-compressor  fox  “ tourniquet,"  may 
be  applied  with  much  good,  if  the  bleeding  be 
anywhere  below  the  middle  of  the  thigh.  It  is 
hardly  likely  that  in  sudden  emergencies  the 
instrument  specially  made  for  the  purpose  will 


Stick  Tourniquet. 

be  at  hand,  but  a substitute  maybe  readily  con- 
trived thus  Tie  tightly,  at  some  little  distance 
above  the  wound,  a pocket-handkerchief  or 


38 


BLISTERS 


BLOODROOT 


cravat  once  or  twice  passed  round  the  limb; 
then,  obtaining  a piece  of  tough  stick,  push  it 
under  the  handkerchief,  and,  by  turning  the 
stick,  twist  the  handkerchief  more  and  more 
tightly,  until  the  bleeding  ceases.  As  soon  as 
this  result  has  been  attained,  fasten  the  stick 
by  another  handkerchief  tied  round  stick  and 
limb  together.  This  rude  tourniquet  may  save 
life  not  unfrequently,  by  enabling  the  injured 
person  to  be  transported  even  for  some  distance, 
without  fear  of  further  bleeding. 

Lungs  (Bleeding  at  the) — The  escape  of 
blood  from  the  mouth,  from  the  throat  or  lungs, 
is  of  little  consequence  when  due  to  some  acci- 
dental cause,  but  when  of  frequent  occurrence 
it  is  an  indication  of  lung  or  heart  disease. 

Treatment. — -Strict  rest  in  bed  with  the  head 
raised;  light  diet  and  ice-cold  drinks  ; mustard 
to  the  chest ; alum,  in  doses  of  20  grains  for  an 
adult,  once  in  two  hours.  A teaspoonful  of  salt' 
in  water  is  a popular  household  remedy. 

Nose  (Bleeding  at  the).  — This  is  rather 
beneficial  than  otherwise,  if  not  too  profuse. 
When  it  requires  to  be  stopped,  apply  cold 
water, ice,  or  cold  keys  to  the  back  of  the  neck; 
throw  back  the  head  and  raise  the  arms.  If 
this  does  not  stop  it,  dissolve  a little  alum  in 
water  and  squirt  it  up  the  nostril  with  a small 
syringe.  Should  this  fail,  send  for  the  doctor. 
It  is  not  desirable  to  plug  the  nose,  as  the 
bleeding  finds  its  way  to  the  top  of  the  throat. 
Make  a roll  of  paper  an  inch  long,  and  as 
thick  as  a lead  pencil,  and  crowd  it,  bent,  under 
the  upper  lip.  A chronic  tendency  to  nose- 
bleed may  be  permanently  cured  by  bathing  the 
neck  with  cold  water  every  morning. 

Stomach  (Bleeding  at  the). — It  is  a start- 
ling sight  to  see  a person  vomiting  blood,  but 
this  is  not  always  dangerous.  It  may  usually 
be  checked  by  lying  on  the  back  and  taking 
occasional  small  draughts  of  iced  water  or 
lemonade.  If  the  vomiting  is  severe,  give  two 
teaspoonfuls  of  vinegar  and  one  teaspoonful  of 
Epsom  salts  in  a wineglass  of  cold  water,  re- 
peating the  dose  every  half  hour  till  the  bleed- 
ing stops. 

BLISTERS. —Those  which  are  caused  by 
burns  or  scalds  are  treated  of  in  their  proper 
places.  (See  Burns  and  Scalds.)  Blisters 
are  often  produced  purposely  in  medical  prac- 
tice on  the  principle  that  morbid  action  in  one 
part  of  the  body  may  be  relieved  or  removed  by 
counter-irritation  in  another  and  neighboring 
part ; but  it  is  not  well  to  apply  them  except 
under  a physician’s  advice.  Many  substances 
will  produce  a blister,  such  as  mustard,  iodine, 
and  croton-oil ; but  the  powder  of  the  dry  can- 
tharis,  or  Spanish  fly,  operates  rapidly  and  with 
certainty,  and  is  now  almost  invaribly  used. 
The  plaster  of  Cantharides  is  usually  employ- 
ed as  a blister.  It  should  be  allowed  to  remain 
in  contact  with  the  skin  about  twelve  hours. 
After  its  removal  vesication  is  promoted  by  the 
application  of  a poultice. 

Cantharidal  Collodion  is  often  used  and  re- 
quires simply  to  be  painted  upon  the  skin. 
The  raw  surface  produced  in  this  manner  af- 


fords a means  of  introducing  medicinal  substan- 
ces ; morphine,  for  instance,  sprinkled  on  this 
raw  surface,  is  quickly  absorbed,  and  patients 
may  be  thus  relieved  when  direct  remedies 
could  not  lie  employed,  as  in  violent  colic  or 
cholera.  {See  Morphine.) 

To  Dress  a Blister.— Great  care  must  be 
taken  in  dressing  a blister;  unless  perfect 
cleanliness  is  observed,  an  unhealthy  sore  is 
liable  to  be  the  result.  Spread  thinly,  on  a 
linen  cloth,  an  ointment  composed  of  one  third 
beeswax  to  two  thirds  of  tallow ; lay  this  upon 
a linen  cloth  folded  many  times.  With  a sharp 
pair  of  scissors  make  an  aperture  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  blister  bag,  with  a little  hole  above 
to  give  it  vent.  Break  the  raised  skin  as  little 
as  possible.  Lay  on  the  cloth  spread  as  direct- 
ed. The  blister  should  be  dressed  as  often  as 
three  times  in  a day,  and  the  dressing  removed 
each  time. 

BLOOD  (as  Food).— Blood  consists  of  two 
parts,  coaguhun  or  clot,  and  the  serum , 
and  soon  after  it  is  drawn  it  separates  into 
these  spontaneously.  The  coagulum  is  the 
part  that  becomes  solid  and  has  the  red 
color ; it  is  very  analogous  to  flesh  and  possesses 
almost  equal  nutritive  properties.  The  serum 
is  nearly  identical  in  substance  with  whites  of 
eggs,  and  like  it  coagulates  by  heat.  The 
blood  of  animals  is  used  as  food,  and  is  ex- 
tremely digestible  and  wholesome, — that  of  the 
hog  and  ox  is  used  for  making  black  puddings ; 
but  there  is  a strong  popular  prejudice  against 
it  which  has  prevented  its  coming  into  general 
use.  Dr.  Edward  Smith,  in  his  book  on 
“ Food,”  observes  that  this  prejudice  is  formed 
partly  on  the  prohibition  to  the  Jews  as  contained 
in  the  Old  Testament,  and  partly  on  the  common 
belief  that  blood  may  be  diseased  without  show- 
ing any  signs  whereby  the  disease  might  be  recog- 
nized. “As  to  the  former,  ” he  says,  “it  may 
be  scarcely  necessary  to  add,  that  we  eat  a 
portion  of  blood  in  every  kind  of  flesh,  and  that 
even  when  the  animal  is  killed  by  cutting  his 
throat  after  the  Jewish  fashion,  it  is  not  pos- 
sible to  extract  all  the  blood  from  the  body, 
and  that  even  the  Jews  must  eat  some  of  it. 
Moreover,  blood  contains  nutritive  elements 
of  great  value,  and  is  inferior  only  to  the  flesh 
which  is  made  from  it....  If  there  be  any 
ground  for  fear  lest  diseased  germs  should 
exist  in  the  blood,  it  may  be  set  aside  by  the 
consideration  that  a temperature  of  21 2°  (that 
of  boiling)  if  freely  applied,  will  suffice  to 
destroy  all  known  elements  of  disease,  and  that 
blood  when  fresh  and  so  cooked  may  be  eaten 
with  impunity.  I think  it  would  be  folly  to  ob- 
ject to  the  use  of  blood  as  a food  under  proper 
restrictions,  one  of  which  should  be  that  the  ani- 
mal from  which  it  was  taken  should  not  be  in  a 
state  of  disease.”  {See  Black  Budding.) 

BLOODROOT. — Poison  ; Symptoms , thirst, 
faintness,  dimness  of  vision  ; Antidote ; Emetic. 
— A perennial  plant  of  the  poppy  family  which 
grows  throughout  the  United  States,  and  flow- 
ers beautifully  in  March  and  April.  When  any 
part  of  the  plant  is  broken  a juice  flows  out 


BLOUSE. 


BOILING 


39 


which  is  of  a deep  red  color,  hence  its  name. 
The  root  is  much  used  in  medicine.  It  is  dried 
and  pulverized,  and  adminstered  while  fresh, 
either  in  the  powder  or  in  pills  prepared  from  it, 
the  latter  being  preferable.  A decoction  is 
also  made  from  it,  in  many  parts  of  the  coun- 
try; but  it  should  be  used  sparingly  in  any 
form.  It  is  an  acrid  narcotic  and  emetic,  and 
over-doses  have  proved  fatal  in  some  cases. 
The  diseases  for  which  it  has  been  found  most 
useful  are  coughs,  colds,  croup,  and  fevers  : 
but  it  is  also  good  for  typhoid,  pneumonia,  scar- 
latina, rheumatism,  jaundice,  dyspepsia,  etc. 

BLOUSE. — (See  Sacque.) 

BLUEFISH. — Abound  along  the  North 
American  coast,  and  are  known  as  “ snapping 
mackerel,”  or  “ blue  mackerel,”  in  Virginia,  as 
“ Greenfish ; ” in  Carolina,  “ Slapjack ,”  and  in 
Philadelphia  as  “ Tailors.'" 


In  season  from  June  ist  to  the  end  of  Octo- 
ber : weight  from  two  to  six  pounds.  Excel- 
lent when  fresh,  they  soon  grow  strong  and 
rancid. 

Baked  Bluefish. — Stuff  the  fish  with  a dress- 
ing made  of  about  two  cups  of  bread-crumbs, 
a little  fat  pork  chopped  fine,  one  egg, 
plenty  of  parsley,  and  pepper  and  salt,  mixed 
well  together;  then  sew  the  fish  up.  Fry  a 
piece  of  pork  to  extract  the  gravy ; add  half  a 
teacup  of  hot  water;  lay  the  fish  in,  sprinkle 
it  over  with  flour  and  put  small  lumps  of  butter 
over  it ; bake  one  hour,  basting  often.  Dish 
the  fish  ; add  a little  water  and  flour  and  butter 
to  the  gravy ; let  it  boil  up  once,  and  turn  it 
over  the  fish  ; garnish  it  with  slices  of  lemon, 
or  grated  horseradish. 

Boiled  Bluefish. — Put  the  fish  in  a kettle, 
cover  with  cold  water ; add  five  stalks  of  parsley, 
a middle  sized  onion  sliced,  salt,  and  three 
tablespoonfuls  of  vinegar.  For  a fish  weigh- 
ing five  pounds,  boil  half  an  hour,  and  for  one 
of  eight  boil  three  quarters  of  an  hour.  Serve 
with  drawn  butter  and  eggs,  or  with  lemon 
sauce,  or  with  anchovy,  caper,  matelote,  or  to- 
mato. 

Broiled  Bluefish. — Split  in  the  back,  and 
clean  ; spread  melted  butter  over  it  inside  and 
out ; set  the  flesh  side  to  the  fire  first,  and  when 
this  is  browned  turn  the  other  side  ; a fish 
weighing  three  pounds  will  take  half  an  hour  to 
broil.  When  done  rub  a little  more  butter  on, 
season  with  pepper  and  salt,  and  serve  at  once. 

Fried  Bluefish. — Split  in  the  back,  clean 
thoroughly,  and  wipe  dry  ; then  dip  the  fish  in 
milk,  let  it  stand  five  minutes  to  dry,  roll  in 
flour,  and  fry.  Another  way  is  to  wipe  the 
fish  dry,  after  cleaning,  dip  in  beaten  egg,  roll 
in  bread-crumbs,  and  fry.  The  latter  is  espe- 
cially nice. 


BOILING. — This  consists  in  keeping  the 
food  for  a sufficient  time  in  water  heated  to  the 
boiling  point ; if  the  water  does  not  quite  boil, 
it  is  called  simmering.  Most  meats,  to  be  prop- 
perly  boiled,  should  be  put  over  the  fire  in  boil- 
ing water;  but  fowls  and  white  meat  generally 
require  the  water  but  a little  warm,  that  the  heat 
may  penetrate  gradually  to  the  centre.  All  cooks 
should  understand  that  water  is  converted  into 
steam  by  being  heated  to  the  boiling  point 
(2120),  and  that  heat  employed  in  the  effort  to 
raise  it  above  that  point  is  simply  wasted.  Some 
imagine  that  by  using  much  fire,  and  causing 
the  water  to  bubble  much,  it  is  made  hotter  in 


proportion  to  the  noise  it  makes ; but  this  only 
causes  the  water  to  evaporate,  or  boil  away  fas- 
ter, without  making  it  any  hotter,  and  as  the 
cooking  of  the  meat  depends  upon  the  temper- 
ature, and  not  on  the  quantity  of  water,  the 
meat  will  not  be  done  any  sooner  by  boiling 
fast,  but  on  the  contrary  will  in  many  cases  be 
hardened  on  the  outside,  and  longer  in  cooking. 
By  too  rapid  boiling  also,  the  meat  is  not  only 
rendered  harder,  but  its  savory  juices  are  to  a 
great  extent  evaporated  and  lost.  The  great 
art  of  boilin'g,  therefore,  for  economy  and  good 
cooking,  is  to  keep  the  water  just  under  the 
boiling  point ; and  after  it  once  boils,  surpris- 
ingly little  fuel  will  be  required  to  do  this.  Cooks 
should  also  bear  in  mind  that  boiling  meats  for 
soup,  and  boiling  them  for  solid  food  are  en- 
tirely different  processes  ; and  that  they  can- 
not have  in  the  same  pot  a well  cooked  piece 
of  meat,  and  a supply  of  nutritious  broth.  The 
process  for  obtaining  one  is  in  fact  diametrically 
opposite  to  that  required  for  the  other.  If  the 
object  be  to  make  a good  soup,  the  meat  should 
be  cut  in  pieces,  put  in  plenty  of  cold  water, 
raised  gradually  to  the  boiling  point,  and  then 
boiled  well  and  long.  ( See  Soup  Digestor, 
in  article  on  Soup.)  The  solid  residue  after 
this  is  done  will  be  about  as  nutritious  as 
a piece  of  sponge.  If  on  the  other  hand  a well 
cooked  piece  of  meat  is  desired,  it  should  be 
put  whole  in  the  pot  when  the  water  is  boiling, 
and  kept  just  under  the  boiling  point  till  done; 
the  liquid  after  this  process  may  be  used  as  a 
basis  for  soup. 

In  boiling  vegetables , some  require  soft 
water  and  others  hard(i.  e.,  containing  lime 
salts).  Soft  water  has  a greater  solvent 
power  than  hard,  and  when  the  object  is  to 
extract  the  juice  of  vegetables,  as  in  making 
tea  or  barley  water,  soft  water  must  be  used; 
but  when  the  juices  are  not  to  be  extracted 
but  preserved  in  the  vegetable,  then  hard  water 


40 


BOILS. 


BOOTS  AND  SHOES 


should  be  used  with  a little  salt,  and  the  vege- 
tables put  in  when  it  is  boiling.  Vegetables  to 
be  digestible  should  be  boiled  thoroughly ; and 
some  recommend  boiling  them  in  two  waters. 

In  the  case  of  fsh,  as  firmness  after  boiling 
is  a desirable  quality,  hard  water  is  decidedly 
the  best,  salt  should,  therefore,  always  be  put 
into  the  water  in  which  the  fish  are  boiled  and 
should  not  be  put  in  until  the  water  boils.  ( See 
Warren  Cooker. 


BOILS.  ( See  Abscess.) 

BOLOGNA-SAUSAGE.— A large  kind  of 
sausage,  made  in  a peculiar  way,  and  so  named 
because  manufactured  first  at  Bologna,  Italy. 
They  are  made  of  dry,  preserved  meats  ; and 
their  nutritive  value  is  much  greater  than  that 
of  fresh  sausage,  since  they  are  composed  of 
meat  entirely.  Their  flavor  is  agreeable  and 
varied  with  garlic  and  cloves;  and  their  nutri- 
tive value  is  equal  to  three  times  their  weight 
of  fresh  meat.  They  are  eaten  raw,  but  care 
should  be  taken  lest  they  are  made  of  diseased 
pork  which  would  be  liable  to  produce  trichin- 
ous  disease. 

BOMBAZET. — A thin,  cheap  woollen  stuff, 
plain  and  twilled,  with  warp  of  single  thread, 
pressed  and  finished  without  glazing.  It  is 
21  or  22  inches  wide. 

BOMBAZINE. — A mixed  fabric,  the  warp 
being  of  silk  and  the  woof  of  worsted.  It  can 
be  had  occasionally  in  colors  ; but  it  is  generally 
black,  and  is  used  as  an  article  of  mourning 
for  female  dress. 

BONE. — Bone  consists  chiefly  of  an  earthy 
base,  called  phosphate  of  lime  and  an  organic  ma- 
terial termed  chondrin.  Its  numerous  minute 
cells  and  interstices  are  filled  with  marrow, 
When  bones  are  broken  to  pieces  and  boiled  a 
long  time  in  water,  the  gelatine,  which  is  a modi- 
fication of  chondrin  produced  by  cooking, and  the 
oily  matter  are  extracted,  thus  making  an  excel- 
lent soup  or  gravy.  The  nutritive  value  of  bones 
is  not  very  great,  still  they  may  be  utilized  in  the 
preparation  of  soup  and  thus  give  variety  to 
the  table.  Hundreds  of  pounds  of  good  food 
are  thrown  away  every  year,  even  in  poor  fami- 
lies, by  neglecting  to  utilize  the  bones.  In 
making  soup  from  bones,  break  or  rasp  them 


into  very  small  pieces,  and  boil  all  day  over  a 
slow  fire.  Strain  before  using. 

BONE-FELON.  — A collection  of  matter 
forming  beneath  the  periosteum  (the  covering 
of  the  bone)  of  a joint  of  a thumb  or  finger. 
As  the  periosteum  resists  its  working  its  way 
outward,  there  are  few  things  which  cause  so 
much  suffering  while  it  lasts,  and  if  allowed  to 
have  its  own  way,  it  may  end  in  the  loss  of 
the  joint  affected  and  thus  deform  the  hand 
for  life.  Its  coming  is  manifested  by  a peculiar 
keen  throbbing,  thrilling,  and  persistent  pain  ; 
and,  at  this  stage,  progress  may  perhaps  be 
arrested  by  soaking  the  part  in  a mixture  made 
by  dissolving  a tablespoonful  of  saleratus  in 
half  a gill  of  vinegar.  Let  it  be  used  as  hot 
as  can  be  borne,  and  repeat  as  often  as  the 
pain  returns.  Painting  the  part  with  tincture 
of  Iodine,  and  then  placing  the  finger  for  ten 
or  fifteen  minutes  under  a stream  of  cool  water 
has  been  recommended.  If  matter  has  actually 
collected,  however,  it  must  be  lanced  at  once 
down  to  the  bone.  This  gives  relief  in  an 
hour,  which  well  repays  for  the  suffering  caused 
by  the  operation,  which  is  really  less  than  what 
is  endured  in  a minute  from  the  felon  itself. 
If  allowed  to  go  on,  the  felon  not  unfrequently 
destroys  the  bone,  before  coming  to  the  surface 
and  thus  causes  from  two  to  six  weeks  of 
intense  suffering  and  a life-long  deformity.  In 
such  a case  warm  poultices  should  be  con- 
stantly applied,  with  a view  of  lessening  the 
agony. 

BONED  FOWL — Chop  up  and  pound  in  a 
mortar  i lb  white  veal,  i lb  fat  pork,  ^ box 
mushrooms,  2 tablespoonfuls  parsley,  i nut- 
meg, white  pepper  and  salt,  i teaspoonful 
powdered  thyme,  and  the  raw  yolks  of  3 eggs. 
Cut  1 lb  of  fat  salt  pork  into  fillets  half  an  inch 
square  ; cut  also  the  remains  of  a cold  boiled 
tongue  in  fillets.  Make  an  incision  from  the 
neck  to  the  rump;  cut  the  neck  off  short;  draw 
the  crop,  pull  the  skin  well  back  over  the  breasts, 
disjoint  the  wings,  draw  the  skin  back  and  down 
the  breast;  clear  the  whole  body  down  to  the 
legs,  then  bend  them  back  to  start  them  from 
the  sockets,  and  cut  the  ligature ; when  free  keep 
pulling  the  skin  down  all  round  until  the  “ pope’s 
nose  ” is  reached,  cut  through  it  and  the  carcase 
is  out.  Make  layers  of  the  prepared  farcie  and 
fillets  of  tongue  and  pork,  inserting  rows  of 
mushrooms  until  full;  sew  it  up  the  back,  roll 
it  in  a long  towel,  secure  it  at  each  end,  place  it 
in  a stew-pan  with  the  scraps  and  trimmings 
chopped  fine,  1 carrot,  2 calts’  feet,  2 onions,  4 
cloves,  1 bay-leaf,  2 blades  mace,  a bouquet  of 
parsley,  garnished  with  2 sprigs  thyme,  3 green 
onions,  the  rind  of  1 lemon,  2 glasses  brandy, 
\ pint  white  wine,  and  white  broth  to  cover; 
boil  slowly  2 hours,  and  press  between  two 
dishes.  Clarify  the  braise  to  garnish  the  dish. 

BONNY  CLABBER.  (See  Clabber.) 

BOOKS.  (See  Furniture  and  Library.) 

BOOTS  AND  SHOES.— The  shoe  consists 
ofthesoleand  theupperleather.  Thepart  which 
covers  the  upper  is  called  the  vamp , and  the 
part  which  surrounds  the  heel  is  called  the  two 


BORDEAUX  WINES 


BRAIN  FEVER 


41 


quarters  j these  last  are  sewed  together  at  the  i 
heel,  and  to  the  vamp  at  the  middle  of  the  foot  \ 
on  each  side.  Roots  are  simply  shoes  with  a 
covering  extending  up  the  legs,  though  they 
are  made  usually  of  fewer  pieces.  The  best 
boots  and  shoes,  both  for  comfort  and  durability, 
have  the  uppers  made  of  soft  well-seasoned  calf- 
skin and  the  soles  of  stout  well-hammered  neats' 
leather.  Various  other  kinds  of  leather,  made 
from  the  skins  of  goats,  horses,  dogs,  and  seals, 
are  used  especially  for  ladies’  shoes  ; but  they 
are  lighter  than  calf-skin  and  not  so  effective  in 
keeping  out  the  wet.  A coarse  heavy  kind  of 
shoes,  made  with  the  uppers  of  canvas  and  the 
soles  of  wood  have  lately  been  introduced,  but 
though  superior  to  leather  in  point  of  durability 
and  ventilation,  they  have  met  with  little  favor. 
There  is  probably  no  portion  of  our  dress  in 
which  fashion  has  wrought  such  mischief  as  in 
the  case  of  boots  and  shoes.  None  of  our 
members  are  called  upon  to  do  more  important 
work  than  the  feet,  yet  instead  of  rendering 
their  task  as  easy  as  possible  they  are  fettered 
in  close,  hard,  ill-fitting  structures  of  which  the 
fancy  of  the  shoemaker  and  not  the  shape  of  the 
foot  seems  to  have  dictated  the  model.  The 
mistaken  idea  that  a very  small  foot  is  hand- 
some has  crippled  many  ; whereas  good  taste 
demands  that  the  foot  should  have  a certain 
proportion  to  the  rest  of  the  body.  But  fashion 
not  only  compels  the  habitual  wearing  of  shoes 
that  are  too  small,  but  now  and  then  devises  ec- 
centricities which  are  even  more  directly  and 
generally  hurtful.  The  high-heeled  shoes  with 
the  heels  running  forward  under  the  instep,  which 
ladies  have  been  wearing  the  last  few  years,  not 
only  deform  the  feet,  but  distort  the  muscles  of 
the  entire  leg,  and  destroy  the  equilibrium 
which  the  body  should  maintain  on  the  spinal 
column.  Boots  and  shoes  alike  should,  while 
fitting  snugly  around  the  instep,  be  large  enough 
to  feel  easy  at  all  times  and  especially  to  allow 
the  toes  some  liberty  of  action.  The  best 
method  of  securing  this  is  to  have  lasts  made 
especially  for  the  foot,  and  all  shoes  made  on 
them.  The  heel  also  should  be  broad  and  low, 
and  the  sole  flexible. 

To  make  Boots  and  Shoes  Waterproof. — 

Melt  in  an  earthen  vessel,  over  a slow  fire,  half 
a pint  of  linseed  oil,  one  ounce  of  beeswax, 
half  an  ounce  of  rosin,  and  one  ounce  of  oil  of 
turpentine.  If  new  boots  and  shoes  are  satu- 
rated with  this  mixture,  and  left  to  hang  in  a 
warm  place  for  a week  or  ten  days,  they  wall 
not  only  be  entirely  waterproof  but  the  leather 
will  also  be  soft  and  pliable.  The  soles  may 
be  rendered  waterproof  by  applying  a coat  of 
gum-copal  varnish  to  them,  and  repeating  it 
until  the  pores  of  the  leather  are  filled. 

BOUCHEE. — A small  Pate  (which  see). 

BORDEAUX  WINES.  (See  Claret.) 

BOUILLON.  (See  Soups.) 

BOX. — A comprehensive  genus  of  plants,  em- 
bracing numerous  species  which  proceed  in  reg- 
ular succession  from  extremely  small  shrubs  to 
trees  thirty  feet  in  height.  Several  varieties  of 
the  shrub  are  cultivated  in  our  gardens.  The 


leaves  are  thick  and  very  green,  and  the  flowers, 
which  are  quite  small,  grow  in  clusters  all  over 
the  plant.  The  dwarf  box  is  the  species  most 
generally  cultivated,  and  being  hardy  and  ever- 
green it  is  unequalled  for  forming  low  hedges 
or  borderings  for  garden-walls  and  flower-beds. 
If  kept  smoothly  trimmed  these  hedges  are 
very  pretty,  and  once  fairly  started  they  will 
last  for  years  without  requiring  attention.  To 
raise,  procure  plenty  of  shoots  from  the  florist 
and  plant  them  in  early  spring  close  together 
in  a rich,  dry,  and  slightly  sandy  soil.  If  in 
growing,  some  of  the  bushes  lag  behind  the 
others  considerably,  pull  them  up  and  substitute 
more  vigorous  plants. 

BRAIN  FEVER. — A term  often  inexactly 
used  to  denote  a variety  of  fevers  in  which 
brain  symptoms  predominate.  It  may  with 
propriety  be  employed  to  denote  the  fever  re- 
sulting from  inflammation  of  the  membranes 
covering  the  brain,  or  intense  congestion  of 
the  brain  itself.  Exposure  to  a hot  sun,  is  a 
well-established  cause  of  brain  fever.  It  may 
also  result  from  hard  drinking,  Bright’s  Disease, 
and  perhaps  rheumatism.  Acute  congestion 
may  likewise  arise  from  excessive  study,  grief, 
anxiety,  or  anger,  gormandizing,  etc.  The 
symptoms  are  a severe  pain  in  the  head,  red- 
ness or  suffusion  of  the  eyes,  violent  flushing 
of  the  face,  disturbed  sleep,  heat  of  the  head  and 
dryness  of  the  skin,  costiveness  and  sometimes 
retention  of  urine.  When  the  disease  has  ad- 
vanced these  symptoms  are  followed  by  delirium 
or  stupor. 

Treatment. — As  brain  fever  often  proves  fatal 
in  a few  days,  it  requires  the  most  speedy  treat- 
ment ; but  a mistake  is  very  dangerous,  and  a 
physician  should  be  called  immediately.  When 
the  symptoms  first  present  themselves,  the 
patient  should  be  kept  very  quiet  and  only  al- 
lowed to  partake  sparingly  of  farinaceous  food, 
such  as  water-gruel,  roasted  or  boiled  fruits,  jel- 
lies, preserves,  etc.  Bleeding  from  the  nose  af- 
fords great  relief,  and  when  it  comes  of  its  own 
accord  it  is  by  no  means  to  be  stopped,  but  pro- 
moted by  applying  cloths  dipped  in  warm  water 
to  the  part.  Linen  cloths  wetted  with  vinegar 
and  water,  cold  spirituous  lotions,  diluted  ether, 
or  iced  water  should  be  kept  constantly  on  the 
temples  and  forehead,  renewing  them  as  often 
as  they  become  dry.  Cold  applied  to  the  top 
of  the  head  by  means  of  wet  cloths  or  pounded 
ice  is  also  excellent.  The  feet  should  be  fre- 
quently placed  in  warm  water ; and  to  assist  in 
diminishing  the  tendency  of  blood  to  the  head 
it  should  be  elevated  by  pillows.  The  bowels 
if  confined  should  be  kept  open  with  purgatives, 
saline  laxatives  to  be  employed  by  preference, 
and  bromide  of  potassium,  in  fifteen  to  thirty 
grain  doses,  may  be  administered  every  3 to  4 
hours.  Besides  the  application  of  cold  to  the 
brain,  the  most  important  thing  is  to  keep  the 
sufferer  quiet ; he  must  be  soothed  and  humor- 
ed even  in  his  whims,  and  great  care  taken  that 
he  is  not  disturbed  or  excited  in  any  way.  The 
symptoms  of  recovery  are  a reduction  of  the 
heat  about  the  head,  a return  to  consciousness 


42 


BRAISING 


BRAWN 


and  power  of  sleep.  An  enfeeblcment  of  the 
memory  frequently  persists  for  some  weeks 
following  the  attack. 

BRAISING. — This  is  simply  a more  expen- 
sive mode  of  stewing  meat.  The  following 
French  receipt  will  explain  the  process  : We 

would  observe,  however,  that  the  layers  of  beef 
or  veal  in  which  the  joint  to  be  braised  is  im- 
bedded can  afterwards  be  converted  into  an 
excellent  soup,  gravy,  or  glaze  ; and  that,  con- 
sequently, there  need  be  no  waste,  no  unreason- 
able degree  of  expense  attending  it ; but  it  is  a 
troublesome  process,  and  quite  as  good  a 
result  may  be  obtained  by  simmering  the  meat 
in  very  strong  gravy.  Should  the  flavor  of  the 
bacon  be  considered  an  advantage,  slices  of  it 
can  be  laid  on  the  meat,  and  tied  to  it  with  a 
piece  of  tape. 

“ To  braise  the  inside  (or  small  fillet , as  it 
is  called  in  France)  of  a sirloin  of  beef : Raise 
the  fillet  clean  from  the  joint ; and  with  a sharp 
knife  strip  off  all  the  skin,  leaving  the  surface 
of  the  meat  as  smooth  as  possible ; have  ready 
some  strips  of  unsmoked  bacon,  half  as  thick 
as  your  little  finger,  roll  them  in  a mixture  of 
thyme  finely  minced,  spices  in  powder,  and  a 
little  pepper  and  salt.  Lard  the  fillet  quite 
through  with  these,  and  tie  it  round  with  tape 
in  any  shape  you  choose.  Line  the  bottom  of 
a stewpan  (or  braising  pan)  with  slices  of  bacon ; 


next  put  in  a layer  of  beef  or  veal,  four  onions, 
two  bay  leaves,  two  carrots,  and  a bunch  of 
sweet  "herbs,  and  place  the  fillet  on  them. 
Cover  it  with  slices  of  bacon,  put  some  trim- 
mings of  meat  all  round  it,  and  pour  on  to  it 
half  a pint  of  good  beef  broth  or  gravy.  Let 
it  stew  as  gently  as  possible  for  two  hours  and 
a half ; take  it  up,  and  keep  it  very  hot ; strain, 
and  reduce  the  gravy  by  quick  boiling  until  it 
is  thick  enough  to  glaze  with  ; brush  the  meat 
over  with  it ; put  the  rest  in  the  dish  with  the 
fillet,  after  the  tape  has  been  removed  from  it, 
and  send  it  directly  to  table.” 

Equal  parts  of  Madeira  and  gravy  are  some- 
times used  to  moisten  the  meat. 


No  attempt  should  be  made  to  braise  a joint 
in  any  vessel  that  is  not  very  nearly  of  its  own 
size.  Braising-pans  are  of  various  forms. 
The  best  is  that  represented  in  Ihe  accompany- 
ing illustration  ; but  a stew-pan  of  modern  form, 
or  any  other  vessel  that  will  admit  of  coals 
being  placed  upon  the  lid,  will  answer  the 
purpose. 

BRANDY. — Brandy  is  made  by  distillation 
from  wine,  and  genuine  brandy  can  be  made  in 
no  other  way  ; it  is,  therefore,  in  its  pure  state 
the  choicest  and  most  agreeable  of  the  class  of 
ardent  spirits.  The  best  brandy  is  made  from 
the  white  wines  of  the  Cognac  and  Annagnac 
district  of  France  ; but  as  1000  gallons  of  wine 
makes  only  ioo  to  150  gallons  of  brandy,  it  may 
be  imagined  that  some  inferior  wines  are 
generally  substituted  for  delicate  and  highly 
flavored  wines.  In  point  of  fact,  however,  the 
greater  part  of  the  brandy  consumed  all  over  the 
world,  is  not  made  from  wine  at  all,  but  is  simply 
alcohol  distilled  and  flavored  with  oil  of  Cognac. 
Fiery  potato  spirits  are  also  frequently  convert- 
ed into  so-called  brandy  by  distillation  and 
“flavoring.”  Among  the  adulterations  of 
brandy,  hot  and  pungent  substances,  such  as 
pepper,  capsicum,  ginger,  etc.,  are  added  to  give 
the  appearance  of  strength.  They  may  be  de- 
tected by  evaporating  a little  of  the  suspected 
brandy  nearly  to  dryness,  when  the  acrid  and 
burning  taste  will  be  sensibly  increased  if  such 
substances  have  been  used. 

The  liquors  manufactured  in  this  country 
and  known  as  apple  brandy , peach  brandy, 
blackberry  brandy , and  the  like,  are  not  bran- 
dies at  all  but  a radically  different  spirit. 

BRANT. — A fine  bird  much  sought  after  by 
gunners,  and  known  variously  as  “ horsefoot 
snipe,”  and  “ turnstone.”  It  is  very  rich  and 
savory,  and  may  generally  be  found  in  the 
markets  in  April'and  May,  and  again  in  Sep- 
tember and  October.  It  is  scarcely  suitable  for 
eating  purposes  at  other  times  of  the  year. 
For  method  of  cooking  see  Snipe. 

BRASIER.  (See  Warming-Pan.) 

BRASS-WARE. — Before  the  invention  of 
tinned  iron,  brass  was  the  most  popular  sub- 
stance for  making  pots  and  kettles,  sauce-pans, 
stew-pans,  and  similar  utensils.  It  is  less  liable 
to  rust  or  be  acted  upon  by  acids  and  other 
corrosive  substances  than  copper,  and  is  con- 
sequently easy  to  keep  clean,  and  safer  than 
the  latter.  It  is  far  from  desirable  however  as 
a material  for  cooking  utensils,  and  since  iron 
is  both  cheaper  and  better,  it  should  for  this 
purpose,  at  least,  go  entirely  out  of  use.  Into 
ornamentation  of  furniture  of  course,  it  enters 
appropriately  enough. 

To  Clean. — The  best  substance  for  clean- 
ing brass-ware  is  bath-brick,  pulverized,  and 
rubbed  on  vigorously  with  a coarse,  damp  rag. 
Whiting  applied  dry,  is  also  good. 

BRAWN. — The  prepared  flesh  of  the  wild 
boar  or  domestic  hog,  usually  made  of  the  head, 
cheeks,  tongue,  and  ears.  It  is  a peculiar 
kind  of  fat,  and  is  very  nutritious  for  those 
whose  stomachs  can  dissolve  it. 


BRAZIL  NUT 


BREAD 


43 


To  Make. — Take  a pig’s  head  weighing 
about  six  pounds ; one  pound  of  lean  beef ; 
one  teaspoonful  of  salt;  one  half  teaspoonful 
each  of  black  pepper,  cayenne  pepper,  and  mace; 
a pinch  of  cloves ; and  a small  onion  minced 
very  fine.  Clean  the  head  carefully,  and  stew 
with  the  beef  in  enough  cold  water  to  cover. 
When  the  bones  will  slip  out  easily,  remove 
them,  after  draining  off  the  liquor;  chop  the 
meat  up  fine  while  it  is  hot,  put  in  the 
seasonings,  and  pour  all  into  a mould  that  has 
been  wetted  inside.  By  having  special  moulds 
the  brawn  can  be  made  into  a great  variety  of 
fanciful  shapes. 

BRAZIL-NUT. — These  nuts,  as  their  name 
implies,  are  a native  of  South  America.  They 
have  a large,  white  kernel  in  a brown,  rough, 
three-cornered  shell,  taste  like  the  hazel-nut, 
and  are  extremely  rich  and  oily.  They  are  in- 
digestible and  should  be  eaten  rarely ; children, 
especially,  should  never  be  permitted  to  eat  them. 
The  fresh  nuts  arrive  from  March  to  May,  but 
they  are  not  good  until  they  have  dried  several 
months. 

BREAD. — Bread  is,  in  a peculiar  sense,  the 
“ staff  of  life,”  and  is  one  of  the  most  important 
subjects  in  the  whole  range  of  domestic  econ- 
omy. Badly  cooked  meats,  or  pastry,  or  vege- 
tables, may  be  endured  with  more  or  less  of 
patience  provided  there  is  plenty  of  good  whole- 
some bread  to  fall  back  upon, — they  may  even 
be  dispensed  with  for  a time  ; but  if  the  bread 
is  bad,  the  health  of  the  family  cannot  possibly 
be  maintained.  Bread-making  is  an  art  which 
should  be  thoroughly  mastered  by  every  house- 
keeper in  her  earliest  experience  as  such;  and 
the  young  women  should  be  taught  it  as  they 
grow  up,  even  if  they  attempt  no  other  branch 
of  the  art  of  cookery.  For  the  making  of  good 
bread  three  things  are  indispensable  : the  right 
kind  of  flour,  good  yeast,  and  careful  baking. 
The  flour  should  be  the  best  that  can  be  had,  and 
above  all  things  dry  ; new  flour  cannot  be  made 
to  answer,  it  should  be  at  least  three  months 
old,  and  should  also  be  elastic  and  odorless. 

New  flour  may  sometimes  be  ripened  for  use 
by  spreading  enough  for  each  baking  in  a large 
tray  and  exposing  it  to  the  hot  sun  for  several 
hours,  or  by  setting  it  near  a fire  for  the  same 
length  of  time ; but  this  is  troublesome,  and 
not  always  successful,  and  it  is  best  to  return 
the  flour  at  once  if  it  is  found  not  to  be  per- 
fectly dry.  (The  following  are  good  tests  in 
buying  flour;  on  squeezing  a handful  it  should 
retain  the  print  of  the  skin ; the  grain  should  be 
perceptible  in  rubbing  between  the  thumb  and 
finger.)  Good,  strong  yeast  is  also  indispen- 
sable, for,  without  it,  bread  cannot  be  light  and 
digestible.  In  the  cities  what  is  known  as 
distillery  yeast  may  usually  be  had  of  the 
baker,  and  occasionally  good  yeast  cakes ; but 
home-brewed  yeast  is  most  reliable,  and  con-, 
sequently  most  satisfactory  to  use.  ( See 

Yeast.)  After  the  dough  is  mixed, — it  should 
be  made  as  soft  as  it  can  be  conveniently 
handled, — it  must  be  set  for  several  hours  in  a 
warm  (not  too  warm)  place  where  it  will  be  ex- 


posed to  a steady,  even  temperature.  Too  much 
heat  excites  too  rapid  fermentation,  and  makes 
the  bread  sour;  too  little,  on  the  other  hand, 
arrests  the  process,  and  makes  the  bread  heavy, 
lumpy,  and  soggy.  Before  being  put  into  the 
oven  the  dough  should  be  kneaded  till  it  is 
elastic  and  flexible  as  india-rubber.  The  bak- 
ing is  the  part  of  the  process  in  which  bread  is 
most  frequently  spoiled,  and  this  should  be 
carefully  attended  to.  The  ovens  must  be  of 
just  the  right  heat  when  the  pans  are  first  put 
in,  and  the  heat  must  be  kept  uniform  while 
the  cooking  is  in  progress,  if  a mistake  is  made 
in  either  case  the  baking  is  spoiled.  As  to  the 
degree  of  heat,  it  depends  somewhat  on  the 
substance  of  which  the  bread  is  made,  but  in 
no  case  should  the  oven  be  too  hot.  The  best 
plan  is  to  use  a thermometer  and  decide  the 
degree  by  experiment ; but  in  the  absence  of 
this,  if  the  bared  arm  can  be  held  in  the  oven 
for  half  a minute  it  is  about  right  for  the 
dough. 

To  Make  (Plain). — Put  eight  quarts  of 
flour  (sifted)  into  the  tray ; pour  in  a pint  of 
home-made  yeast,  mix  with  a pint  of  warm 
water ; then  work  them  together  till  a thick 
batter  is  made.  Scatter  a handful  of  flour  over 
this  batter,  lay  a warm  towel  over  the  whole, 
set  it  in  a warm  place  to  rise.  This  is  called  the 
sponge.  When  the  sponge  has  risen  so  as  to 
crack  the  flour  on  the  top,  which  will  take  from 
three  to  five  hours,  scatter  over  it  two  table- 
spoonfuls of  fine  salt ; add,  in  small  quantities 
at  a time,  about  two  quarts  of  warm  milk  or 
water ; knead  the  whole  thoroughly,  adding 
flour  enough  to  make  a soft  dough  ; then  shape 
it  into  a round  mass,  and  set  it  in  a warm  place  ; 
when  light,  mould  into  loaves,  and,  when  these 
are  light,  bake  from  thirty  to  sixty  minutes  ac- 
cording to  the  size. 

Barley  Bread. — This  is  very  popular  in 
Scotland,  Norway  and  all  countries  where  wheat 
will  not  grow,  but  is  seldom  made  in  this  country. 
It  is  wholesome,  however,  and  nutritious,  and 
very  palatable  when  eaten  warm  with  butter. 
Use  no  yeast : but  mix  the  barley-meal  with 
warm  water  and  a little  salt  to  the  consistency 
of  a stiff  dough.  Bake  in  flat  cakes  either  in 
the  oven  or  before  the  fire. 

Boston  Brown  Bread. — Take : Home-made 
yeast,  i teacupful;  flour,  3 teacupfuls;  potatoes, 
6 ; water,  1 qt ; lard,  2 tablespoonfuls : brown 
sugar,  2 tablespoonfuls;  Indian  meal,  2 qts  ; 
rye  flour,  1 qt ; soda,  1 teaspoonful ; salt,  1 table- 
spoonful. 

Make  a sponge  with  one  teacupful  of  yeast, 
six  potatoes  mashed  fine  with  three  cups  of 
flour,  one  quart  of  warm  water ; two  table- 
spoonfuls of  lard,  and  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
brown  sugar.  Set  to  rise  over  night  or  for 
five  or  six  hours.  When  light,  sift  into  the 
bread-tray  two  quarts  of  Indian  meal ; one 
quart  of  rye  flour  ; and  one  tablespoonful  each 
of  soda  or  saleratus  and  salt;  mix  this  up  very 
soft  with  the  risen  sponge,  adding  warm 
water,  if  needed,  and  work  in  gradually 
half  a teacupful  of  molasses,  Knead  well 


44 


BREAD 


and  set  to  rise  six  or  seven  hours.  Then 
work  over  again,  divide  into  loaves,  and 
set  to  rise  again  for  one  hour.  Then  bake 
four  hours  in  a moderately  heated  oven. 

Brown  Bread. — Take:  Indian  meal,  i qt ; 
rye  flour,  i qt ; water,  i pt ; home-made  yeast, 
i teacupful ; salt,  to  taste. 

Take  a quart  of  Indian  meal,  scald  it  with  a 
pint  of  hot  water,  and  when  it  becomes  luke- 
warm, stir  into  it  a cjuart  of  rye  flour,  a teacup- 
ful of  yeast,  the  usual  quantity  of  salt:  and 
enough  tepid  water  to  make  a rather  stiff  dough, 
set  to  rise  as  with  other  bread,  and  bake  in  two 
loaves  an  hour  and  a half. 

Corn  Bread. — Take:  Indian  meal,  I qt. ; 
boiling  water,  i qt ; yeast,  i teacupful  ; salt. 

Mix  a quart  of  Indian  meal  with  a little  cold 
water  ; stir  it  into  a quart  of  boiling  water  and 
let  it  boil  an  hour  ; stir  in  a little  salt,  take  it 
from  the  fire  ; let  it  stand  till  luke-warm,  then  stir 
in  half  a teacupful  of  yeast  and  enough  Indian 
meal  to  make  it  of  the  consistency  of  dough. 
Set  to  rise  several  hours,  and  when  light,  bake 
in  two  loaves  an  hour  and  a half. 

Graham  Bread. — Take:  Graham  flour,  3 qts. ; 
warm  water,  1 qt.  ; home-made  yeast,  1 gill ; 
syrup,  1 gill ; salt,  1 tablespoonful  ; soda,  1 even 
teaspoonful. 

Mix  all  the  ingredients  thoroughly,  put  it  in 
well-buttered  pans  and  leave  it  in  a warm  place 
to  rise  ; or  let  it  rise  slowly  over  night  in  the 
bowl  in  which  it  was  mixed,  and,  unless  very 
light  in  the  morning,  let  it  stand  fifteen  or 
twenty  minutes  in  the  pans  before  putting  it  in 
the  oven.  Bake  about  an  hour  and  a half. 

H — Thin  a pint  of  light  bread  sponge  with 
a pint  of  warm  water  ; add  two  tablespoonfuls 
of  molasses,  a teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  sufficient 
Graham  flour  to  make  a batter  that  can  be 
stirred  with  a spoon ; put  it  in  well-buttered 
pans,  and  when  light,  bake.  A part  of  this  may 
be  baked  in  gem-pans  for  breakfast  or  tea.  If 
wanted  for  tea  and  the  bread  is  light  in  the 
morning,  keep  it  in  a cold  place  until  half  an 
hour  before  the  time  for  baking. 

Indian  Pone. — Take:-lndia.n  meal,  1 qt; 
lard,  1 tablespoonful;  salt,  1 teaspoonful;  water 
or  milk. 

Take  one  quart  of  Indian  meal;  mix  it 
with  enough  hot  water  to  make  a moderately 
stiff  dough,  work  in  a tablespoonful  of  lard,  and 
a teaspoonful  of  salt ; mould  into  thick  oblong 
loaves  (or  pones),  rounded  on  top  ; and  bake  in 
a rather  quick  oven  till  brown.  Eat  hot  with 
butter.  Milk  instead  of  water  is  an  improve- 
ment. 

Oatmeal  Bread. — This  is  seldom  made  in  this 
country,  but  it  is  very  wholesome  and  not  un- 
palatable. Make  as  directed  for  barley  bread. 
When  made  thick,  this  bread  in  Scotland  is 
called  bannock  ; the  term  cakes  is  applied  to  the 
thin  loaves,  which  are  first  baked  upon  a hot 
plate  or  griddle  till  they  are  stiff  enough  to  stand 
upon  their  edges,  and  then  toasted  on  the  hearth 
before  the  fire  till  they  are  crisp.  In  farm- 
houses they  bake  a considerable  quantity  at 
once,  and  keep  them  on  a rack  fixed  to  the  ceiling 


to  be  eaten  when  needed.  They  may  be  kept  a 
long  time  if  the  room  is  dry. 

Potato  Bread.  — Take  .--Potatoes  ; flour ; 
yeast ; lukewarm  water. 

Boil  good  mealy  potatoes  soft,  then  peel 
and  mash  them  fine.  Sift  flour  upon  them 
in  the  proportion  of  two-thirds  of  flour  to  one- 
third  of  potatoes ; add  the  yeast,  and  enough 
lukewarm  water  to  bring  the  whole  to  the  con- 
sistency of  dough.  Knead  well.  This  bread 
will  rise  more  quickly  than  common  wheat 
bread,  and  it  should  be  baked  as  soon  as 
risen,  for  it  turns  sour  very  soon. 

Pumpkin  Bread. — Take  .--Pumpkin  ; yeast; 
Indian  meal ; salt. 

Take  a ripe  pumpkin,  stew  and  strain;  add 
yeast,  Indian  meal  enough  to  stiffen  it,  and  a 
little  salt ; set  to  rise,  and  bake  in  the  usual  way. 
This  makes  excellent  bread. 

Rice  Bread. — Take : Rice,  1 pt ; rice  flour 
or  wheat  flour,  2 qts  ; home  made  yeast,  half  a 
teacupful ; salt  1 teaspoonful ; milk. 

Boil  a pint  of  rice  till  soft,  and  mix  it  with 
two  quarts  of  rice  flour  or  wheat  flour.  When 
cool  add  half  a teacupful  of  yeast,  a teaspoon- 
ful of  salt,  and  enough  milk  to  make  a soft 
dough.  When  it  has  risen,  bake  in  small  but- 
tered pans. 

n.  Take  .--Rice  flour,  3 pts  ; wheat  flour  ; 
milk  and  water ; yeast,  pt ; salt  2 teaspoonfuls. 

Mix  three  pints  of  rice  flour  with  cold 
milk  and  water  to  a thin  gruel,  and  boil  it  three 
minutes  ; then  stir  in  wheat  flour  till  as  stiff  as 
can  be  stirred  with  a spoon.  When  this  has 
cooled  down  to  blood  heat,  add  half  a pint  of 
home-brewed  yeast,  and  two  level  teaspoonfuls 
of  salt.  Knead  into  soft,  elastic  dough,  and 
when  light,  bake  in  a moderately  quick  oven. 

Rye  Bread. — Take  .--Indian  meal,  3 cupfuls  ; 
rye  flour,  4 cups ; wheat  flour,  6 cups  ; sugar,  1 
cup ; home-made  yeast,  1 cup  ; warm  water. 

Mix  three  cups  of  Indian  meal,  scalded,  with 
four  cups  of  rye  flour,  six  cups  of  wheat  flour, 
one  cup  of  sugar,  one  cup  of  yeast,  and  enough 
warm  water  to  reduce  to  the  consistency  of  soft 
dough.  Knead  well,  and  when  risen  bake 
three-quarters  of  an  hour  in  small  buttered 
pans,  or  cups. 

II.  Take:-Rye.  flour ; milk  or  water  ; yeast ; 
butter ; salt. 

Wet  up  rye  flour  with  lukewarm  milk  (water 
will  do  but  is  not  so  good).  Put  in  the  same 
proportion  of  yeast  as  for  wheat  bread.  For 
two  quarts  of  flour  put  in  a teaspoonful  of 
salt,  and  a tablespoonful  of  melted  butter. 
Knead  into  a soft  dough,  and  set  to  rise.  When 
light,  put  it  into  pans,  without  moulding  it  up ; 
let  it  remain  in  them  twenty  minutes,  and  then 
bake  slowly  three  or  four  hours. 

Stale  Bread  (to  improve). — Steam  it  half 
an  hour  or  so  and  shut  it  up  from  the  air. 

Unleavened  Bread. — Take  .--Flour  ; warm 
water  or  milk  ; lard  ; salt. 

This  is  made  without  yeast  or  fermentation, 
and  is  the  simplest  and  easiest  way  to  pre- 
pare bread,  though  not  the  healthiest.  Flour 
made  into  a stiff  dough  with  warm  water  or 


BREAD-CRUMBING 


BREAKFAST 


45 


milk,  a little  lard,  and  suet,  and  baked  in  thin 
cakes,  is  very  palatable  eaten  hot.  It  may  be 
baked  as  soon  as  mixed.  The  Jews  make  the 
bread  in  this  way  which  they  use  for  the 
Passover  or  “ feast  of  unleavened  bread.” 

BREAD-CRUMBING  is  performed  by  roll- 
ing in  dry,  finely-sifted  bread-crumbs,  then 
into  a mixture  of  one  egg  beaten  with  one- 
third  of  a cup  of  milk — salt  and  white  pepper  to 
taste — then  into  bread  crumbs  again,  great  care 
being  exercised  to  cover  the  whole  surface,  to 
prevent  the  grease  from  entering.  In  bread- 
crumbing  sweet  dishes,  dispense  with  the  salt 
and  pepper  in  the  egg  mixture.  To  broil  any- 
thing bread-crumbed,  proceed  as  described, 
finishing  by  dipping  in  melted  butter  and  in 
bread-crumbs  again. 

BREAKFAST. — The  substantial  and  hearty 
meal  partaken  of  by  Americans,  is  the  bone  of 
a very  great  contention.  On  the  one  hand  it  is 
maintained  it  is  the  ruin  of  digestion  and  the 
most  prolific  source  of  dyspepsia,  etc.  On  the 
other  hand  it  is  shown  that,  for  a busy,  active 
people,  and  also  for  a people  who  generally 
have  only  two  meals  a day — breakfast  and 
dinner — the  meal  is  none  too  substantial.  How- 
ever, which  is  right  or  wrong,  must  be  a 
matter  of  individual  opinion  and  experience. 

The  difficulty  lies  in  what  is  eaten  at  break- 
fast. More  attention  could  be,  with  very  great 
advantage,  bestowed  on  this  meal.  The  table, 
to  begin  with,  could  be  fresher  and  more  cheer- 
ful, with  flowers  and  fruit ; table-cloth  and  nap- 
kins white,  with  a colored  border  too,  have  a 
much  more  pleasing  effect  than  a cloth  entirely 
colored.  Too  often  the  breakfast-room  is  about 
the  worst  for  the  purpose  in  the  house — dark, 
dismal,  and  chilly. 

The  dishes  should  be  varied ; a change 
should  be  striven  for  every  day.  The  beef- 
steak one  day  should  be  plain,  another  day 
with  fine  herbs  or  stewed  tomatoes  over  it, 
with  brown  oyster  sauce  or  onion  sauce,  etc. ; 
then  vary  it  with  chops,  eggs,  kidneys  broiled, 
stewed,  or  sauti ; with  fish,  in  the  many  differ- 
ent ways  described  ; tripe,  oysters,  liver,  and 
the  many  other  preparations  given,  such  as 
savory  hashes  of  game,  beef,  lamb  ; with  slices 
of  cold,  boiled,  and  roast  beef,  mutton,  etc., 
grilled  or  devilled,  and  served  with  any  sort  of 
piquant  sauce. 

Fresh  fruit  and  salads  are  to  be  commended 
for  breakfast — very  relishable  and  extremely 
healthful.  Oatmeal,  too,  is  to  be  particularly 
recommended  ; eat  it  the  first  thing  at  break- 
fast every  morning.  Eschew  too  liberal  indul- 
gence in  hot  breads ; accustom  yourselves  to 
eating  bread  (home  made)  twelve  hours  old. 

Breakfast  parties  are  rapidly  coming  into 
fashion — -they  have  been  popular  abroad  some 
time — usually  served  at  9 a.  m.  to  12  M.  Of 
course  the  earlier  they  are  served  the  more  ap- 
propriate they  are  as  breakfasts.  Some  bills 
of  fare  are  given  as  selections  for  parties  and 
also  for  family  use.  The  dishes  marked  in 
italics  may  be  left  out,  if  thought  too  elaborate, 
without  spoiling  the  effect  of  the  breakfast. 


FAMILY  BREAKFASTS. 

SPRING. 

Oatmeal  and  milk. 

Stewed  apples. 

Rolls,  butter.  Coffee,  chocolate,  broma,  or  tea. 
Beefsteak,  broiled  oysters. 

Lyonnaise  potatoes,  poached  eggs  on  toast. 
Rice  cakes,  syrup. 

SPRING. 

Cracked  wheat  and  milk. 

Stewed  prunes. 

Bread  or  rolls,  butter,  coffee,  etc. 

Mutton  chops,  fried  bacon. 

Boiled  eggs,  potatoes  a la  maitre  d’hoteL 
Waffles,  cinnamon  and  sugar. 

SPRING. 

1 Fried  hominy. 

Stewed  dried  peaches. 

Rolls  or  bread,  butter,  coffee,  etc. 

Broiled  ham,  with  fried  eggs. 

Mutton  and  potato  hash,  browned. 

Baked  potatoes. 

Flannel  cakes,  powdered  sugar. 

SUMMER. 

Coarse  hominy,  boiled. 

Strawberries  and  cream. 

Bread,  butter,  coffee,  etc. 

Broiled  chicken,  stewed  potatoes. 

Dried  beef,  dressed  with  cream. 

Radishes. 

Muffins. 

SUMMER. 

Oatmeal  and  milk. 

Fresh  currants  and  sugar. 

Buttered  toast,  bread,  coffee,  etc. 

Broiled  blue  or  whitefish. 

Stewed  potatoes. 

Minced  mutton,  served  on  toast. 

Stirred  eggs. 

Hominy  cakes,  syrup. 

SUMMER. 

Cracked  wheat  and  milk. 

Fresh  raspberries. 

Rolls,  butter,  coffee,  etc. 

Cold  roast  beef,  sliced  thin. 

Frizzled  ham,  with  eggs. 

Fried  potatoes,  sliced  cucumbers. 

Graham  gems,  or  popovers. 

AUTUMN. 

Oatmeal  mush,  fried  in  slices. 

Peaches  and  cream,  or  blackberries. 

Brown  bread,  rolls,  butter,  coffee,  etc. 

Lamb  chops,  fried  potatoes. 

Mushrooms  baked,  and  served  on  toast. 

Sliced  tomatoes,  dressed  as  a salad. 

AUTUMN. 

Hulled  corn,  with  cream. 

Baked  pears,  grapes. 

Bread,  butter,  coffee,  etc. 

Veal  cutlets,  potato  balls. 

Omelette,  with  grated  ham. 

Virginia  bakes  (thin  corn-meal  pancakes). 

AUTUMN. 

Coarse  hominy,  boiled  and  browned. 

Peaches  and  cream. 

Bread,  butter,  coffee,  etc. 

Beefsteak,  oysters  on  toast. 

Stewed  potatoes. 

Muffins. 


4G 


DREAM 


BREWING 


WINTER. 

Fried  mush. 

Baked  sweet  apples. 

Rolls,  bread,  butter,  coffee,  etc. 

Turkey  hash,  stewed  potatoes. 

Salt  mackerel. 

Buckwheat  cakes,  syrup. 

WINTER. 

Cracked  wheat. 

Baked  pears. 

Rolls,  Graham  bread,  butter,  coffee,  etc. 
Sausages,  garnished  with  fried  sour  apples. 
Quail  on  toast,  baked  potatoes. 

Buckwheat  cakes,  syrup. 

WINTER. 

Fried  hominy. 

Stewed  apples. 

Bread,  butter,  coffee,  etc. 

Venison  steak,  cold  spare-rib  sliced. 
Potatoes  a la  maitre  d’hotel. 

Buckwheat  cakes,  syrup. 


BREAKFAST  PARTIES. 


EARLY  SPRING. 


Grapes,  apples,  oranges. 

( Cutlets  of  bass  en  papilotte.  ) 
I Cucumbers  pickled.  J 

j Roast  English  snipe.  ) ci 
| Baked  mushrooms.  ( ‘ ierlT- 
j Lobster  salad.  ) 

• 1 Bread,  butter,  crackers,  j 
( Chocolate  eclairs. 

1 Vanilla  ice-cream. 


Latour  Blanche. 


Coffee. 


Berries  and  peaches,  with  cream, 
j Brook  trout  broiled,  with  tomato  sauce. ) 

| Boiled  potatoes,  pickled  gherkins,  and  > Chablis. 
olives.  ) 

( Fillets  of  beef  saute,  with  ) . T r> 

[ T ■ i }-  Chateau  La  Rose. 

( Lima  beans.  ) 

Cauliflower  bread-crumbed. 

I Fillets  of  chickens  en  fricassee,  with  ) 

rice.  >-  Hockheimer. 

| Brussel  sprouts  a la  Bechamel.  ) 
i Fried  oysters. 

! Celery  and  lettuce,  mixed  with  mayonnaise. 

Tutti  frutti,  assorted  cakes,  coffee. 

WINTER. 

Chicken  consomme  with  poached  eggs.  (Madeira. ) 
j Small  middle  cut  (dame)  of  salmon,  ) ,,, 

with  anchovy  sauce  and  shrimps.)-.  ‘ eau 
| Potatoes  a la  Printaniere.  ) a OUr' 

i Chicken  croquettes.  \ 

\ Canned  st>  ing  beans  (Haricdts  verts').  ) 

Sorbet  au  kirchwasser. 

( Roast  saddle  of  Southdown  mutton 
sauce  soubise. 

[ Turnips  au  veloute. 

I Broiled  quails  aux  croutons. 

I Endive  with  plain  dressing, 
f Cream,  in  mould  of  swan  and  cygnets, ) 

■<  Macaroons , bonbons,  chocolate  wafers,  >•  Sherry. 

( Fruits,  and  nuts.  ) 

Vienna  coffee  ( coffee  with  whipped  cream  piled  on  it). 

BREAM.— The  variegated  bream  or  dace, 
the  only  species  known  here,  abounds  in  fresh 


Clos 

Vougeot. 

Sauterna. 


inland  waters  from  New  England  to  Texas. 
It  is  a small,  flat,  perch-shaped  fish,  variously 


Bream. 


colored,  and  rarely  over  six  inches  in  length. 
It  is  not  very  highly  esteemed  for  -eating 
purposes ; but  is,  nevertheless,  sweet  and 
daintily  flavored,  and  makes  an  excellent  dish 
fried.  Bream  may  be  found  "in  the  markets 
during  the  winter  months.  Prepared  and  cook- 
ed like  mackerel. 

BREWING. — The  process  by  which  ale  and 
beer  are  made.  All  malt  liquors  are  manufac- 
tured from  malt,  which  is  usually  produced  from 
the  parched  grain  of  the  germinating  barley ; 
though  it  can  be  made  from  wheat  and  other 
seeds,  and  in  fact  from  any  substance  contain- 
ing sugar.  The  first  step  in  the  process  of 
brewing  is  to  select  barley  with  full,  round, 
heavy  and  sweet  grains,  of  uniform  quality, 
and  not  a mixture  of  different  crops.  This 
grain  is  first  steeped  in  cold  water  for  a period 
of  not  less  than  forty  hours,  in  order  that  it 
may  soak  up  the  utmost  possible  quantity  of 
water  ; if  the  water  during  this  time  exhibits 
any  signs  of  fermentation  it  must  be  drawn  off 
and  replaced  with  cold  water.  After  the  steep- 
ing it  is  spread  upon  the  floor  of  the  malt 
house  to  a depth  of  about  sixteen  inches,  which 
is  called  the  couch.  It  is  allowed  to  remain  in 
this  situation  for  twenty-six  hours ; it  is  then 
turned  by  wooden  shovels,  and  the  depth  of 
the  couch  is  somewhat  diminished.  This  pro- 
cess is  repeated  twice  a day  or  oftener,  and  the 
depth  of  the  barley  is  gradually  diminished. 
In  this  state  the  barley  absorbs  oxygen  from 
the  air,  and  gives  out  carbonic  acid,  the  tem- 
perature of  the  barley  in  the  meantime  being 
greatly  increased,  so  that  it  shows  a heat  ten 
degrees  above  that  of  the  surrounding  atmos- 
phere. At  the  time  this  part  of  the  process  is 
going  on,  the  barley  gives  out  an  agreeable 
odor,  like  that  of  apples,  and  becomes  covered 
with  moisture.  The  appearance  of  this  mois- 
ture is  called  sweating.  The  interior  of  the 
grain  by  this  time  has  undergone  considerable 
change,  its  color  has  become  whiter,  and  from 
being  firm  and  dense  it  has  become  loose  and 
crumbles  to  powder  between  the  fingers.  It 
is  now  taken  to  the  kiln,  and  exposed  to  a heat 
of  90°,  which  is  gradually  increased  to  140°  or 
even  higher.  The  tiny  rootlets  which  had 
begun  to  sprout  forth  are  then  cleared  away, 
and  the  grain  has  become  malt.  Brewers  use 
three  kinds  of  malt,  which  are  known  as  pale 
or  amber  malt,  brown  or  plain  malt,  and  roasted 
or  black  malt.  The  first  only  is  fermentable, 
the  second  is  employed  to  give  flavor  to  beer, 
and  the  last  is  used  as  a coloring  matter  to 


BRICK 


BRIGHT’S  DISEASE 


47 


give  the  dark  color  to  porters  and  stouts. 
The  two  last  malts  are  made  by  carrying  the 
roasting  process  so  far  as  to  destroy  the  sugar ; 
whilst  in  the  black  malt  it  is  charred  by  the 
heat  to  which  it  is  exposed. 

After  the  malt  has  been  prepared  the  brew- 
ing process  proper  is  commenced,  and  this  also 
consists  of  several  distinct  operations.  The 
first  is  to  grind  the  malt,  and  this  is  done 
either  by  millstones  or  iron  rollers.  The  grist 
thus  produced  has  now  to  be  mashed.  For 
this  purpose  the  malt  is  put  into  a mash-tub, 
and  then  hot  water  is  let  in  upon  it  and  run  off 
by  taps  from  the  bottom  of  the  tub.  Successive 
quantities  of  hot  water  are  in  the  same  manner 
run  through  the  malt,  and  the  worts  thus 
obtained  are  mixed  together  and  introduced 
into  a large  copper.  The  hops  are  then  added 
and  the  iiquor  is  boiled  ; after  boiling  it  is 
strained  from  the  hops  and  let  into  vessels  to 
cool.  When  brought  down  to  the  proper 
temperature,  the  liquor  is  passed  into  the 
fermenting  tub.  There  a quantity  of  yeast  is 
added,  and  when  the  fermentation  has  brought 
the  quantity  of  sugar  down  to  a certain  point, 
the  yeast  is  cleaned  away ; this  process  is 
called  cleaning.  The  beer  is  now  run  into  vats 
or  casks,  which  is  called  racking.  It  is  still, 
however,  thick  and  muddy,  and  a solution  of 
gelatine  or  isinglass  is  added  for  the  purpose 
of  fining  it.  The  beer  is  then  bunged  up,  and 
is  ready  for  use  at  various  periods.  Beer  can 
be  made  to  vary  greatly  in  its  quality  according 
to  the  way  in  which  this  process  of  brewing 
has  been  carried  on.  Of  course  the  stronger 
the  wort,  the  more  sugar  and  the  more  alcohol 
as  the  result  of  fermentation  ; but  the  fermen- 
tation may  be  carried  up  to  various  points. 
By  stopping  it  before  the  latter  stage,  the  sweet 
ales  are  made,  which  become  stronger  by 
keeping.  If  the  fermentation  is  not  arrested 
but  carried  on  till  the  sugar  is  exhausted,  and 
a large  quantity  of  hops  is  added,  the  pale 
bitter  ales  are  produced. 

BRICK. — A building  material  made  of 
clay  in  rectangular  blocks,  and  baked  in  the 
sun  or  by  fire.  When  they  are  well  made,  and 
properly  burned,  there  is  no  substance  for 
building  purposes  equal  to  bricks  in  durability. 
All  clays  consist  of  two  kinds  of  earth,  alumina 
and  silica,  and  when  kneaded  with  water  form 
a paste  that  is  plastic  or  capable  of  being 
moulded  into  any  form.  In  many  parts  of  the 
country,  good  brick  earth  exists  in  a natural 
state,  but  frequently  there  is  either  too 
much  or  too  little  sand,  and  this  has  to  be 
rectified  either  by  adding  “ fat  ” or  sticky  clay 
or  sand. 

The  common  process  of  brick-making  is  as 
follows  : Brick  earth,  consisting  of  a clayey 
loam,  is  usually  dug  in  September  and  exposed 
in  heaps  of  a few  feet  in  height  to  the  action  of 
the  frost  during  the  winter,  which  pulverizes 
and  tempers  it.  The  small  stones  are  then 
separated  by  grinding  it  in  water  and  running 
it  through  a grating.  It  is  then  mixed  with 
water  to  the  consistency  of  cream,  and  after 


standing  till  it  has  acquired  a sufficient  past- 
iness, it  is  tempered  by  being  run  through  a 
pug-mill,  when  it  is  ready  to  be  moulded. 
Before  the  invention  of  the  pug-mill,  the  mortar 
was  thrown  into  a shallow  pit  in  which  it  was 
trodden  out  by  the  feet  of  men  and  oxen.  As 
the  clay  comes  out  of  the  pug-mill  it  is  taken 
to  the  moulder’s  bench  and  separated  into  small 
pieces.  Each  of  these  pieces  is  then  placed 
into  the  mould,  pressed  flat,  and  the  top  scraped 
off  with  a flat  stick.  The  newly  moulded  bricks 
are  then  carried  in  a wheelbarrow  to  a place 
where,  arranged  on  each  other  diagonally,  with 
spaces  between,  they  are  dried  in  the  air  suffi- 
ciently to  bear  removal,  and  are  then  ready  for 
burning.  Should  the  weather  be  fine,  a few  days 
will  suffice  for  this  drying.  In  baking  bricks 
they  are  arranged  either  in  kilns  or  clamps. 
The  former  are  permanent  ovens  on  an  im- 
mense scale,  and  are  commonly  used  in 
England  ; the  open  method  of  arranging  the 
bricks  so  that  they  form  their  own  ovens  is  the 
plan  almost  universally  adopted  in  this  country. 
The  top  and  sides  of  these  kilns  or  clamps  are 
built  of  bricks  that  have  been  baked,  and  flues 
for  the  heat  are  carried  through  every  part  of 
the  pile.  From  20,000  to  1,000,000  bricks  are 
baked  in  one  kiln,  and  the  average  time  for  bak- 
ing is  eight  clays. 

In  purchasing  bricks  care  should  be  taken 
to  select  those  which  have  been  well  burned, 
and  which  look  smooth  and  solid.  If  the 
baking  has  been  imperfectly  done,  or  the  pro- 
portion of  sand  in  the  clay  was  too  great,  the 
bricks  will  crumble  to  pieces  when  exposed  to 
the  weather.  A good  test  when  hard  bricks 
are  desired,  is  to  soak  a piece  in  water ; if  the 
baking  has  been  thorough  it  will  not  dissolve 
into  mud. 

BRIGHT’S  DISEASE.— A term  applied  to 
a number  of  different  affections  of  the  kidneys, 
so  called  because  they  were  first  described  by 
Dr.  Bright.  The  causes  of  kidney  diseases  are 
any  which  cause  congestion  of  the  kidneys — in- 
dulgence in  strong  drink,  exposure  to  wet  and 
cold,  scarlet  fever,  fever  and  ague  or  similar  dis- 
eases, and  pregnancy.  The  symptoms  of  Bright’s 
disease  depend  upon  whether  the  patient  suf- 
fers from  the'  acute  or  chronic  form.  In  acute 
cases  there  are  pains  in  the  back  and  loins,  at 
first  slight  and  occasional,  but  gradually  dull, 
heavy,  and  settled,  accompanied  with  restless- 
ness and  fever,  and  the  usual  functional  disor- 
ders in  other  organs  ; loss  of  appetite,  vomiting 
and  sometimes  purging,  and  diminution  or 
entire  suppression  of  the  urine.  These  symp- 
toms are  succeeded  by  swelling  of  the  face 
and  extremities,  and  in  extreme  cases  by  gen- 
eral dropsy.  Should  the  above  symptoms  fail 
to  point  out  the  disease,  heat  applied  to  the 
urine  will  at  once  indicate  its  character,  as  there 
is  in  Bright’s  disease  always  more  or  less  al- 
bumen in  the  urine  which  solidifies  on  the 
application  of  heat.  The  symptoms  other  than 
those  furnished  by  boiling  the  urine,  unless 
dropsy  exists,  are  as  a rule  so  obscure  in 
chronic  cases  as  rarely  to  be  recognized  except 


48 


BRINE 


BROCCOLI 


by  a practiced  physician.  Acute  cases  of 
Bright’s  disease  usually  recover  under  suitable 
treatment.  Chronic  cases  are  indeed  incurable, 
but  with  careful  attention  to  the  health,  and 
judicious  professional  care  and  advice,  life  is 
often  prolonged  for  many  years.  Medical  aid 
must  be  had  in  all  cases. 

BRINE. — The  solution  of  salt  and  saltpetre 
usually  made  use  of  in  preserving  meats.  An 
excellent  brine  maybe  made  by  mixing  a pound 
and  a half  of  sugar  or  molasses  and  two  ounces 
of  saltpetre  (or  saleratus)  in  four  gallons  of 
water;  if  it  is  to  last  only  a month  or  two,  put 
in  six  pounds  of  salt,  if  longer  nine  pounds. 
Boil  all  together  gently,  skim,  and  then  let  it 
cool.  Put  the  meat  in  the  vessels  in  which  it  is 
to  stand,  and  pour  the  brine  on  till  it  is  covered. 
At  least  once  in  two  months  the  brine  should 
be  boiled  and  skimmed,  and  have  two  ounces 
of  sugar  and  half  a pound  of  salt  added. 
Even  then  it  is  doubtful  if  brine  can  be 
kept  fit  for  use  beyond  a few  months’  time. 
It  acquires  poisonous  properties  from  standing 
long  in  contact  with  the  meat,  and  unless 
the  scum  which  rises  to  the  surface  is  kept 
carefully  skimmed  off,  fatal  effects  may  result 
from  its  use. 

BRISKET. — That  portion  of  the  breast  of 
beef  which  lies  next  to  the  ribs.  It  is  rather 
coarse  in  grain  and  in  flavor,  but  makes  excel- 
lent soup  or  broth,  and  is  a very  good  piece 
corned  or  salted.  (See  Beef.) 

BRISTOL-BOARD. — A kind  of  stiff  strong 
pasteboard,  made  smooth  by  glazing,  and  much 
used  for  boxes,  and  such  portions  of  needlework 
as  require  stiffening.  It  is  also  much  the 
best  material  for  the  cutting  of  patterns  which 
are  much  in  use. 

BRISTOL-BRICK. — A sort  of  brick  used  for 
cleaning  steel  and  all  kinds  of  cutlery,  man- 
ufactured for  some  years  exclusively  in  Bristol, 
England.  A small  vein  of  sand  suitable  to 
the  purpose  was  found  near  Liverpool,  but  was 
soon  exhausted.  Shortly  afterwards  the  same 
kind  of  sand  used  in  the  Bristol  bricks  was 
discovered  by  accident  at  South  Hampton, 
N.  H. ; and  since  that  time,  bricks  fully  equal 
to  the  imported  article  have  been  manufactured 
extensively  in  this  councry.  In  using,  pulver- 
ize and  rub  with  a wet  cloth. 

BRITANNIA. — A composition  of  tin,  anti- 
mony, copper  and  brass,  which  has  entirely  su- 
perseded pewter  and  tin  in  the  manufacture 
of  very  many  articles  of  household  use.  It  is 
not  easily  acted  upon  by  acids,  and  is  perfectly 
safe  to  use  for  cooking  and  table  purposes. 
It  also  takes  a high  polish,  and  does  not 
readily  tarnish ; when  kept  very  bright  it 
has  great  beauty,  far  excelling  pewter,  and 
approaching  in  lustre  to  silver.  There  are  vari- 
ous qualities  of  Britannia  ware,  arising  from  the 
introduction  of  lead  into  some  kinds  of  it; 
the  best  is  firm  and  silvery  looking,  and  will 
not  easily  bend.  Coffee-pots,  tea-pots,  and 
similar  utensils,  made  of  the  britannia  metal 
should  not  be  placed  on  the  fire,  as  they  are 
liable  to  melt  on  fires  at  high  temperatures. — 


Most  of  the  silver-plated  goods  now  in  such 
general  use  have  britannia  for  their  base. 

BROADCLOTH. — A fine  quality  of  woollen 
cloth,  about  twenty-nine  inches  wide,  and  very 
closely  woven,  with  a short  smooth  nap.  It  is 
manufactured  chiefly  for  men’s  outer  garments, 
though  used  also  for  ladies’  cloaks,  coats,  and  the 
like,  and  may  be  had  in  any  of  the  darker  colors. 
•In  cutting  broadcloth,  shrink  it  first  by  wetting 
in  cold  water  and  exposing  to  the  sun,  and  be 
careful  to  cut  so  that  the  nap  will  smooth  down- 
wards. 

BROCADE. — Brocade  proper  is  a stout  silken 
stuff,  variegated  with  gold  and  silver,  raised  and 
enriched  with  flowers, ‘foliage,  and  other  orna- 
ments, and  was  very  much  used  for  women’s 
dress  during  the  17th  and  1 8th  centuries.  This 
fashion  of  dress  was  never  in  good  taste  and 
did  not  last  long,  and  the  name  was  then  given 
to  rich  silk  stuffs  which  were  adorned  with 
worked  flowers  without  gold  or  silver.  At 
present  the  term  brocade  is  applied  to  various 
silks,  as  satins,  taffetas,  lute-strings,  and  even 
to  woollen  stuffs  and  grosgrains,  if  they  are 
ornamented  with  flowers  or  other  figures. 

BROCATEL. — A fabric  of  silk  or  wool,  or  of 
both  combined,  used  for  upholstering;  it  is  usu- 
ally of  rich  designs,  requiring  the  greatest  care 
in  its  wearing  ; and  until  very  lately  was  woven 
exclusively  on  hand  looms.  The  French  bro- 
catel  is  the  best,  but  is  very  costly. 

BROCCOLI. — A species  of  cabbage  very 
closely  resembling  the  cauliflower,  from  which 
it  differs  by  no  very  precise  characteristic 
save  that  in  most  varieties  the  head  of  the 
broccoli  is  purplish,  while  that  of  the  cauli- 
flower is  white.  The  broccoli  is  very  hardy 
and  prolific,  and  may  be  raised  by  sowing  the 
seed  in  open  beds  early  in  the  spring,  or  in 
summer,  or  autumn,  and  transplanting  the 
plants  once  or  twice.  It  has  a woody  stem, 
and  may  be  propagated  by  cuttings  as  well  as 
by  seed.  To  do  this  take  a portion  of  the  old 
stem  containing  an  eye  or  bud,  dry  it  well  in 
the  sun,  then  stick  it  into  the  garden  soil,  and 
do  not  water  till  it  shows  signs  of  growing. 
Plant  in  rows  like  cabbage.  Broccoli  is  gener- 
ally abundant  in  the  market  from  September  to 
November. 

Boiled  Broccoli. — Clean  and  wash  the 
head  well  in  cold  water,  throw  into  boiling 
water  with  a little  salt  and  a little  flour,  and  boil 
till  tender,  which  will  take  from  ten  to  fifteen 
minutes,  and  then  drain  them.  Serve  hot  with 
drawn  butter. 

Eggs  (Broccoli  with). — Boil  two  or  three 
heads  as  above ; have  ready  two  teacupfuls  of 
butter  drawn  in  the  usual  way,  and  beat  into  it, 
while  hot,  four  well  whipped  eggs.  Lay  but- 
tered toast  on  the  bottom  of  a hot  dish  and 
place  on  this  the  largest  head  of  broccoli 
whole,  as  a centre-piece,  arrange  the  smaller 
heads  quartered  about  this,  and  pour  the  egg- 
sauce  over  the  whole. 

Fried  Broccoli. — Prepare  as  above,  and 
boil  about  five  minutes  or  until  half  done ; 
then  dip  them  in  batter  and  fry  in  hot  fat. 


BROILING 


BRONZE 


49 


Dish  them  in  a hot  dish,  sprinkle  salt  all  over 
them,  and  serve  at  once  hot. 

BROILING. — For  steaks,  chops,  and  in 
fact  all  kinds  of  meat,  broiling  is  in  every 
respect  a better  method  of  cooking  than  frying. 
It  produces  a much  more  palatable  and  whole- 
some dish,  and  has  the  further  recommendation 
of  being  the  most  expeditious  and  simplest 
mode  of  cooking.  Broiling  is  simply  a quicker 
kind  of  roasting,  the  meat  being  placed  over 
instead  of  before  the  fire.  In  order  to  do  it 
well  the  fire  should  be  glowing  hot  and  free 
from  smoke,  and  the  meat  should  be  turned 
often  so  as  to  expose  all  sides  to  the  heat 
equally ; for  this  purpose  broiling  tongs  should 
be  used,  and  not  a fork  which  lets  out  the  gravy. 
As  the  surface  of  the  meat  is  set  firm  almost 
immediately,  the  internal  juices  are  retained, 
and  this  accounts  for  the  great  juiciness  and 
savoriness  of  meat  well  broiled.  Of  all  methods 
of  cooking,  broiling  is  the  best  suited  and  most 
acceptable  to  invalids  ; and  it  recommends  itself 
to  small  families,  and  those  who  have  to  do 
their  own  cooking,  as  affording  a .means  of 
dressing  a small  quantity  of  meat  hot  as 
delicately  as  the  largest  quantity.  The  time 
required  for  broiling  will  depend  on  the  kind 
of  meat,  and  the  thickness  of  the  slices  into 
which  it  has  been  cut;  but  for  the  ordinary 
steak  or  chop  fifteen  minutes  will  usually  suf- 
fice. 

Steaks  or  cutlets  may  be  quickly  cooked 
with  a sheet  or  two  of  lighted  paper  only,  in 
the  apparatus  shown  below,  and  called  a 
Conjuror.  Lift  off  the  cover  and  lay  in 
the  meat  properly  seasoned,  with  a small  slice 
of  butter  under  it,  and  insert  the  lighted  paper 
in  the  aperture  shown  in  the  plate ; in  from 


A Conjuror. 


eight  to  ten  minutes  the  meat  will  be  done,  and 
found  to  be  remarkably  tender,  and  very 
palatable ; it  must  be  turned  and  moved  occa- 
sionally during  the  process.  This  is  an 
especially  convenient  mode  of  cooking  for 
persons  whose  hours  of  dining  are  rendered  un- 
certain by  the  nature  of  their  avocations. 

BROKEN  BONES.  (See  Fractures.) 

BROMA.  (See  Chocolate.) 

BRONCHITIS.  An  inflammatory  disease 
of  the  bronchial  tubes  or  air  passages  between 
the  lungs  and  the  throat.  It  is  rarely  a serious 
disease  except  in  the  young,  aged  and  feeble. 
Its  treatment  had,  however,  better  be  left  to 
the  medical  adviser.  Bronchitis,  when  not 
4 


simply  a companion  of  some  other  disease,  is 
not  unfrequently  brought  on  by  cold  or  sudden 
changes  in  the  weather;  and  the  symptoms 
are  at  first  those  of  a common  cold  in  the 
head,  accompanied  by  fever,  and  an  occasional 
hacking  cough.  The  cough  increases  in  fre- 
quency, pain  in  the  chest  is  experienced  during 
the  act  of  coughing;  and  the  patient  has  a 
feeling  of  weariness  and  oppression.  If  the 
attack  is  severe,  all  these  symptoms  become 
more  intense,  and  moderate  fever  is  developed. 
The  breathing  in  asthmatic  persons  produces  a 
kind  of  wheezing  noise,  and  as  the  disease 
progresses,  the  mucus  raised  in  coughing 
becomes  thick,  yellowish  and  viscous.  The 
cough  is  then  said  to  become  loose,  and  a feel- 
ing of  comfort  is  experienced.  In  the  course 
of  a few  days,  if  the  disease  has  been  arrested, 
the  symptoms  begin  to  decrease  in  severity, 
the  expectorated  matter  becomes  less  abundant, 
the  pain  in  the  chest  and  difficulty  of  respira- 
tion pass  off,  and  the  disease  ends  in  conva- 
lescence. 

Treatment. — In  the  earlier  stages  of  catarrh 
the  development  of  bronchitis  may  frequently 
be  arrested  by  frequent  use  of  a gargle 
made  by  dissolving  a teaspoonful  of  com- 
mon saleratus  or  chlorate  of  potash  in  a 
tumbler  of  water.  Should  this  fail,  and  bron- 
chitis become  developed,  a mustard  plaster 
should  be  applied  to  the  chest  (not  strong 
enough  to  draw  a blister),  the  feet  bathed  in 
hot  water,  and  warm  emollient  drinks,  such  as 
barley  water  or  linseed  tea,  administered.  Ten 
grains  of  Dover’s  powder  taken  at  bedtime 
by  an  adult  has  a marked  influence  in  shorten- 
ing the  disease.  If  the  obstruction  becomes 
great  and  breathing  difficult,  an  emetic  may  be 
given,  and  the  bowels,  if  constipation  exists, 
should  be  kept  open  during  the  whole  course 
of  the  disease  by  mild  laxatives.  The  diet  of 
the  patient  while  the  bronchitis  maintains  its 
hold  upon  him  should  be  low  and  farinaceous. 
Chronic  Bronchitis , which  is  sometimes  a 
sequel  to  the  acute,  and  sometimes  a disease 
of  old  age,  shows  fewer  marks  of  inflammation 
but  more  of  thickening  and  dilatation  of  the 
air  tubes ; the  cough  is  generally  loose  and  the 
expectoration  abundant  and  easy.  Chronic 
bronchitis  unattended  by  asthma  or  dilatation 
of  the  air  cells  gives  little  difficulty  in  breath- 
ing, and  does  not  tend  directly  to  destroy  life. 
The  treatment  should  be  conducted  under  the 
direction  of  an  intelligent  physician. 

BRONZE. — An  alloy  of  copper  and  tin,  to 
which  lead,  zinc,  and  silver  are  sometimes 
added  to  give  greater  brilliancy  to  the  com- 
pound, or  to  render  it  more  fusible.  The  zinc 
is  generally  added  in  the  form  of  brass,  and 
sometimes  brass  is  used  instead  of  tin  ; the 
compound  is  then  nothing  more  than  brass 
with  a very  large  proportion  of  copper.  In 
former  times  bronze  was  extensively  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  domestic  utensils  and 
articles  of  furniture ; it  is  at  present  used  to 
some  extent  for  similar  purposes,  but  the 
modern  improvements  in  casting  iron,  which  is 


50 


BROOM 


BRUSHES 


a much  cheaper  material,  have  superseded  the 
use  of  bronze  for  most  purposes.  The  chief 
use  to  which  it  is  put  now  in  household  art 
is  in  the  manufacture  of  statues,  vases,  can- 
delabra, candlesticks,  lamps,  brackets,  door 
knobs,  and  other  articles  of  ornament.  For 
these  it  is  one  of  the  richest,  most  manage- 
able, and  most  durable  of  substances ; and 
there  are  many  other  articles  of  household 
ornament  or  utility  to  the  manufacture  of 
which  it  might  be  advantageously  applied. 
Bronze  requires  no  “ cleaning  ” in  the  ordinary 
meaning  of  the  word,  since  the  dark  olive 
color  which  it  acquires  by  age  and  exposure  is 
considered  one  of  its  greatest  beauties.  Should 
it  become  greasy  or  spotted,  however,  it  may 
be  washed  in  warm  water  with  plenty  of  good 
soap  and  gentle  rubbing. 

BROOM. — A family  of  plants  embracing 
several  species  of  shrubs  and  small  trees,  with 
leaves  in  threes,  and  yellow  or  purplish-white 
flowers.  The  Spanish  broom  is  hardy  and 
rapid  in  growth,  and  will  thrive  in  any  dry  and 
slightly  sandy  soil.  Propagated  by  cuttings. 

Broom. — A new  broom  always  gives  trou- 
ble by  sowing  the  carpet  with  fine  bits  that 
break  from  the  ends  of  the  corn.  This  may  be 
prevented  by  holding  it,  for  a few  minutes,  im- 
mersed nearly  up  to  the  point  where  it  is  sew- 
ed, in  boiling  suds.  The  corn  will  not  become 
brittle  so  soon  with  age,  if  the  broom  is  kept 
habitually  moist.  Too  thick  a handle  makes 
tiresome  sweeping  ; a painted  or  varnished 
handle  should  never  be  used.  Never  sweep 
in  a sick-room;  take  up  the  dust  by  going  over 
the  carpet  with  a damp  sponge. 

BROTH. — In  English  and  French  cookery, 
especially  in  the  latter,  broth  or  bouillon  forms 
the  basis  of  nearly  all  soups  and  gravies,  as 
well  as  of  many  other  dishes ; and  this  is  one 
reason  of  their  superiority  to  similar  prepara- 
tions in  American  cookery  in  which  water  or 
milk  is  used  instead.  Properly  speaking,  broth 
js  made  only  from  beef  with  such  vegetables 
and  spices  as  are  necessary  to  flavor  it ; but 
the  term  is  also  commonly  applied  to  a sim- 
ilar preparation  of  mutton  and  veal,  and  of 
Barley. 

Barley  Broth. — Take  four  ounces  of 
Scotch  barley,  four  ounces  of  onions,  four 
ounces  of  oatmeal  or  Indian  meal,  and  two 
ounces  of  butter.  After  washing  the  barley 
well,  soak  it  in  cold  water  for  twelve  hours ; 
then  set  it  on  the  fire  in  two  quarts  of  water, 
adding  the  onions  and  a little  salt,  and  boil 
gently  for  an  hour  and  a quarter.  Melt  the 
butter  in  a saucepan,  stir  in  the  meal  till  it  be- 
comes a paste,  and  then  add  a little  of  the 
broth  gradually  till  it  is  of  a proper  thickness 
to  mix  with  the  whole  quantity;  stir  well  to- 
gether till  it  boils,  and  add  a dram  of  pounded 
celery  seed  mixed  with  a little  broth;  simmer 
gently  a quarter  of  an  hour  longer,  and  serve. 

Beef  Broth.  ( See  SOUPS.) 

Mutton  or  Veal  Broth. — To  each  pound 
of  meat  add  a quart  of  cold  water,  bring  it 
gently  to  a boil,  skim  it  very  clean,  add  salt 


in  the  same  proportion  as  for  bouillon  ( see 
Soups),  with  spices  and  vegetables  also,  un- 
less unflavored  broth  is  desired,  when  a few 
pepper-corns,  a blade  or  two  of  mace,  and  a 
bunch  of  sweet  herbs  will  be  sufficient;  though 
for  some  purposes,  even  these,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  salt,  had  better  be  omitted.  Sim- 
mer the  broth  for  about  four  hours,  unless  the 
quanity  be  very  small,  when  from  two  and  a 
half  to  three  will  be  sufficient.  A little  rice 
boiled  down  with  the  meat  will  both  thicken  the 
broth  and  render  it  more  nutritious.  Strain 
it  off  when  done,  and  let  it  stand  till  quite  cold 
that  the  fat  may  be  entirely  cleared  from  it; 
this  is  especially  needful  when  it  is  to  be  served 
to  an  invalid. 

BRUISES.— In  slight  bruises,  if  there  is 
much  pain,  warm  applications,  such  as  a bread 
poultice,  or  flannel  dipped  in  very  hot  water 
and  frequently  renewed,  will  usually  afford  re- 
lief. A thin  slice  of  raw  meat  bound  on  the 
part  is  said  to  remove  the  discoloration  quicker 
than  anything  else.  If  inflammation  sets  in, 
an  application  of  ice  will  deaden  the  pain. 
An  ice-bag,  if  the  spot  will  support  it,  or  cold 
water  is  most  grateful.  A lotion  of  one  tea- 
spoonful of  arnica  in  six  of  water  is  a popular 
remedy  for  relieving  pain  and  promoting  the  ab- 
sorption of  the  blood  poured  out  by  the  rup- 
tured vessels ; arnica  alone  is  apt  to  prove 
irritating  to  the  parts  in  persons  possessing 
very  sensitive  skins,  if  used  too  freely.  The 
so  called  “ Anodyne  liniment,”  that  which 
can  be  obtained  from  the  apothecary,  is  very 
useful  in  ordinary  bruises  of  a painful  charac- 
ter. If  the  contusion  is  severe  and  inflamma- 
tion threatens,  warm  bread  poultices  or  hot 
flannels  may  be  applied.  The  patient  must  be 
kept  quiet  for  some  days,  and  avoid  stimula- 
ting food  or  drinks.  The  change  of  color  in  the 
injured  part  from  black,  through  many  degrees 
of  shade  to  a dingy  yellow  is  due  to  alteration 
in  the  effused  blood,  and  is  an  indication  of  slow 
recovery.  In  those  cases  when  the  wound  is 
very  severe,  medical  aid  must  be  summoned  at 
once,  and  the  only  treatment  that  can  be  ven- 
tured on  without  such  aid  is  to  support  the  in- 
jured part,  especially  during  removal,  and  ap- 
ply cold  water  dressing  and  stiff  bandages. 
When  the  wound  is  on  the  head,  and  of  such 
severity  as  to  stun  the  person  injured,  place  the 
patient  in  a recumbent  posture,  incline  the  head 
slightly  backward,  and  those  who  are  anxious  to 
do  something  may  try  to  bring  about  a reaction 
by  causing  him  to  inhale  pungent  salts,  harts- 
horn, or  any  strong  scent.  Bathe  the  bruise 
with  cold  water  and  at  the  same  time  apply 
mustard  poultices  or  hot  lotions  to  the  wrists 
and  ankles.  Perfect  quiet  after  such  a contu- 
sion is  very  important,  as  inflammation  of  the 
brain  may  possibly  result  from  it. 

BRUSHES  are  more  used  than  people 
generally  realize.  When  practicable,  it  is 
worth  while  to  occasionally  lay  in  an  assort- 
ment from  the  factory,  rather  than  buy  them 
piecemeal  from  the  druggist,  grocer,  etc. 
The  most  costly  are  generally  cheapest,  infe- 


BRUSSELLS  SPROUTS 


BUCKWHEAT 


51 


rior  ones  not  only  being  perishable  but  doing 
no  work  while  they  last. 

The  bristles  should  always  be  set  in  one 
solid  piece  of  wood  or  bone.  Supplementary 
pieces  glued  on  the  back  tend  to  come  off. 

White  bristles  in  toilet  brushes  are  not  as 
stiff  or  durable  as  unbleached  brown  or  black. 

A crumb-brush  used  a few  times  is  not  fit  to 
come  on  to  the  table.  A metal  crumb-scraper 
is  much  preferable.  A brush  used  with  water 
should  afterwards  be  placed  where  it  will  dry 
moderately  fast.  Water  will  soften  it,  and  great ; 
heat  will  make  bristles  brittle.  ( See  Cleaning. 
For  tooth-brushes,  see  Teeth.) 

BRUSSELS  SPROUTS.— A species  of 
the  cabbage  family  much  esteemed  on  the 
Continent  and  in  England  but  not  much  culti- 
vated here.  It  closely  resembles  Savory,  is 
very  tender,  and  considered  by  epicures  to  be 
the  best  of  all  the  cabbage  tribe.  The  sprouts 
are  best  after  the  frost  has  touched  them,  and 
are  in  season  from  September  to  January,  and 
are  eaten  as  greens.  They  should  be  drained 
carefully  after  boiling  (like  Broccoli),  and  j 
eaten  hot  with  bechamel  sauce.  ( See  Bechamel 
under  SAUCES.) 

BUCCANED  MEAT. — Buccaning  is  a 1 
method  of  preserving  meat  practised  in  some 
parts  of  the  West  Indies,  and  the  pirates  who 
infested  those  islands  in  the  seventeenth 
century  received  their  name  of  “ Buccaneers” 
from  their  raiding  upon  the  settlers’  flocks  and 
curing  the  meat  in  this  way.  The  flesh  is  cut 
in  pieces  of  the  length  of  the  arm  and  salted  in 
the  usual  way;  next  day  the  pieces  are  laid 
upon  a grating  or  hurdle,  made  of  sticks  and 
called  a bucan,  and  placed  at  some  height 
above  the  ground  ; a wood  fire  is  made  below 
and  a thick  smoke  produced.  The  meat  is 
thus  partly  roasted  and  partly  dried  as  well  as 
smoked.  Large  quantities  are  cured  in  this 
way  in  the  hunting  region  of  Cuba,  San  Do- 
mingo, and  Jamaica,  and  the  flavor  is  said  to  be 
peculiarly  rich  and  delicious.  Occasionally  it 
is  brought  to  this  country,  and  the  process 
might  be  tried  here  with  advantage. 

BUCKRAM.— A coarse  kind  of  linen  cloth, 
stiffened  with  glue,  and  originally  having  open 
holes  or  interstices  between  the  threads.  It  is 
used  chiefly  for  stiffening  certain  portions  of 
men’s  coats  and  ladies’  dresses,  and  as  the 
groundwork  for  worsted  work  and  some  kinds 
of  heavy  embroidery. 

BUCKSKIN. — The  skin  of  the  deer 
tanned  in  a peculiar  manner  which  renders  it 
extremely  soft  and  pliable.  Buckskin  has  pol- 
ishing powers  which  render  it  much  superior 
to  cloth,  and  every  housewife  should  have  at 
least  one  piece  for  brightening  silverware  and 
jewelry,  and  another  for  polishing  finely  finish- 
ed furniture,  such  as  pianos,  etc.  Nothing 
equals  it  for  cleaning  windows,  cutlery,  looking- 
glasses,  and  the  like,  and  the  choicest  metallic 
articles  that  are  liable  to  rust  should  be  laid 
away  in  it  when  not  in  use.  In  buying  buck- 
skin see  that  it  has  no  hard  or  lumpy  spots  in 
it,  as  these  indicate  that  it  is  imperfectly  tanned 


and  comparatively  worthless  in  consequence. 
Always  use  it  dry — buckskin  is  ruined  generally 
when  it  has  been  wetted. 

BUCKWHEAT. — Though  it  is  hardly  en- 
titled to  rank  among  the  cereals,  buckwheat  is 
extensively  cultivated  for  human  food  in  this 
country  and  on  the  continent  and  to  a much 
less  extent  in  England.  It  can  be  grown  on 
poor  sandy  soils  if  plowed  in  as  a green  crop. 
It  grows  rapidly  with  little  cultivation  ; and  it 
is  excellent  food  for  poultry.  Cows  are  largely 
fed  on  buckwheat  bran.  It  increases  the 
quantity  of  their  milk  but  makes  it  thin.  Buck- 
wheat contains  more  sugar  than  barley  even, 
and  is  used  chiefly  in  the  LInited  States  for 
making  the  delicious  dish  called  buckwheat 
cakes.  These  cakes  are  extremely  palatable, 
easily  digested,  and  though  they  do  not  contain 
all  the  elements  of  nutrition,  their  deficiencies 
are  made  up  by  eating  with  them  molasses,  or 
sugar,  or  butter,  or  cream.  In  buying  buck- 
wheat flour,  get  only  small  quantities  at  a time 
and  keep  it  in  a tightly  covered  box  or  tub.  It 
is  sometimes  infested  with  little  black  bugs, 
and  an  examination  must  occasionally  be  made 
for  them. 

Buckwheat  Cakes. — I.  Take  /-Buckwheat 
flour,  I qt ; milk  or  water,  I pt ; yeast,  teacup- 
ful ; salt,  I teaspoonful. 

Mix  a quart  of  buckwheat  flour  with  a pint 
of  lukewarm  milk  or  water,  and  half  a tea-cup- 
ful of  home  brewed  yeast,  or  i dessertspoonful 
of  distillery  yeast,  and  set  to  rise  over  night. 
In  the  morning  add  half  a teaspoonful  of  salt 
and  if  the  batter  is  at  all  sour  add  a teaspoon- 
ful  of  saleratus  dissolved  in  a little  milk  and 
strained,  or  a teaspoonful  of  soda.  If  the 
batter  is  too  thick  to  pour  out  easily,  add 
enough  warm  milk  or  water  to  thin  it.  Make 
the  cakes  large,  and  fry  them  in  just  enough 
fat  to  keep  them  from  sticking  to  the  griddle. 

If  a cupful  or  so  of  the  batter  be  left  in  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel  in  which  it  is  mixed,  it 
will  serve  as  a yeast  for  the  next  night  instead 
of  getting  fresh  yeast.  In  cold  weather  this 
plan  will  answer  for  a week  or  more  without 
setting  a new  supply. 

n.  Take  .--Buckwheat  flour,  i qt ; Indian 
meal,  I teacupful  ; yeast,  teacupful ; mo- 
lasses, 2 tablespoonfuls ; salt,  i teaspoonful ; 
milk  or  water. 

Mix  one  quart  of  buckwheat  flour,  a tea- 
cupful of  Indian  meal,  half  a teacupful  of 
yeast;  two  tablespoonfuls  of  molasses,  and 
one  teaspoonful  of  salt,  in  enough  warm  water 
or  milk  to  make  a thin  batter.  Beat  thor- 
oughly, and  set  to  rise  over  night  in  a warm 
place.  If  the  batter  is  at  all  sour  in  the  morn- 
ing, stir  in  a teaspoonful  of  soda  or  saleratus 
dissolved  in  a little  hot  water.  These  are  the 
best  kind  of  buckwheat  cakes. 

Quick  Cakes. — Take  .'-Buckwheat  flour,  3 
pts ; warm  water  1 pt ; soda  1 teaspoonful ; 
cream  tartar,  1 teaspoonful. 

Take  three  pints  of  buckwheat  flour;  one 
teaspoonful  of  soda  dissolved  in  a pint  of  warm 
water;  mix  thoroughly,  and  then  add  one 


52 


BUDDING. 


and  a half  teaspoonfuls  of  cream  tartar  dissolved 
in  a few  spoonfuls  of  hot  water.  Stir  together, 
adding  a little  warm  water,  and  fry  immediately 
Use  salt  pork  to  grease  the  griddle. 

BUDDING.  * — Budding  consists  in  introdu- 
cing the  bud  of  one  tree,  with  a portion  of  bark 
and  a little  adhering  wood,  beneath  the  bark 
of  another,  and  upon  the  face  of  the  newly  form- 
ing wood.  It  must  be  performed  while  the 
stock  is  in  a state  of  vigorous  growth.  An  in- 
cision is  made  lengthwise  through  the  bark  of 
the  stock,  and  a small  cut  at  right  angles  at  the 
top,  the  whole  somewhat  resembling  the  letter 
T.,  Fig.  i. 


Fig.  i*  Fig*  2* 

A bud  is  then  taken  from  a shoot,  of  the 
present  year’s  growth,  by  shaving  off  the  bark 
an  inch  or  an  inch  and  a half  in  length,  with 
a small  part  of  the  wood  directly  beneath  the 
bud.  Fig.  2. 

The  edges  of  the  bark,  at  the  incision  in  the 
stock,  are  then  raised  a little,  Fig.  3,  and  the 
bud  pushed  downwards  under  the  bark.  Fig.  4. 


Fig.  3-  Fig.  4. 


A bandage  of  bass,  corn  husk,  or  other  sub- 
stance, is  wrapped  round,  covering  all  parts  but 
the  bud.  The  pressure  should  be  just  sufficient 
to  keep  the  inserted  portion  closely  to  the  stock, 


* The  directions  in  this  article  on  budding  are  selected  from 
“ The  American  Fruit  Culturist an  excellent  and  compre- 
hensive work  by  John  J.  Thomas,  published  by  Win.  Wood  & 
Co.,  New  York. 


but  not  such  as  to  bruise  or  crush  the  bark, 
fig-  5- 

The  shoots  containing  the 
buds  should  be  cut  when  so 
mature  as  to  be  firm  and  hard 
in  texture ; they  are  usually  in 
the  best  condition  after  the 
terminal  bud  has  formed. 

To  prevent  withering,  the 
leaves  must  be  immediately 
cut  off,  as  they  withdraw  and 
exhale  rapidly  the  moisture 
from  the  shoot.  About  one- 
quarter  of  an  inch  of  the  foot- 
stalks of  the  leaves  should  re- 
main, to  serve  as  handles  to 
the  buds  while  inserting  them. 

Fig.  5.  Fig.  6. 

After  being  thus  divested  of  leaves,  they  may 
be  safely  kept  and  be  sent  hundreds  of  miles  in 
damp  moss,  or  enclosed  separately  in  thin  oil 
cloth. 


Fig.  6. 


Fig.  7. 


When,  by  growth  of  the  stock,  the  bandage 
cuts  into  it,  usually  in  ten  days  or  more,  it 
must  be  removed.  The  bud  remains  dormant 
till  the  following  spring,  when  the  stock  is 
cut  off  two  inches  or  more  above  it,  before  the 
swelling  of  the  bud.  If  cut  closer,  the  end  of 
the  stock  becomes  too  dry,  and  the  bud  often 
perishes.  All  other  buds  must  be  then  remov- 
ed, and  all  the  vigor  of  the  stock  or  branch 
thrown  into  the  remaining  bud,  which  immedi- 
ately commences  a rapid  growth. 

To  secure  a straight  and  erect  tree,  the  new 
shoot  when  a few  inches  long,  is  tied  to  the 
remaining  stump  of  the  stock.  Fig.  7. 


BUFFALO 


BULBS 


53 


By  another  month,  i'f  the  operation  be  well 
performed,  no  further  support  will  be  needed, 
and  the  stump  may  be  wholly  cut  away  and  the 
wound  allowed  to  heal  by  the  rapid  formation 
of  new  wood.  See  Grafting. 

BUFFALO. — The  meat  of  the  buffalo  ranks 
very  high  as  food,  but  as  it  can  be  obtained 
only  by  hunting  the  buffalo  on  the  plains  of 
the  far  West,  it  is  not  often  found  in  the  Eastern 
markets.  In  the  Western  markets  it  appears 
more  frequently,  and  during  December  and 
January  can  generally  be  obtained  in  the  larger 
cities.  The  flesh  resembles  that  of  beef,  but 
is  darker  and  coarser,  and  the  fat  is  solid  and 
reddish.  Like  all  game,  buffalo  meat  is  better 
if  it  is  kept  for  some  time  after  killing  before  it 
is  eaten ; and  like  the  meat  of  all  large  animals 
is  better  roasted  than  cooked  in  any  other  way. 
It  makes  excellent  steaks,  however,  and  the 
best  way  to  cook  these  is  to  broil  them,  Indian 
fashion,  on  the  coals  without  any  gridiron  or 
other  utensil.  Cooked  thus  they  are  even  more 
juicy  and  savory  than  venison.  Buffalo  tongue, 
when  properly  cured,  is  also  an  excellent  dish  ; 
the  brains  are  often  eaten  raw  by  hunters ; and 
the  marrow  bones  are  greatly  esteemed,  espe- 
cially when  roasted.  Buffalo  meat  is  cooked 
and  served  in  the  same  way  as  venison. 

BUFFALO  ROBE.— The  skin  of  the  buffalo, 
dried  with  the  hair  on.  It  is  very  warm  and 
pleasant  to  the  touch,  and  is  much  esteemed 
by  travellers  ; but  it  is  cumbrous  and  expensive. 

BUGS. — How  to  Destroy.  This  term  prop- 
erly includes  the  numerous  tribes  of  Hemipter- 
ous insects,  but  it  is  commonly  applied  to  that 
worst  of  household  pests,  the  bed-bug.  It  is 
difficult  alike  to  prevent  bed-bugs  from  getting 
into  a house,  and  to  get  them  out  when  once 
they  are  in.  They  are  very  partial  to  certain 
kinds  of  wood,  and  sometimes  are  fairly  built 
into  the  house;  or  they  may  be  brought  in 
from  outside  in  boxes  or  baskets,  in  clothes, 
or  by  the  hired  girl.  So  prolific  are  they  too, 
that  two  or  three  females  “ stock  ” the  entire 
house  in  one  season  if  undisturbed.  The  best 
weapon  for  fighting  them  is  the  most  scrupulous 
and  vigilant  cleanliness.  All  beds  and  bed- 
steads should  be  examined  at  least  once  a week 
in  summer,  and  if  any  traces  of  bed-bugs  are 
found,  the  bedstead  should  be  taken  to  pieces 
and  washed  thoroughly  with  cold  water  and 
soap,  applied  with  a scrubbing  brush.  This  is 
the  only  way  to  destroy  the  eggs  which  are  de- 
posited during  the  summer  in  every  crack  and 
crevice ; and  unless  these  are  destroyed  the 
bugs  will  increase  in  number,  no  matter  how 
many  are  killed. 

After  the  scrubbing,  the  different  parts  of 
the  bedstead  should  be  washed  over  with  spirits 
of  turpentine  ; and  if  this  proves  ineffective,  an 
ounce  of  corrosive  sublimate,  mixed  in  half  a 
pint  of  alcohol,  or  quicksilver  beaten  up  with 
whites  of  eggs,  may  be  used.  Both  these  last, 
however,  are  deadly  poisons,  and  should  be 
cautiously  used  if  at  all.  The  “Persian  Insect 
Powder,”  which  is  harmless  to  man,  but  certain 
death  to  all  insects,  is  the  best  bed-bug  poison 


yet  devised ; but  it  is  not  easy  to  procure  an 
unadulterated  article.  It  should  be  sprinkled 
plentifully  in  every  chink  and  crevice.  A so- 
lution of  potash  is  also  good,  and  some  recom- 
mend highly  simple  kerosene  oil ; others  declare 
salt  and  water  to  be  unequalled.  We  shall 
presently  give  a recipe  for  bed-bug  poison  which 
may  be  relied  on,  but  there  are  one  or  two 
points  to  be  mentioned  first.  Bed-bugs  do  not 
confine  their  attention  to  beds,  but  njake  a home 
in  the  walls,  behind  mantel-pieces,  and  wherever 
they  can  find  a congenial  crack,  and  they  must 
be  warred  upon  here  no  less  vigorously.  If 
there  be  any  cracks  in  the  wall-paper  they 
should  be  carefully  pasted  over  with  fresh 
paper ; or  if  the  paper  has  become  loose  from 
the  wall  at  any  point,  that  also  should  be  again 
made  fast.  Bugs  love  to  harbor  in  plaster  work ; 
but  unless  the  paper  be  broken  loose  they  can- 
not make  their  way  through  it.  If  it  be  sus- 
pected that  they  are  secreted  under  the  sur- 
face, they  should  be  shut  in  by  pasting  strong 
brown  paper  over  the  chink  between  the  board 
and  the  floor. 

It  is  one  of  the  discouragements  of  fighting 
bed-bugs  that  one  never  knows  when  the  victory 
is  secured.  Just  when  they  seem  to  have  been 
utterly  destroyed,  they  will  make  their  appear- 
ance again  in  scarcely  diminished  numbers ; 
and,  as  we  have  said,  one  or  two  bugs  will  pro- 
duce hundreds  in  a single  summer.  The  only 
plan  is  to  keep  constantly  on  the  lookout  for 
them,  to  keep  the  bed  and  its  surroundings 
scrupulously  clean,  and  to  have  some  reliable 
preparation  ready  to  hand. 

Bed-bug  Poison. — Spirits  of  wine,  half  a pint ; 
spirits  of  turpentine,  half  a pint ; crude  sal- 
ammoniac,  I oz ; corrosive  sublimate,  i oz ; 
camphor,  I oz.  This  mixture  should  be  injected 
into  the  joints  of  the  bedstead  with  a syringe, 
or  a sponge  fastened  on  a stick  ; all  the  rest  of 
the  woodwork  should  be  washed  with  it. 

BULBS. — Bulbous  plants  produce  some  of  the 
best  known  and  most  beautiful  flowers  in  our 
gardens,  and  are  extremely  easy  to  cultivate. 
The  peculiar  nature  of  the  bulb  is  not  generally 
well  understood  ; it  really  partakes  more  of  the 
properties  of  a seed  than  of  a root,  for  when  in 
the  act  of  vegetating  it  sends  down  into  the  soil 
roots,  and  into  the  air  a living  stem,  and  the 
substance  contained  in  the  bulb  decomposes 
and  nourishes  the  young  plant.  But  the  bulb 
is  removed,  and  from  the  roots  another  bulb  is 
composed  which  appears  to  be  the  same  one 
planted,  yet  it  is  its  offspring,  and  the  offshoots 
or  young  bulbs  are  its  suckers  and  are  distinct 
from  the  parent  bulb.  The  Spring  Flowering 
Bulbs  are  the  flowers  of  spring,  and  embrace  the 
Snowdrop,  the  Crocus,  the  Hyacinthe,  Tulips, 
Daffodils,  Jonquils,  Narcissus,  Anemones, 
Lily  of  the  Valley,  and  the  Ranunculus.  They 
should  be  planted  in  October  or  November,  and 
before  the  frost  is  fairly  out  of  the  ground 
in  the  spring  they  shoot  up  their  green  and 
well-sheathed  stems,  blooming  in  March  and 
April.  Bulbs  that  can  be  preserved  in  the 
house  in  a dry  state  during  the  winter  and 


54 


BULLOCK 


BURGUNDY 


bloom  in  the  house,  are  called  Summer  Bulbs. 
To  this  class  belong  the  Japan  Lily,  Gladiolus, 
Dahlia,  Tuberose,  Tigridia,  Amaryllis  formo- 
sissima,  Vallota,  and  Tritoma.  They  should 
be  planted  in  early  spring  (April  or  May),  and 
they  will  bloom,  most  of  them,  from  July  to 
October.  Besides  these  there  are  two  families 
of  bulbous  plants,  excellent  for  indoor  culture, 
known  as  Cape  Bulbs  and  Dutch  Bulbs. 


Most  bulbs  may  be  dug  up,  dried,  and  kept  in 
the  cellar,  in  a box  of  sand,  during  the  winter. 
F urther  directions  will  be  given  under  the  names 
of  the  special  flowers  ( see  Dahlia,  Gladio- 
lus, Tuberose,  &c.).  A very  beautiful  orna- 
ment can  be  secured  by  planting  bulbs  in  a 
vase,  as  shown  in  the  cut.  Each  bulb  must  be 
so  planted  that  its  stem  will  come  out  through 
one  of  the  holes  in  the  vase. 

BULLOCK.  (See  Beef.) 

BULL-TROUT. — A large  kind  of  sea  trout, 
not  very  delicate  or  palatable,  and  seldom  seen 
in  our  market.  It  is  also  called  Gray-trout , 
from  its  light  silvery  color. 

BUNS Take:- Flour;  butter,  i tablespoon- 

ful ; boiling  water,  4 pt  ; home-made  yeast,  } 
teacupful  ; eggs,  2 ; sugar,  1 teacupful  ; dried 
currants,  1 teacupful;  nutmeg;  milk,  £ pt. 

Put  a tablespoonful  of  butter  in  half  a pint 
of  boiling  water  ; when  melted  add  half  a pint 
of  milk,  half  a teacupful  of  yeast,  half  a tea 
spoonful  of  salt,  and  flour  enough  to  make  a 
stiff  batter ; mix  this  at  night  and  set  to  rise 


till  morning.  I n the  morning  add  two  eggs  mixed 
with  a teacupful  of  fine  white  sugar ; beat  the 
whole  together,  and  add  enough  of  flour  to  make 
a dough  ; add  one  teacupful  of  dried  currants, 
and  a sprinkle  of  nutmeg,  and  set  away  to  rise 


Paper  Basket  for  Buns. 


until  time  to  bake  for  tea.  Then  make  the 
dough  into  small  cakes,  place  them  close 
together  in  the  pans,  and  let  them  rise  again  un- 
til very  light.  Bake  them  about  half  an  hour. 
When  done  brush  the  buns  over  with  a mixture 
of  a teaspoonful  each  of  milk  and  molasses,  and 
set  them  in  the  oven  for  two  or  three  minutes 
to  dry. 

Bath  Buns. — Take:- Flour  1 y2  lbs  ; butter, 
y lb  ; milk,  y2  pt ; home-made  yeast,  y2  tea- 
cupful ; loaf  sugar,  y lb  ; eggs,  4 ; citron,  1 y2 
oz  ; caraway  seed,  y2  oz. 

Rub  a quarter  of  a pound  of  butter  into  a 
pound  and  a half  of  flour,  adding  a pinch  of 
salt.  Mix  half  a pint  of  war?n  milk  with  half 
a teacupful  of  yeast ; pour  into  the  middle  of 
the  flour,  cover  it,  and  set  before  the  fire  to 
rise  ; when  risen  add  a quarter  of  a pound  of 
crushed  loaf  sugar,  half  an  ounce  of  caraway 
seeds  picked  and  washed,  four  eggs  well  beaten, 
and  an  ounce  and  a half  of  candied  citron  cut 
in  thin  slices.  Make  up  the  buns,  lay  them  on 
baking  tins,  and  let  them  rise  again  until  quite 
light.  Bake  them  in  a quick  oven : when  done, 
brush  them  over  with  beaten  egg  and  sift  sugar 
over  them. 

BUNIONS. — Bunions,  like  corns,  are  occa- 
sioned either  by  the  wearing  of  shoes  which 
are  too  narrow  and  too  short,  or  too  large  and 
badly  fitting,  or  made  from  leather  that  is  hard  or 
unyielding  to  the  foot.  Shoes  and  stockings  are 
the  cause  of  all  bunions,  and  the  first  step  in  the 
remedy  is  to  so  construct  and  adjust  them  as 
to  avoid  the  evil.  The  common  plan  of  soak- 
ing bunions  in  warm  water  and  then  paring 
them  will  not  prove  effective  unless  the  paring 
is  very  smoothly  and  carefully  done.  Scraping 
with  a sharp  knife  is  better  than  paring,  and 
should  be  continued  until  the  skin  feels  soft 
and  flexible.  A good  plan  to  soften  the 
hardened  skin  is  to  dissolve  a piece  of  ammonia 
of  the  size  of  a pea  in  an  ounce  (two  table- 
spoonfuls) of  water  and  apply  hot.  It  must  be 
remembered,  however,  that  there  is  no  cure  for 
bunions  except  the  wearing  of  smoothly  fitting 
stockings,  and  shoes  which  do  not  rub  upon 
the  spot. 

BUREAU.  (.SW’ Furniture.) 

BURGUNDY. — The  choicest  wines  of  the 
ancient  province  of  Burgundy  in  France  are 


BURNS 


BURNING  FLUID 


among  the  richest,  most  aromatic,  and  del- 
icately flavored  in  the  world.  They  are  im- 
perfectly known  in  this  country,  but  if  proper- 
ly bottled  they  can  be  brought  over  in  good 
condition,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  they  will 
become  better  known  especially  in  our  sick 
rooms.  The  Burgundy  wines  are  of  two  kinds 
white  and  red.  The  red  is  much  the  finer  of 
the  two,  but  the  best  of  these  rarely  leave 
France.  The  first  in  quality  of  the  red  wines 
is  the  Romanee  Conti , but  this  is  not  easy  to 
get  even  in  France;  the  next  in  order  of  ex- 
cellence are  Clos  Vougeot,  Chamberlin,  Poni- 
ard, Nuits,  Volnay,  and  Beaune.  The  Macon 
wines  are  lighter  and  of  a lower  grade.  The 
higher  grades  of  Burgundy  should  be  drunk  at 
the  temperature  of  the  room,  never  iced. 
High  grade  Burgundies  will  keep  for  from 
twenty  to  thirty  years,  or  even  longer,  while 
the  lower  grades  are  best  at  the  age  of  from 
five  to  ten  years.  Burgundies  are  often  served 
in  a cradle.  (See  Cradle.) 

The  white  Burgundies  are  smaller  in  number 
.and  inferior  in  quality  to  the  red;  but  some  of 
them  rank  very  high  for  their  fine  flavor,  as  the 
Chablis,  Mont  Rachct,  La  Goutte  d'Or,  and 
Les  Charmes. 

Burgundy  is  recommended  to  invalids  as  a 
light,  mildly  stimulating,  but  highly  tonic  drink. 
It  should  always  be  drunk  a trifle  warmer  than 
the  temperature  of  the  room ; and  should  be 
served  in  a cradle.  (See  Cradle.) 

BURNS. — The  treatment  of  burns  is  of  the 
most  delicate  and  difficult  character,  and  un- 
less the  wound  is  very  slight  the  doctor  should 
be  at  once  sent  for.  As,  however,  prompt  action 
is  very  important,  there  are  a few  points  which 
every  member  of  a household  should  under- 
stand. And  first  the  amount  of  pain  suffered 
is  no  index  to  the  severity  of  the  wound ; on  the 
contrary,  in  really  severe  and  dangerous  burns, 
the  shock  to  the  nerves  is  so  great  that  very 
little  pain  is  felt,  and  its  presence  is  rather  of 
good  omen  than  otherwise.  The  absence  of 
suffering  must  be  taken  as  an  indication  of 
extreme  and  imminent  danger.  In  the  next 
place  the  probable  result  of  a burn  will 
depend  upon  the  part  injured  and  the  extent  cf 
surface  which  has  been  burned.  Thus  severe 
burns  about  the  chest  and  abdomen,  especially 
in  children,  are  almost  always  fatal ; and  burns 
of  the  lower  extremities  are  more  dangerous 
than  the  same  injuries  affecting  the  face,  neck 
or  arms.  A deep  burn,  too,  which  may  involve 
the  loss  of  a limb  is  not  so  likely  to  prove  fatal 
as  a comparatively  slight  wound  covering  a 
large  part  of  the  body’s  surface. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  burns  in  the 
first  stages  should  consist  of  moist  and  warm 
applications.  Dry  flour  is  very  good  and  may 
be  sprinkled  over  the  wound  if  it  be  slight,  or 
if  nothing  better  is  at  hand.  Raw  cotton,  or 
wadding  in  sheets,  such  as  is  used  in  ladies’ 
dressing,  may  be  laid  on  and  should  be  used 
freely  enough  to  entirely  exclude  the  air. 
Moist  applications  are  best  used  warm.  Wet 
a piece  of  old  linen  or  cotton  cloth  in  a mixture 


of  equal  parts  of  lime-water  and  linseed  oil, 
shaken  well  together,  and  apply  it  to  the  in- 
jured part ; cover  this  with  another  dry  cloth 
and  secure  it  with  a bandage.  If  the  mixture 
of  oil  and  lime-water  is  not  at  hand  the  wound 
may  be  covered  with  castor  oil.  Or  a paste 
may  be  made  of  powdered  chalk  and  lard 
spread  half  an  inch  thick  on  suitable  cloths,  and 
applied  to  the  parts,  and  covered  with  an  outer 
bandage  ; this  should  be  allowed  to  remain  on 
two  or  three  days.  Or  in  cases  of  severe  in- 
jury the  parts  may  be  brushed  with  turpentine, 
and  then  covered  with  a mixture  of  equal  parts 
of  turpentine  and  resin  ointment,  spread  on 
linen  or  wadding.  An  excellent  application  is 
hot  water  and  milk  (equal  parts),  with  a tea- 
spoonful of  carbonate  of  soda.  A bread-and- 
millc  poultice  serves  the  purpose  very  well. 
If  the  milk  is  not  at  hand  use  warm  water  with 
plenty  of  soap  in  it ; and  if  you  have  no  soap  use 
plain  warm  water  with  carbonate  of  soda,  or 
a little  piece  of  common  washing  soda,  not  larger 
than  a small  hazel-nut,  to  a pint  of  water,  dis- 
solved in  it.  Whatever  is  applied,  keep  the  parts 
thoroughly  wet  and  well  covered.  The  first 
dressing  of  a burn  should  remain  undisturbed 
for  at  least  twenty-four  hours,  or  longer,  and 
then  be  repeated  in  a similar  or  modified  form. 
In  after  dressings  larger  surfaces  must  not  be 
exposed  to  the  air  ; either  leave  a thin  covering 
and  wet  it  with  the  lotion,  or  if  you  are  using 
anointment,  remove  only  a small  portion  of  the 
dressing  at  a time,  have  everything  in  readiness, 
and  cover  again  as  quickly  as  possible.  It  must 
be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the  treatment 
of  severe  burns  cannot  prudently  be  ventured 
upon  without  medical  advice.  When  the  burn 
is  very  serious  the  chief  danger  is  from  the 
sufferer  sinking  under  the  shock ; it  will  be 
necessary,  therefore,  to  support  his  strength 
with  wine.  If  there  be  much  pain  and  fretful- 
ness, you  may  safely  give  to  an  adult  thirty 
drops  of  laudanum  in  a little  water,  and  repeat 
this  in  an  hour,  or  a third  time  if  needful.  A 
child  ten  years  of  age  may  take  three  drops  of 
laudanum  in  like  manner ; younger  children 
had  better  not  have  any,  except  upon  a physi- 
cian’s prescription. 

Chemical  Agents  sometimes  come  in  con- 
tact with  the  skin.  If  lime  get  on  the  front  of 
the  eye  or  under  the  eyelid,  wash  it  well  with 
weak  vinegar  and  water.  If  oil  of  vitriol,  or 
any  strong  acid  has  caused  the  burn,  apply  at 
once  lime-water,  chalk  or  whiting  and  water, 
carbonate  of  soda  or  common  washing  soda 
and  water ; in  the  absence  of  these  use  common 
soap  made  into  a thick  batter  with  soft  water ; 
olive  oil  may  afterwards  be  used  freely.  Alka- 
lies— as  quicklime,  potash,  or  caustic  ammo- 
nia— need  the  opposite  treatment ; weak  vinegar, 
or  much  diluted  acids,  should  be  at  once  ap- 
plied. Corrosive  sublimate  is  rendered  inert 
by  the  free  application  of  white  of  egg.  But- 
ter of  antimony,  \>y  water  in  abundance. 

BURNING' FLUID.— A mixture  of  oil  of 
turpentine  and  alcohol  for  illuminating  pur- 
poses. Its  simplicity,  cleanliness,  and  great 


5G 


BURNOUS 


BUTTER 


brilliancy  of  light  have  made  it  very  popular 
when  gas  is  not  to  be  had ; but  owing  to  the 
large  proportion  of  expensive  alcohol  which 
must  be  used  in  making  it,  it  is  a very  costly 
illumination,  and  the  great  danger  which  at- 
tends its  use  should  banish  it  from  the  house- 
hold. Both  alcohol  and  oil  of  turpentine  are 
very  volatile ; that  is,  when  exposed  to  the  air 
or  not  confined,  they  rapidly  evaporate  or  rise 
into  the  gaseous  state.  The  vapor  thus  thrown 
off  is  not  only  inflammable  but  explosive ; and 
being  generated  also  inside  the  reservoir  of  the 
lamp  while  burning,  the  lamp  itself  is  liable  to 
explode  at  any  time.  The  only  lamp  in  which 
burning  fluid  may  be  used  with  safety  is  New- 
ell's lamp , made  especially  for  this  purpose  on 
the  principle  of  Davy’s  safety  lamp,  and  mount- 
ed with  fine  wire  gauze.  Even  then  the  can 
for  holding  the  fluid  should  have  a sheet  of  the 
gauze  inserted  under  the  lid,  and  another  fixed 
in  the  spout. 

BURNOUS. — The  burnous  or  Arab  cloak  is 
made  by  taking  3 yds.  of  yard-wide  material, 
folding  it  in  halves  for  the  middle  of  the  back 
(Fig.  2),  fastening  it  at  b for  the  back  of  the 
neck,  from  which  point  the  curved  line  b a 
indicates  the  cutting  out;  this  is  longer  than 
is  needful  to  meet  around  the  neck,  because 


Fig.  i 

Burnous  made  up, 

the  cloak  is  designed  to  fold  loosely  across  the 
breast.  The  extra  fulness  in  the  back  will 
then  drape  itself  into  a very  long  graceful  hood, 
which  requires  a heavy  tassel  at  d,  (Fig.  2.)  and 
may  be  sewed  up  from  d to  b,  or  left  open  and 
lined  with  silk.  In  Fig.  1,  the  burnous  is 


represented  with  a hood  which  can  be  drawn 
over  the  head ; this  is  made  by  cutting  the 
cloak  and  hood  apart  following  a diagonal 


Middle  0/  the  hack. 


seam  in  the  back,  and  the  hood  is  shaped 
according  to  taste. 

BUSH-BEAN. — The  common  low,  garden- 
bean,  growing  on  small  bushes,  and  sometimes 
called  kidney  bean.  For  cultivation  ( see 
Bean).  In  cooking,  shell  into  cold  water  and 
boil  until  tender.  A small  piece  of  fat  bacon 
boiled  with  them  is  an  improvement  to  them ; 
if  this  is  used  do  not  add  any  salt. 

BUTTER. — Butter  is  the  oil  of  milk  sep- 
arated by  the  process  called  “churning.”  It 
is  the  most  popular  and  delicate  of  the  class  of 
animal  fats,  and  its  dietetic  properties  are  nearly 
the  same  as  those  of  vegetable  oils,  though  it 
becomes  rancid  sooner  than  most  other  fats  or 
oils.  When  fresh  and  pure  it  is  very  whole- 
some ; but  it  should  be  quite  free  from  rancidity. 
If  salted  when  quite  fresh  its  wholesomeness 
is  probably  not  at  all  impaired  thereby;  but 
should  it  begin  to  turn  rancid  no  amount  of 
salting  can  correct  it.  The  flavor  of  butter  de- 
pends very  much  upon  the  food  of  the  cows 
from  which  it  is  produced;  and  for  this  reason 
cows  whose  milk  is  to  be  used  for  making  but- 
ter should  have  liberal  pasturage,  and  if  fed 
should  be  given  only  simple,  pure,  and  nutri- 
tious food.  Good  butter  will  not  adhere  to  the 
knife  when  it  is  cut.  The  greatest  fault  of 
American  butter  is  that  it  is  too  much  salted 
— it  has  been  estimated  that  every  ten  pounds 
of  butter  sold  in  the  United  States  contains 
one  pound  of  salt,  or  more  than  three  times 


BUTTERCUP 


BUTTERMILK 


57 


what  the  average  would  be  in  England.  It  is 
also  adulterated  with  mutton  fat,  lard,  and  the 
vegetable  butters.  All  these,  however,  are 
harder  than  butter,  and  cannot  be  perfectly 
mixed  with  it,  so  that  it  is  not  very  difficult  to 
detect  their  presence  by  close  examination. 
All  butter  bought  at  the  stores  should  be  worked 
over  thoroughly  before  using,  not  only  to  purify 
it,  but  to  preserve  its  freshness. 

To  Make. — Butter  is  made  either  with  the 
cream  alone  or  with  the  milk  and  cream  togeth- 
er ; the  former  plan  is  said  to  produce  the  best 
butter,  and  the  latter  the  largest  quantity.  In 
both  cases  the  process  is  pretty  much  the  same, 
though  the  churning  of  cream  alone  is  the  method 
usually  adopted  in  this  country,  and  the  cream 
should  be  sour  before  it  is  taken  from  the  milk. 
The  first  requisite  in  the  making  of  good  butter 
is  perfect  cleanliness  in  all  the  utensils  con- 
nected with  the  operation.  All  strongly-flavored 
substances  must  be  kept  from  the  neighborhood 
of  the  milk,  the  pans  should  be  scalded  just  be- 
fore the  milk  is  put  into  them,  the  cream  should 
be  kept  in  a stone  jar  or  crock,  and  the  churn 
should  be  scalded  before  using  and  then  cooled 
with  ice  or  spring  water.  In  hot  weather  it  is 
important  to  keep  the  milk,  cream,  and  butter 
as  cool  as  possible ; for  this  purpose  those  who 
have  no  ice-house  or  very  cool  milk-room  should 
hang  the  cream  down  the  well.  In  winter  the 
temperature  of  the  cream  before  the  churning 
begins  should  be  about  6o°  and  the  churn 
should  be  scalded,  so  as  not  to  cool  the  cream. 
Any  warming  of  the  cream  before  churning 
should  be  very  gradual.  When  the  cream  or 
milk  is  ready,  churn  steadily  until  the  butter- 
flakes  begin  to  show  around  the  dasher  on  the 
top  of  the  churn,  then  move  slowly.  The  mo- 
tion should  always  be  steady  and  regular, 
otherwise  the  butter  is  longer  in  coming.  In 
warm  weather,  if  the  butter  is  slow  in  coming, 
pour  a little  cold  water  into  the  churn.  When 
the  butter  has  come,  take  it  up  on  the  dasher 
and  put  it  into  a wooden  bowl  or  tray  containing 
very  cold  water ; then  pour  off  the  cold  water, 
squeezing  and  pressing  the  butter  witl^a  wooden 
ladle.  Set  the  butter  away  in  a cool  place  to 
harden,  and  then  work  it  over  and  over  until 
every  drop  of  buttermilk  has  been  extracted 
and  the  butter  is  yellow  and  solid  ; throughout 
the  process  use  the  wooden  ladle  and  do  not 
touch  the  butter  with  the  hands.  When  the 
buttermilk  is  all  worked  out  it  is  time  to  add 
the  salt ; on  this  no  precise  direction  can  be 
given  as  tastes  differ  so  much ; a good  plan  is 
to  notice  the  proportions  which  are  most  agreea- 
ble, and  thereafter  go  by  this  measure.  Mould 
the  butter  into  rolls  or  “ pats  ” of  the  desired 
size ; wrap  each  in  a perfectly  clean  linen  cloth ; 
and  pack  in  a stone  jar,  sprinkling  a little  salt 
between  the  layers.  Butter  packed  thus  will 
keep  sweet  and  fresh  for  several  weeks. 

To  Preserve. — If  butter  is  to  be  kept  a 
long  time  it  should  be  worked  with  especial 
care  and  packed  down  hard  in  a perfectly  clean 
stone  jar  or  firkin ; if  the  firkin  is  used,  it 
should  be  thoroughly  seasoned  and  the  bottom 


covered  with  salt  and  the  sides  rubbed  with  it. 
The  butter  may  now  be  covered  with  a strong 
brine  ; but  a better  way  is  to  press  a fine  linen 
cloth  closely  to  the  surface,  and  cover  this 
with  a layer  of  fine  salt,  and  a closely-fitting 
lid.  When  butter  is  taken  out,  the  cloth  and 
lid  should  be  carefully  replaced ; it  is  best  to 
take  out  enough  to  last  a week  as  it  spoils  the 
butter  to  let  air  in  upon  it  every  day. 

Butter  may  be  kept  for  a year  or  more  by 
mixing  into  it  a preparation  made  of  two  parts 
of  fine  salt,  one  of  sugar,  and  one  of  saltpetre, 
in  the  proportion  of  one  ounce  of  the  mixture 
to  a pound  of  butter.  Pack  away  so  as  to 
entirely  exclude  the  air. 

Butter  may  be  preserved  without  salt  by 
mixing  honey  with  it  in  the  proportion  of  an 
ounce  to  a pound  of  butter.  This  has  an 
agreeable  taste,  will  keep  for  years,  and  might 
be  useful  on  long  journeys  ; but  as  the  portion 
of  honey  is  considerable  it  might  not  agree 
with  some  constitutions. 

To  Restore. — Rancid  butter  may  be  restored 
thus  : Put  fifteen  drops  of  chloride  of  lime  to  a 
pint  of  cold  water,  and  work  the  butter  in  it 
till  every  particle  has  come  in  contact  with 
the  water  ; then  work  it  over  in  pure  cold 
water. 

BUTTER  (Drawn).  ( See  BUTTER  under 

Sauces.) 

BUTTERMILK.— This  is  the  residue  of  the 
milk  and  cream  after  the  butter  has  been  made, 
and  contains  about  two-thirds  of  the  whole 
original  weight.  When  quite  fresh  it  differs 
from  whole  milk  chiefly  in  the  absence  of  the 
butter  or  oily  part;  but  it  retains  the  sugar, 
caseine,  and  salts  of  milk.  It  is  very  nourish- 
ing, and  being  easier  of  digestion  than  whole 
milk,  it  is  sometimes  recommended  for  invalids  ; 
and  as  it  is  extremely  cooling,  it  forms  a useful 
and  pleasant  beverage  in  warm  weather.  When 
kept  for  a day  or  two  buttermilk  acquires  an 
acidity;  but  the  acid  of  buttermilk  does  not  in- 
crease the  acidity  of  the  stomach,  or  cause 
flatulence,  as  vegetable  acids  commonly  do,  and 
it  may  therefore  be  safely  used  by  dyspeptics. 
In  this  state  it  is  refrigerant,  and  should  not  be 
drunk  while  the  body  is  unusually  warm. 
Where  cream  alone  has  been  churned  the  but- 
termilk is  particularly  rich  and  agreeable.  But- 
termilk cannot  always  be  procured  in  the  cities, 
but  it  is  easily  made  in  small  quantities  by 
shaking  sour  cream  in  a bottle,  or  beating  it  in 
a crock  until  “the  butter  comes.”  Do  not  keep 
buttermilk  in  glazed  stoneware. 

Fleetings  (Butternnlk.)  — When  butter- 
milk is  added  to  boiling  whey,  and  the  two  are 
well  mixed,  a soft  curd  is  thrown  down,  which 
is  excellent  when  eaten  either  hot  or  cold  with 
bread. 

Thickened  Buttermilk— If  buttermilk  be 
put  into  a linen  bag  and  all  the  whey  strained 
off,  what  remains  is  then  much  thicker,  and, 
eaten  with  sugar  and  cream,  is  excellent. 

Whey  (Buttermilk.) — This  is  a nice  drink 
for  the  sick.  Put  one  quart  of  buttermilk  in  a 
pan  on  the  fire ; when  it  boils  up  beat  up  the 


58 


BUTCHER-MEAT 


CABBAGE 


yolk  of  an  egg  and  stir  in ; add  a half  teacup- 
ful of  cream  or  a tablespoonful  of  butter.  Then 
beat  the  white  of  the  egg  to  a stiff  froth  and  stir 
it  in.  Sweeten  to  taste,  and  add  spice  if  liked. 

BUTCHER-MEAT.— Each  of  the  different 
kinds  of  animals  slaughtered  for  human  food 
is  cut  up  differently  in  the  shambles,  and  the 
various  joints  of  each  are  called  by  different 
names  ; it  would  not  be  easy,  therefore,  to  treat 
them  all  under  one  head.  For  full  details  as  to 
joints,  etc.,  see  separate  subjects,  as  Beef, 
Mutton,  Pork,  Veal. 

BUTTERNUTS.— A species  of  the  walnut, 
resembling,  when  young,  the  common  black 
walnut,  but  longer  and  smaller.  In  the  Eastern 
States  they  are  known  as  oil-nuts,  and  in  Ohio 
and  neighboring  States  as  white  walnuts. 
When  ripe,  butternuts  are  of  an  oval  shape, 
not  quite  so  large  or  rough  as  the  black  walnut, 
and  are  of  a different  flavor,  with  an  agreeable 


taste,  and  rich  in  oil.  When  green  and  soft 
they  are  excellent  for  pickling.  They  ripen  in 
September. 

BUTTON-HOLES. — For  cutting  button- 
holes there  is  a special  kind  of  scissors,  made 
for  the  purpose,  which  are  much  better  than 
the  ordinary  kind;  it  is  best  not  to  cut  the 
hole  to  full  size  at  first,  but  to  lengthen  it  if  it 
prove  too  small  on  trial.  For  broadcloth,  cut 
the  buttonhole  with  a chisel,  on  a board.  The 
best  stitch  is  made  by  turning  the  thread  round 
the  needle  before  it  has  been  drawn  entirely 
through  ; this  is  better  than  to  draw  the  needle 
through  and  then  take  up  the  loop.  A stay 
thread  should  first  be  put  along  each  side  of 
the  buttonhole,  and  a bar  (or  cross  thread)  at 
each  end  before  working  it ; in  working  the 
buttonhole  keep  the  stay  thread  as  far  from 
the  edge  as  possible.  A small  bar  should  be 
worked  at  each  end  to  add  to  its  durability. 


c 


CABBAGE. — Properly  speaking  the  cabbage 
embraces  a very  numerous  tribe  of  vegetables 
used  as  food,  such  as  the  different  kind  of 
Kales,  Brussels  sprouts,  broccoli,  cauliflower, 
spinach,  water-cress,  etc.;  but  we  shall  restrict 
the  name  here  to  the  common  cabbage  ( Bras - 
sica).  Even  of  this  there  are  so  many  varieties 
that  one  or  other  is  procurable  at  nearly  every 
season  of  the  year.  In  his  book  on  Foods, 
Dr.  Smith  says  that  the  cabbage  “ represents 
the  least  nutritious  class  of  vegetable  foods, 
and  is  perhaps  less  valuable  for  its  direct  nu- 
tritive elements  than  for  its  indirect  and  me- 
dicinal saline  juices  ; ” but  it  is  nevertheless  a 
most  agreeable  and  useful  adjunct  in  its  season. 
The  young  cabbages  appear  in  the  Southern, 
markets  in  May  or  June,  and  are  brought  thence 
to  the  North;  the  season  in  the  Northern 
markets  begins  in  July,  and  lasts  till  cold 
weather.  When  frost  comes  if  the  heads  be 
cut  off  and  put  into  a cellar,  or  buried  under 
ground,  they  may  be  kept  the  entire  winter. 
If  left  exposed,  cabbages  putrify  very  quickly, 
and  in  decomposing  give  out  a very  offensive 
odor,  owing,  it  is  supposed,  to  their  containing  a 
small  portion  of  nitrogen  in  addition  to  the 
usual  constituents  of  vegetables.  Decayed 
cabbage  leaves  should  therefore  never  be  al- 
lowed to  lie  in  the  vicinity  of  dwellings ; 
and  the  water  in  which  cabbage  has  been  boiled 
should  not  be  suffered  to  stand,  but  passed  off 
at  once  into  the  drains.  Care  must  be  taken  | 
to  have  cabbage  thoroughly  cooked,  or  it  will 
derange  the  stomach  and  cause  flatulence.  To 
raise  cabbage  requires  a deep  and  moderately 
rich  garden  soil.  In  order  to  have  a regular 
succession,  the  seed  should  be  sown  at  differ- 
ent times,  from  the  beginning  of  spring  till  the 
autumn ; the  early  sown  will  run  to  seed  the  same 
year,  the  later  sown  will  produce  larger  and  firm- 
er heads  and  will  not  go  to  seed  till  the  next 


season.  Cabbage  should  be  started  first  in  a 
seed-bed ; when  they  are  intended  for  early 
produce,  they  should  be  planted  in  the  fall  and 
protected  by  glass  frames.  In  this  manner 
strong  plants  may  be  had  early  in  the  spring, 
which,  planted  out  in  April,  will  produce  fine 
cabbage  in  July  or  August.  Set  out  in  rows  18 
inches  apart,  and  the  plants  two  feet  from  each 
other.  Those  which  are  raised  on  a large  scale 
should  be  sown  in  a seed-bed  in  March,  and 
planted  where  they  are  to  remain  in  June. 
When  they  are  picked  out  from  the  seed-bed 
very  young,  and  allowed  to  grow  to  a good  size 
in  a piece  of  ground  prepared  for  that  purpose, 
before  being  finally  transplanted  to  the  field, 
the  success  is  more  certain,  and  will  repay  the 
additional  trouble.  These  come  to  perfection 
in  the  autumn,  and  may  be  cut  as  they  are 
wanted.  Some  kinds  are  so  hardy  that  they 
will  stand  the  severest  frosts  and  remain  cov- 
ered with  snow  for  a considerable  time  with- 
out damage*;  but  the  better  sort  for  table  pur- 
poses should  be  cut  and  packed  away  in  the 
cellar,  or  buried  underground,  when  cold 
weather  comes  on.  Cabbages  are  subject  to  a 
peculiar  disease  called  clubbing  when  planted 
repeatedly  in  the  same  ground;  the  bottom  of 
the  stem  enlarges  and  the  heads  never  come  to 
perfection.  The  only  remedy  for  this  disease 
is  to  change  the  cultivation,  and  for  a time  to 
plant  no  cabbage  on  the  ground  which  pro- 
duced the  clubbed  plants. 

Boiled  Cabbage. — Pick  off  the  outer  leaves, 
cut  in  quarters,  and  examine  carefully  for  in- 
sects. Soak  for  an  hour  in  cold  water ; then 
put  into  a pot  with  plenty  of  boiling  water,  a 
teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  a level  saltspoonful  of 
bicarbonate  of  soda,  which  destroys  the  oil  of 
cabbage.  Allow  it  to  boil  twenty  minutes,  free 
it  from  the  water,  serve  it  with  butter  sauce, 
bechamel,  allemande,  or  fines  herbes  sauce. 


CABBAGE  ROSE 


CAKE 


59 


Boiled,  with  Bacon. — Proceed  as  described 
on  the  preceding  page  ; allow  the  cabbage 
to  boil  ten  minutes ; finish  cooking  it  in 
the  broth  which  the  bacon  made  in  cook- 
ing ; be  careful  to  preserve  its  shape  as 
much  as  possible  while  draining  it  from 
the  pot  ; dish  it,  lay  the  bacon  on  in  slices, 
and  serve. 

Fried  Cabbage. — Take  cold  boiled  cabbage, 
cut  it  up  fine,  add  a little  melted  butter  and 
salt  and  pepper  to  taste,  with  three  or  four 
tablespoonfuls  of  cream.  Put  it  into  a buttered 
frying-pan  and  stir  until  it  is  very  hot ; then  let 
it  stand  long  enough  to  brown  slighly  at  the 
bottom.  Turn  out  into  a dish,  and  serve  hot. 

Pickled  Cabbage. — Cook  as  above,  but  not 
too  much ; take  it  off  as  soon  as  it  is  done, 
and  drain  thoroughly;  drop  it  immediately 
into  cold  water  and  drain  again.  When  dry, 
put  it  into  jars  and  cover  with  boiling  vinegar ; 
season  with  rock  salt,  pepper,  pepper-corns, 
and  cloves.  When  perfectly  cold,  seal  the 
jars  up  air  tight,  and  set  away  in  a cool,  dry 
closet. 

Salad  (Cabbage). — Choose  a hard  clean  head 
of  red  cabbage,  peel  off  the  outer  leaves,  and 
cut  it  in  four  pieces.  Then  with  a sharp  knife 
cut  across  the  grain  in  as  thin  slices  as  possi- 
ble ; put  it  into  a crockery  dish,  cover  with 
vinegar,  sprinkle  salt  and  pepper  over  it,  and 
leave  to  stand  several  hours.  Then  throw 
away  the  vinegar,  and  dress  with  oil  and  vine- 
gar. ( See  Sour  Krout.) 

Stewed  Cabbage. — Boil  a large  head  of 
cabbage,  drain,  and  cut  it  up  very  fine.  Put 
two  tablespoonfuls  of  butter  in  a sauce-pan  on 
the  fire,  and  when  it  has  melted  put  in  the  cab- 
bage and  stir  for  five  minutes ; add  salt  and 
pepper  to  taste,  and  a pinch  of  flour ; wet  with 
a pint  of  broth  and  stew  until  the  sauce  is 
reduced.  Serve  hot. 

CABBAGE  ROSE.  A species  of  rose 
having  a thick  compacted  flower  with  petals  ar- 
ranged like  the  leaves  of  a cabbage.  It  is 
hardy,  and  very  pretty.  Its  culture  is  like  that 
of  other  hardy  roses.  ( See  Rose.) 

CACTUS. — The  families  of  the  cactus  are 
numerous,  and  each  has  a great  number  of 
species.  Those  chiefly  grown  for  parlor  and 
garden  plants  come  under  the  families  of 
Cereus  and  Epiphyllum.  Both  should  be  plant- 
ed in  pots  with  a soil  consisting  of  two  parts 
peat,  one  part  broken  potsherds,  one  part  loam 
or  old  mortar  rubbish,  and  one  part  manure  ; mix 
these  well  together  and  see  that  the  drainage  is 
good.  During  the  summer  the  plants  should 
stand  out  of  doors,  in  a sheltered  place.  In 
September  remove  to  the  house,  all  parts  of 
the  shoots  having  no  bloom  buds  (which  may 
easily  be  seen  along  the  leaves)  being  first  cut 
back  to  just  beyond  the  buds.  It  is  better  to 
confine  the  plant  to  six  or  eight  strong  stems, 
and  while  these  are  in  good  health  the  growth 
of  shoots  from  the  root  is  not  to  be  encouraged. 
Give  the  plants  no  water  from  September  to 
February;  while  ingrowth  in  summer,  water 
moderately.  The  cactus  blooms  from  May  to 


August.  The  difference  between  the  Cereus 
and  the  Epiphyllum  is  that  the  shoots  of 
the  latter  have  flat  shoots  and  leaves  without 
spines,  while  in  the  former  the  shoots  are 
round  and  the  leaves  prickly.  The  best  varie- 
ties of  the  Cereus  are  : C.  Speciosissimus,  crim- 
son and  purple  flowers  (this  is  the  best  for 
general  cultivation);  C.  Grandiflorus,  flowers 
yellowish  white  (this  is  the  “ night-blooming 
cereus”);  C.  Maynatdi , deep  orange  red 
flowers  ; and  C.  Triangularis , immense  cream- 
colored  flowers.  The  best  varieties  of  the 
Epiphyllum  are  : E.  Akenuanui,  fine  scarlet 
flowers  ; E.  Speciosum , rosy  pink  flower ; E. 
A latum,  white  flowers;  and  E.  Trincatum, 
and  its  varieties,  with  white,  red,  scarlet,  rosy, 
and  violet  flowers. 

CAFE  AU  LAIT. — Coffee  and  milk,  for 
breakfast.  Strain  the  coffee,  while  hot,  off  the 
grounds  through  a piece  of  fine  muslin,  into  the 
coffee-pot ; add  an  equal  quantity  of  boiling 
milk  that  has  been  boiled  down  one-half.  Serve 
like  plain  coffee,  with  sugar. 

CAKE. — It  is  absolutely  essentia]  to  the 
making  of  good  cake  that  the  materials  should 
be  good ; the  flour  must  be  white  and  dry,  and 
carefully  sifted  before  using ; the  sugar  white 
and  free  from  lumps  ; the  eggs  above  suspicion  ; 
the  butter  sweet  and  fresh ; and  the  milk  whole 
or  unskimmed.  It  is  hardly  less  important 
that  the  measuring  and  weighing  should  be 
accurate  throughout ; and  that  each  step  in  the 
process  of  mixing  should  be  rightly  taken. 


Modem  Cake  Mould. 


The  flour,  as  we  have  said,  should  be  sifted 
before  measuring,  and  if  damp  dried  thoroughly. 
The  eggs  should  be  beaten  separately, — the 
whites  in  a cool  room  till  they  are  solid  enough 
to  slice.  The  milk  may  be  used  either  sour 
or  sweet,  but  the  two  must  never  be  mixed  ; 
sour  milk  makes  spongy  cake,  sweet  makes 
it  more  solid.  Saleratus  and  soda  should  be 
thoroughly  dissolved  in  hot  water  and  strained 
before  they  are  stirred  into  cake.  Currants 
should  be  carefully  rinsed,  rubbed  in  a dry 
cloth  to  get  out  the  stems,  and  then  spread  on 
platters  and  dried,  before  being  used.  Almonds 
should  be  blanched,  by  pouring  boiling  water 


60 


CAKE 


on  them  ; drain  and  repeat  the  process  and  they 
will  readily  pop  from  the  skin ; when  blanched, 
dry  and  then  pound  them  fine  with  a few  drops 
of  milk,  to  prevent  their  oiling.  All  kinds  of 
cake  that  are  made  without  yeast  are  better  for 
being  stirred  till  just  before  they  are  baked. 
When  ready  to  mix,  stir  the  butter  to  a cream, 
then  add  the  sugar,  and  stir  till  white  ; next  beat 
the  yolks  of  the  eggs,  strain  them  and  add  them 
to  the  sugar  and  butter  ; meantime  another  per- 
son should  beat  the  whites  to  a stiff  froth  and 
put  them  in;  then  add  the  spices  and  flour,  and 
last  of  all  the  fruit,  if  any  be  used.  Earthen- 
ware is  best  to  mix  in,  and  a wooden  spoon 
should  be  used.  Butter  the  cake-pans  well ; 
the  cake  wilf  be  less  liable  to  burn  if  the  pans 
are  lined  with  white  buttered  paper.  The  oven 
should  be  “quick”  but  not  furiously  hot;  if  it 
be  slow  the  cake  will  not  rise  properly.  The 
cake  must  not,  while  baking,  be  moved,  or 
changed  from  one  oven  to  another,  and  if  it 
browns  too  rapidly  on  top,  cover  it  over  with  a 
piece  of  white  buttered  paper.  To  find  out 
when  it  is  baked  enough,  half  open  the  oven 
door,  and  try  the  centre  of  the  loaf  with  a clean 
broom-straw.  If  the  cake  is  baked  the  straw 
will  come  out  dry',  if  not,  a little  of  the  batter 
will  adhere  to  it,  in  which  case  the  door  of  the 
oven  must  be  closed  immediately,  or  the  cake 
will  fall.  Cake  that  is  to  be  frosted  should  be 
cooked  in  pans  with  sides  perpendicular,  in- 
stead of  slanting.  It  should  be  iced  as  soon  as 
taken  from  the  oven,  to  ensure  its  drying  quickly 
and  smoothly.  As  soon  as  the  cake  is  cool, 
wrap  it  in  a thick  white  cloth,  and  keep  it  in  a 
covered  earthen  jar  or  tight  tin  box.  Do 
not  cut  more  at  a time  than  is  likely  to  be 
used.  {See  Crullers,  Doughnuts,  Mac- 
caroons). 

Almond  Cake. — Take  /-Sugar,  i lb  ; butter, 

lb ; flour,  i lb  ; eggs,  8 ; almonds,  I coffee- 
cupful  ; essence  of  bitter  almonds,  '/2  teaspoon- 
ful ; brandy,  i wineglassful. 

Stir  one  pound  of  powdered  sugar  and  a quar- 
ter of  a pound  of  butter  to  a cream  ; beat  up  the 
eight  eggs,  the  whites  and  yolks  separately,  and 
add  the  yolks  to  the  butter  and  sugar ; stir  to- 
gether very  thoroughly,  and  then  put  in  one 
pound  of  flour ; add  a coffeecupful  of  sweet 
almonds  blanched,  and  beat  to  a smooth  paste, 
with  half  a teaspoonful  of  essence  of  bitter 
almonds ; along  with  the  almonds  stir  in  the 
whites  of  the  eggs;  finally  add  a wineglass  of 
brandy.  Bake  in  a quick  oven,  and  frost  it  as 
soon  as  it  is  done.  Season  the  icing  with  rose- 
water. 

Almond  Cheese  Cake.  — Take  .'-Milk,  i 
pt;  eggs,  6;  white  sugar,  6 oz  ; sweet  almonds, 
l/2  lb  ; butter,  y lb ; wine,  ]/2  wineglassful ; rose- 
water, i teaspoonful. 

Boil  a pint  of  new  milk ; beat  three  eggs  and 
stir  them  into  the  milk,  while  it  is  boiling. 
When  it  boils  up,  take  it  from  the  fire,  add  half 
a wineglass  of  wine  (any  cooking  wine)  ; sepa- 
rate the  curd  from  the  whey,  and  add  to  the 
curd  three  eggs  and  six  ounces  of  powdered 
white  sugar  that  have  previously  been  beaten 


together;  add  a teaspoonful  of  rose-water, 
half  a pound  of  .->weet  almonds  blanched  and 
pounded  fine,  and  a quarter  of  a pound  of  melt- 
ed butter.  Mix  well  together,  and  pour  it  into 
small  pans  that  have  been  lined  with  pastry ; 
ornament  the  top  with  Zante  currants  and  al- 
monds cut  in  thin  slices,  and  bake  immediately 
in  a rather  quick  oven. 

Bannock,  or  Indian  Meal  Cake. — Take  /- 
Brown  sugar,  i'X  lbs ; butter,  i lb ; eggs,  6 ; 
cinnamon  or  ginger,  i teaspoonful;  Indian 
meal,  iX  lbs;  flour,  y lb. 

Stir  a pound  of  butter  and  a pound  and  a 
quarter  of  brown  sugar  to  a cream  , beat  six 
eggs,  and  mix  them  with  the  sugar  and  butter ; 
add  a teaspoonful  of  cinnamon  or  ginger;  stir 
in  a pound  and  a quarter  of  white  Indian  meal 
( sifted),  and  a quarter  of  a pound  of  wheat 
flour.  Mix  thoroughly,  and  bake  in  small  cups, 
and  let  it  remain  in  them  till  cold. 

Berwick  Sponge  Cake. — Take  /-Flour,  4 
teacupfuls;  eggs,  6;  powdered  sugar,  3 teacup- 
fuls ; cream-tartar,  2 teaspoonfuls  ; soda,  1 tea- 
spoonful ; cold  water,  1 cupful ; lemon,  the  rind 
and  juice  of  y2.  Beat  six  eggs  two  minutes ; add 
three  cups  of  powdered  sugar,  beat  six  minutes  ; 
two  cups  of  flour  with  two  teaspoonfuls  of  cream- 
tartar,  beat  one  minute  ; one  cup  of  cold  water 
with  a teaspoonful  of  soda,  beat  one  minute  ; 
half  the  grated  rind  and  juice  of  a lemon,  two 
more  cupfuls  of  flour  and  a small  pinch  of  salt , 
stir  gently  ; bake  twenty  minutes. 

Black  Cake. — Take  /-Flour  (browned),  1 
lb ; brown  sugar,  r lb  ; butter,  a little  more  than 
i lb;  eggs,  10;  seeded  raisins,  3 lbs;  Zante  cur- 
rants, 3 lbs  ; citron,  1 lb ; wine,  brandy,  and 
milk,  1 wineglassful  of  each ; molasses,  1 table- 
spoonful ; saleratus,  1 teaspoonful ; cinnamon,  1 
tablespoonful ; cloves,  1 teaspoonful ; mace,  1 
tablespoonful,  or  1 nutmeg. 

Take  one  pound  of  flour,  brown  it  in  a pan 
over  the  fire,  stirring  constantly,  and  let  it  cool 
before  using ; one  pound  of  brown  sugar ; a lit- 
tle more  than  a pound  of  butter;  ten  eggs  ; three 
pounds  of  seeded  raisins  ; three  pounds  of  Zante 
currants ; one  pound  of  citron ; a wineglass  of 
wine,  one  of  brandy,  and  one  of  milk  ; a tea- 
spoonful of  saleratus  ; a tablespoonful  of  mo- 
lasses > a tablespoonful  of  cinnamon ; a tea- 
spoonful of  cloves ; and  1 tablespoonful  of 
mace,  or  one  nutmeg.  Stir  the  sugar  and 
butter  together;  beat  the  eggs  to  a froth,  and 
stir  them  in ; then  add  the  flour,  stirring  it  in 
gradually ; after  this  the  molasses  and  spice. 
Dissolve  the  saleratus  in  the  milk,  strain  it, 
and  mix  with  the  brandy  and  wine  to  curdle 
them  ; stir  the  whole  into  the  cake.  Just  be- 
fore putting  the  cake  into  the  pans,  stir  in  the 
fruit  gradually,  a handful  of  each  alternately. 
When  well  mixed  together,  put  the  mixture 
into  cake  pans,  and  bake  immediately  in  a mod- 
erately hot  oven.  If  bhked  in  three  loaves  it 
will  take  from  one  to  two  hours.  Black  cake 
should  be  kept  three  or  four  weeks  before  it  is 
cut. 

Caraway  Cakes.  — Take  /-Flour,  2 qts  ; 
white  sugar,  1 qt ; butter,  1 teacupful ; caraway 


CAKE 


G1 


seeds,  y2  gill ; essence  of  lemon,  t teaspoonful ; 
milk,  to  make  a dough  that  may  be  rolled. 

Stir  one  quart  of  powdered  white  sugar  and 
a teacupful  of  butter  to  a cream  ; add  two  quarts 
of  flour,  half  a gill  of  caraway  seed,  and  a tea- 
spoonful of  essence  of  lemon;  make  into  a 
dough,  roll  out  into  a sheet  half  an  inch  thick, 
cut  into  square  cakes,  and  crimp  the  edges. 
Then  bake  in  a tolerably  quick  oven.  A piece 
of  sal-volatile,  the  size  of  a nutmeg,  dissolved 
in  two  tablespoonfuls  of  hot  water,  improves 
this. 

Children’s  Cake.  — Take  /-Flour,  2 lbs  ; 
butter,  y lb ; coffee  sugar,  y2  lb ; currants,  i 
lb ; caraway  seed,  y2  oz  ; allspice,  i tablespoon- 
ful ; brewers’  yeast,  2 tablespoonfuls. 

Rub  a quarter  of  a pound  of  butter  into  two 
pounds  of  flour ; add  half  a pound  of  coffee 
sugar,  one  pound  of  currants  well  washed  and 
dried. , half  an  ounce  of  caraway  seed,  and  a 
tablespoonful  of  allspice ; mix  all  together  thor- 
oughly. Warm  a pint  of  new  milk,  but  do  not 
let  it  get  hot ; stir  into  it  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
good  yeast ; with  this  liquid  make  up  the  dough 
lightly,  and  knead  it  well.  Line  the  pans  with 
buttered  paper,  and  put  in  the  dough , set  it 
in  a warm  place  for  an  hour  and  a half  to 
rise ; then  bake  in  a quick  oven.  This  quan- 
tity will  make  two  moderately  sized  cakes ; 
thus  divided  they  will  require  an  hour  or  more 
to  bake. 

Chocolate  Cake.  — Take  .--Flour,  yy  cup- 
fuls ; butter,  1 cupful ; sugar,  2 cupfuls  ; eggs, 
5 ; milk,  1 cupful ; cream-tartar,  1 teaspoonful ; 
soda,  y2  teaspoonful ; fine  white  sugar,  1 y2  cup- 
fuls ; grated  chocolate,  3 tablespoonfuls ; es- 
sence of  vanilla,  1 teaspoonful. 

Mix  together  one  cupful  of  butter;  two  cup- 
fuls of  sugar ; the  yolks  of  five  eggs  and  whites 
of  two;  three  and  a half  cupfuls  of  flour,  into 
which  one  teaspoonful  of  cream-tartar  has  been 
stirred  ; one  cupful  of  milk,  and  half  a teaspoon- 
ful of  soda.  Bake  in  jelly-cake  tins ; and  use 
the  following  mixture  for  spreading  between 
the  layers  and  on  the  top : One  and  a half  cup- 
fuls of  sugar ; the  remaining  whites  of  the  three 
eggs ; three  tablespoonfuls  of  grated  chocolate  ; 
and  one  teaspoonful  of  essence  of  vanilla ; beat 
together  well. 

Cider  Cake.  — Take  .--Flour,  6 cupfuls  ; 
white  sugar,  3 cupfuls ; butter,  1 cupful ; milk, 
y2  cupful ; nutmeg,  1 (grated ) ; saleratus,  1 tea- 
spoonful ; cider,  1 cupful. 

Stir  together  a cupful  of  butter,  three  cupfuls 
of  white  sugar,  two  cupfuls  of  flour,  a grated 
nutmeg,  and  half  a cupful  of  milk  with  a tea- 
spoonful of  saleratus  dissolved  in  it.  Mix  all 
together ; and,  while  doing  so,  add  a cupful  of 
cider,  and  four  even  cupfuls  of  sifted  flour. 
Bake  at  once  in  a quick  (but  not  too  quick) 
oven. 

Cocoanut:  Cakes.  — Take  .--Grated  cocoa- 
nut,  1 lb ; white  sugar,  x lb ; eggs,  whites  of  6. 

Take  a pound  each  of  powdered  white  sugar 
and  grated  cocoanut  (the  brown  part  of  the  co- 
coanut should  be  cut  off  before  grating  it);  add 
the  whites  of  half  a dozen  eggs  beaten  to  a stiff 


froth.  There  should  be  just  eggs  enough  to 
wet  up  the  whole  stiff.  Drop  this  mixture  on 
buttered  plates  in  “ dabs  ” the  size  of  a two-cent 
piece  and  several  inches  apart ; and  bake  im- 
mediately in  a moderately  warm  oven,  watching 
constantly  to  keep  them  from  scorching. 

II.  Take  .--Flour,  4 cupfuls;  sugar,  3 cup- 
fuls ; butter,  1 cupful  ; soda,  1 teaspoonful ; 
cream-tartar,  2 teaspoonfuls  ; grated  cocoanut, 
3 cupfuls ; eggs,  whites  of  3 ; lemon,  grated 
rind  of  1. 

Mix  together  three  cupfuls  of  sugar  ; one  of 
butter  ; the  whites  of  three  eggs  ; a level  tea- 
spoonful of  soda ; four  cupfuls  of  flour,  with 
two  teaspoonfuls  of  cream-tartar  sifted  into  it; 
three  cupfuls  of  grated  cocoanut;  the  grated  rind 
of  one  lemon  ; and  a gill  of  milk.  Stir  thor- 
oughly, and  bake  in  a moderate  oven. 

III.  (Sponge.) — Take:-Flour,  | pt ; grated 
cocoanut,  1 ; white  sugar,  1 pt ; eggs,  6 ; salt, 
| teaspoonful. 

Stir  together  a pint  of  fine  white  sugar,  and 
the  yolks  of  six  eggs,  beaten  and  strained ; add 
one  cocoanut  (grated),  and  half  a teaspoonful 
of  salt,  and  the  juice  of  half  a fresh  lemon  ; just 
before  the  cake  is  put  into  the  oven,  add  the 
whites  of  the  six  eggs  beaten  up  stiff,  and  then 
stir  in  half  a pint  of  flour.  Stir  the  flour  in  only 
just  enough  to  mix  it ; then  put  the  cake  in 
pans  lined  with  buttered  paper,  and  bake  in  a 
quick  oven.  Do  not  let  the  top  harden  quickly ; 
if  there  is  danger  of  it,  cover  with  buttered 
paper. 

IV.  7h&?/-Sugar,  ii  cupfuls  ; butter,  $ cup- 
ful ; eggs,  3 ; milk,  £ cupful ; flour,  2 cupfuls  ; 
cream-tartar,  1 teaspoonful;  soda,  y teaspoon- 
ful; cocoanut,  1;  fine  white  sugar,  1 y2  cup- 
fuls. 

Stir  one  and  a half  cupfuls  of  sugar  and  half 
a cupful  of  butter  to  a cream ; beat  up  three 
eggs  and  add  them,  together  with  half  a cupful 
of  new  milk  ; then  add  two  cupfuls  of  flour  into 
which  a teaspoonful  of  cream-tartar  and  a quarter 
of  a teaspoonful  of  soda  have  been  sifted.  Stir 
together  well,  and  bake  in  jelly-cake  tins.  Mix 
one  cocoanut  (grated)  and  its  milk  with  a cup- 
ful and  a half  of  white  sugar;  set  this  in  the 
oven  till  the  sugar  melts,  and  spread  between 
the  layers  of  cake. 

Coffee  Cake.— 1.  Take:-Flour,  2 y2  lbs ; brown 
sugar,  9 oz  ; butter,  14  oz  ; molasses,  1 pt ; cold 
strong  coffee,  1 pt ; stoned  raisins,  cut  in  two, 
lbs  ; citron,  1 lb  ; mace,  cinnamon  and  gin- 
ger, 2 teaspoonfuls  each  ; cloves  and  allspice,  1 
teaspoonful  each  ; soda,  dissolved  in  a little  of 
the  coffee,  2 even  teaspoonfuls. 

Rub  the  sugar  and  butter  together,  add  the 
molasses,  coffee  and  flour  alternately,  leaving  a 
pint  of  flour  in  which  to  rub  the  fruit,  then  the 
soda,  and  lastly  the  fruit.  Bake  slowly  about 
an  hour. 

2.  Take  .--Ground  coffee,  1 cupful  steeped 
in  2 cupfuls  of  boiling  water  ; sugar,  4 cupfuls ; 
butter,  2 cupfuls  ; eggs,  3 ; soda,  1 teaspoon- 
ful; allspice,  1 teaspoonful ; nutmeg,  y2  (grated); 
cream-tartar,  2 teaspoonfuls  ; flour  enough  to 
make  dough. 


62 


CAKE 


Pour  two  cupfuls  of  boiling  water  on  a cup- 
ful of  ground  coffee  ; cover  it  over  tightly,  and 
let  it  steep  an  hour;  then  strain  it  and  let  it 
cool.  Beat  together  four  cupfuls  of  sugar,  two 
of  butter,  and  three  eggs  ; dissolve  one  tea- 
spoonful of  soda  in  the  coffee,  and  stir  this  into 
the  sugar  and  egg ; add  flour  enough  to  make 
a soft  dough,  having  previously  mixed  into  it 
a teaspoonful  of  allspice,  half  a nutmeg  (grated), 
and  two  teaspoonfuls  of  cream-tartar.  Roll  it 
thin  with  sugar;  cut  it  with  a cake-cutter;  and 
bake  in  a slow  oven  on  tin  sheets. 

Composition  Cake.-Butter,  y2  lb ; sugar,  i y 
lbs ; flour,  I y lb  ; eggs,  4 ; milk,  1 pt ; nutmeg,  1 ; 
baking  powder,  5 even  teaspoonfuls  ; raisins, 
stoned  and  chopped,  y lb ; currants,  y lb. 

Beat  the  butter  and  sugar  together  until  very 
light ; add  alternately,  but  gradually,  the  milk 
and  one  fourth  of  the  flour ; whisk  the  eggs 
until  thick  and  add  them  in  the  same  way  with 
the  remainder  of  the  flour  with  which  the  bak- 
ing powder  has  been  thoroughly  mixed  and 
9ifted  ; beat  well  and  add  the  grated  nutmeg. 
Mix  the  fruit  and  stir  in  half  at  a time.  When 
well  beaten  put  it  in  pans  buttered  and  lined 
with  paper.  Bake  at  once  in  a moderate  oven. 
Ice  the  bottom  and  sides  while  hot. 

Confederate  Pound  Cake. — Take  /-Eggs, 
10  large  or  12  small  ones ; butter,  1 lb ; powdered 
sugar,  1 lb;  flour,  1 lb.  less  1 tablespoonful. 

Cream  the  butter  thoroughly  and  beat  in  the 
sugar  ; add  the  whites  of  the  eggs,  beaten  to  a 
stiff  froth,  and  then  the  well-beaten  yolks : put 
in  the  sifted  flour  carefully,  stirring  only  enough 
to  mix  well.  Bake  in  pans  lined  with  paper 
and  be  careful  not  to  move  it  while  baking. 

Cornstarch  Cake. — Take  .--Sugar,  2 cup- 
fuls; butter,  1 cupful ; milk,  1 cupful ; eggs,  3 ; 
soda,  1 teaspoonful ; flour,  2 cupfuls ; corn- 
starch 1 cupful ; cream-tartar,  2 teaspoonfuls. 

Stir  two  cupfuls  of  sugar  and  one  of  butter 
to  a cream ; add  one  cup  of  milk,  three  eggs, 
whites  and  yolks  beaten  separately,  and  one 
teaspoonful  of  soda,  dissolved  in  a little  hot 
water ; then  stir  in  two  cupfuls  of  flour,  and 
one  cupful  of  cornstarch,  with  two  teaspoon- 
fuls of  cream-tartar  sifted  through  them.  Bake 
in  small  tins,  and  eat  fresh. 

Cream  Cake. — Take  /-Sugar,  y lb;  butter, 
]/2  lb;  eggs,  7;  flour,  \y  lbs  ; brandy,  1 wine- 
glassful  ; nutmeg,  1 ; cream,  y.  pt. 

Take  half  a pound  of  Dutter  and  three 
quarters  of  a pound  of  sugar,  and  stir  together 
till  very  white;  beat  seven  eggs,  the  whites 
and  yolks  separately,  and  stir  them  into  the 
cake,  then  add  a wineglass  of  brandy,  a grated 
nutmeg,  and  a pound  and  a half  of  sifted 
flour ; just  before  putting  it  into  the  pans,  add 
half  a pint  of  sweet  cream,  and  a pound  of 
seeded  raisins.  Bake  in  a quick  oven. 

II.  7h^/-Butter,  £ lb;  boiling  water,  1 pt; 
flour,  1 lb;  eggs,  14;  milk,  1 pt;  sugar,  2 cup- 
fuls; flour,  ^ cupful;  lemon,  to  taste. 

I’ut  half  a pound  of  butter  into  a pint  of 
boiling  water,  and  let  them  boil  together;  stir 
in  three  quarters  of  a pound  of  flour,  then  re- 

■Ove  from  the  fire.  While  hot  beat  in  ten  eggs 


thoroughly  one  by  one.  This  is  the  crust. 
For  the  cream,  take:  one  pint  of  milk,  four 
eggs,  one  cupful  of  sugar,  and  half  a cupful  of 
flour;  boil  the  milk,  and  while  it  is  boiling  add 
the  sugar,  eggs,  and  flour,  and  then  flavor  with 
lemon.  Drop  the  crust  on  tins,  and  bake  in  a 
quick  oven  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes;  when 
they  are  done  open  them  at  the  sides  and  fill 
with  the  cream. 

III.  7hA?.--White  sugar,  2 cupfuls;  butter,  § 
cupful;  milk,  1 cupful;  eggs,  5;  cream-tartar,  1 
teaspoonful;  soda,  y teaspoonful;  flour,  3 
cupfuls;  cornstarch,  2 teaspoonfuls;  vanilla,  1 
teaspoonful. 

Stir  two  cupfuls  of  fine  white  sugar  and  two 
thirds  of  a cupful  of  butter  to  a cream;  then 
add  a cupful  of  milk,  four  eggs,  a teaspoonful  of 
cream-tartar,  half  a teaspoonful  of  soda,  and 
three  cupfuls  of  flour.  Bake  in  thin  layers 
as  for  jelly  cake,  and  when  cold  spread  between 
them  the  following  cream  : stir  two  teaspoonfuls 
of  cornstarch,  wet  with  a little  cold  milk,  into 
half  a pint  of  boiling  milk  ; beat  half  a cupful 
of  sugar  and  one  egg  together  and  add  to  the 
milk,  let  it  boil  till  quite  thick,  stirring  constant- 
ly to  prevent  its  burning;  when  cold  flavor  with 
one  teaspoonful  of  vanilla.  If  icing  is  used 
flavor  it  also  with  vanilla. 

IV.  (Without  Eggs) — 7ffA?.--Sugar,  3 cup- 
fuls; butter,  1 cupful;  flour,  4 cupfuls ; salera- 
tus,  1 y2  teaspoonfuls;  ess. of  lemon,  1 teaspoon- 
ful ; nutmeg,  £ (grated)  ; sour  cream,  2 cupfuls. 

Stir  three  cups  of  sugar  and  one  of  butter 
together  thoroughly  ; add  two  cupfuls  of  sour 
cream,  one  and  a half  teaspoonfuls  of  saleratus 
dissolved  in  a little  cold  water,  a teaspoonful  of 
essence  of  lemon,  and  half  a grated  nutmeg; 
pour  all  this  into  the  middle  of  four  cupfuls  of 
flour.  Mix  together  quickly  and  thoroughly, 
and  bake  at  once. 

Cream-Tartar  Cake. — Take  .--Flour,  3 pts  ; 
cream-tartar,  2 teaspoonfuls ; soda,  1 teaspoon- 
ful; nutmeg  y (grated);  milk,  iy  cupfuls; 
sugar,  1 pt. 

Mix  two  teaspoonfuls  of  cream-tartar  thor- 
oughly with  three  pints  of  flour,  and  add  half 
a grated  nutmeg;  dissolve  one  teaspoonful  of 
soda  in  two  tablespoonfuls  of  hot  water,  add  it 
to  one  cupful  and  a half  of  milk,  and  stir  in  a 
pint  of  crushed  sugar;  use  this  to  mix  the  flour 
into  a soft  dough.  Roll  the  dough  out,  cut  into 
round  cakes  with  a tumbler,  and  bake  imme- 
diately in  a quick  oven  for  fifteen  or  twenty 
minutes. 

Cup  Cake.— I.  Take  .--Sugar,  2 cupfuls ; but- 
ter, 1 cupful;  eggs,  4 ; flour,  3 cupfuls;  baking 
powder,  1 teaspoonful ; ess.  of  almond,  to 
taste.  0 

Beat  one  cup  of  butter  and  two  of  sugar  to 
cream;  then  add  four  eggs,  whites  and  yolks 
beaten  separately,  and  three  cupfuls  of  flour; 
flavor  with  almond  to  taste,  and  at  last,  just 
before  putting  into  the  oven,  add  one  teaspoon- 
ful of  baking  powder.  Bake  in  a quick  oven, 
either  in  cups  or  pans. 

II.  Take  .--Sugar,  3 teacupfuls;  butter,  1 yi 
cupfuls ; eggs,  3 ; flour,  6 cupfuls ; esfe.  of 


CAKE 


G3 


lemon,  or  rose-water,  to  taste ; saleratus,  i 
teaspoonful ; milk,  i cupful. 

Stir  three  teacupfuls  of  sugar  and  one  and 
a half  of  butter*  to  a cream ; beat  three  eggs 
to  a froth,  and  stir  them  into  the  sugar  and 
butter,  together  with  three  cupfuls  of  flour; 
flavor  to  taste  with  essence  of  lemon  or  rose- 
water. Dissolve  a teaspoonful  of  saleratus  in 
a cupful  of  milk,  strain  it  into  the  cake,  and 
then  add  three  more  cupfuls  of  flour ; with  three 
teaspoonfuls  of  cream-tartar.  Mix  well,  and 
bake  immediately  either  in  cups  or  pans. 

Currant  Cake. — Take  .--Flour,  i lb;  butter, 
y2  lb ; sugar  y lb ; currants,  y2  lb ; eggs,  4 ; 
cinnamon,  r teaspoonful;  soda,  y2  teaspoonful; 
y2  a lemon. 

Mix  together  one  pound  of  flour,  half  a 
pound  of  butter,  three  quarters  of  a pound  of 
sugar,  half  a pound  of  currants  (well  washed), 
four  eggs,  one  teaspoonful  of  cinnamon,  half 
a teaspoonful  of  soda  dissolved  in  hot  water, 
half  a lemon  (squeezed  and  the  rind  grated). 
Line  the  bake-pans  with  buttered  paper ; drop 
the  mixture  upon  it ; and  bake  quickly. 

Delicate  Cake. — Take:- Butter,  1 cupful; 
sugar,  2 cupfuls  ; milk,  1 cupful ; eggs,  whites 
of  5 ; cream-tartar,  1 teaspoonful ; soda,  y2 
teaspoonful ; flour,  3 cupfuls. 

Stir  one  cupful  of  butter  and  two  of  sugar 
to  a cream  ; add  one  cupful  of  milk,  the  whites 
of  five  eggs,  one  teaspoonful  of  cream-tartar, 
half  a teaspoonful  of  soda,  and  three  cupfuls 
of  sifted  flour.  The  yolks  of  the  eggs  can  be 
used  for  other  purposes. 

Diet  Cake. — Boil  one  pound  of  crushed  su- 
gar in  one  and  a half  gills  of  water  to  the 
crack  (see  candy)  ; pour  it  on  eight  well-beaten 
eggs,  whisking  them  well  the  while  ; beat  un- 
til the  mixture  is  cold  ; then  add  ten  ounces 
of  flour,  and  4 oz  almonds,  blanched  and  cut 
into  thin  strips.  Bake  in  a mould  lined  with 
paper,  35  minutes,  in  a moderate  oven. 

Dover  Cake. — Take  .--White  sugar,  1 lb ; 
butter,  y2  lb ; eggs,  6 ; milk,  1 cupful ; soda,  1 
teaspoonful ; vinegar,  1 tablespoonful ; cinna- 
mon (powdered),  1 teaspoonful ; rose-water,  1 
tablespoonful. 

Stir  a pound  of  white  sugar  and  half  a pound 
of  butter  to  a light  cream ; add  six  eggs,  beaten 
to  a froth,  one  cupful  of  sweet  milk,  one  tea- 
spoonful of  soda  dissolved  in  a tablespoonful 
of  vinegar,  one  tablespoonful  of  powdered 
cinnamon,  and  one  pound  of  flour ; flavor  with 
one  tablespoonful  of  rose-water.  Bake  in  a 
quick  oven  and  frost  as  soon  as  done ; flavor 
the  frosting  with  lemon-juice. 

Fancy  Cake. — Take  .--Sugar,  y2  lb  ; eggs,  4; 
flour,  y2  lb ; ess.  of  lemon,  1 teaspoonful. 

Beat  half  a pound  of  sugar  and  the  yolks  of 
four  eggs  together ; add  half  a pound  of  flour, 
and  beat  up  thoroughly  ; then  add  a teaspoon- 
ful of  essence  of  lemon,  and  the  whites  of  the 
eggs,  beaten  to  a stiff  froth.  Bake  in  small 
patties,  and  put  a sugar  plum  on  the  top  of 
each. 

French  Cake. — Take  .--Sugar,  1 lb;  butter, 
y lb;  eggs,  12;  flour,  i}4  lbs;  milk,  wine, 


and  brandy,  1 gill  each  ; nutmeg  (grated),  ; 
raisins,  } lb  ; citron,  -J  lb  ; almonds  (blanched 
and  pounded  fine),  J lb. 

Mix  one  pound  of  sugar  and  three  quarters 
of  a pound  of  butter  to  a white  cream  ; add  12 
eggs,  the  whites  and  yolks  beaten  separately  ; 
then  stir  in  a pound  and  a half  of  flour,  and  a 
gill  each  of  milk,  wine,  and'brandy;  flavor  with 
one  half  of  a grated  nutmeg.  Just  before  bak- 
ing add  three  quarters  of  a pound  of  seeded  rai- 
sins, a quarter  of  a pound  of  citron,  and  a quarter 
of  a pound  of  almonds,  blanched  and  pounded 
fine.  Bake  in  a moderately  quick  oven. 

Fruitcake. — I.  Take  .--White  sugar,  1 lb; 
butter,  $ lb  ; eggs,  7 ; flour,  1 lb  ; citron,  j lb  ; 
nutmeg,  1 teaspoonful  ; cinnamon,  1 teaspoon- 
ful; currants,  { lb;  raisins,  £ lb;  brandy,  1 
wineglassful. 

Beat  one  pound  of  fine  white  sugar  and 
three  quarters  of  a pound  of  butter  to  a cream ; 
add  the  yolks  of  seven  eggs,  beaten  to  a froth; 
then  the  whites  of  the  eggs,  whipped  to  a 
froth,  and  a quarter  of  a pound  of  citron,  one 
teaspoonful  of  nutmeg,  one  of  cinnamon,  and 
one  pound  of  flour;  stir  together,  and  add  half 
a pound  of  currants,  washed  carefully  and 
dredged,  and  half  a pound  of  raisins,  seeded 
and  chopped;  finally  a wineglass  of  brandy. 
Mix  thoroughly,  and  bake  in  a moderately 
quick  oven. 

II.  (With  Apples.) — Take:- Dried  apples,  3 
cupfuls;  molasses,  3 cupfuls;  flour,  3 cupfuls; 
butter,  1 cupful;  eggs,  3;  cream-tartar,  1 tea- 
spoonful ; soda,  j teaspoonful  ; spice  and 
raisins. 

Take  three  cups  of  dried  apples;  three  of 
molasses;  three  of  flour;  one  of  butter;  three 
eggs ; one  teaspoonful  of  cream-tartar ; and 
half  a teaspoonful  of  soda.  Soak  the  dried 
apples  in  water  until  soft ; then  chop  them  up 
fine  and  boil  them  with  the  molasses  for  half 
an  hour;  let  them  cool,  and  then  add  the  but- 
ter, eggs,  and  flour.  Beat  the  eggs  very  high, 
and  sift  the  cream-tartar  and  soda  in  with  the 
flour.  Bake  in  a slow  oven  three  hours. 

Gingerbread. — I.  Take  /-Sugar,  y2  lb;  but- 
ter, y2  lb ; flour,  2 lbs ; caraway  seed,  1 oz ; 
ground  ginger,  1 oz ; coriander  seed,  y2  oz ; 
molasses,  1 y lbs. 

Rub  together  half  a pound  of  fine  sugar  and 
half  a pound  of  butter ; then  add  two  pounds 
of  flour,  well  dried  by  the  fire,  one  ounce  of 
caraway  seed,  one  ounce  of  ground  ginger, 
and  half  an  ounce  of  coriander  seed.  Mix 
them  with  one  and  three  quarter  pounds  of 
molasses,  roll  thin,  and  bake  in  a quick  oven. 

II.  (Fleming). — Take  .--Butter  and  sugar, 
lb.  each;  molasses,  % pt;  eggs,  4;  flour,  1 y2 
pts;  ground  ginger,  1 tablespoonful;  cinnamon, 
1 teaspoonful;  soda  or  pearlash,  1 teaspoonful. 

Stir  together  a quarter  of  a pound  of  butter 
and  a quarter  of  brown  sugar ; add  half  a pint 
of  molasses.  Beat  four  eggs  to  a froth,  and 
stir  them  into  the  mixture  alternately  with 
rather  less  than  a pint  and  a half  of  flour; 
add  a heaping  tablespoonful  of  ground  ginger, 
and  a teaspoonful  of  powdered  cinnama 


04 


CAKE 


Stir  all  together  well.  Dissolve  a level  tea- 
spoonful of  soda  or  pearlash  in  two  tablespoon- 
fuls of  warm  water,  and  stir  this  in  last.  Put 
the  mixture  into  a buttered  tin  pan,  set  it 
immediately  into  the  oven  which  must  be 
brisk  but  not  too  hot,  and  bake  well.  Test 
with  a straw. 

III.  (Hard.) — Take  .-Molasses,  i pt;  butter,  \ 
lb  ; sour  milk,  i teacupful  ; ground  ginger,  2 
tablespoonfuls;  soda,  i tablespoonful;  cloves,  i 
tablespoonful ; lemon,  rind  of  i ; flour. 

Mix  one  pint  of  molasses,  half  a pound  of 
butter,  one  cupful  of  sour  milk,  two  tablespoon- 
fuls of  ginger,  one  tablespoonful  of  soda,  one 
tablespoonful  of  cloves,  the  rind  of  one  lemon 
(grated),  and  flour  enough  to  make  a stiff  paste. 
Butter  the  tin  sheets,  roll  the  dough  on  them, 
sprinkle  lightly  with  sugar  as  thin  as  possible, 
and  bake  in  a quick  oven. 

IV.  (Soft.) — Take  : - Butter,  i teacupful, 
melted  ; molasses,  i pt ; ground  ginger,  i 
tablespoonful ; flour,  i pt ; eggs,  2 ; saleratus, 
2 teaspoonfuls;  sour  milk,  y2  pt ; flour;  lemon 
peel. 

Mix  a teacupful  of  melted  butter  with  a pint 
of  molasses,  a tablespoonful  of  ground  ginger, 
a pint  of  flour,  and  two  beaten  eggs  ; a fresh 
lemon  peel,  cut  into  strips,  may  be  added. 
Mix  two  teaspoonfuls  of  saleratus  in  half  a 
pint  of  sour  milk,  stir  it  into  the  cake,  and  add 
flour  enough  to  make  soft  sponge.  Bake  in 
deep  pans,  in  a moderately  quick  oven,  about 
half  an  hour. 

V.  (Spiced.) — Take  : '-Sugar,  1 lb  ; butter, )4  lb; 
eggs,  5 ; milk,  3 tablespoonfuls ; cream-tartar, 
1 teaspoonful ; soda,  Vz  teaspoonful ; ground 
ginger,  1 tablespoonful ; flour,  1 lb ; cloves, 
nutmeg, and  cinnamon,  teaspoonful  each. 

Stir  one  pound  of  sugar  and  half  a pound  of 
butter  to  a cream  ; add  five  eggs  beaten  to  a 
froth,  three  tablespoonfuls  of  sweet  milk,  one 
teaspoonful  of  cream-tartar,  half  a teaspoon- 
ful of  soda  dissolved  in  a little  hot  water,  a 
heaping  tablespoonful  of  ground  ginger,  and 
one  teaspoonful  each  of  cloves,  nutmeg,  and 
cinnamon ; mix  together  well  and  add  one 
pound  of  flour.  This  amount  will  make  two 
good  sized  loaves. 

VI.  (Sponge.) — 7ir/v/-Molasses,  1 cupful; 
butter,  ) cupful;  ginger,  1 tablespoonful;  sour 
milk,  I cupful  ; saleratus,  teaspoonfuls  ; 
flour. 

Mix  a cupful  of  molasses,  half  a cupful  of 
butter,  and  one  tablespoonful  of  ginger,  and 
set  it  on  the  fire  till  well  warmed ; then  add  one 
cupful  of  sour  milk,  one  teaspoonful  and  a half 
of  saleratus,  and  enough  flour  to  make  a stiff 
sponge.  Bake  at  once  in  a rather  quick  oven. 

VII.  Sugar — 7b/Kv-Sugar,  1 lb  ; butter,  6 
oz  ; eggs,  4 ; ground  ginger,  3 teaspoonfuls  ; 
flour,  iA  lbs;  saleratus,  1 teaspoonful;  milk,  1 
wineglassful. 

Mix  a pound  of  sugar  and  six  ounces  of  but- 
ter; beat  four  eggs  to  a froth  and  stir  them 
into  the  butter  and  sugar,  with  three  teaspoon- 
fuls of  ground  ginger;  stir  ift  gradually  a pound 
and  a half  of  flour;  dissolve  a teaspoonful  of 


saleratus  in  a wineglass  of  milk,  and  stir  it 
in;  roll  out  and  bake  immediately  in  a quick 
oven. 

Ginger  Snaps. — I.  Take  .--Butter  and  lard, 
% lb  each  ; brown  sugar,  % lb ; molasses,  1 
pt  ; ginger,  2 tablespoonfuls ; flour,  1 qt  ; sale- 
ratus, 2 teaspoonfuls  ; milk,  1 wineglassful. 

Take  a quarter  of  a pound  of  butter  and  the 
same  quantity  of  lard,  melt  them  and  mix  with 
a quarter  of  a pound  of  brown  sugar,  a pint  of 
molasses,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  ground  ginger, 
and  a quart  of  flour.  Dissolve  two  teaspoon- 
fuls of  saleratus  in  a wineglass  of  milk,  strain 
it  into  the  cake,  and  add  sufficient  flour  to 
make  a soft  dough.  Roll  it  out  thin,  cut  into 
small  cakes,,  and  bake  them  in  a quick  oven. 

IL  Take : ’-Butter  and  lard,  y cupful  each  ; 
sugar,  1 cupful ; molasses,  1 cupful ; water,  y2 
cupful  ; ground  ginger,  cinnamon,  and  cloves, 
r tablespoonful  each ; soda,  1 teaspoonful  ; 
flour. 

Mix  half  a cupful  of  butter  with  the  same 
quantity  of  lard  ; add  one  heaping  cupful  of 
sugar,  one  cupful  of  molasses,  half  a cupful  of 
cold  water,  one  tablespoonful  each  ground 
ginger  and  cinnamon,  one  teaspoonful  of  cloves, 
one  of  soda  dissolved  in  hot  "water,  and  enough 
flour  to  make  a pretty  stiff  dough.  Roll  out 
thin,  and  bake  at  once. 

Golden  Cake. — Take  .--White  sugar,  1 lb; 
butter  y lb;  eggs,  yolks  of  16;  flour,  2 lbs; 
milk,  1 cupful ; lemon,  1 ; mace  ; baking  pow- 
der. 

Mix  together  one  pound  of  fine  white  sugar, 
three  quarters  of  a pound  of  butter,  the  yolks 
of  sixteen  eggs,  the  rind  and  juice  of  one  lemon, 
one  cupful  of  milk,  and  two  pounds  of  flour, 
with  two  teaspoonfuls  of  baking  powder  ; sea- 
son to  taste  with  mace.  Bake  about  half  an 
hour. 

Honey  Cake. — Take  :-Honey,  1 qt ; buttef 
y lb. ; sugar  1 lb. ; soda  1 tablespoonful  (slightly 
heaped);  caraway  seeds,  y2  a gill. 

Warm  the  quart  of  honey  and  the  pound  of 
sugar  in  a tin  pan  ; add  the  three  quarters  of 
a pound  of  butter,  the  tablespoonful  of  soda 
dissolved  in  a little  warm  water,  the  half  gill  of 
caraway  seeds,  and  flour  to  make  it  stiff  enough 
to  roll.  Roll  it  thick,  score  and  bake  in  a sheet 
or  tin,  and  cut  it  in  small  cakes. 

Huckleberry  Cake. — Take  .--Sugar,  1 cup- 
ful ; molasses,  1 cupful ; milk,  1 cupful ; butter, 
'/i  cupful ; cream-tartar,  1 yz  teaspoonfuls;  soda, 
1 teaspoonful  ; flour ; huckleberries,  1 pt ; all- 
spice, cinnamon,  and  cloves. 

Beat  together  one  cup  of  sugar,  one  of  mo- 
lasses, one  of  milk,  half  a cup  of  butter,  one 
teaspoonful  and  a half  of  cream-tartar,  one  tea- 
spoonful of  soda  dissolved  in  a little  warm 
water ; stir  in  enough  flour  to  make  a soft 
sponge,  and  then  add  one  pint  of  huckleberries, 
washed  and  dredged;  season  to  taste  with  all- 
spice, cinnamon,  and  cloves. 

Jelly  Cake. — I.  Take :-Sugar,  1 lb;  butter, 
yz  lb;  milk,  1 cupful;  eggs,  6;  cream-tartar,  1 
t.easpoonful ; soda,  yz  teaspoonful ; flour,  1 lb ; 
jelly. 


CAKE 


Stir  to  a light  cream  one  pound  of  sugar  and 
half  a pound  of  butter ; add  one  cupful  of  milk, 
six  eggs  beaten  to  a froth,  one  teaspoonful  of 
cream-tartar,  half  a teaspoonful  of  soda,  and 
one  pound  of  flour.  Spread  over  buttered  tins 
to  the  thickness  of  a quarter  of  an  inch,  bake 
till  brown,  and  when  done  pile  them  on  a plate, 
and  put  a layer  of  jelly  between. 

ILTake .--Sugar,  '/2  lb;  butter,  6 oz;  eggs,  8; 
flour,  i lb ; lemon,  t ; jelly. 

•Stir  together  till  white  half  a pound  of  rolled 
sugar  and  six  ounces  of  butter ; beat  eight 
eggs  to  a froth,  stir  them  into  the  butter  and 
sugar,  and  add  a pound  of  flour ; add  the  juice 
and  grated  rind  of  a fresh  lemon ; turn  this 
mixture  into  scolloped  tin  plates  that  have  been 
well  buttered.  Bake  and  arrange  as  in  No.  i. 

Lady  Cake. — Take  .--Sugar,  i lb;  butter,  6 
oz ; eggs,  whites  of  12;  flour  X lb;  lemon,  or 
bitter  almond. 

Stir  together  one  pound  of  sugar  and  six 
ounces  of  butter;  add  the  whites  of  twelve 
eggs  whipped  to  a froth,  and  three-quarters  of 
a pound  of  flour ; flavor  with  bitter  almond  or 
with  the  juice  and  grated  rind  of  one  lemon. 
Bake  in  square  shallow  tins,  and  flavor  the 
frosting  with  vanilla. 

Lemon  Cake. — I.  Take  .-Sugar,  3 cupfuls  ; 
butter,  one  cupful ; milk,  one  cupful ; eggs,  5 ; 
saleratus,  1 teaspoonful ; flour,  4 cupfuls ; 
lemons,  2. 

Beat  three  cups  of  sugar  and  one  of  butter 
to  a light  cream ; add  one  cup  of  milk,  five 
eggs  beaten  to  a froth,  one  teaspoonful  of  sale- 
ratus,  four  cups  of  flour,  and  the  juice  and 
grated  rind  of  two  lemons.  Beat  together 
thoroughly  and  bake  in  a moderately  quick 
oven. 

II.  Take  .--Sugar,  1 lb  ; butter,  X lb ; eggs, 
7 ; flour,  1 lb ; lemons,  2 ; currants  1 '/z  tea- 
cupfuls. 

Beat  one  pound  of  sugar  and  three-quarters 
of  a pound  of  butter  to  a cream ; add  the  yolks 
of  seven  eggs  beaten  to  a froth  and  strained  ; 
whip  the  whites  up  stiff  and  stir  them  in  with 
one  pound  of  dried  flour,  the  juice  of  one  lemon 
and  the  peel  of  two  cut  into  strips,  and  a cupful 
and  a half  of  currants.  The  currants  may  be 
left  out  if  desired.  Bake  in  a moderately  quick 
oven. 

Loaf  Cake. — I.  Take  .--Brown  sugar,  1 lb; 
butter,  X lb  ; sour  milk,  1 pt ; molasses,  1 pt ; 
eggs,  5 ; soda,  2 teaspoonfuls  ; flour,  3 lbs  ; 
currants,  2 lbs  ; raisins  (seeded),  1 lb  : cloves, 
allspice,  and  cinnamon,  1 teaspoonful  each ; 
nutmeg,  1 (grated). 

Beat  together  a pound  of  brown  sugar  and 
three  quarters  of  a pound  of  butter ; add  a 
pint  of  sour  milk,  a pint  of  molasses,  five  eggs 
beaten  to  a froth,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  soda,  one 
teaspoonful  each  of  cloves,  allspice,  and  cinna- 
mon, one  grated  nutmeg,  and  three  pounds  of 
flour.  Mix  well,  and  then  stir  in  two  pounds 
of  currants,  carefully  washed,  and  one  pound 
of  seeded  raisins.  Bake  in  a moderately 
quick  oven. 

II.  (Raised.) — Take  .--Flour,  2 lbs;  milk, 

5 


yeast,  1 feacupful ; butter,  1 

1 X lb  ; eggs,  4 ; wine  and  brandy7 
glassful  each  ; mace  or  nutmeg;  raisins (seec 

2 lbs  ; citron,  or  almonds,  X lb. 

Stir  a pound  of  flour  gradually  into  a pint  of 

lukewarm  milk,  add  a small  teacupful  of  yeast, 
and  set  where  it  will  rise  quickly.  When  it  is 
of  a spongy  lightness,  stir  one  pound  of  butter 
and  a pound  and  a quarter  of  fine  white  sugar 
to  a cream,  and  work  into  the  sponge  with  the 
hand.  Beat  four  eggs  to  a froth,  the  whites 
and  yolks  separately,  mix  them  with  the  cake, 
and  add  a wineglass  of  wine,  one  of  brandy,  a 
quarter  of  an  ounce  of  mace,  or  (if  preferred) 
one  grated  nutmeg.  Add  one  pound  of  flour 
and  work  the  dough  with  the  hand  for  fifteen 
or  twenty  minutes.  Set  it  to  rise,  and  when 
perfectly  light,  work  it  a few  minutes  with  the 
hand,  and  add  two  pounds  of  seeded  raisins,  a 
quarter  of  a pound  of  citron,  or  the  same  quan- 
tity of  almonds  blanched  and  pounded  fine. 
Place  in  buttered  cake-pans ; let  them  stand 
half  an  hour  in  a warm  place ; then  bake  in  a 
quick  oven  about  an  hour  and  a half.  If  the 
tops  brown  too  fast,  cover  over  with  buttered 
paper.  This  cake  is  very  rich  and  nice. 

Marbled  Cake. — 7a^v.-Brown  sugar,  l/2  cup- 
ful ; white  sugar,  1 cupful ; molasses,  '/2  cup- 
ful ; butter,  X cupful ; milk,  X cupful  ; cream- 
tartar,  2 teaspoonfuls ; soda,  1 teaspoonful ; 
cinnamon,  1 teaspoonful ; eggs,  3 ; alkpice,  X 
teaspoonful ; nutmeg  (grated),  X ; flour,  4 cup- 
fuls. 

This  is  made  by  mixing  a light  batter  and  a 
dark  one,  and  baking  them  in  alternate  layers. 
For  dark  batter:  Beat  together  half  a cup  of 
brown  sugar,  half  a cup  of  molasses,  a quarter 
of  a cup  of  butter,  quarter  of  a cup  of  milk,  one 
teaspoonful  of  cream-tartar,  one  of  cinnamon, 
half  a teaspoonful  of  soda,  half  a teaspoonful 
of  allspice,  half  a grated  nutmeg,  the  yolks  of 
three  eggs  well  beaten  up,  and  two  cupfuls  of 
flour.  For  light  batter : Mix  one  cup  of  white 
sugar,  half  a cup  of  butter,  half  a cup  of  milk, 
the  whites  of  three  eggs  whipped  to  a froth,  one 
teaspoonful  of  cream-tartar,  half  a teaspoonful 
of  soda,  and  two  cups  of  flour.  Butter  the  pan 
well  and  put  in  the  two  batters  in  alternate 
spoonfuls. 

Measure  Cake. — Take  .--Sugar,  2 cupfuls; 
butter,  1 cupful ; eggs,  4 ; nutmeg  (grated)  1 ; 
flour,  1 pt. 

Stir  two  cupfuls  of  sugar  and  one  of  butter 
to  a light  cream ; then  add  four  eggs  beaten  to 
a froth,  one  grated  nutmeg,  and  a pint  of  flour. 
Stir  it  constantly  until  just  before  it  is  put  into 
the  oven.  Bake  either  in  cups  or  pans. 

Molasses  Cake. — Take  .--Molasses,  1 cupful ; 
sugar,  1 cupful ; warm  water,  1 cupfuf ; soda,  1 
tablespoonful ; lard,  X cupful ; Salt,  X tea' 
spoonful ; flour. 

Mix  one  cup  of  molasses,  one  cup  of  sugar, 
one  of  warm  water  with  a teaspoonful  of  soda 
dissolved  in  it,  two-thirds  of  a cup  of  lard,  half 
a teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  enough  flour  to  make 
a dough  as  soft  es  can  be  rolled.  Roll  out 
thin,  cut  into  cakes,  and  bake  in  a quick  oven. 


4 


66 


CAKE 


Mountain  Cake. — Mix  together  three-quar- 
ters of  a pound  of  sugar,  half  a pound  of  but- 
ter, one  pound  of  flour,  the  yolks  of  six  eggs, 
and  whites  of  four  beaten  to  a froth,  one  tea- 
cupful of  milk,  one  teaspoonful  of  soda,  and 
two  of  cream-tartar;  flavor  with  vanilla.  For 
a jelly  to  put  over  the  top,  beat  together  the 
whites  of  eggs  left  over,  one  pound  of  sugar, 
and  a cupful  of  current  jelly. 

Nut  Cake. — Take  .--Sugar,  \'/2  cupfuls;  but- 
ter, y2  cupful ; eggs,  3 ; milk,  y2  cupful ; flour, 
2 y2  cupfuls;  cream-tartar,  1 teaspoonful;  soda, 
y2  teaspoonful ; hickory-nut  meats  (or  any 
other  kind),  1 cupful.  Beat  together  one  and 
a half  cupfuls  of  coffee  sugar,  half  a cupful  of 
butter,  and  three  eggs,  to  a light  froth  ; add  al- 
ternately the  half  cup  of  milk  in  which  the  soda 
has  been  dissolved,  and  the  two  and  a half 
cups  of  flour  with  which  the  cream-tartar  has 
been  sifted  ; add  the  half  cupful  of  nuts  and 
bake  in  one  loaf. 

Orange  Cake. — Take  /-Flour,  1 lb,  lacking 
3 even  tablespoonfuls  ; sugar,  1 lb  ; butter,  j 
lb  ; sweet  milk,  £ pt ; baking  powder,  if  even 
tablespoonfuls  ; eggs,  5. 

Cream  the  butter  with  the  sugar,  adding 
enough  of  the  milk  to  make  them  mix  easily  ; 
add  the  yolks  of  the  eggs  and  beat  well,  then 
add  the  milk,  the  beaten  whites  of  the  eggs  and 
the  flour  in  which  the  baking  powder  has  been 
well  mixed.  Spread  one-third  of  an  inch  deep 
in  jelly  cake  pans,  and  bake  in  a very  quick 
oven.  Make  this  icing:  Whites  of  three  eggs, 
beaten  stiff,  one  pound  and  a quarter  of  pow- 
dered sugar ; grated  rind,  soft  pulp  and  juice 
of  two  large  sour  oranges  and  one  lemon.  Add 
sugar  for  outside  icing. 

Plum  Cake.  (English.) — Take  a pound 
and  a half  of  flour,  one  pound  of  butter,  one  of 
sugar,  half  a pound  of  currants,  half  a pound  of 
candied  citron  and  orange  peel,  two  ounces  of 
sweet  almonds,  half  an  ounce  of  allspice,  half 
an  ounce  of  cinnamon,  ten  eggs,  and  one  wine- 
glassful  of  brandy.  Beat  the  sugar  and  butter 
to  a light  cream  ; add  the  allspice  and  pounded 
cinnamon  ; work  in  the  yolks  of  the  eggs,  two  at 
a time  ; whip  the  whites  till  they  are  highly 
frothed,  and  work  them  in,  keeping  the  paste 
warm,  or  it  may  become  heavy.  Cut  the  citron 
and  orange  peel  into  strips  ; mix  them  with  the 
currants  (previously  well  washed  and  dried  be- 
fore the  fire),  and  also  with  the  almonds  ; stir 
in  by  degrees  the  flour,  and  then  thfe  brandy. 
Beat  the  whole  together  thoroughly,  and  bake 
i£  hours  in  a moderate  oven.  There  should 
be  a couple  sheets  of  paper  both  under  the  cake 
and  over  the  top  of  it. 

Portugal  Cake. — Stir  one  pound  of  fine 
white  sugar  and  half  a pound  of  butter  to  a 
cream  ; add  eight  eggs,  the  whites  and  yolks 
beaten  separately;  stir  in  gradually  one  pound 
of  flour;  and  then  add  one  pound  of  fruit,  a 
grated  nutmeg,  one  and  a haff  pounds  of  sweet 
almonds,  blanched  and  pounded,  and  last  of  all 
two  tablesp&onfuls  of  lemon  juice.  Stir  to- 
gether thoroughly,  and  bake%t  once. 

Pound  Cake. — I. — Take  .--White  sugar,  1 


lb ; butter,  y lb ; eggs,  8 ; flour,  1 lb ; lemon 
or  nutmeg. 

Stir  one  pound  of  fine  white  sugar,  and  three 
quarters  of  a pound  of  butter  to  a light  cream  ; 
add  eight  eggs,  the  whites  and  yolks  beaten 
separately  to  a froth,  and  one  pound  of  flour ; 
flavor  to  taste  with  lemon  or  nutmeg.  Cover 
with  icing  as  soon  as  done. 

II.  Take  .’-White  sugar,  1 lb;  butter,  y lb; 
eggs,  10;  flour,  1 lb;  currants,  1 teacupful; 
white  wine,  1 wineglassful  ; mace,  y2  teaspoon- 
ful ; nutmeg,  y2  (grated). 

Beat  a pound  of  fine  white  sugar,  and  three 
quarters  of  a pound  of  butter  to  a cream ; beat 
up  ten  eggs,  the  whites  and  yolks  separately  : 
add  the  yolks  to  the  butter  and  sugar,  and  stir 
in  a wineglass  of  white  wine,  half  a teaspoonful 
of  mace,  and  half  a grated  nutmeg;  mix  well 
together,  and  add  the  whites  of  the  eggs  ; stir 
in  a pound  of  flour  thoroughly,  and  then  add  a 
teacupful  of  currants,  washed  and  dried.  Bake 
in  a rather  quick  oven. 

Queen’s  Cake. — Take  .--Sugar,  1 lb  ; butter, 
y lb;  wine,  brandy,  and  milk,  a wineglassful 
each  ; flour,  1 lb  : mace,  y oz ; rose-water,  or 
ess.  of  lemon,  1 teaspoonful ; eggs,  8 ; raisins, 
y2  lb ; Zante  currants,  y2  lb ; citron  or  almonds, 
% lb. 

Stir  a pound  of  sugar,  and  three-quarters  of 
a pound  of  butter  to  a very  light  cream  ; mix  a 
wineglass  of  white  wine,  one  of  brandy,  and 
one  of  milk,  and  stir  them  into  the  butter  and 
sugar ; add  a pound  of  flour,  a teaspoonful  of 
rose-water  or  essence  of  lemon,  and  a quarter 
of  an  ounce  of  mace.  Beat  eight  eggs  to  a 
froth,  the  whites  and  yolks  separately,  and  add 
them  to  the  paste  ; stir  the  whole  well  together, 
and  then  add,  just  before  baking,  half  a pound 
of  seeded  raisins,  half  a pound  of  Zante  cur- 
rants, a quarter  of  a pound  of  citron,  or  al- 
monds, blanched  and  pounded  fine  in  rose- 
water. The  fruit  should  be  stirred  in  grad- 
ually, a handful  of  each  alternately.  Put  in 
pans  lined  with  buttered  white  paper,  and 
bake  it  from  an  hour  and  a quarter  to  an 
hour  and  a half,  according  to  the  heat  of  the 
oven. 

Quick  Cake. — Take  .--Raised  bread-dough, 
1 y2  lbs;  butter,  y2 lb;  sugar,  y lb;  eggs,  4; 
wine  or  brandy,  1 wineglassful;  cinnamon,  1 
teaspoonful ; nutmeg,  1 ; milk,  1 teaspoonful ; 
saleratus,  y2  teaspoonful ; raisins  (seeded),  1 lb. 

Melt  half  a pound  of  butter,  and  when  cool, 
work  it  into  a pound  and  a half  of  raised  bread- 
dough.  Beat  four  eggs  and  three-quarters  of 
a pound  of  rolled  sugar  together,  and  mix  with 
the  dough;  add  a wineglass  of  wine  or  brandy, 
a teaspoonful  of  cinnamon,  and  a grated  nut- 
meg. Dissolve  half  a teaspoonful  of  saleratus 
in  a teaspoonful  of  milk,  strain  it  over  the 
dough,  and  work  the  whole  with  the  hands  for 
a quarter  of  an  hour ; then  add  a pound  of 
seeded  raisins,  and  put  it  into  cake-pans.  Let 
it  stand  in  them  until  light  before  putting  it  into 
±he  oven. 

Raised  Cake  (without  eggs). — Take  .--Su- 
gar, 1 coffeecupful ; butter,  y2  cupful ; milk  and 


CAKE 


67 


warm  water,  Yt  pt.  each ; home-made  yeast,  yz 
cupful ; flour  ; raisins  or  currants  , i cupful ; 
cinnamon,  cloves,  and  grated  nutmeg,  i tea- 
spoonful each. 

Stir  together  a large  coffeecupful  of  sugar 
and  half  a cupful  of  butter;  add  half  a pint  of 
sweet  milk  and  half  a pint  of  warm  water.  To 
this  mixture  stir  in  flour  enough  to  make  a 
thick  dough,  and  half  a cupful  of  yeast;  set  it 
to  rise  over  night.  Next  morning  stir  in  a 
cupful  of  seeded  raisins  or  currants,  and  a tea- 
spoonful each  of  cinnamon,  cloves,  and  grated 
nutmeg.  Put  into  baking-pans,  let  it  rise  until 
perfectly  light,  then  bake  three-quarters  of  an 
hour  in  a moderately  quick  oven. 

Republican  Cake. — Take  .--Flour,  Yz  lb  ; 
butter  Y lb ; sugar,  6 oz ; cream,  Yz  teacupful ; 
eggs  3 i baking-powder,  i teaspoonful ; raisins, 
i teacupful ; white  wine,  Y wineglassful ; nut- 
meg, cloves,  and  cinnamon. 

Mix  together  half  a pound  of  flour,  a quarter 
of  a pound  of  butter,  six  ounces  of  sugar,  three 
eggs  beaten  to  a froth,  a teaspoonful  of  baking- 
powder,  one  teacupful  of  raisins,  and  hall  a 
wineglass  of  white  wine,  and  half  a teacupful 
of  cream  ; season  to  taste  with  nutmeg,  cloves, 
and  cinnamon.  Bake  at  once  in  a moderately 
hot  oven. 

Rice  Cake. — Take  .--Ground  rice,  io  oz; 
white  sugar,  8 oz ; flour,  3 oz ; eggs,  6 ; nutmeg, 
Yz  (grated). 

Mix  ten  ounces  of  ground  rice,  eight  ounces 
of  powdered  white  sugar,  and  three  of  wheat 
flour;  sift  the  whole  into  the  beaten  yolks  of 
six  eggs  ; add  the  whites  of  the  eggs,  whipped 
to  a stiff  froth,  and  half  a grated  nutmeg.  Beat 
together  ^ry  gently,  put  into  deep  pans,  and 
bake  about  twenty  minutes  in  a quick  oven.  If 
not  watched  they  may  burn. 

Royal  Cake. — Take  .--Sugar,  1 lbs ; butter, 
1 lb  ; egfg's,  4 ; milk,  1 pts ; soda,  Y*  teaspoon- 
ful ; brandy,  Y*  teacupful ; flour,  zY  lbs  ; nut- 
meg, 1 ; raisins  and  currants  (mixed),  1 lb ; 
citron,  Y lb ; cloves,  allspice,  cinnamon,  1 tea- 
spoonful each. 

Stir  together  one  pound  and  three-quarters 
of  sugar,  and  one  pound  of  butter ; add  four 
eggs  beaten  to  a froth,  a pint  and  a half  of 
milk,  half  a teaspoonful  of  soda,  half  a teacup- 
ful of  brandy,  two  pounds  and  three-quarters 
of  flour,  one  nutmeg,  a teaspoonful  each  of 
cloves,  allspice,  and  cinnamon,  two  pounds  of 
raisins  and  currants  mixed,  and  a quarter  of  a 
pound  of  citron.  Bake  in  thick  loaves  in  a 
moderately  quick  oven. 

Savory  Cakes. — Take  .--White  sugar,  1 lb; 
eggs,  8 ; flour,  1 lb  ; coriander  seed,  2 table- 
spoonfuls; lemon,  1. 

Mix  together  a pound  of  powdered  white 
sugar,  and  eight  eggs,  the  whites  and  yolks 
beaten  up  separately ; beat  them  well  together 
for  several  minutes,  then  add  the  grated  rind 
of  a fresh  lemon  and  half  the  juice,  a pound  of 
flour,  and  two  tablespoonfuls  of  coriander  seed. 
Drop  this  batter  by  the  large  spoonful  upon 
buttered  baking  pans,  sift  white  sugar  over 
them  and  bake  them  immediately  in  a quick  oven. 


Scotch  Cake. — Take  .--Sugar,  r lb;  butter, 

Y lb ; lemon,  1 ; brandy,  1 wineglassful ; eggs, 
9 ; flour,  1 lb ; raisins  (seeded),  1 lb. 

Stir  a pound  of  sugar  and  three-quarters  of 
a pound  of  butter  to  a very  light  cream ; add 
the  juice  and  grated  rind  of  a lemon,  and  a 
wineglass  of  brandy.  Beat  nine  eggs  the 
whites  and  yolks  separately,  to  a froth  and  stir 
them  into*  the  cake  ; then  add  a pound  of  flour, 
and,  just  before  it  is  put  into  the  bake-pans,  a 
pound  of  seeded  raisins.  Bake  in  a moderate 
oven. 

Shrewsbury  Cake. — Take  .--White  sugar, 

Y lb;  butter,  lb;  eggs,  5;  flour,  1 lb;  rose- 
water or  grated  lemon  peel. 

Stir  three-quarters  Qf  a pound  of  powdered 
white  sugar  and  half  a pound  of  butter  to  a 
cream ; add  five  eggs,  the  whites  and  yolks 
beaten  separately ; then  stir  in  a pound  of  flour 
dried  by  the  fire,  and  flavor  to  taste  with  rose- 
water or  grated  lemon  peel.  Mix  thoroughly, 
and  bake  at  once. 

Silver  Cake. — Take  .--White  sugar,  1 lb; 
butter,  Y2.  lb;  eggs,  whites  of,  10;  flour,  Y lb; 
ess.  bitter  almonds,  1 teaspoonful. 

Beat  to  a cream  one  pound  of  fine  white 
sugar,  and  half  a pound  of  butter, ; add  the 
whites  of  ten  eggs,  whipped  to  a stiff  froth ; 
then  add  three-quarters  of  a pound  of  flour, 
flavor  with  one  teaspoonful  of  the  essence  of 
bitter  almonds.  Flavor  the  icing  with  rose- 
water. 

Spice  Cakes. — Take  .--Butter,  1 teacupful ; 
sugar,  1 teacupful ; molasses,  teacupful ; 
saleratus,  1 teaspoonful ; nutmeg,  1 (grated), 
ground  ginger,  cinnamon,  caraway  seed,  cori- 
ander seed,  1 teaspoonful  each. 

Melt  a teacupful  of  butter,  and  mix  it  with  a 
teacupful  of  sugar,  and  half  a teacupful  of  mo- 
lasses ; add  a teaspoonful  of  cinnamon,  a tea- 
spoonful of  ground  ginger,  a grated  nutmeg, 
and  a teaspoonful  each  of  caraway  and  corian- 
der seed  ; put  in  a teaspoenfal  of  saleratus, 
dissolved  in  half  a teacupful  of  warm  water, 
stir  in  flour  till  stiff  enough  to  roll  out  thin ; 
cut  into  cakes  and  bake  them  in  a slow 
oven. 

Sponge  Cake. — Take  .--Powdered  sugar,  2 
cupfuls  ; flour,  1 Yl  cupfuls  ; eggs,  7 ; lemon, 
the  grated  rind  and  juice  of  one.  Beat  the 
yolks  of  the  eggs  with  the  sugar  until  very  light ; 
add  the  rind  of  the  lemon  and  the  whites  beaten 
to  a stiff  froth ; sift  in  the  flour  and  all  the 
juice,  stirring  as  gently  as  possible. 

IL  (White.)—  Take  .--Sugar,  1 Yz  cupful;  flour, 
1 cupful;  eggs,  whites  of  10;  cream-tartar,  1 
teaspoonful. 

Take  one  and  a half  cupfuls  of  sugar,  one 
cupful  of  flour,  the  whites  of  ten  eggs,  and  one 
teaspoonful  of  cream-tartar.  Beat  the  eggs  to 
a froth  and  stir  the  sugar  with  them;  put  the 
cream-tartar  in  the  flour,  and  then  stir  the  flour 
with  the  paste  lightly  and  quickly.  Do  not  stir 
the  cake  after  the  flour  is  fairly  in.  Bake  in  a 
quick  oven. 

III.  Take  .--Loaf  sugar,  weight  of  10  eggs; 
eggs,  1 2 ; lemon,  1 ; flour,  weight  of  6 eggs. 


68 


CAKE 


Take  the  weight  of  ten  eggs  in  powdered  loaf 
sugar,  beat  it  to  a froth  with  the  yolks  of  twelve 
eggs,  and  add  the  juice  and  grated  rind  of  a 
fresh  lemon  ; whip  the  whites  of  twelve  eggs  to 
a stiff  froth,  and  mix  them  with  the  sugar  and 
yolks.  Stir  the  whole  constantly  for  fifteen 
minutes,  and  then  sprinkle  in  the  weight  of  six 
eggs  in  sifted  flour.  The  moment  the  flour  is 
well  mixed  in,  turn  the  cake  into  pans  lined 
with  buttered  paper,  and  bake  immediately  in  a 
quick  oven.  It  will  bake  in  about  twenty 
minutes. 

Strawberry  Short  Cake  (I.) — Take  .--Flour, 
I qt ; eggs,  4 ; cream  or  melted  butter,  1 teacup- 
ful; milk;  salt,  1 teaspoonful;  strawberries; 
white  sugar. 

Mix  a quart  of  flour  with  four  beaten  eggs,  a 
teacupful  of  cream  or  melted  butter,  and  a tea- 
spoonful of  salt ; add  enough  milk  to  roll  it  out. 
Roll  it  out  thin  ; line  a shallow  baking-pan  with 
part  of  it,  put  in  a thick  layer  of  nice,  ripe  straw- 
berries, and  sprinkle  in  sufficient  white  sugar 
to  sweeten  them;  cover  them  with  a thin  layer 
of  the  crust;  then  add  another  layer  of  straw- 
berries and  sugar,  and  cover  the  whole  with 
another  layer  of  the  crust.  Bake  in  a quick 
oven  about  twenty-five  minutes. 

Strawberry  Short  Cake  (II.) — Take  .--A 
soda  biscuit  crust  made  with  flour,  1 qt ; soda,  1 
teaspoonful ; cream-tartar,  2 y2  teaspoonfuls  ; 
butter,  2 oz ; lard,  1 oz  ; salt,  1 even  teaspoonful ; 
sweet  milk,  3 gills.  This  will  make  two  cakes. 

If  the  cake  is  to  be  served  on  a platter,  roll 
the  crust  the  shape  and  size  inside  the  rim;  if 
a dinner  plate  is  to  be  used,  make  the  cakes 
round.  Roll  the  crust  to  the  thickness  of  half 
an  inch,  prick  and  bake  in  a quick  oven.  Have 
the  strawberries  cut  in  two  or  three  pieces, 
split  the  cakes,  lay  one  half  on  the  plate  ; 
butter  it  and  put  over  it  a thick  layer  of  straw- 
berries and  sugar  ; then  replace  the  other  half, 
upside  down,  if  there  is  to  be  another  layer  of 
fruit.  The  two  cakes  may  be  served  together 
or  separately  and  the  upper  layer  may  be 
fruit  or  crust,  as  preferred.  Leave  in  the  oven 
from  five  to  ten  minutes,  and  serve  smoking 
hot. 

Sugar  Cake. — -Take .--Raised  dough,  3 tea- 
cupfuls; saleratus,  X teaspoonful;  wine  or 
milk,  1 wineglassful ; butter,  X teacupful ; 
sugar,  2 teacupfuls;  eggs,  3 ; cinnamon,  2 tea- 
spoonfuls. 

Dissolve  half  a teaspoonful  of  saleratus  in  a 
wineglass  of  wine  or  milk,  and  strain  it  on  three 
teacupfuls  of  raised  dough.  Work  into  this  two 
thirds  of  a teacupful  of  lukewarm  melted  butter, 
two  teacupfuls  of  coffee  sugar,  three  eggs 
beaten  up  well,  and  two  teaspoonfuls  of  cinna- 
mon. Work  the  whole  with  the  hands  for 
fifteen  minutes  ; then  put  it  into  cake-pans  and 
let  it  stand  until  light  before  baking  it. 

Raisins,  stoned  and  chopped,  dried  currants 
and  citron  greatly  improve  this  cake. 

Sugar  Drops.  — Take  .--White  sugar,  24 
tablespoonfuls ; butter,  12  tablespoonfuls  ; eggs, 
3;  flour,  1 pt;  nutmeg  (grated),  V2. 

Stir  to  a cream  twenty-four  tablepoonfuls  of 


powdered  white  sugar  and  twelve  teaspoon- 
i'uls  of  butter ; add  three  eggs,  the  whites  and 
yolks  beaten  separately,  a pint  of  flour,  and  half 
a grated  nutmeg.  Drop  from  the  spoon  on 
buttered  tins,  bake  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  and 
when  done  put  a sugar  plum  on  the  top  of 
each. 

Tea  Cakes. — Take  .--Sugar,  i'/2  teacupfuls  ; 
butter,  X teacupful ; nutmeg  (grated),  y2  ; milk, 
1 teacupful;  saleratus,  y2  teaspoonful;  flour. 

Beat  together  one  teacupful  and  a half  of 
sugar,  and  half  a teacupful  of  butter ; stir  in 
half  a teacupful  of  flour,  and  half  a grated  nut- 
meg. Dissolve  half  a teaspoonful  of  saleratus 
in  a teacupful  of  milk,  strain  and  mix  it  with  the 
cake  ; add  flour  till  stiff  enough  to  roll  out. 
Roll  it  out  half  an  inch  thick,  cut  into  cakes,  and 
bake  them  on  flat  buttered  tins  in  a quick  oven. 
If  the  oven  is  not  quick  they  will  be  spoiled. 

Washington  Cake. — Take  .--Sugar,  3 cup- 
fuls ; butter,  2 cupfuls ; eggs,  5 ; milk,  1 cup- 
ful ; cream-tartar,  2 teaspoonfuls ; soda,  1 tea- 
spoonful ; flour,  4 cupfuls ; currants,  X lb; 
raisins,  X lb ; citron,  X teacupful ; nutmeg 
and  cinnamon. 

Stir  three  cupfuls  of  sugar  and  two  of  but- 
ter to  a cream ; then  add  five  eggs,  beaten  to  a 
froth,  one  cupful  of  milk,  two  teaspoonfuls  of 
cream-tartar,  one  of  soda,  and  four  cupfuls  of 
flour.  Mix  altogether  thoroughly,  and  just 
before  baking  stir  in  half  a pound  of  currants 
washed  and  dried,  a quarter  of  a pound  of 
raisins  seeded  and  chopped  fine,  and  half  a 
teacupful  of  citron  sliced;  flavor  to  taste  with 
nutmeg  and  cinnamon.  Bake  in  a steady, 
moderately  quick  oven. 

Webster  Cake. — Beat  together  three  cupfuls 
of  sugar  and  one  cupful  of  butter ; adfl  two  eggs 
beaten  to  a froth,  one  teaspoonful  of  soda,  one 
cupful  of  milk,  five  cupfuls  of  flour,  and  the 
rind  and  juice  of  a lemon.  Mix  in  fruit  and 
spice  to  taste.  Bake  in  a moderately  quick  oven. 

Wedding  Cake. — Take  .--Sugar,  1 lb;  but- 
ter, 1 lb;  eggs,  10;  brandy,  X ptj  wine,  1 
wine-glassful ; nutmegs,  3 ; cinnamon.  1 table- 
spoonful ; flour,  1 lb ; currants,  2 lbs ; seeded 
raisins,  1 lb ; citron,  l/2  lb. 

Stir  one  pound  of  sugar  and  one  of  butter 
to  a light  cream ; add  ten  eggs  beaten  thick 
and  smooth,  half  a pint  of  brandy,  a wineglass 
of  wine,  three  grated  nutmegs,  a tablespoonful 
of  mace,  and  a pound  of  flour.  Mix  thoroughly, 
and  then  add  two  pounds  of  currants  washed 
and  dried,  one  pound  of  seeded  raisins,  and 
half  a pound  of  citron.  Bake  in  a moderate 
oven  from  one  to  two  hours.  Try  the  cake 
with  a straw,  and  be  sure  that  it  is  done  before 
removing  it ; then  turn  the  loaves  upside  down 
on  a sieve,  and  immediately  cover  the  bottom 
and  sides  with  this  icing  ; beat  the  whites  of 
three  eggs  until  frothy  only,  not  white  ; beat  in 
gradually  one  pound  of  powdered  sugar  ; flavor 
with  vanilla,  or  fresh  lemon  juice.  Put  several 
large  spoonfuls  on  the  cake,  and  smooth  it 
witli  a knife.  It  will  dry  quickly. 

White  Cake. — Take  .--Sugar,  2 cupfuls; 
butter,  i cupful ; milk,  1 cupful ; eggs,  whites  of 


CALCELLARIA 

six  ; tartar,  2 teaspoonfuls  ; soda,  1 teaspoon- 
ful ; flour,  2 cupfuls  ; cornstarch  1 cupful. 

Beat  together  two  cups  of  sugar  and  one 
of  butter;  add  one  cupful  of  sweet  milk,  the 
white  of  six  eggs  whipped  to  a froth,  two  tea- 
spoonfuls of  cream-tartar,  one  of  soda,  two  cup- 
fuls of  flour,  and  one  of  cornstarch.  Mix 
together  thoroughly,  and  bake  in  a rather 
quick  oven. 

White  Mountain  Cake. — Take\~ Flour,  1 
lb  ; sugar,  1 lb  ; butter,  yz  lb ; milk  y2  pt ; 
eggs,  whites  of  6 ; baking  powder,  3 even  tea- 
spoonfuls. 

Cream  the  butter,  add  the  sugar  by  degrees, 
and  a little  of  the  milk ; sift  the  flour  and 
baking  powder  together,  and  add  alternately 
with  the  rest  of  the  milk,  and  the  whites  beaten 
to  a stiff  froth.  Bake  i'n  jelly  cake-pans,  and 
arrange  in  layers  with  cocoanut  icing  between 
the  cakes,  and  over  the  top  and  sides  of  the 
loaf. 

Wine  Cake. — Take  powdered  sugar,  12  oz; 
flour,  8 oz  ; wine,  1 gill  ; eggs,  6. 

Heat  the  wine,  pour  it  over  the  sugar,  cover 
and  let  it  stand  while  the  yolks  and  whites  are 
beaten  separately  until  very  light,  and  then 
beaten  together  ; add  the  wine  and  sugar,  and 
beat  until  thick  ; beat  in  gently  the  sifted  flour, 
pour  into  paper-lined  pans,  and  bake  at  once. 

Yardley  Cake. — Cream  half  a pound  of  but- 
ter; add  gradually,  with  one  gill  of  milk,  one 
and  a quarter  pounds  of  powdered  sugar  ; six 
well-beaten  eggs,  another  gill  of  milk,  with 
eighteen  ounces  of  flour  which  has  been  sifted 
with  one  and  a half  tablespoonfuls  of  baking- 
powder,  and  one  pound  of  stoned  raisins,  with 
one  pound  of  shred,  blanched  almonds.  Bake 
in  loaves. 

CALCELLARIA.  — A pretty  plant  with 
showy  flowers,  much  cultivated  by  florists. 
The  shrubby  varieties  grow  readily  in  the 
flower-garden  in  any  warm  sunny  spot  with  a 
moderately  rich  soil.  Those  used  in  window 
gardening  are  best  raised  from  seedlings.  Sow 
seeds  in  August  in  a box  containing  soil  made 
of  three  parts  light,  rich  loam,  one  of  fine  peat, 
and  one  of  sand.  Transplant  the  young  plants 
to  separate  pots ; punch  out  the  centre  of  the 
plant,  and  continue  to  do  so  till  it  is  of  bloom- 
ing size.  As  the  roots  of  the  plants  reach  the 
sides  of  the  pot,  re-pot  into  a size  larger ; and 
when  the  flower-stems  push  up,  tie  them  neatly 
to  upright  sticks.  Be  careful  in  watering  not 
to  give  too  much,  or  the  plants  will  rot.  Give 
all  the  sun  and  air  possible,  and  keep  the 
plants  close  to  the  glass. 

CALF.  ( See  Veal.) 

CALF’S-HEAD  AND  FEET.— Calves’ 
heads  are  usually  sold  with  the  hair  scalded 
and  scraped  cleanly  off.  When  fresh  the  eyes 
have  a bright,  full  look,  while  the  skin  seems 
firmly  fastened  to  the  head.  There  should 
also  be  a prominent  bump  or  appearance  of  the 
young  horns ; if  there  are  no  signs  of  horns, 
the  animal  was  too  young  to  be  wholesome  as 
food.  Do  not  purchase  either  calves’  heads 
or  feet  if  they  have  a yellowish  look,  or  a 


CALLA  G9 

slippery,  slimy  feeling.  In  buying  feet,  reject 
the  very  small  ones. 

To  cleanse  calf’s  head  or  feet,  wash  them 
clean,  sprinkle  powdered  resin  over  the  hair, 
dip  them  in  boiling  water  and  take  out  immedi- 
ately, and  then  scrape  them  clean ; afterwards 
soak  them  in  water  four  days,  changing  the 
water  every  day. 

To  Cook. — Remove  the  brains  and  put  the 
head  and  feet  in  salted  water,  just  enough  to 
corn  them ; boil  two  hours.  Soak  the  brains, 
skin  them  and  pick  out  every  bit  of  membrane 
till  they  are  perfectly  white ; when  the  head, 
etc.,  have  boiled  nearly  an  hour  and  a half,  tie 
the  brains  in  a cloth  and  put  them  in  the  pot 
with  the  rest.  When  the  two  hours  have 
elapsed,  take  the  whole  from  the  fire  ; mash 
the  brains  fine  with  the  back  of  a spoon, 
season  them  with  pepper  and  salt,  bread-crumbs, 
and  a wineglass  of  wine,  and  use  them  as  a 
sauce  for  the  meat.  Send  to  the  table  very 
hot.  The  liquor  that  remains  can  be  made  into 
an  excellent  soup. 

Calfs  Foot  Jelly. — Take  /-Calf’s  feet,  4; 
white  wine,  1 pt ; lemons,  2 ; eggs  6 ; cinnamon, 
1 stick. 

Boil  four  feet  (that  have  been  carefully 
washed)  in  four  quarts  of  water  till  very  soft 
and  the  water  is  reduced  to  two  quarts.  Remove 
from  the  fire  and  let  it  stand  till  perfectly  cold, 
then  scrape  off  all  the  fat  and  dregs.  Put  the 
jelly  in  a preserving  kettle,  and  set  it  on  a 
slow  fire  ; when  it  melts,  take  it  from  the  fire, 
mix  into  it  a pint  of  white-wine,  the  juice 
and  a grated  rind  of  two  fresh  lemons,  and  a 
stick  of  cinnamon,  broken  into  bits.  Wash 
and  wipe  dry  six  eggs ; beat  the  whites  to  a 
froth  and  stir  them  into  the  jelly  when  it  is 
cool ; bruise  the  egg-shells  and  mix  them  in, 
and  then  set  the  jelly  on  a few  coals.  When 
hot,  sweeten  it  to  the  taste  with  white  sugar. 
Let  it  boil  slowly  fifteen  minutes  without 
stirring  it ; then  strain  through  a flannel  bag 
into  a deep  dish  or  pitcher — if  it  is  not  clear 
the  first  time,  pass  it  through  the  bag  again. 
The  bag  should  not  be  squeezed ; if  it  is,  the 
jelly  will  not  look  clear.  When  strained,  pour 
it  into  glasses,  and  if  the  weather  is  hot  set 
the  glasses  into  cold  water  and  keep  them  in 
a cool  place.  Even  then  the  jelly  will  keep 
but  a few  days. 

CALICO.— A cheap  cotton  cloth,  so  called 
because  it  was  originally  imported  into  Europe 
from  Calicut  in  India.  It  is  made  of  an  infinity 
of  different  patterns  and  of  several  qualities, 
and  the  colors  are  sometimes  “ fast  ” and  again 
wash  out  the  moment  they  are  dipped  into 
water.  Calicoes  are  frequently  so  full  of 
“ sizing,”  a preparation  put  in  by  the  manufac- 
turer to  give  them  a better  appearance,  that  it 
is  difficult  to  ascertain  their  quality  ; it  is  best, 
therefore,  to  choose  calico  that  is  free  from 
sizing,  and  to  see  that  the  threads  are  straight 
and  evenly  woven. 

CALIFORNIA  WINES.  (See  American 
Wines.) 

CALLA.— The  Calla  Lily  is  one  of  the  most 


70 


CALLIPASH 


CAMPHOR 


ornamental  plants  that  can  be  grown  either  in 
house  or  garden.  It  grows  sometimes  as  high 
as  five  feet,  has  broad,  green,  beautifully 
veined  leaves  more  than  a foot  long,  and  when 
blooming  throws  up  a long  raceme  of  delicately 
tinted  flowers.  It  is  a bulbous  plant;  and  if 
planted  in  the  spring  in  a light  rich  soil,  and 
copiously  watered  during  the  hot  weather,  will 
bloom  freely  during  the  summer.  It  may  be 
wintered  in  a light  cellar  without  difficulty;  or 
the  bulbs  may  be  taken  up  after  the  first  frost 
and  kept  during  the  winter  in  some  dry  place 
where  the  temperature  does  not  fall  below  50°. 
In  the  latter  case,  plant  again  in  April  or  May. 
When  grown  as  a house  plant  they  should  be 
potted  in  soil  composed  of  richest  loam  and 
peat  well  mixed  ; they  should  be  watered  abun- 
dantly, and  placed  where  the  sunlight  will 
reach  them  freely.  If  a plant  with  a single 
stem  is  desired,  remove  all  suckers  : otherwise 
they  will  do  no  harm  to  remain. 

CALLIPASH. — The  green,  gelatinous  fat 
which  forms  part  of  the  upper  shield  of  the  turtle. 
It,  together  with  Callipee , the  yellowish  fat 
which  belongs  to  the  lower  shield,  is  considered 
by  epicures  the  choicest  portion  of  the  turtle. 

CALOMEL. -A  preparation  of  mercury,  used 
as  an  alterative  and  purgative,  and  in  certain 
specific  diseases.  Calomel  has  always  been 
inveighed  against  by  quacks  of  every  descrip- 
tion, so  that  a common  popular  impression 
exists  against  its  employment  at  the  present 
day.  It  still,  however,  remains  a valuable 
remedy  in  many  conditions  of  the  human  system, 
though  it  should  be  used  only  under  proper 
direction — never  as  an  article  of  domestic  medi- 
cine. Dose,  from  5 to  10  grains  in  pill. 

CAMBRIC. — An  exquisitely  fine  and  beau- 
tiful cloth  made  of  flax  or  linen  ; there  is  also  an 
imitation  of  cambric  made  of  cotton.  French 
cambric,  when  genuine  and  of  the  best  kind, 
is  superior  to  any  other;  it  has  a singularly  soft 
and  silky  appearance.  Scotch  cambric  is  in 
fact  an  imitation  cambric,  made  of  cotton  or  of 
cotton  mixed  with  flax,  and  is  much  inferior  in 
retaining  its  whiteness.  French  cambric  hand- 
kerchiefs are  of  three  widths,  y,  and  of 
a yard. 

CAMELLIA. — There  is  one  variety  of  the 
camellia,  the  single  red , which  will  stand  the  win- 
ter out  of  doors  as  far  north  as  the  Middle  States, 
but  it  is  chiefly  as  a window  plant  that  cam- 
ellias are  so  ardently  cultivated.  They  should 
be  grown  in  a light  loam,  or  sandy  peat  and 
loam;  and  the  pots  should  be  filled  one-third 
full  of  potsherds  in  order  to  secure  drainage 
If  the  roots  of  the  plant  become  sodden  its 
health  is  gone,  and  years  of  care  may  fail  to 
restore  its  beauty.  When  in  a growing  state, 
too  much  water  can  hardly  be  given,  and  fre- 
quent sprinklings  and  syringings  are  good  ; this 
operation,  however,  must  never  be  performed  in 
sunny  weather.  One  chief  care  in  the  culture 
of  camellias  is  to  keep  them  perfectly  clean  ; dust 
upon  the  foliage  not  only  injures  the  beauty  of 
the  plant,  but  affects  its  health.  Too  much 
heat  will  also  injure  the  plants,  and  the  tem- 


perature of  the  room  in  which  they  are  left 
should  never  be  permitted  to  rise  above  sixty- 
five  or  seventy  degrees  during  the  day,  or  to 
fall  below  forty  at  night.  The  plants  when  in 
bloom  should  be  shaded,  as  thus  the  flowers 
will  remain  in  perfection  much  longer.  They 
should  have  plenty  of  air  at  all  times,  but  during 
the  season  of  growth  they  must  be  protected 
from  chilling  draughts  which  would  cause  the 
young  leaves  to  curl  up  and  stunt  the  plants. 
During  the  summer,  the  plants  should  be  placed 
in  a shady,  airy  situation  out  of  doors,  with 
plenty  of  room  between  them  to  allow  a free 
circulation  of  air.  A common  error  in  the  cul- 
ture of  camellias  is  too  frequent  re-potting.  A 
vigorous  plant  will  not  require  re-potting  oftener 
than  every  three  years,  and  the  very  largest 
plants  will  flourish  in  a pot  ten  or  twelve  inches 
in  diameter.  Camellias  are  by  nature  symmet- 
rical in  growth,  and  by  judicious  pruning  per- 
fect specimens  may  be  secured.  Pruning 
should  be  done  after  blooming,  just  as  the  plants 
begin  their  growth.  To  insure  fine  flowers,  not 
more  than  one  bud  should  be  allowed  to  each 
terminal  shoot ; remove  all  others  before  the 
buds  begin  to  swell. 

The  florists’  varieties  of  camellias  are  almost 
numberless  ; but  Mr.  E.  Rand  says  : “ Could 
we  have  but  one,  we  would  choose  Double 
white  or  Candidissima,  for  white  ; for  blush, 
Lady  H tunes  blush  j for  crimson,  Sarah  Frost.” 
In  buying  plants,  select  those  of  shrubby  form 
dark  green  foliage,  without  any  places  where 
leaves  have  been  dropped.  Also  see  that  the 
plant  is  free  from  scale,  red  spider,  and  mealy 
bug. 

CAMOMILE. — A small  plant,  growing  wild 
in  some  places,  and  very  generally  cultivated  on 
account  of  its  flowers,  an  infusion  of  which 
makes  an  excellent  tonic  known  as  camomile 
tea.  Though  the  double-flowered  kind  is  most 
raised  by  gardeners,  the  single  is  the  best  and 
strongest  medicine.  The  active  principle  of 
camomile  is  piperina^ts.  resinous  substance,  and 
it  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  hops  in  making 
bitter  beers.  Camomile  tea,  which  is  made  by 
steeping  the  flowers  in  boiling  water,  is  good 
for  allaying  nausea  or  arresting  vomiting  ; and, 
sometimes  improves  the  appetite. 

CAMPHOR. — A pure  resinous  substance 
found  in  many  plants,  but  in  large  quantities  in 
only  two,  which  grow  in  China  and  Japan  and 
the  island  of  Formosa.  Nearly  all  the  cam- 
phor of  commerce  is  brought  from  China, 
where  its  manufacture  is  the  chief  industry  of 
several  entire  districts.  It  is  easily  dissolvable 
in  alcohol,  though  scarcely  so  in  water.  Cam- 
phor evaporates  rapidly  when  exposed  to  the 
air,  and  as  its  vapor  is  poisonous  to  insects  it  is 
very  useful  in  defending  clothes,  carpets,  and 
the  like  from  moths,  it  is  poisonous  to  all 
animals  when  taken  into  the  stomach  in  large 
quantities  ; though  in  small  doses  it  will  allay 
nervousness  and  produce  quietude.  The  odor 
of  camphor,  if  breathed  for  a long  time,  is  ener- 
vating. Spirits  of  camphor  is  a solution  of  the 
gum  in  alcohol. 


CANARY  BIRD 


CANCER 


71 


Camphor  Oil. — This  is  a product  of  the  same 
tree  which  produces  camphor.  It  is  a pale, 
yellowish,  limpid  fluid,  stimulating  when  ap- 
plied externally,  and  excellent  as  a liniment. 

CANARY  BIRD. — Canary  birds  are  natives 
of  the  Canary  Islands,  and  hence  their  name. 
There  are  many  varieties  of  them  to  be  had  of 
the  bird  fanciers.  Those  having  the  upper  part 
of  the  body  of  a dusky  green,  and  the  under 
part  a yellowish  green,  with  dark  brown  eyes, 
are  the  strongest ; the  choicest,  however,  or  at 
least  the  most  admired,  are  those  in  which  the 
body  is  white  or  yellow,  and  the  head,  wings, 
and  tail  yellowish  dun.  It  is  very  important 
that  their  treatment  should  conform  to  the 
season  of  the  year.  They  require  to  be  kept 
in  rooms  of  an  even  temperature  ; if  exposed  to 
cold  they  are  likely  to  sicken  and  die,  while  if 
the  room  is  too  warm  they  will  moult  before 
the  proper  time,  which  it  is  important  to  avoid. 
The  cage,  which  should  be  provided  with  three 
cross-sticks,  must  be  kept  clean  and  have  a 
little  fine  sand  scattered  over  the  bottom  of  it. 
Beside  seed,  canaries  may  be  supplied  often 
with  a little  green  stuff,  such  as  chickweed, 
water-cress,  lettuce,  etc.,  in  summer,  and  thin 
slices  of  sweet  apple  in  winter.  As  they  like 
to  wash  their  feathers,  a cup  of  clean  water 
should  be  put  into  the  cage  frequently  for  that 
purpose.  Never  give  them  sweet  cake  or  any 
other  rich  food. 

The  best  time  for  pairing  canaries  is  about 
the  middle  of  April.  Birds  which  are  to  be 
paired  should  be  previously  kept  in  the  same 
cage  for  several  days  to  become  acquainted 
with  each  other.  The  pairing  cage  should  be 
• divided  into  two  compartments,  with  communi- 
cation between  them  by  a sliding  door,  so  that 
a separation  may  be  effected  when  required. 
For  their  nest-building,  they  should  be  supplied 
with  straw,  paper-shavings,  moss,  wool,  or  other 
soft  materials,  strewed  over  the  bottom  of  the 
cage.  The  female  generally  lays  six  eggs,  on 
alternate  days  ; and  in  about  thirteen  days  after 
the  last  one  is  laid  the  young  birds  will  make 
their  appearance.  As  soon  as  the  young  ones 
are  hatched,  a portion  of  an  egg  boiled  hard, 
and  chopped  very  fine,  white  and  yolk  together, 
and  mixed  with  crumbs  of  white  bread,  should 
be  put  into  the  cage,  and,  in  another  vessel, 
some  rape-seed,  well  boiled  and  washed  in 
fresh  water.  This  should  be  repeated  often 
and  great  care  taken  that  the  food  is  not  al- 
lowed to  remain  in  the  cage  till  sour.  When 
about  fourteen  days  old  the  young  birds  are 
able  to  feed  alone;  the  males  should  then  be 
placed  in  a cage,  each  by  himself,  in  order  that 
his  education  may  not  be  interrupted.  His 
education  is  best  accomplished  by  whistling  to 
him  the  air  most  desired  to  be  sung.  Many 
canaries  have  been  taught  to  sing  several  airs 
quite  correctly.  A good  education  will  require 
from  three  to  six  months,  and  must  be  care- 
fully followed  up. 

CANCER. — All  that  modern  surgery  has 
hitherto  done  with  regard  to  cancer  is  to  define  it, 
its  structure,  kinds,  and  history.  Nothing  sat- 


isfactory has  been  proved  as  to  its  causes : 
neither  individuality,  locality,  mode  of  life,  or 
conditions.  Domestic  animals  are  equally  sub- 
ject to  it  with  man,  and  pathologists  have  but 
slight  grounds  for  suggesting  its  predisposing 
causes,  such  as  its  being  in  a small  percentage 
apparently  hereditary,  and  its  existence  more 
frequently  in  the  female  sex  and  in  the  aged. 
Cancer  is  a disease  of  itself,  and  one  of  the 
class  of  new  growths.  It  is  unlike  all  other 
tumors,  being  an  infiltration  amongst  the  natural 
tissues  of  the  body,  and  its  peculiar  structure  is 
only  to  be  discerned  by  the  microscope.  It  is 
ineradicable  : if  cut  out  it  returns,  if  not  at  the 
place  of  operation  in  some  other  part  or  tissue. 
There  are,  however,  cases  where  a cancerous 
tumor  has  been  removed  at  its  first  appear- 
ance, and  the  patient  has  enjoyed  immunity 
from  any  return  for  ten,  fifteen,  or  even 
twenty  years.  Cancer  possesses  all  the  char- 
acteristics of  a maligtiant  growth,  as  defined 
by  pathologists,  namely,  constitutional  origin, 
rapid  growth,  constant  increase,  pain,  returning 
if  cut  out,  infiltrating  every  tissue  in  its  vicinity, 
and  invading  the  lymphatic  glands ; “ it  resists 
all  treatment,  softens  inwardly,  ulcerates  out- 
wardly, resembles  no  tissue  naturally  formed  in 
the  body,  and  ultimately  proves  fatal.” 

There  are  several  forms  of  cancer:  i.  Scir- 

rhus ; 2.  Medullary;  3.  Melanotic;  4.  Epithe- 
lial ; 5.  Osteoid ; 6.  Colloid ; 7.  Villous.  The 
last  two  forms,  however,  are  by  some  scarcely 
held  as  cancer.  Scirrhus  Cancer  is  the  most 
frequent,  at  least  in  this  country,  and  most 
commonly  affects  the  female  breast,  though  it 
is  also  found  in  the  rectum,  eye,  testicle,  womb, 
shin,  bones,  and  salivary  glands.  Its  chief 
feature  is  its  stony  hardness,  which  is  due  to 
an  abundance  of  fibrous  tissue  ; it  is  nodulated, 
becomes  adherent  to  the  overlying  skin,  and  it 
has  the  singular  property,  not  possessed  in  a 
like  degree  by  any  other  tumor,  of  drawing  into 
it  adjoining  structures,  is  subject  to  severe 
stabbing  or  lancinating  pain,  and  to  ultimate 
ulceration.  Medzdlary,  or  brain-like  cancer,  so 
called  from  its  resemblance  to  the  substance  of 
the  brain,  or  stiff  blanc-mange ; encephaloid,  or 
soft  cancer,  are  its  synonymous  terms.  This 
form  of  cancer  differs  from  the  preceding  in 
possessing  none  of  that  peculiar  characteristic 
of  drawing  towards  itself  neighboring  struc- 
tures, but  rather  that  of  a disposition  to  dis- 
tend and  thrust  them  aside  by  the  rapidity 
of  its  growth,  and  by  the  great  accumulation 
of  cancer  material  in  its  bulk.  It  produces 
greater  constitutional  disturbance,  and  is  more 
speedily  fatal.  It  is  most  frequent  in  the 
limbs  and  breast.  It  is  excessively  vascular 
and  as  it  nears  the  surface  throws  out  fun- 
gous masses  which  bleed  at  the  slightest  touch. 
Melanotic  Cancer:  The  distinctive  feature  of 
this  form  of  cancer  is  the  presence  of  pig- 
ment or  coloring  cells,  which  give  it  a black  or 
dark  appearance.  The  most  frequent  situa- 
tion is  the  skin  or  the  eye,  and  it  is  more 
common  in  the  horse  or  dog  than  in  man.  It 
derives  its  color  as  a general  rule,  from  the 


72 


CANDLES 


CANDY 


structures  in  which  pigment  naturally  exists. 
Epithelial  Cancer , termed  also  epithelioma  or 
cancroid,  so  termed  because  the  microscopic 
cells  found  in  it  differ  less  from  the  cells  of  the 
part  in  or  near  which  they  grow,  than  those  of 
the  foregoing  kinds,  and  from  their  analogy  to 
the  natural  epithelial  structures.  Its  chief 
situation  is  in  the  skin,  in  or  near  a mucous 
orifice,  e.  g.,  lip,  nose,  anus,  prepuce,  scrotum, 
or  tongue.  When  it  exists  on  the  scrotum  it 
forms  the  so-called  chimney-sweeper’s  cancer, 
Osteoid  Cancer , a form  of  cancer  occurring 
usually  in  bones,  and  more  commonly  in  the 
lower  end  of  the  femur  apparently  than  else- 
where. It  is  very  rapid  and  painful  in  its 
growth.  In  this  form  of  cancer  the  stroma  is 
converted  into  a very  dense  fibrous  tissue,  and 
then  into  a peculiar  bone,  which  is  rough  and 
porous,  and  very  brittle,  readily  reducible  to  a 
chalky  powder  after  maceration  of  specimen.  It 
seems  to  be  singularly  interchangeable  with 
encephaloid.  Colloid  Cancer , a form  of  the 
disease  not  regarded  by  some  writers  as  in- 
cludable under  the  term  cancer.  In  appearance 
it  is  jelly-like,  about  the  consistence  of  thin 
glue  or  tapioca  pudding,  of  rapid  growth,  and 
frequently  attaining  enormous  bulk.  It  is  most 
frequently  found  in  the  intestinal  canal.  Vil- 
lous Cancer , a vascular  growth,  composed  of 
delicate  papillae,  each  containing  a vascular 
loop,  generally  in  connection  with  cancer  or 
epithelium. 

Treatment. — All  that  can  be  clone  in  the  way 
of  treatment  is  to  check  the  disease  as  far  as 
possible,  and  thus  endeavor  to  alleviate  suffer- 
ing and  prolong  life.  Active  treatment  of  can- 
cerous growths  can  only  tend  to  one  point,  and 
that  is  removal  in  all  cases  on  their  earliest  de- 
tection. In  advanced  stages  of  the  disease, 
palliative  treatment,  both  local  and  constitu- 
tional, must  be  resorted  to,  but  death  will  sooner 
or  later  supervene,  and  all  that  can  be  done  is 
to  make  the  end  as  easy  as  possible.  Medical 
advice  is  absolutely  necessary. 

CANDLES. — Kerosene  oil  and  the  various 
kinds  of  lamps  in  the  country,  and  gas  in  the 
city,  have  very  nearly  superseded  the  use  of 
candles  as  illuminators ; yet  they  are  cleaner 
than  lamps,  less  troublesome,  less  dangerous, 
and  more  easily  carried  about.  They  also,  when 
properly  made,  give  a peculiarly  pleasant  and 
cheerful  light  at  very  small  cost.  Candles 
are  made  of  various  substances  such  as  sper- 
maceti, stearine,  tallow,  wax  and  various  com- 
binations of  these ; but  the  last  two  are  the 
only  substances  used  in  domestic  manufactures, 
and  they  are  made  in  two  ways — by  dipping 
and  by  moulding. 

Dipped  Candles. — To  make  dipped  candles, 
pull  the  wicks  out  straight  and  smooth,  cut 
into  the  right  length,  and  then  put  them  on 
broaches  or  rods  about  half  an  inch  in  diameter 
and  three  feet  long.  First  dip  the  wicks  in 
lime-water  or  vinegar  and  dry  them ; then 
double  them  over  the  rods  and  twist  them. 
Melt  the  tallow  in  a large  kettle,  and  when 
it  is  melted,  fill  the  kettle  to  the  top  with  hot 


water  and  add  wax  and  powdered  alum  to 
harden  the  candles.  Keep  the  tallow  hot  over 
a j)ortable  furnace,  and  fill  the  kettle  with 
hot  water  as  fast  as  the  tallow  is  used  up. 
When  the  tallow  is  boiling  hot  take  several 
rods  at  once  and  wet  the  wicks  in  it ; straighten 
and  smooth  them  when  cool.  Then  dip  them 
as  fast  as  they  cool  until  they  become  of  the 
proper  size ; plunge  them  in  obliquely  and  not 
perpendicularly,  and  when  the  bottoms  are  too 
large,  hold  them  in  the  hot  grease  till  a part 
melts  off.  Let  them  remain  over  night  to  cool ; 
then  cut  off  the  bottoms  and  keep  in  a dry, 
cool  place. 

Mould  Candles. — These  are  made  in  regu- 
lar candle-moulds  or  tin  or  pewter  cylinders, 
of  which  the  inside  diameter  is  the  size  of  the 
candles  desired.  To  make,  melt  together  ten 
ounces  of  good  tallow  (at  least  half  should  be 
mutton  tallow),  a quarter  of  a pound  of  white 
wax,  a quarter  of  an  ounce  of  camphor,  and 
two  ounces  of  powdered  alum.  Soak  the 
wicks  in  lime-water  and  saltpetre,  and  when 
dry  fix  them  in  the  moulds  and  pour  in  the 
melted  tallow.  Let  them  stand  one  night  to 
cool;  then  warm  them,  draw  out  carefully, 
and  put  them  in  a box  in  a dry,  cool  place. 
Candles  made  thus  are  extremely  nice  and  will 
keep  for  two  years ; they  are  better  for  being 
kept  several  months.  When  laid  up  for  store, 
it  is  well  to  cover  them  with  bran,  as  light  turns 
them  yellow. 

Hush  Lights. — These  are  made  by  dipping 
rushes  in  tallow  in  the  same  way  as  for  dipped 
candles.  The  rushes  should  first  be  stripped 
of  nearly  all  the  hard,  outer  covering,  the  pith 
alone  being  retained  with  just  enough  of  the 
tough  bark  to  keep  it  stiff.  They  require  no 
snuffing  as  the  burned  wick  falls  off  as  the 
tallow  consumes ; but  small  cotton  wicks  an- 
swer the  same  purpose  and  are  less  liable  to  go 
out. 

Wax  Candles. — These  are  much  superior 
both  in  appearance  and  in  illuminating  power 
to  any  others.  They  burn  with  a steady,  mel- 
low light,  emit  no  smell,  and  require  no  snuff- 
ing. They  are  made  by  pouring  melted  white 
wax  down  the  wick  till  sufficient  has  adhered 
to  it,  then  rolling  the  candle  on  a smooth  board 
or  marble  slab  till  it  is  even,  and  then  polishing 
it  with  a cloth.  They  may  also  be  made  like 
tallow  candles  in  moulds.  Exposure  to  the 
light  whitens  wax  candles,  but  they  should 
always  be  kept  in  a cool,  dry  place. 

CANDY.* — In  order  to  understand  the  phil- 
osophy of  candy-making,  take  a little  crushed 
sugar  in  a clean  brass  or  tinned  kettle,  with  a 
little  water,  over  a brisk  fire,  and  note  the 
changes  which  heat  will  cause.  At  first  the 
lumps  of  sugar  soften  and  break  up,  and  as  the 
heat  increases  entirely  disappear,  the  result 
being  a transparent  solution,  more  or  less  thick 
according  to  the  proportions  of  sugar  and  water. 
If  heat  be  increased  so  that  the  syrup  boils, 

* Most  of  this  article,  and  of  two  or  three  short  paragraphs 
on  allied  topics,  are  taken  from  an  excellent  little  book,  “ How 
to  Make  Candy.”  Hartford,  Ct. ; Dustin,  Gilman  & Co. 


CANDY 


73 


the  remaining  liquid  becomes  more  dense  until 
it  reaches  a point  where  not  enough  water 
remains  to  hold  the  sugar  in  perfect  solution. 
If  it  now  be  set  aside  and  allowed  to  cool 
gradually,  the  excess  of  sugar  will  deposit  itself 
in  large  transparent  crystals  on  the  sides  and 
bottom  of  the  vessel,  and  we  shall  have  it  in 
the  form  usually  known  as  rock-candy.  If 
instead  of  setting  the  solution  aside  for  the 
crystals  to  form,  we  continue  the  boiling,  nearly 
all  the  water  will  soon  evaporate,  and  the  sugar 
will  manifest  a tendency  to  assume  a granular 
condition,  especially  upon  the  sides  of  the 
vessel.  A few  degrees  more  of  heat  beyond 
this  point,  and  we  have  the  sugar  in  a melted 
form,  of  a thick,  pasty  consistence,  but  clear 
and  transparent  still.  If  we  dip  a spoon  into 
the  mass  and  withdraw  it,  a long  thread  of 
melted  sugar  will  follow,  and  if  the  portion  be 
dropped  into  cold  water,  it  will  at  once  become 
hard  and  brittle.  It  is  from  sugar  in  this 
state  that  the  greatest  number  of  our  candies 
are  produced.  But  just  here  we  must  be  very 
careful  in  the  management  of  our  heat.  If  that 
is  now  allowed  to  increase  but  a little,  the  mass 
becomes  very  dark  colored,  froths,  acquires  a 
bitter  taste  and  is  not  fit  for  use.  It  is  above 
260°  that  the  sugar  is  thus  changed  and  the 
greatest  skill  is  required  to  push  the  heat  of 
the  boiling  sugar  just  as  near  the  point  of  this 
change  as  possible  without  quite  reaching  it. 
The  greater  part  of  hard  boiled  candies  are 
made  at  about  250°  of  heat.  If  made  at  a 
degree  much  less  than  this  they  soften  or 
change  in  structure,  while  the  nearer  the  heat 
can  be  carried  to  260°  the  longer  do  they  retain 
their  hardness  and  transparency.  At  the  present 
day  hardly  a kitchen  will  be  found  without  some 
cooking  utensil  which  may  be  conveniently  used 
for  making  candy.  A sauce-pan  of  tinned  iron 
with  a handle  and  flaring  sides,  and  a lip  to 
facilitate  the  pouring  of  the  contents  will  be 
found  best  adapted  for  such  use  or  a small 
brass  kettle  will  do  very  well  if  kept  quite  clean 
and  bright. 

General  directions  for  Candies  of  any 
flavor  from  Boiled  sugar : — Take  three  and 
one-half  pounds  of  refined  sugar,  one  and 
one-half  pints  of  water,  and  one  teaspoonful  of 
cream  of  tartar.  Mix  in  a vessel  sufficiently 
large  to  allow  for  the  expansion  of  the  boiling 
candy.  Boil  over  a brisk  fire,  taking  care, 
however,  that  the  sugar  does  not  burn.  The 
heat  should  be  applied  to  the  bottom  only,  and 
not  to  the  sides  of  the  vessel.  After  boiling 
for  about  fifteen  minutes,  a small  portion  of  the 
melted  sugar  may  be  removed  with  a spoon  and 
cooled  by  placing  in  a saucer  surrounded  by 
cold  water.  If  when  cooled  it  forms  a viscid, 
tenacious  mass,  and  if  a portion  taken  between 
the  thumb  and  finger  forms  a long  adherent 
thread  when  the  thumb  and  finger  are  separated, 
the  process  of  boiling  is  nearly  completed,  and 
great  care  must  be  used  in  the  further  manage- 
ment of  the  heat,  enough  being  supplied  to 
keep  up  the  boiling  without  allowing  the  sugar 
to  be  burned.  It  must  now  be  tested  every 


few  minutes  by  dropping  a small  portion  into 
some  cold  water  standing  conveniently  near. 
When  the  portion  so  dropped  becomes  at  once 
hard  and  brittle,  snapping  apart  like  a pipe- 
stem  when  bent,  the  process  is  completed,  and 
the  vessel  should  at  once  be  lifted  from  the 
heat.  Any  desired  flavoring  or  coloring  “ ex- 
tract” can  now  be  stirred  in  according 
to  taste.  It  is  next  poured  into  shallow 
earthen  dishes,  which  have  previously  been 
slightly  greased,  and  allowed  to  cool  to  a degree 
at  which  it  can  be  handled  without  discom- 
fort. It  is  then  to  be  “pulled,”  and  after 
pulling  rolled  into  “ sticks  ” like  those  ordi- 
narily sold,  or  made  into  any  other  desired 
shape. 

Below  are  given  some  recipes  for  candies  not 
included  in  these  general  directions. 

Chocolate  Caramel. — (See  Caramel.) 

Cough  Candy.  — Boil  three  and  one-half 
pounds  of  ordinary  brown  sugar  with  one  and 
a half  pints  of  water  until  it  hardens  when 
tested  in  the  usual  way.  To  this  add,  just 
prior  to  removal  from  the  fire,  a tincture  pre- 
pared thus:  To  one-half  ounce  of  strong 

alcohol  add  one  dram  of  camphor  gum,  when 
dissolved  and  two  drams  oil  of  anise,  four  drams 
strong  tincture  of  capsicum,  one  dram  of  benzoic 
acid.  Another  very  popular  form  of  cough 
candy  is  prepared  by  making  a decoction,  by 
boiling  two  ounces  of  bonesetand  one  half  ounce 
of  ground  bloodroot  in  a pint  and  a half  of 
water,  and  using  this  decoction  with  three  and 
one-half  pounds  of  brown  sugar,  in  the  same 
manner  as  directed  for  horehound  candy.  When 
about  to  be  poured  out  in  trays  or  worked,  it 
may  be  flavored  with  oil  of  anise. 

Fig  Paste. — (See  Fig.) 

Ginger  Candy. — Put  into  a preserving  ket- 
tle one  ounce  of  finely  grated  ginger,  one  pound 
of  sifted  loaf  sugar,  and  enough  water  to  dis- 
solve the  sugar ; put  the  kettle  on  a slow  fire 
till  the  sugar  begins  to  boil ; add  another  pound 
of  finely  sifted  sugar,  stirring  it  in  till  it  thick- 
ens ; then  drop  it  in  cakes  on  plates  and  dry 
them  in  a slow  oven.  They  will  be  hard,  brit- 
tle, white,  and  very  palatable. 

Gum  Drops. — Take  one  pound  of  gum 
arabic,  dissolve  it  in  1 y2  pts.  of  water,  strain 
and  add  one  pound  of  refined  sugar.  Heat 
until  the  sugar  is  entirely  dissolved.  Any 
flavor  may  be  obtained  by  using  enough  of 
the  desired  flavoring  extract  to  suit  the  taste, 
and  a little  color  may  be  added  if  wanted. 
These  should  be  added  while  the  mixture 
is  warm.  The  mixture  should  be  evaporated 
until  of  the  consistence  of  honey,  so  thick 
that  it  will  flow  only  very  slowly  from  the  lip 
or  spout  of  the  vessel  containing  it.  Next  fill 
a shallow  box  with  fine  starch,  and  having 
smoothed  the  surface,  proceed  with  a stick,  hav- 
ing a rounded  end,  of  the  size  desired  in  the 
finished  gum  drop,  to  make  indentations  in  the 
starch,  as  thickly  together  as  can  be  done  with- 
out disturbing  the  shape  of  one  by  the  formation 
of  another.  Round  buttons  of  wood  may  be 
fastened  to  a flat  board,  if  desired,  and  the  entire 


74 


CANDY 


set  of  indentations  prepared  at  once  by  press- 
ing the  board  on  the  surface  of  the  starch. 
The  mixture  of  gum  and  sugar  should  now  be 
placed  in  a vessel  having  a long  lip  or  spout, 
and  as  the  liquid  is  poured  slowly  out,  a por- 
tion just  sufficient  to  fill  each  indentation 
should  be  stroked  off  with  a wire  and  allowed 
to  drop  therein.  When  the  mould  is  filled  it 
must  be  set  in  a warm  place  for  several  days, 
until  the  drops  are  sufficiently  hardened  on 
the  outside  to  bear  handling  without  break- 
ing. 

Horehound  Candy. — Prepare  a strong 
decoction  by  boiling  two  ounces  of  the  dried 
herb  in  a pint  and  a half  of  water  for  about  half 
an  hour.  This  decoction  is  then  strained  and 
added  to  three  and  one-half  pounds  of  brown 
sugar.  Boil  over  a hot  fire  until  it  reaches  the 
requisite  degree  of  hardness,  when  it  may  be 
poured  out  in  flat  tin  trays,  previously  well 
greased  and  marked  into  sticks  or  small  squares 
with  a knife,  as  it  becomes  cool  enough  to  re- 
tain its  shape. 

Jujube  Paste. — Take  of  gum  arabic  one 
pound  ; dissolve  in  a pint  and  a half  of  water 
and  add  one  pound  of  sugar.  Evaporate  to  a 
very  thick  consistence,  and  when  cooled  a lit- 
tle, but  while  still  warm  enough  to  run,  turn 
into  shallow  tin  pans  which  have  previously 
been  oiled.  Any  flavor  may  be  added  before 
turning  it  out. 

Lemon  Candy. — Into  a bright  tinned  kettle, 
thoroughly  cleansed  to  free  it  from  grease  or 
odor  of  vegetables  if  a kitchen  utensil  is  employ- 
ed, put  three  and  one-half  pounds  of  sugar,  one 
and  one-half  pints  of  water,  and  a full  teaspoon- 
ful of  cream  of  tartar.  Place  over  a hot  fire 
and  stir  until  the  lumps  disappear.  Boil  briskly, 
until  the  candy  becomes  hard  and  brittle,  when 
a little  of  it  is  thrown  into  cold  water ; remove 
the  vessel  from  the  fire  and  pour  the  contents 
on  a large  earthen  platter,  previously  greased 
with  a little  butter.  After  the  candy  has  cooled 
sufficiently  to  be  handled,  and  has  reached  the 
consistency  of  ordinary  dough,  add  about  a 
teaspoonful  of  finely-powdered  tartaric  acid, 
and  the  same  quantity  of  extract  of  lemon,  and 
work  them  into  the  mass.  The  acid  should  be 
very  fine  and  free  from  lumps.  The  mass 
should  be  worked  enough  to  distribute  the  acid 
and  lemon  extract  evenly,  but  no  more,  as  too 
much  handling  would  tend  to  destroy  its  trans- 
parency. It  may  now  be  formed  into  sticks  or 
drops  or  spread  out  flat  in  thin  sheets,  which 
will  easily  break  as  required  when  cold.  Some 
makers  add  a few  drops  of  tincture  of  saffron 
just  before  removing  from  the  fire,  which  gives 
a bright  yellow  color,  without  diminishing  its 
clearness. 

Molasses  Candy  (I). — Into  a kettle  holding  at 
least  four  times  the  amount  of  molasses  to  be 
used,  pour  a convenient  quantity  of  good  Porto 
Rico  molasses.  Place  over  a slow  fire  and 
boil  for  a half  hour,  stirring  all  the  time.  Be 
very  careful  not  to  let  the  candy  burn,  especi- 
ally near  the  close  of  the  boiling.  When  a 
little  dropped  in  cold  water  becomes  quickly 


hard  and  snaps  apart  like  a pipe-stem,  add  a 
teaspoonful  of  carbonate  of  soda,  free  from 
lumps,  to  every  two  quarts,  stir  quickly  to  mix, 
and  pour  on  greased  platters  to  cool.  When 
the  candy  is  sufficiently  cool  to  handle  without 
burning  the  hands,  it  is  pulled  back  and  forth, 
the  hands  being  rubbed  with  a little  butter  to 
prevent  the  candy  from  sticking  to  them.  Flour 
is  sometimes  used  for  this  purpose,  but  it  gives 
an  unpleasant  taste  to  the  candy.  The  more 
the  candy  is  worked,  the  lighter  it  will  be  in 
color.  Frequently  some  flavor  is  added,  as 
vanilla  or  lemon,  but  the  natural  flavor  of  the 
boiled  molasses  is  generally  preferred. 

Molasses  Candy,  (II)  (White). — Take  two 
pounds  of  refined  sugar  of  the  grade  termed 
by  the  grocers  “ Coffee  C.,”  one  pint  of 
pure  sugar-house  syrup,  and  one  pint  best 
Porto  Rico  or  New  Orleans  molasses.  Boil 
together  until  it  hardens,  as  before  de- 
scribed, when  dropped  in  cold  water,  add 
one  teaspoonful  of  carbonate  of  soda,  and 
work  in  the  usual  manner.  This  style  of 
molasses  candy  is  that  made  by  the  large 
confectioners,  and  is,  in  fact,  a sugar  candy 
flavored  a little  with  molasses. 

Nut  Candy. — If  the  meats  of  the  nuts  are 
covered  with  a thick  skin,  like  those  of 
almonds  or  peanuts,  remove  it  ; with  walnuts, 
pecan  nuts,  etc.,  this  is  not  necessary.  Pour 
over  them  the  hot  molasses  candy  made  as 
above  directed,  stirring  the  meats  that  each 
one  may  be  covered.  A little  less  candy  should 
be  used  than  will  suffice  to  entirely  cover  the 
mass  of  meats,  though  each  separate  one  should 
be  coated.  Thus  will  be  formed  a large  cake, 
which  when  nearly  cold  may  be  divided 
in  squares  or  bars  with  a sharp  knife.  The 
meats  of  any  nuts  may  be  used  in  this  man- 
ner. 

Sugar  Candy.— Take  three  cupfuls  of  fine 
sugar  half  a cupful  of  vinegar,  and  two  cup- 
fuls of  water,  and  boil  pretty  fast  till  the  water 
all  boils  away;  in  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes 
afterwards  it  will  candy  (test  by  dropping  some 
in  cold  water  and  trying  if  it  will  “string  ” when 
pulled).  Then  pour  into  a buttered  dish,  and 
when  it  cools  sufficiently  to  be  handled,  pull  in 
the  same  way  as  molasses  candy.  This  makes 
a very  white  and  pleasant  candy;  but  great 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  move  or  shake  it  while 
boiling.  If  this  happens  it  will  re-crystalize 
into  sugar. 

Taffy  (Plain). — Either  kind  of  molasses  candy, 
if  poured  from  the  kettle  into  tin  trays  without 
working,  will  produce  a fine,  plain  taffy.  It 
may  be  left  in  one  sheet,  the  size  of  the  tray  in 
which  it  is  poured,  or,  when  slightly  cooled, 
may  be  marked  off  in  squares. 

Taffy  (Everton) Take  three  pounds  of 

best  brown  sugar,  and  boil  with  one  and  one- 
half  pints  of  water,  until  the  candy  hardens  in 
cold  water.  Then  add  one-half  pound  of  sweet- 
flavored  fresh  butter,  which  will  soften  the 
candy.  Boil  a few  minutes  until  it  again  har- 
dens, and  pour  into  trays.  Flavor  with  lemon 
if  desired. 


CANDYING  FRUITS 


CANNING  FRUITS 


75 


Walnut  Candy. — The  meats  of  hickory  nuts,  i 
English  walnuts,  or  black  walnuts  may  be 
used,  according  to  preference  in  that  regard. 
After  removal  from  the  shells  in  as  large  pieces 
as  practicable,  they  are  to  be  placed  on  the  bot- 
toms of  tins,  previously  greased,  to  the  depth 
of  about  a half-inch.  Next  boil  two  pounds  of 
brown  sugar,  a half-pint  of  water,  and  one  gill 
of  good  molasses  until  a portion  of  the  mass 
hardens  when  cooled.  Pour  the  hot  candy  on 
the  meats  and  allow  it  to  remain  until  hard. 

Cheap  Candy. — A great  deal  of  candy 
has  of  late  been  offered  at  extremely  low  rates, 
from  twenty  to  twenty-five  cents  per  pound 
below  the  usual  retail  price.  It  is  generally 
Composed  of  many  varieties,  principally,  how- 
ever, of  those  which  offer  the  largest  opportuni- 
ties for  adulteration.  The  bonbons  and 
similar  candies  of  this  kind  are  composed  of 
a mixture  of  terra  alba  and  cheap  sugar,  the 
gum  drops  of  cornstarch,  and  the  stick  candies 
of  starch  sugar.  The  nuts  and  fruits  used  in 
the  cheaper  varieties  are  of  poor  quality,  worm- 
eaten,  old  or  damaged.  It  will  be  much  the 
better  way,  if  economy  is  an  object,  to  prepare 
the  simpler  varieties  at  home. 

CANDYINGFRUITS. — Fruits  of  every  kind 
may  be  candied  by  first  boiling  them  in  syrup, 
and  then  taking  them  out  and  drying  them  in  a 
pan  on  the  stove  or  before  the  fire  ; then  boil  the 
syrup  to  a candy,  dip  the  fruit  into  it  once  more 
and  again  set  the  fruit  on  the  stove  to  dry;  then 
put  it  into  boxes  or  patented  jars  and  keep  in  a 
dry  place.  If  put  into  the  patent  jars  the  fruit 
will  keep  a long  time.  Grapes,  currants,  and 
the  various  kinds  of  berries  may  be  candied 
by  simply  dipping  them  into  the  candy  and 
drying  them  carefully. 

CANDY-TUFT. — A fine,  hardy,  freely-bloom- 
ing annual,  with  pretty  bush,  and  white,  red,  and 
purple  flowers.  Plant  the  seed  in  open  border 
or  in  beds,  as  soon  as  the  frost  is  out  of  the 
ground ; they  will  bloom  earlier  if  they  are 
sown  in  the  autumn,  and  the  frost  and  snow 
will  not  injure  them.  They  are  in  flower  from 
June  to  September,  and  may  be  kept  over  to 
next  season  by  cutting  off  the  flowers,  not  al- 
lowing the  seed-pods  to  form,  and  keeping 
them  housed  during  the  winter. 

CANNEL  COAL. — A variety  of  bituminous 
coal  which  burns  with  such  a brilliant  white  flame 
that  it  is  used  for  affording  light  by  the  poorer 
people  of  the  north  of  England  ; hence  its  name, 
“cannel”  being  the  local  pronunciation  for 
“candle.”  It  does  not  soil  the  fingers,  is 
heavier  than  other  coal,  and  is  peculiarly 
pleasant  for  burning  in  open  grates.  As  it  is 
apt  to  split  and  fly  out  when  put  into  the  fire,  it 
is  best  to  mix  it  with  common  coal  in  use. 
Cannel  coal  is  brought  from  England  and  sold 
at  about  three  times  the  price  of  anthracite ; 
there  is  an  American  variety  which  is  nearly  as 
good  and  costs  less.  It  is  mined  in  several 
places  in  Kentucky,  and  from  the  Leavenworth 
bed  in  Kansas.  It  is  more  variable  than  any 
other  kind,  often  changing  in  the  same  bed 
from  very  coarse  and  earthy  to  the  finest. 


CANNELONS. — Roll  out  very  thin  and 
evenly  some  fine  puff-paste  into  a long  strip  of 
from  three  to  four  inches  wide,  moisten  the 
surface  with  a feather  dipped  in  white  of  egg, 
and  cut  it  into  bands  of  nearly  two  inches  wide  ; 
lay  some  apricot  or  peach  marmalade  equally 
along  these,  and  fold  the  paste  twice  over  it, 
close  the  ends  carefully,  and  when  all  are  ready, 
slide  them  gently  into  a pan  of  boiling  lard;  as 
soon  as  they  begin  to  brown,  raise  the  pan  from 
the  fire  that  they  may  not  take  too  much  color 
before  the  paste  is  done  quite  through.  Five 
minutes  will  fry  them.  Drain  them  well,  and 
dry  them  on  a soft  cloth  before  the  fire  ; dish 


them  on  a napkin,  and  place  one  layer  crossing 
another,  or  merely  pile  them  high  in  the  centre. 
If  well  made,  and  served  of  a light  brown  and 
very  dry,  these  cannelons  are  excellent : when 
lard  is  objected  to,  dripping  may  be  used  in- 
stead, but  the  paste  will  then  be  somewhat 
less  light.  Only  lard  of  the  purest  quality  will 
answer  for  the  purpose. 

CANNING  FRUITS.  — Canned  fruit  of 
every  kind,  preserved  by  various  patented  pro- 
cesses, can  be  bought  in  the  shops  ; but  they  may 
also  be  put  up  at  home  without  difficulty.  The 
principle  involved  in  preserving  by  canning  is 
the  entire  expulsion  of  the  air;  this  is  usually 
effected  by  heat  sufficient  to  cook  the  fruit. 
The  best  “ cans  ” for  family  use  are  the  patent 
glass  jars  with  cover  and  india-rubber  band, 
which  may  be  had  now  of  every  size  and  at  low 
prices ; those  are  best  in  which  the  rubber  en- 
circles the  outside  of  the  jar’s  mouth  without 
coming  in  contact  with  the  fruit.  For  the 
smaller  fruits,  which  break  easily  by  handling 
when  cooked,  it  is  best  to  put  them  into  the 
jars  before  cooking ; fill  up  with  water,  and  set 
them  in  a wash-boiler  containing  water  enough 
to  come  up  about  three-fourths  of  the  height  of 
the  jars.  The  jars  must  not  rest  directly  on 
the  bottom  of  the  boiler,  as  they  are  liable  to 
break.  Bring  the  water  gradually  to  a boiling 
point  and  let  it  boil  steadily  but  not  violently 
from  five  to  ten  minutes.  Then  take  the  cans 
out,  place  them  on  a cloth  or  board,  and  shake 
them  well  to  loosen  the  bubbles ; fill  them  up 
to  the  brim  with  boiling  water,  and  adjust  the 
cover.  The  amount  of  air  under  the  cover 
should  be  so  slight  that  it  will  be  expelled  by 
the  steam  from  the  hot  fruit  in  the  act  of  sealing. 

If  there  is  no  desire  to  preserve  the  fruit 
whole,  the  process  may  be  much  simplified  by 


7G 


CANTALOUPE 


CAPES 


cooking  the  fruit  in  the  ordinary  way  and  dip- 
ping it  hot  into  the  jars.  In  this  case  the  jars 
must  be  prepared  by  heating  them  gradually 
with  hot  water,  or  they  will  break  when  the  hot 
fruit  is  put  in.  Plenty  of  juice  should  be  dip- 
ped in  at  first,  so  as  to  leave  no  vacancies  for 
the  air,  then  the  jars  may  be  sealed  as  soon  as 
they  are  filled;  but  if  there  are  bubbles,  let 
them  out  with  a fork  or  spoon,  fill  with  hot 
juice  and  seal.  When  cooled  an  hour  or  so, 
screw  the  covers  tighter,  if  possible,  or  see  that 
they  are  on  firmly.  Let  the  fruit  stand  in  sight 
for  a week  or  two,  and  if  it  does  not  ferment  in 
that  time  put  away  in  a dark,  dry  closet,  and  it 
will  keep  for  years.  If  in  cooling,  the  fruit  set- 
tles, leaving  a vacant  space  at  the  top,  that  is 
not  necessarily  air,  and  the  jars  must  not  be 
opened  unless  signs  of  fermentation  are  seen. 
Then  open  promptly,  fill  up  with  boiling  water 
and  reseal ; or,  better  still,  eat  it  up,  and  use 
the  jar  for  other  fruit. 

CANTALOUPE.  (See  Musk-melon.) 

CANVAS. — The  ordinary  canvas  is  the 
coarsest  cloth  made  of  flax,  and  the  rough,  un- 
bleached varieties  are  made  of  hemp.  It  is 
used  chiefly  in  manufacturing  sails  for  ships, 
tents,  and  the  like,  but  is  also  very  useful  in 
the  household  for  making  large  bags  or  any- 
thing else  for  which  exceptionally  strong  cloth 
is  required.  There  is  also  a light  kind  of  can- 
vas, woven  with  the  warp  and  woof  at  intervals, 
which  ladies  use  for  tapestry  and  Berlin  wool 
work.  That  which  is  flexible  is  best. 

CANVAS-BACK.— One  of  the  family  of 
sea  ducks,  and  celebrated  as  the  most  delicious 
of  all  water  fowl.  They  are  in  season  from 
about  the  middle  of  November  to  January;  and 
then,  provided  they  have  been  killed  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  where  alone 
they  can  find  the  wild  celery  which  is  their  pe- 
culiar food,  they  are  very  fat  and  tender,  and 
with  that  delicious  flavor  so  much  admired.  If 
taken  at  any  other  season  and  place,  they  are 
but  little  better  than  some  of  the  common  sea- 
ducks.  The  bill  of  the  canvas-back  is  black, 
about  three  inches  long,  and  nearly  in  a straight 
line  with  the  head ; the  head  and  neck  are  red, 
the  tail  is  short,  and  the  back  partly  white  and 
partly  black.  In  choosing,  select  those  which 
are  heavy ; if  on  feeling  behind  their  legs  they 
are  found  to  be  plump  and  full,  they  are  fat 
and  in  good  condition.  For  directions  for 
cooking,  see  Duck. 

CAOUTCHOUC.  (See  India-Rubber.) 

CAPERS.— The  unopened  buds  of  a low, 
trailing  bush  which  grows  wild  in  Greece  and 
the  Levant,  and  is  extensively  cultivated  in  the 
south  of  Europe.  They  are  pickled  in  salt  and 
vinegar,  and  come  to  us  from  Italy,  Sicily,  and 
France;  the  best  are  the  Toulon  capers. 
Capers  are  much  used  in  cookery  for  making 
sauces.  ( See  Sauce.) 

CAPES. — Under  this  head  are  included  ber- 
thas, canezous,  fichus,  mantillas,  chemisettes, 
etc.  The  measures  required  are : * i.  That  of 

* For  explanation  o£  Roman  numerals,  see  Cutting  and 
Fitting. 


the  length  desired;  2.  The  size  of  neck  (XV.); 
3.  The  length  of  shoulder  (XIV.);  4.  The 
breadth  of  shoulders  (XVI.)  To  prepare  the 
pattern,  draw  the  vertical  line  a b (Fig.  1), 


which  marks  the  middle  of  the  front ; the  third 
of  the  neck  measure  (XV.)  is  allowed  for  the 
distance  between  the  points  a and  c ; at  c apply 
one  end  of  the  measure  of  the  shoulder  length 
(XIV.)  and  mark  at  the  other  end  the  point  d, 
which  is  to  be  distant  from  the  opposite  point 
e , in  the  vertical  line  a b,  by  a space  equal  to 
one-fourth  of  the  measure  of  the  breadth  of  the 
shoulders  (XVI.).  The  back  is  designed  in 
the  same  way,  with  the  exception  that  for  the 
neck,  one-sixth  of  the  neck-measure  is  taken, 
instead  of  one-third  (Fig.  2). 


The  pattern  represents  the  simple  pelerine 
or  cape  suitable  for  a morning  dress,  or  the 
wrapper  of  an  invalid  or  an  old  lady,  the  inside 
lines  being  the  length  suitable  for  a bertha, 
which  may  also  be  cut  out  in  the  neck,  and 
adapted  to  a low-necked  dress.  The  outline  of 
the  pelerine  and  of  the  bertha  may  be  varied 
on  the  lower  edge,  being  cut  round,  square, 
pointed,  longer  in  the  back  or  front,  or  pro- 
longed in  front  in  square  tabs,  as  a mantilla. 
The  fichu  requires  the  fronts  lengthened  in 
such  a manner  as  to  cross  on  the  breast,  be 
fastened  at  the  waist,  or  made  long  enough  to 


CAPILLAIRE 


CAPS 


77 


meet  in  the  back  and  be  knotted  together  or 
fastened  with  a pin. 

Capes  of  this  description  have  a seam  upon 
the  shoulder,  but  the  garment  may  also  be  cut 
after  the  pattern  of  the  circular  ( see  Circu- 
lar), in  which  case  it  is  made  in  one 
piece ; either  way,  however,  the  material  from 
which  the  cape  is  to  be  cut  should  be  folded 
double  lengthwise,  and  the  middle  of  the  back 
of  the  pattern  laid  upon  the  fold. 

CAPILLAIRE. — A kind  of  syrup  which  may 
be  made  thus : Put  six  pounds  of  loaf  sugar 

and  two  of  brown,  and  three  eggs  well-beaten, 
into  three  pints  of  water ; boil  it  up  twice,  skim 
it  carefully,  and  then  add  half  a gill  of  orange- 
water;  strain  it  through  a piece  of  fine  muslin, 
and  put  it  into  bottles  for  use.  A spoonful  or 
two  of  this  syrup  put  into  a glass  of  warm  or 
cold  water  will  make  a very  agreeable  drink. 

CAPON. — A young  male  fowl  which  has 
been  castrated  and  fattened  for  the  table. 
Caponed  fowls  are  considered  great  delicacies, 
and  always  command  the  highest  market  price  ; 
they  are  said  to  combine  the  strength  of  flavor 
of  the  male  bird  with  much  of  the  delicacy  of 
the  female,  and  never  to  get  tough  like  the  or- 
dinary fowl.  The  best  fowls  for  the  purpose 
are  the  large,  square,  heavy-bodied  kinds  that 
have  a rapid  growth.  The  signs  of  a capon  are 
a small  head,  comb  quite  pale,  short  and  with- 
ered, the  neck-feathers,  if  left  on,  longer  than 
usual,  and,  if  quite  young,  smooth  legs  and 
short,  soft  spurs.  The  body  is  larger,  fatter, 
more  plump  and  round  than  that  of  the  common 
fowl.  Capons  are  cooked  and  served  in  the 
same  way  as  ordinary  Chicken. 

CAPS. — To  design  a pattern  for  a cap  the 
only  measure  required  is  taken  around  the 
head,  in  a straight  line,  meeting  upon  the 
forehead.  This  measure  we  now  divide,  and 
cut  a square  of  paper  of  the  dimensions  of  half 
the  measure,  as  is  seen  underlying  the  various 
patterns  outlined  in  Figs.  I and  2.  This  we 
divide  in  the  middle  by  the  line  a b,  one-half 
representing  the  front,  the  other  the  crown  of 
the  cap. 

The  front  is  to  be  cut  out,  following  the 
inner  line  c d. , more  or  less,  according  as  the 
cap  is  to  be  worn  more  or  less  forward  upon 
the  head ; and  between  the  points  d b,  to  give 
room  for  the  neck.  At  the  point  d,  we  may  en- 
large at  will,  forming  tabs  to  float  or  tie  under 
the  chin,  or  may  cut  the  corners  off,  and  attach 
ribbons.  Also  the  front  may  be  much  less  than 
half  the  cap,  and  in  this  case,  the  crown  must 
be  correspondingly  more  than  half,  that  the 
proper  proportion  may  be  preserved. 

In  Fig.  i,  many  models  are  represented. 
No.  I.  By  rounding  the  upper  corner  e of  the 
crown,  in  accordance  with  the  dotted  line, 
which  marks  the  outline  of  this  first  pattern, 
we  have  a very  simple  cap,  which  is  left  some- 
times quite  square  except  the  curves  c d and  d 
b.  To  make  up  this  pattern  the  material  is  cut 
in  two  pieces,  which  are  obtained  by  laying  the 
pattern  upon  the  material  folded  double,  the 
straight  way.  The  two  halves  are  now  united, 


following  the  dotted  line.  The  front,  c d,  and 
neck,  b d,  are  hemmed  or  faced  with  a narrow 
strip,  and  the  lower  edge  of  the  crown  is  gath- 


Crown  Front 


ered,  and  a little  bias  strip,  hemmed  on  the 
lower  edge,  is  added  as  a frill.  This  cap,  cut 
out  and  made  plainly,  is  the  simplest  form  of  a 
night-cap.  On  the  other  hand,  made  in  delicate 
material,  trimmed  with  lace  or  ribbon  ruches, 
with  lengthened  tabs,  it  is  an  extremely  quaint 
and  pretty  morning  cap.  The  same  pattern 
made  up  in  silk  or  velvet  becomes  the  Alsatian 
cap,  suitable  for  children  or  forfancy  dress.  It 
is,  however,  very  much  cut  out  in  front,  and  is 
nearly  all  crown ; these  caps  are  lined,  and  the 
gathering  at  the  edge  of  the  crown  is  concealed 
under  two  lengths  of  very  broad  ribbon,  which 
cross  on  the  top  of  the  head  and  are  tied  in  an 
enormous  butterfly  bow. 

No.  2.  The  crown  in  this  pattern  is  enlarged 
to  nearly  twice  the  original  size,  and  is  rounded 
from^  to  the  point  b.  This  cap  is  cut  in  one 
piece,  the  pattern  being  laid  on  the  double  fold 
of  the  material,  straight  way,  the  line  eg  on  the 
fold.  The  edges  of  the  front  are  hemmed 
from  c to  d and  to  b ; the  edge  of  the  crown  is 
gathered  and  secured  or  held  by  a drawing- 
string, which  may  be  tightened  or  loosened  at 
will.  The  capeline  is  made  after  this  pattern 
by  enlarging  the  front  on  the  top,  and  if  it  be 
desired  to  turn  it  back  from  the  front,  it  must 
be  still  more  enlarged. 

A very  simple  way  of  making  a capelifie  and 
a cape  in  one  piece  is  to  take  a square  of  the 
desired  material,  fold  it  bias,  making  two  tri- 
angular pieces,  then  gather  it  along  this  diago- 
nal, and  raise  one-half  over  the  head,  the  point 
coming  upon  the  forehead,  while  the  other  is 
drawn  around  the  neck  as  a pointed  cape. 

No.  3.  This  pattern  is  the  same  as  No.  2, 
except  that  it  is  cut  bias,  and  the  crown  is 
smaller  in  the  lower  part. 

No.  4.  This  is  a pattern  much  used  for  chil- 
dren’s caps.  It  is  cut  in  two  pieces,  and  the  front 
is  half  the  breadth  of  the  cap.  The  crown,  cut 
the  straight  way  of  the  material,  follows  the 
line  from  g,  and  is  gathered  into  the  front, 


78 


CARAMEL 


CARBUNCLE 


being  much  more  full  below  than  near  the 
top. 

(Fig.  2.)  The  first  of  these  patterns  repre- 
sents the  crown  very  large,  and  the  front  cor- 
respondingly reduced.  The  front  may  almost 
disappear  and  become  only  a sort  of  binding  to 
retain  the  gathers  of  the  crown.  The  latter  is 
cut  rounding,  and  the  double  line  marked 
“ gathering ” in  the  pattern  is  left  for  the  back 
of  the  neck,  while  the  rest  of  the  crown  is  gath- 


Crown  Front 

a 


ered  into  the  front  and  must  have  a third  more 
length  than  the  space  of  the  front  upon  which 
it  is  to  be  gathered.  The  second  pattern,  in- 
dicated by  the  scalloped  edge,  represents 
simply  a fanchon,  having  no  crown  what- 
ever. 

In  the  construction  of  these  caps,  many  va- 
rieties may  be  introduced  in  the  size  of  the 
crown  and  of  the  front,  beside  those  we  have 
indicated.  When  the  cap  is  made  in  one  piece, 
a front  may  be  simulated  by  ruches  of  lace  or 
ribbon.  Again,  the  crown  and  front  may  be 
separated  half  way  up,  the  crown  be  cut  some- 
what longer  than  the  front  and  gathered  upon 
it,  and  the  seam  be  hid  by  lace  arranged  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  general  style  of  the  cap.  As 
a rule,  it  should  be  remembered,  that  the 
trimmings  of  a cap  should  be  always  more  and 
more  simple  as  the  wearer  grows  older ; and 
that  thread  lace  and  blonde  are  more  suited  to 
almost  any  complexion  than  artificial  flowers, 
or  glittering  bead  trimming. 

CARAMEL. — -A  dark  brown  substance  pro- 
duced by  the  action  of  a high  temperature  upon 
melted  sugar,  and  sometimes  called  “burnt 
sugar.”  It  is  used  to  color  broth,  sauces,  gra- 
vies, etc.,  and  may  be  made  thus  ; Heat  half  a 
pound  of  brown  sugar  in  a small  iron  kettle 
and  stir  until  it  is  a smooth,  dark-brown  batter, 
but  be  careful  that  it  does  not  burn ; add 
gradually  a pint  of  hot  water,  let  it  simmer 
while  the  sugar  which  is  scraped  from  the  ket- 
tle dissolves  ; then  bottle  and  cork. 

Chocolate  Caramels. — Boil  one  quart  of 
good  New  Orleans  molasses  until  it  hardens 
when  tested  by  cooling  a little  of  it  in  water. 
Just  before  removal  from  the  fire  add  four 


ounces  of  chocolate  finely  and  uniformly  grated. 
Pour  a thin  layer  inti  tin  trays,  slightly  greased, 
and  when  the  surface  of  the  candy  hardens  a lit- 
tle, work  with  a knife  into  squares.  They  may 
be  flavored  with  vanilla  or  almond  if  desired, 
but  the  natural  flavor  of  the  chocolate  and  mo- 
lasses is  generally  preferred  without  addition. 

CARAWAY. — This  plant  grows  wild  in 
England  and  throughout  the  north  of  Europe, 
and  is  cultivated  here  on  account  of  its  seeds, 
which  are  much  used  in  confectionery,  cakes, 
biscuits,  and  the  like.  The  seeds  have  a 
pleasant,  aromatic  odor,  and  a sweetish,  warm, 
pungent  taste  ; and,  besides  cookery,  are  em- 
ployed in  medicine  to  stimulate  the  action  of 
the  digestive  organs.  The  under  leaves,  when 
young  and  tender,  are  sometimes  used  for  fla- 
voring soups;  the  roots  were  formerly  eaten 
as  parsnips,  and  by  some  are  thought  to  be  not 
inferior.  Caraway  is  cultivated  exactly  like 
the  parsnip.  The  seeds  mature  the  second 
year  of  the  growth  of  the  plant,  and  ripen  in 
autumn. 

CARBOLIC  ACID.— A substance  ex- 
tracted from  coal  tar,  and  now  much  employed 
in  medicine  and  the  arts.  It  is  one  of  the  best 
of  disinfectants,  and  being  very  volatile  it  is 
readily  diffused  through  the  air  and  neutralizes 
any  excretions  or  gases  that  may  be  present. 
In  using  as  a disinfectant  for  sinks,  water- 
closets,  night-stools,  or  for  wetting  a sheet  to 
hang  in  the  doorway,  mix  a wineglassful  with 
a half  a pint  of  warm  water.  For  washing 
walls,  furniture,  etc.,  mix  a wineglassful  with 
a pint  and  a half  of  warm  water.  Owing  to  its 
antiseptic  qualities,  carbolic  acid  is  a valuable 
lotion  for  wounds  which  discharge  purulent  or 
other  offensive  matter.  When  dissolved  in 
230  parts  of  water  it  is  used  as  a gargle ; or  in 
25  parts  of  water  for  painting  the  throat  in 
bronchial  affections ; or  in  50  parts  for  a car- 
bolic spray.  Mixed  with  olive  or  other  oils,  or 
with  glycerine  in  the  proportion  of  1 part  to  25 
it  makes  an  excellent  dressing  for  cuts  and 
sores.  Carbolic  acid  paper,  which  is  much 
used  for  packing  fresh  meats,  is  made  by  melt- 
ing five  parts  of  stearine  at  a gentle  heat,  then 
mixing  with  it  thoroughly  two  parts  of  carbolic 
acid,  and  subsequently  adding  five  parts  of 
melted  paraffine ; when  melted  apply  it  to  the 
paper  with  a brush.  Pieces  of  card-board  satu- 
rated with  the  acid  will  kill  flies  more  surely 
than  anything  else. 

Carbolic  acid  is  a violent  poison,  and  must 
be  handled  with  care.  In  case  of  poisoning  by 
it,  send  at  once  to  the  druggist  for  saccharatc 
of  lime , and  while  waiting  for  it  give  castor  oil 
and  olive  oil  freely. 

CARBUNCLE— Carbuncles  proceed  from 
the  same  causes  as  boils,  from  which  they  only 
differ  in  being  much  larger  and  more  deeply 
seated.  They  generally  appear  in  the  back  of 
the  neck,  and  are  so  extremely  sensitive  that 
the  slightest  touch  or  even  breathing  upon 
them  causes  intense  pain.  A carbuncle  may 
be  treated  in  the  same  way  as  a boil  ( see 
Boils)  ; but  as  under  certain  circumstances  it 


CARCEL  LAMP 


CARNATION 


79 


Carcel  Lamp. 


These  lamps 
costing  from 
and  requiring 
of  them.  if 


may  endanger  life,  medical  advice  should  in 
all  cases  be  taken.  In  the  absence  of  medical 
aid,  the  best  local  treatment  is  to  lance  the  tu- 
mor freely,  to  let  out  the  festered  matter;  and 
then  to  apply  warm  poultices.  It  is  to  be  rec- 
ollected that  boils  and  carbuncles  alike  indi- 
cate a bad  condition  of  the  blood  which  should 
be  rectified  by  a liberal  but  not  rich  diet,  bit- 
ters, and  by  taking  tincture  of  iron — fifteen 
drops  in  a little  water  three  times  a day.  Acid 
fruits,  such  as  sour  apples,  grapes,  limes  and 
lemons,  may  be  eaten  freely. 

CARCEL  LAMP. — A mechanical  lamp  in 
which  the  oil  is  raised  through  the  tubes  by 
clockwork,  so  as  to  continually  overflow  at  the 
bottom  of  the  burning  wick,  thus  keeping  it 
thoroughly  saturated  while  the 
excess  of  oil  drops  back  into 
the  cistern,  situated  so  far  below 
as  to  cast  no  shade.  It  is 
wound  up  like  a clock,  and  runs 
from  six  to  eight  hours,  main- 
taining a constant  flow  of  oil  and 
giving  out  a clear,  brilliant,  and 
pleasant  light.  The  cut  shows 
the  mechanism ; a is  the  spring 
which  forces  the  oil  ft  ft  up  to 
the  wick,  by  pressure  on  the 
cylinder  g;  d regulates  the 
amount  of  light, 
are  excellent  but  expensive, 
fifteen  to  seventy-five  dollars, 
great  care  in  the  handling 
they  get  seriously  out  of  order  it  may  be  nec- 
essary to  send  them  back  to  the  constructor  in 
Paris. 

CARDOON. — A species  of  the  artichoke  but 
much  larger  and  taller ; cultivated  in  the  same 
way.  Tire  stalk  part  of  the  leaf,  when  properly 
blanched,  is  crisp  and  tender.  Cardoons  are 
used  for  soups,  stews,  salads,  etc.  To  cook, 
cut  the  solid  stalks  of  the  leaves  into  pieces 
about  six  inches  long  and  boil  them  in  pure 
water  till  they  are  tender ; when  done  cleanse 
them  carefully  of  the  slime  and  strings  that 
will  be  found  to  cover  them,  and  then  put  them 
in  cold  water  and  let  them  remain  till  wanted 
for  the  table.  Then  take  them  out  and  heat 
them  with  drawn  butter  or  marrow.  If  this 
process  is  not  followed  they  will  be  bitter  and 
black.  Cardoons  are  in  season  from  September 
to  March. 

CARMINE. — The  coloring  matter  of  cochi- 
neal, used  for  dyeing  fabrics,  for  making  red 
ink,  as  a pigment  in  painting,  and  as  a cosmetic. 
It  is  a beautiful  crimson,  blood-red  color,  the 
most  expensive  used  in  painting,  and  is  gen- 
erally sold  already  prepared.  It  is  cheapest  in 
the  end  to  buy  the  best,  as  the  cheaper  kinds 
are  frequently  adulterated  with  extract  of  Bra- 
zil wood  and  cheaper  vermilion.  Carmine 
may  be  made  in  this  way  : Put  two  pounds  of 
the  cochineal  powder  into  a pot  containing 
ten  gallons  of  boiling  soft  water;  let  it  boil 
three  hours,  and  then  add  three  ounces  of 
saltpetre,  and  soon  after  four  ounces  of  binox- 
alate  of  potash.  After  ten  minutes  remove 


the  pot  from  the  fire,  and  let  it  stand  for 
four  hours.  Then  draw  off  the  liquor  with  a 
siphon  into  flat  glazed  dishes,  and  let  it  stand 
in  them  three  weeks.  A coating  of  mould 
forms  upon  the  surface,  which  is  to  be  nicely 
removed  in  one  piece;  or  if  any  fragments 
remain  they  must  be  taken  out  with  the  great- 
est care.  Dry  this  cake  in  a clean  shady 
place,  and  it  will  then  be  pure  carmine  ready 
for  use. 

CARNATION. — Carnations  range  next  to 
roses  perhaps  as  the  favorite  flower  for  garden 
culture,  and  whether  in  beauty  or  in  fragrance 
are  unsurpassed.  Florists  divide  them  into 
three  classes — -flakes,  bizarres,  and  fticotees. 
Flakes,  on  a pure  yellow  or  white  ground,  have 
only  one  color,  disposed  in  broad  stripes  and 
extending  the  whole  length  of  the  petal.  The 
bizarres,  on  a white  or  yellow  ground,  have  two 
or  more  colors  in  irregular  stripes  of  pink,  or 
scarlet  and  purple,  sometimes  running  the  full 
length  of  the  petal,  and  sometimes  broken  into 
spots.  The  picotee  has  a white  or  yellow 
ground  with  the  colorings  confined  to  a border- 
ing of  each  petal.  In  cultivation,  carnations 
require  a good  rich  soil : the  best  is  composed 
of  one-half  rotten  horse  manure,  one-quarter 
fresh  loam,  and  one-quarter  coarse  sand,  well 
mixed  together.  The  compost  sold  by  florists 
is  also  excellent  for  the  purpose.  They  may 
be  raised  either  from  seed  or  cuttings.  The 
seed  should  be  sown  in  April  or  May,  in  pots 
filled  with  the  above-described  soil  or  compost, 
and  a little  fine  sand,  barely  sufficient  to  cover 
them,  sprinkled  over  the  seeds.  As  soon  as 
the  young  plants  are  three  inches  high,  plant 
them  out  into  a bed  of  rich  soil.  They  will 
not  bloom  until  the  summer  following,  but  the 
plants  can  be  protected  in  cold  climates  by 
laying  sods  of  grass  over  them,  or  by  keeping 
them  in  the  cellar  in  boxes.  In  raising  carna- 
tions from  cuttings,  good  healthy  shoots  should 
be  selected  about  July  or  August;  they  should 
be  cut  off  close  to  the  old  stem  and  planted  in 
a box  of  sand,  or  sand  slightly  mixed  with 
river  soil,  which  should  be  kept  constantly 
moist.  In  about  three  weeks  the  roots  will 
begin  to  form  and  the  cuttings  may  then  be 
transplanted  carefully  to  the  garden.  This  is 
the  surest  way  of  propagating  the  choicer 
varieties.  When  the  flower  stems  are  ten  or 
more  inches  high,  they  should  be  supported 
with  stakes ; and  when  the  flowers  appear,  if 
there  is  danger  of  their  bursting  the  calyx 
and  thus  spoiling  their  symmetry,  it  is  well 
to  tie  a piece  of  colored  worsted  yarn  around 
them. 

Monthly  carnations  are  the  most  desirable, 
as  they  bloom  during  the  winter.  These  are 
some  of  the  choicer  varieties:  Admirable , 

creamy  white;  Astoria , yellow,  flaked  with 
scarlet;  Betsey , brilliant  scarlet;  Blondin , buff 
and  rose ; Donadi's  Pride , white,  edged  with 
pink ; Grant,  rich  crimson,  striped  with  slate 
color;  Grand  Cotide,  white,  blotched  with 
rose  ; La  Purite , bright  rosy  pink ; Ma  Gloire, 
sulphur  yellow,  striped  scarlet ; Queen  of 


BO 


CARP 


CARPETS 


Whites,  purest  white ; Radetzky,  rose  color, 
with  broad  purple  stripes ; Star,  carmine, 
splashed  with  white  ; Von  Moltke , orange  sal- 
mon, baked  with  scarlet ; Rosaline,  bright  buff, 
blotched  with  crimson ; Vaillante,  scarlet 
fringed ; Welcome,  brightest  red,  and  of  per- 
fect shape. 

CARP. — A fine  and  beautiful  fresh-water 
fish,  taken  chiefly  in  the  Hudson  River,  and 
especially  abundant  in  the  New  York  markets. 
They  are  in  season  from  October  to  April. 


Their  general  color  on  the  back  is  olive  brown, 
with  yellowish  white  under  the  belly,  their  fins 
are  dark  brown,  and  they  have  a small  mouth 
like  the  sucker.  They  usually  weigh  from  half 
a pound  to  three  pounds,  occasionally  as  high 
as  twelve  pounds,  but  the  average  is  about  one 
pound.  The  small  fish  are  best  for  broiling 
and  frying,  and  the  larger  ones  for  baking  or 
boiling.  Cook  same  as  Blue-fish,  and  serve 
with  anchovy,  caper,  or  tomato  sauce,  or  with 
parsley  and  butter. 

CARPETS. — -Before  describing  the  various 
kinds  of  carpets  there  are  one  or  two  points  to 
be  considered.  And  first  the  material,  colors, 
and  pattern  of  the  carpet  must  be  adapted  to 
the  room  into  which  it  is  to  be  put  and  the 
other  furniture  of  the  room.  Large  patterns 
will  not  look  well  in  small  rooms,  nor  will  very 
small  patterns  look  well  in  large  ones  ; an  ex- 
pensive carpet  renders  it  necessary  to  have 
expensive  furniture ; and  every  bit  of  color  in 
the  room,  from  the  carpet  to  the  ceiling,  must 
have  some  harmony  with  every  other.  At  the 
same  time  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  there  is 
harmony  in  contrasted  colors  as  well  as  in  those 
which  are  similar,  and  if  the  furniture  is  either 
very  dark  or  very  gay,  the  carpet  should  be 
either  gay  or  neutral,  in  order  to  relieve  the 
general  effect.  The  large  patterns  which  used 
to  prevail  have  been  discarded  of  late  years ; 
and  patterns  as  small  as  the  room  will  bear  are 
considered  most  desirable.  Medallion  carpets, 
or  those  with  figures  of  animals,  bouquets  of 
flowers,  baskets  of  roses,  or  stripes,  should 
never  be  chosen  ; the  most  pleasing  figures 
are  simple  geometrical  designs,  a tracery  of 
vines,  arabesques,  or  an  almost  solid  neutral 
groundwork  of  broken  lines.  A carpet  with 
much  white  in  it  is  objectionable  anywhere 
unless  the  furniture  is  very  dark,  but  it  should 
never  be  laid  in  a room  that  is  much  used ; on 
the  other  hand,  a very  dark  carpet  is  almost  as 
hard  to  keep  clean.  Carpets  with  blue  or 
green,  or  any  “ delicate  ” color,  fades  on  ex- 
posure to  sunlight.  A bordered  carpet  makes 
a room  look  smaller  than  it  is ; and  a small 


| room  will  look  larger  if  the  floor  is  covered 
{ with  a carpet  of  neutral  tint  and  small  figures. 
(See  Carpets  under  Decoration.) 

Cutting.  — To  determine  the  available 
length  in  making  the  carpet,  unroll  the 
equivalent  of  about  twice  the  length  of  the 
room,  double  this  in  the  middle,  lay  the  edges 
side  by  side  and  pull  the  end  to  and  fro  until 
the  patterns  match  at  the  length  next  greater 
than  that  of  the  room.  Of  this  exact  length, 
cut  the  requisite  number  of  strips.  It  may  be 
more  economical  to  cut  the  lengths  in  the 
short  direction  of  the  floor.  As  there  is  car- 
pet wasted  it  will  be  necessary  to  get  more 
than  the  room  would  seem  to  require.  This 
waste  may  be  used  for  making  rugs,  ottomans, 
etc.,  or  filling  in  recesses. 

Sewing — The  strongest  stitch  for  sewing 
carpets  is  the  through-and-th rough  stitch,  and 
they  should  be  put  very  close  together;  great 
care  must  be  taken  in  sewing  that  the  carpet 
does  not  pucker,  and  that  the  figures  down  the 
two  widths  are  exactly  matched.  Binding  is 
not  generally  used  except  in  the  case  of  In- 
grain, or  a close  fit. 

Before  laying  a carpet  the  floor  should  be 
made  smooth,  as  boards  warped  upward  at  the 
ends  or  cracks  wear  the  carpet  through.  Then 
it  should  be  covered  with  a layer  of  news- 
papers, or  better  still,  with  a lining  made  espe- 
cially for  the  purpose  and  consisting  of  cotton 
laid  between  two  sheets  of  paper.  This  latter 
is  moth  proof,  and  a carpet  put  down  with  it 
will  last  much  longer  and  be  more  easily  kept 
clean.  It  is  customary  to  fit  carpets  into  all 
the  recesses  of  the  room,  but  this  is  most  ex- 
pensive and  not  really  necessary.  Where 
economy  is  an  object,  thq  carpet  may  be 
square  or  oblong,  according  to  the  shape  of 
the  room,  but  not  fitted  into  the  recesses ; and 
the  boards  round  the  sides  may  be  left  bare  or 
painted  in  oil,  or  covered  with  oil-cloth,  baize, 
or  drugget.  As  a still  more  economical  mode, 
there  may  be  a border  only  of  carpet  around 
the  room,  and  the  middle  part  may  be  covered 
with  a drugget ; this  has  the  advantages,  es- 
pecially for  dining-rooms  and  bedrooms,  that 
it  can  be  easily  taken  up  to  be  dusted  and 
shaken.  It  is  somewhat  the  fashion  now  to 
dispense  with  carpets  altogether  in  the  sitting 
and  reception  rooms  ; and  to  have  gay  Persian 
or  Turkish  rugs  distributed  here  and  there  over 
the  bare  floor,  which  is  either  stained  or  waxed 
and  polished. 

It  is  not  desirable  to  have  carpets  on  the 
floor  in  summer;  they  should  be  taken  up  and 
the  floor  either  left  bare  or  covered  with  Can- 
ton matting.  Carpets  get  filled  with  dust,  they 
add  greatly  to  the  warmth  of  a room,  and  if 
there  is  any  taint  in  the  air  they  are  almost 
sure  to  catch  and  hold  it.  Moreover,  they  will 
last  just  twice  as  long  if  when  warm  weather 
comes  on  they  are  beaten,  sewed  up  in  coarse 
linen,  and  packed  away  in  a dry  place  with 
some  moth-repellant  till  the  autumn. 

To  Clean. — Carpets  should  be  taken  up 
and  beaten  well  (but  not  violently)  at  least  once 


CARPETS 


81 


a year.  If  they  are  much  soiled  they  may 
be  brightened  up  by  scouring  them  in  one 
of  the  following  ways.  No.  II.  is,  perhaps, 
unnecessarily  complicated.  It  is  recom- 
mended, however,  by  an  experienced  Eng- 
lish dyer  and  manufacturer,  who  some  years 
ago  published  a valuable  manual  on  the  sub- 
ject : 

I Mix  an  oxgall  with  double  its  bulk  of 
water,  and  apply  it  to  the  carpet  with  a sponge. 
Rub  gently  till  a lather  is  produced,  then  wash 
oft  with  clean  water  and  dry  with  a linen  rag. 

II.  Have  the  carpet  taken  up  and  well 
beaten,  brushed,  laid  flat  on  the  floor,  and  the 
spots  taken  out  by  rubbing  a piece  of  hard  soap 
on  the  greasy  spot,  and  rubbing  it  out  with  a 
brush  and  clean  cold  water,  well  drying  each 
spot  as  it  is  done,  with  a cloth  before  you  leave 
it.  Cut  a bar  of  the  best  mottled  (castile) 
soap  into  two  gallons  of  water,  and  put  it  on  the 
fire  to  dissolve.  Take  two  pails  of  luke-warm 
water,  and  put  in  one  of  them  two  quarts  of  the 
melted  soap.  The  other  pail  of  warm  water  is 
to  rinse  out  the  carpet,  which  must  be 
done  at  not  less  than  one  square  yard  at  a time. 
Now  dip  a scrubbing-brush  into  the  pail  with 
the  soap  in  it,  and  scour  about  a square  yard 
while  on  the  knees,  and  do  it  so  as  not  to 
let  it  go  through  to  the  back  of  the  carpet ; 
when  this  yard  is  cleaned  well  with  soap  and 
a brush,  rub  the  soap  well  out  with  a flannel 
or  coarse  sponge,  and  suck  up  in  the 
sponge  or  flannel  the  wet  and  dirt  that  was 
made  on  the  carpet  by  the  scouring-brush, 
repeatedly  rinsing  the  flannel  in  the  pail  of  clean 
water.  Have  a pail  of  clean  water  with  a little 
common  soda.  Rub  a clean  sponge,  dampened 
with  this,  into  the  spot  you  have  first  cleaned  and 
rinsed.  Dry  with  a clean  coarse  cotton  cloth, 
before  you  proceed  with  another  yard. 

III.  Carpets  maybe  cleaned  without  taking 
up,  by  sprinkling  over  moist  tea-leaves  and 
sweeping  well ; then  grate  potter’s  clay  very 
thickly  over  the  grease  spots,  cover  them  with 
a sheet  of  brown  paper,  and  place  a warm 
smoothing  iron  over  them.  Repeat  till  the 
grease  is  out. 

IV.  Corn  meal  sprinkled  over  and  swept  off 
with  a slightly  moistened  broom  will  remove 
soot  or  other  powdery  dirt. 

Moths  will  work  in  warm  rooms  in  winter 
as  well  as  in  summer.  A sure  preventive  is  to 
pour  strong  alum  water  on  the  floor  half  a 
yard  around  the  edges  before  laying  the  car- 
pets, and  once  or  twice  during  the  season 
sprinkle  dry  salt  over  the  carpet  before 
sweeping.  Sufficient  will  adhere  to  prevent  in- 
sects alighting. 

Axminster  Carpet  is  expensive,  but  wears 
almost  well  enough  to  make  up  for  it.  There  are 
French,  English  and  American  Axminsters  in 
the  market ; they  do  not  differ  much  from  each 
other  in  cost,  the  price  being  from  $3  to  $5  a 
yard. 

Brussels  Carpet,  on  account  of  its  dura- 
bility, is  probably  the  cheapest  for  general  use. 
The  basis  is  a warp  and  woof  of  linen  thread  ; 

6 


worsted  threads  are  also  interwoven,  which  are 
formed  into  loops  by  means  of  wires  and  form 
the  patterns,  the  linen  threads  not  being  visible 
on  the  surface.  When  well  made  they  are 
very  durable,  and,  being  at  the  same  time  ele- 
gant, are  among  the  most  desirable  of  all  car- 
pets. Good  English  Brussels  is  worth  about 
$2.00  to  $2.25  per  yard,  three  quarters  of  a 
yard  wide.  American  about  $1.75  to  $2.00. 
(See  Tapestry  Carpet.) 

Dutch  Carpet. — A cheap  carpet  woven  in 
pieces  about  a yard  wide.  The  warp  is  of  wool 
and  the  filling  of  wool,  hemp  or  cotton;  and 
the  only  patterns  are  stripes  and  checks.  This 
is  very  good  for  stairs. 

Ingrain  Carpet  is,  perhaps,  most  fre- 
quently used  in  bedrooms  and  the  like.  It  is 
made  of  two  threads  only,  and  the  colors  are 
reversed  on  either  side  ; in  the  best  both  threads 
are  wool,  in  the  cheaper  kinds  the  warp  is  of 
cotton.  The  English  Ingrain  costs  about  $1.60 
per  yard;  the  American  from  $1.00  to  $1.10. 
Yard  wide. 

Kidderminster  Carpet. — This  is  made  of 
two  woollen  webs  which  intersect  each  other  at 
various  points  to  produce  the  pattern,  which  is 
the  same  on  both  sides  with  the  color  reversed. 
They  are  woven  in  large  squares  to  fit  the  room, 
and  are  of  various  qualities.  A good  article 
is  worth  about  $2  per  square  yard. 

Moquette  Carpet  is  a very  rich  and  beauti- 
ful French  carpet  made  on  same  principle  as 
Wilton. 

Persian  and  Turkish  Carpets. — These  are 
unequalled  for  richness  of  fabric  and  patterns  ; 
they  are  woven  with  a soft  pile  like  that  of 
velvet,  and  some  of  the  costliest  of  the  Per- 
sian have  floss  silk  mixed  with  the  wool.  The 
colors  are  indescribably  rich  and  brilliant,  and 
one  of  them  spread  upon  the  floor  brightens 
up  the  most  cheerless  room.  They  are  woven 
in  one  piece,  an'd  are  from  five  to  ten  yards 
long,  and  from  five  to  six  wide.  They  are  very 
expensive,  and  the  finer  qualities  are  appro- 
priate only  in  elaborately  furnished  rooms. 

Printed  Felt  is  made  of  coarse  wools 
brought  together  by  the  process  of  felting,  and 
the  patterns  are  imprinted  in  colors  by  means 
of  the  rollers  on  which  they  are  cut.  It  is 
bright-colored  but  rather  flimsy,  and  only 
appropriate  for  rugs,  druggets,  or  table  covers. 
It  is  of  various  widths.  Price  about  $1  per 
square  yard. 

Hag  Carpet  is  the  lowest  in  price  of  all, 
and  can  readily  be  made  at  home  on  a hand 
loom.  Use  a warp  of  strong  cotton  threads,  and 
weave  in  any  kind  of  rags  by  twisting  them  up 
into  small  rolls.  It  is  thick,  and  serviceable  to 
spread  over  kitchen  floors  in  winter.  Price  in 
the  shops,  about  50  cts.  a yard — yard  wide. 

Tapestry  Carpet  is  an  imitation  of  Brus- 
sels, but  only  one  woollen  thread  is  used  instead 
of  four  or  five  different  colors.  The  warp  is  of 
coarse  linen  threads,  and  the  pattern  appears 
only  on  one  side.  Tapestry  is  very  pretty,  and 
in  the  best  patterns  is  hard  to  distinguish  from 
Brussels ; but  it  is  not  durable  and  is  liable  to 


82 


CARROT 


CARVING 


fade.  It  is  woven  in  pieces  three-fourths  of  a 
yard  wide,  and  costs  about  $1.25  per  yard. 
Brussels  is  cheaper  at  twice  the  price. 

Three-ply  Carpets  are  the  same  as  Ingrain, 
except  that  a third  thread  is  added  and  this 
makes  the  pattern  on  the  right  side.  It  is  the 
prettiest  of  the  cheaper  all-wool  carpets ; but 
as  the  single  layer  of  threads  on  the  surface  is 
liable  to  wear  off  it  is  not  so  durable  as  Ingrain, 
and  cannot  be  turned  like  the  latter.  Price 
about  $1.30  per  yard — yard  wide. 

Velvet  Carpet  is  an  English  material  in 
which  the  weaving  is  the  same  as  tapestry;  only 
the  loops  are  cut,  thus  giving  it  a high  pile  like 
velvet.  It  has  a rich  and  soft  effect,  and 
wears  better  than  tapestry.  Price  about  $2.50 
per  yard  X yard  wide. 

Wilton  Carpet  differs  from  Brussels  just 
as  velvet  differs  from  tapestry;  after  weaving, 
the  loops  are  cut  with  a sharp  knife,  and  a 
pile  like  that  of  velvet  produced.  Wilton  is 
perhaps  the  most  beautiful  and  durable  of  all 
carpets.  Price  about  $3.50  per  yard  wide. 
In  Royal  Wilton  the  pile  is  raised  higher 
than  in  the  common  kind. 

Wood  Carpet.— This  is  a late  invention.  It 
is  made  of  well-seasoned  and  kiln-dried  hard 
woods,  cut  into  strips  one  and  one-eighth  to  one 
and  three-eighth  inches  wide,  and  a quarter  of 
an  inch  thick,  and  glued  on  to  heavy  cotton 
drill.  The  wood  is  then  planed  smooth  and 
oiled.  It  rolls  up  like  an  oil-cloth,  can  be  sent 
anywhere,  and  can  be  put  down  by  any  good 
carpenter.  It  can  be  laid  to  look  like  ordinary 
flooring  of  one  kind  of  wood,  or  in  fancy 
designs,  centre-pieces,  etc.  That  of  one  kind 
of  wood,  or  of  alternate  strips  of  different 
kinds,  is  a yard  wide  and  costs  $2.00  a yard. 
The  fancy  styles  cost  from  50  cents  to  $1.25 
per  square  foot.  It  is  claimed  for  this  carpet- 
ing that  it  is  insect  proof,  that  dust  cannot 
penetrate  it,  that  it  is  so  thin  as  not  to  interfere 
with  door-sills,  etc.,  and  that  it  is  very  durable  ; 
but  it  needs  to  be  more  thoroughly  tested. 

CARRIAGE  (To  Clean). — See  Cleaning. 

CARROT. — For  garden  purposes  there  are 
three  different  varieties  of  carrot,  namely,  the 
Early  Horn , a small  kind  used  for  the  earliest 
crops;  long  orange,  or  Altringham , a very 
large  kind  for  ordinary  summer  and  winter  use  ; 
and  Purple  carrot,  a French  variety,  of  deep 
purple  color  and  unusual  sweetness.  No  veg- 
etable is  easier  to  cultivate  than  the  carrot. 
The  soil  should  be  light  and  free  from  stones, 
and  well  broken  up.  Sow  the  seeds  at  inter- 
vals from  the  beginning  of  February  to  the  end 
of  August;  press  them  down  lightly  with  the 
feet,  and  then  rake  them  in.  When  they  have 
come  up  they  require  no  further  attention  than 
to  be  hoed  out  to  the  distance  of  six  inches 
apart,  and  kept  free  from  weeds. 

Young  carrots  appear  in  the  Southern  markets 
and  are  thence  brought  North  about  the  1st  of 
May,  and  from  that  time  on  until  November 
new  crops  continue  to  come  in.  They  may 
easily  be  kept  all  winter,  by  burying  them  in 
sand  out  of  the  reach  of  the  frost. 


Boiled  Carrots. — If  the  carrots  are  large, 
scrape  them  well  and  boil  them  in  salt  and 
water  till  soft;  if  old  they  will  require  from  an 
hour  and  a half  to  two  hours.  When  done, 
slice  them  lengthwise,  butter  well,  and  serve  hot. 

Stewed  Carrots. — Scrape  and  boil  till  near- 
ly done;  then  take  them  off,  cut  them  into 
small  squares,  and  put  them  into  a sauce-pan 
with  two  small  onions  minced,  a little  chopped 
parsley,  pepper  and  salt  to  taste,  and  half  a 
teacupful  of  drawn  butter.  Let  them  simmer 
half  an  hour,  then  mash,  dish  and  serve  hot. 

With  Sugar. — Clean  about  a quart  of  carrots, 
slice  them,  set  them  on  to  boil  for  five  minutes, 
and  then  remove  and  drain  them.  Put  two 
ounces  of  butter  into  a sauce-pan,  and  set  it  on 
a good  fire ; when  the  butter  melts,  lay  the 
carrots  in,  season  with  pepper  and  salt  and  a 
piece  of  grated  nutmeg,  and  add  about  half  a 
pint  of  broth  (if  you  have  no  broth  use  half  a 
pint  of  water  with  another  ounce  of  butter) ; 
sprinkle  in  while  stirring  about  a teaspoonful  of 
flour,  and  boil  gently  till  cooked.  Remove 
from  fire,  mix  a heaping  tablespoonful  of  white 
sugar  with  the  yolks  of  two  eggs ; add  this  to 
the  rest,  stir  together,  and  serve  hot. 

CARVING.  — The 
first  essential  of  good 
carving  is  a proper 
kind  of  knife  and  fork. 

The  former  should  be 
very  sharp,  not  too 
heavy,  and  of  a size 
convenient  to  handle  ; 
the  fork  for  carving 
meat  and  game  should 
be  two-pronged ' and 
have  a finger-guard. 

The  knife  for  fowls, 
game,  saddles  of  meat, 
or  anything  requiring 
careful  dissection  (as 
distinct  from  slicing) 
should  have  a short 
blade  that  will  not 
spring,  and  have  its 
length  keed  out  in  the 
handle.  A slicing  knife 
for  roasts,  haunches, 
etc.,  should  have  a long, 
thin  blade.  For  fish 
there  is  a special  kind 
of  knife  and  fork,  made 
of  silver  or  plated-ware, 
with  a large,  massive 
blade  for  the  knife,  and 
the  fork  also  large,  with 
five  prongs,  so  as  to 
raise  a large  flake  of  the  fish  without  break- 
ing it.  The  article  to  be  carved  should 
be  placed  in  a dish  sufficiently  large  to 
allow  the  joint  to  be  turned  ; it  should  also 
be  set  firmly  on  the  table,  so  near  to  the 
carver  as  to  allow  the  free  movements  of  the 
arms.  Loins,  breasts,  and  necks  of  mutton, 
lamb,  and  veal  should  be  properly  jointed  by 
the  butcher  before  they  are  dressed,  else  the 


CARVING 


83 


most  adroit  carver  will  be  baffled.  In  carving 
and  helping  a joint,  do  not  load  a person’s 
plate.  If  the  meat  attached  to  a bone  be  too 
much  a small  slice  may  be  taken  out  between 
each  two  bones  in  carving.  There  are  choice 
cuts  or  delicacies,  with  which  a good  carver  has 
to  become  acquainted  by  experience.  I n helping 
fish,  take  care  not  to  break  the  flakes,  which 
in  cod  and  fresh  salmon  are  very  large  and  con- 
tribute much  to  the  beauty  of  their  appear- 
ance. Help  a part  of  the  roe,  milt,  or  liver,  to 
each  person.  The  heads  of  carp,  part  of  those 
of  cod  and  salmon,  sounds  of  cod,  and  fins  of 
turbot,  are  likewise  esteemed  delicacies,  and 
should  be  served  accordingly.  Have  your 
sauces  or  gravies  passed  separately,  or,  if  that 
is  impracticable,  inquire  the  preference  of  each 
person.  People  lose  much  of  the  pleasure  of 
a meal  if  their  plates  contain  distasteful  gravies. 

Beef  Tongue. — When  sent  to  table  with- 
out rolling,  beef  tongue  is  carved  by  cutting  it 
nearly  through  the  middle  at  thick  part,  leaving 
a small  portion  at  the  bottom  to  keep  the  two 
ends  together.  Many  people  like  a little  fat 
served  with  the  lean,  but  others  do  not  like  its 
flavor.  When  the  tongue  is  rolled  and  pressed, 
the  knife  is  carried  horizontally  as  in  carving  a 
fillet  of  veal. 

Breast  of  Veal. — Cut  from  right  to  left  parallel 


with  the  lines  d,  c,  then  cross  from  c to  the  most 
distant  a.  The  several  lines  marked  a,  d, 
represent  the  directions  in  which  the  brisket 
or  gristly  part  should  be  divided ; d. , c,  show 
the  course  of  the  ribs,  and  e is  the  sweet- 
bread. 

Brisket  of  Beef. — A brisket  of  beef  should 
be  carved  in  thin  slices  quite  across  the  bone. 

Calfs  Head.— In  boiled  calf’s  head  there 
are  many  choice  parts.  The  first  cut,  c 
b,  is  along  the  fleshy  part  of  the  cheek  bone. 
At  the  end  of  the  cheek  bone  lies  the  throat 
sweetbread , which  is  considered  the  choicest 
part  of  the  head ; it  is  to  be  cut  out  in  the  di- 
rection c d.  The  eye  part , also  a delicacy,  is 
cut  out  from  its  socket  (a)  by  driving  the  point 
of  the  knife  down  to  the  bottom  on  one  edge 
of  the  socket  and  cutting  quite  round,  keeping 
the  point  of  the  knife  slanting  towards  the  mid- 


dle. The  palate , another  much  esteemed  part, 
is  found  on  the  under  side  of  the  roof  of  the 
mouth — a thick,  white  skin  which  is  easily  cut 
away  from  the  bone.  On  the  under  side,  cov- 


ering the  jaw  and  near  the  ear,  is  some  good 
meat  and  fat. 

Chicken.  — Fix  the  fork  firmly  into  the 
breast,  and  on  each  side  of  it  make  a cut  the 
whole  length  of  the  fowl,  and  parallel  with  the 
legs  and  wings.  The  wings  are  taken  off  in 
the  direction  a b,  by  dividing  the  joint  with  the 
knife  and  drawing  it  away  with  the  fork.  The 
legs  may  easily  be  removed  by  cutting  the  liga- 
ment at  the  joint  c,  and  twisting  the  bone  out 
of  the  socket.  The  wings  and  legs  being  thus 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  fowl,  the  knife 
must  be  entered  at  the  breast,  in  the  direction 
d,  by  which  the  merrythought  maybe  displaced, 
after  the  knife  has  been  slipped  under  it  and 


the  bone  lifted  up  and  pressed  backwards  to- 
wards the  dish.  The  collar-bones,  e e,  lie  on 
each  side  of  the  merrythought,  and  must  also 
be  lifted  up  by  the  knife  at  the  broad  end  and 
forced  towards  the  breast  bone  till  the  part 
breaks  off  to  which  they  were  fastened.  The 
breast  is  cut  off  by  cutting  through  the  ribs  on 
both  sides.  The  backbone  is  then  turned  up- 
ward and  the  knife  passed  firmly  across  it  near 
the  middle,  the  fork  being  at  the  same  time 
employed  in  raising  up  the  lower  end  towards 
the  knife,  and  thus  breaking  the  back  almost 
in  the  centre.  The  lower  end  of  the  back  is 
then  turned  from  the  carver,  that  the  bones  on 
each  side  may  be  taken  off  ; the  exact  place  in 
which  these  side  bones  are  joined  to  the  back- 
bone will  be  easily  found  by  the  point  of  the 
knife.  The  choicest  parts  of  the  fowl  are  the 
side-bones,  wings,  breast,  and  merrythought; 


84 


CARVING 


the  legs,  except  of  young  fowls,  are  considered 
coarse.  The  thigh,  when  separated  from  the 
drumstick,  is  sometimes  preferred  by  those  who 
consider  the  white  meat  of  a fowl  insipid. 

Cod’s  Head  and  Shoulders. — This  is  the 
choicest  portion  of  the  cod,  but  very  difficult 
to  carve.  The  first  piece  should  be  taken  off 
in  the  direction  a b,  by  putting  in  the  trowel  at 
the  back  of  the  thick  part  of  the  fish;  other 
slices  may  be  cut  in  a similar  direction.  A 


Cod’s  Head  and  Shoulders. 


small  portion  of  the  sound  should  be  given 
with  each  slice  ; it  will  be  found  lying  close  to 
the  backbone  on  raising  the  thin  flake  d,  and 
may  be  recognized  by  being  transparent  and 
of  a darker  color  than  other  parts  of  the  fish. 
There  is  also  a part  on  the  head,  behind  the 
eye,  which  is  called  the  cheek,  and  much 
relished,  as  are  also  the  palate,  tongue,  and 
jellied  parts  immediately  around  the  jaws  and 
bones  of  the  head. 

Duck. — Ducks  when  they  are  large,  should 
be  cut  in  slices  like  a goose  (which  see); 
when  small  they  should  be  disjointed  like  fowls. 
If  they  are  dressed  with  seasoning,  this  should 
not  be  distributed  on  the  plates  without  first 
ascertaining  that  it  is  agreeable  to  the  person 
to  be  served,  as  its  flavor  is  not  always  liked. 

Eels. — Cut  into  pieces  through  the  bones ; 
the  thicker  portions  are  considered  choicest. 

Fillet  of  Veal. — A fillet  merely  requires 
successive  horizontal  slices  of  meat  to  be  taken 
off  with  a sharp  knife,  serving  with  each  a 
small  portion  of  fat  and  forcemeat. 

Goose. — This  is  considered  the  most  trying 
task  of  the  carver.  Plant  the  fork  firmly  in  the 
centre  of  the  breast,  turn  the  neck  of  the  goose 
towards  you,  and  cut  the  whole  breast  in  slices 
on  both  sides  of  the  bird.  If  more  slices  are 
required  than  the  breast  furnishes,  turn  the 
goose  on  one  side  and  take  off  the  leg  by  put- 
ting the  fork  into  the  small  end  of  the  leg  bone, 
pressing  it  close  to  the  body,  and  then,  having 


passed  the  knife  in  the  line  e b,  turn  the  leg 
back ; if  a young  bird  it  will  easily  separate. 
To  take  off  the  wing,  put  the  fork  into  the 


small  end  of  the  pinion  and  press  it  close  to  the 
body;  then  put  in  the  knife  at  c and  divide  the 
joint,  taking  it  down  in  the  direction  c d.  When 
the  leg  and  wing  of  one  side  are  separated,  go 
to  the  other.  Cutoff  the  apron  in  the  line f e g ; 
then  take  off  the  merrythought  in  the  line  o i. 
The  neck  bones  are  next  to  be  separated  as  in 
a chicken,  and  all  other  parts  divided  in  the 
same  way. 

Ham. — A ham  may  be  carved  in  three 
ways,  ist,  it  may  be  commenced  at  the  knuckle 
and  gradually  worked  up  to  the  other  end; 


Ham. 


2d,  it  may  be  cut  in  the  middle  and  each  side 
taken  from  until  exhausted,  taking  care  to  carry 
the  knife  down  to  the  bone  in  a perpendicular 
direction,  as  in  b c ; or  3d,  a hole  may  be 
scooped  out  in  the  middle  (a),  and  thin  circular 
slices  removed  from  around  it.  In  any  case, 
the  slices  ought  to  be  thin  and  regular,  which 
requires  some  practice ; for  the  third  method 
great  skill  is  demanded. 

Haunch  of  Mutton  or  Venison. — 
These  are  sent  to  table  with  the  outside  of  the 
leg  uppermost,  an'd  are  both  carved  alike,  be- 
ing cut  down  to  the  bone  in  the  direction  of  the 
line  a,  b,  c,  by  which  means  the  gravy  escapes 
into  the  dish.  The  broad  end  should  then  be 
turned  towards  the  carver,  and  deep  cuts  made 


Haunch  of  Mutton. 


from  b to  dj  this  gives  with  each  slice  a due 
proportion  of  fat,  which  lies  chiefly  on  the  left 
side  of  the  line  b,  d.  There  is  a delicious  mine 
of  kidney-fat  in  the  loin  of  mutton  under  the 
flank,  which  is  often  too  “ high  ” in  venison  ; 
but  if  fresh  enough  is  even  more  rich  and 
palatable  in  that  meat  than  in  mutton. 

Knuckle  of  Veal.  — A knuckle  of  veal 
cuts  in  neat  slices  in  only  one  direction,  name- 
ly, from  a to  b.  The  line  d c divides  two  bones 
which  it  is  necessary  to  separate  in  order  to 
get  at  the  best  marrowy  fat  portion ; also  cut 
asunder  the  knucklebones. 

Leg  of  Mutton.  — The  first  slice  should 
, be  taken  out  as  at  a,  between  the  knuckle  b and 


CARVING 


85 


the  thick  end.  Other  slices  may  be  cut  in  the 
same  direction  till  the  knife  is  stopped  by  the 


Knuckle  of  Veal. 


cramp  bone  c.  The  leg  is  then  turned  round 
and  slices  are  taken  lengthwise  from  the  thick 
end  towards  the  knuckle  from  c to  d.  The 
best  slices  from  a leg  of  mutton  are  from  the 


Leg  of  Mutton. 


upper  end,  though  the  parts  about  the  knuckle 
are  occasionally  preferred. 

Loin  of  Veal. — The  loin  is  divided  into 
the  chump-end  and  the  kidney-end.  The  latter 
should  be  cut  across  into  portions,  every  other 
one  of  which  contains  a bone,  the  intermediate 
one  being  of  meat  only  ; the  fat  on  the  under 
side  and  the  kidney  should  be'served  with  each 
portion.  The  chump-end  is  served  in  slices, 
the  bone  being  all  in  one  piece. 

Mackerel. — These  are  split  at  the  tail, 
and  the  upper  half  raised  at  that  part  from  the 
bones,  after  which  the  bone  is  removed  from 
the  lower  half,  and  that  in  turn  is  served  either 
in  one  piece  or  divided  according  to  size. 

Most  other  small  fish  are  carved  in  the  same 
way,  that  is  either  by  taking  out  the  back  bone 
and  serving  whole,  or  dividing  with  the  knife 
into  sections  according  to  size. 

Partridge. — Cut  up  in  the  same  way  as  a 
chicken.  The  choicest  parts  are  the  wings, 
breast,  and  merrythought;  but  the  bird  being 
small  the  two  latter  are  not  often  divided.  The 
wing  is  considered  the  best,  and  the  tip  is 
reckoned  the  most  delicate  morsel  of  the 
whole. 

Pigeons,  Quails,  Woodcock,  etc. — These 
are  usually  cut  in  half,  either  lengthwise  down 
the  back,  or  across  just  at  the  wings.  The 
lower  part  is  considered  the  best.  All  the 
smaller  birds,  if  too  large  to  serve  whole,  are 
cut  up  in  the  same  way. 

Ribs  of  Beef. — Carve  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  sirloin  ; this  gives  a due  proportion 


of  fat  and  lean  to  each  slice,  which  should  be 
thin  and  clean  cut. 

Round  of  Beef. — This  is  cut  in  the  same 
way  as  a fillet  of  veal  (which  see).  A deep  slice 
should  be  taken  off  before  beginning  to  help. 
When  helping  the  fat  be  careful  not  to  break  it, 
but  cut  it  smooth. 

Saddle  of  Mutton  is  carved  in  three 
different  ways  ; 1st,  in  longitudinal  slices  along 
each  side  of  the  backbone,  by  which  the  lean 
and  fat  do  not  come  in  the  same  slice ; 2d,  by 
transverse  slices,  taking  in  the  bones,  and 


Saddle  of  Mutton. 


which  therefore  must  be  thick  and  clumsy ; 
and  3d,  by  oblique  slices,  slightly  curved, 
which  is  by  far  the  best  plan.  The  knife  be- 
gins at  the  bone  near  the  tail,  and  after  cutting 
off  the  outside,  takes  a series  of  parallel  slices 
all  through  the  joint,  as  marked  in  accompany- 
ing cut. 

Salmon.  — In  carving  salmon  it  is  only 
necessary  to  avoid  breaking  the  flakes,  and  this 
can  best  be  done  by  carving  lengthwise  of  the 
piece.  The  upper  or  thin  part  is  considered 
choicest,  but  as  some  prefer  the  thickest  por- 
tions it  is  well  to  ask  each  person  which  he 
prefers,  and  cut  accordingly,  making  the  slices 
rather  thick.  Or  a thin  slice  of  each  may  be 
served  without  inquiry. 

Shad.  — Cut  in  slices  crosswise  of  the 
fish,  breaking  the  flakes  as  little  as  possible. 
The  thicker  portions  are  considered  choicest, 
as  they  have  fewer  small  bones. 

Shoulder  of  Mutton  or  Lamb. — This 
should  be  cut  first  in  the  hollow  part,  in  the 
direction  a,  b,  and  the  knife  pressed  deep  to 
the  bone.  The  best  part  of  the  fat  lies  on  the 


Shoulder  of  Mutton. 

outer  edge,  and  is  to  be  cut  in  thin  slices  in 
the  direction  f e.  When  the  hollow  part  in 
the  line  a,  b is  eaten,  some  very  good  slices 
may  be  cut  on  each  side  of  the  ridge  of  the 
backbone,  in  the  direction  c , d.  The  line  be- 
tween these  two  dotted  lines  is  that  in  the  di- 


86 


CARVING 


CASTOR  OIL 


rcction  of  which  the  ridge  of  the  backbone  lies, 
and  cannot  be  cut  across. 

Shoulder  of  Veal. — -This  is  carved  like 
the  shoulder  of  mutton  by  some  ; but  the  best 
plan  is  to  begin  on  the  under  side,  and  cut 
slices  from  the  thick  edge  opposite  the  bone 
and  parallel  with  it.  When  stuffed,  a portion 
of  the  forcemeat  must  be  served  on  each 
plate. 

Sirloin  of  Beef. — This  is  usually  carved 
by  cutting  the  upper  side  in  slices  parallel  with 
the  bone  and  commencing  at  the  edge,  the 
brown  of  which  forms  the  first  slice.  On  the 


Sirloin  of  Beef. 


under  side  the  knife  is  sometimes  very  unwise- 
ly cut  into  the  grain,  that  is  across  the  bone, 
by  cutting  through  the  middle  down  to  the 
bone  and  removing  the  slices  on  each  side. 
This  part,  however,  tastes  much  better  if  cut 
on  the  same  plan  as  the  upper  side,  that  is  by 
commencing  at  the  edge;  but  in  this  way  the 
slices  are  small  and  do  not  look  so  handsome. 

Sucking-Pig.  — This  requires  very  little 
carving,  as  the  knife  may  be  carried  through 
any  of  its  bones  without  much  trouble.  It  is 
usual  to  divide  it  into  sections,  about  two 
inches  broad  and  including  about  three  ribs  in 
the  middle,  and  a part  only  of  the  fore  and  hind 
quarters  at  each  end. 

Turbot.  — The  turbot  requires  peculiar 
carving,  because,  unlike  other  fish,  its  skin 
and  fins  are  considered  great  delicacies.  It  is 
only  necessary  to  carry  the  blade  of  the  knife 
down  to  the  bone  along  the  middle  of  the  back 
and  then  to  make  similar  deep  and  clean  cuts 
at  right  angles  to  this  each  way  to  the  fins,  a 
portion  of  which  should  be  separated  and  kept 
with  each  square  of  fish,  so  as  to  avoid  the 
breaking  of  the  fins  into  pieces  afterwards, 
which  is  by  no  means  sightly. 

Turkey. — The  art  of  carving  a turkey  lies 
in  cutting  J.he  largest  possible  number  of  slices. 
The  best  way  is  to  pass  a short  knife  clear 
down  to  the  bone,  close  to  the  wing,  and  then 
take  a thin  slice  out  from  between  this  and  the 
breast,  continuing  the  same  plan  until  the 
whole  is  exhausted,  after  which  the  other  side 
may  be  carved  in  the  same  way.  In  serving,  a 
portion  of  the  stuffing  should  be  placed  in  each 
plate,  and  if  there  are  sausages  or  balls,  a part 
of  each  of  them.  When  both  sides  of  the 
breast  are  used  up  without  all  being  helped, 
the  legs  must  be  taken  off  by  carrying  the  knife 
backwards  between  them  and  the  body,  until  it 
is  stopped  by  the  joint,  when  by  means  of  the 


fork  stuck  in  the  leg  it  is  severed  from  the 
body,  the  knife  completing  the  removal  by  its 
edge.  In  dividing  the  leg  into  its  two  portions, 
the  knife  should  be  used  against  the  inside  of 
the  joint,  where  it  enters  with  much  less  diffi- 
culty than  on  the  outside.  If  the  bird  is  too 
small  to  be  carved  in  this  way,  disjoint  in  the 
manner  suggested  for  chickens. 

CASEIN. — The  principal  constituent  of 
cheese.  It  is  easily  obtained  by  taking  the 
curd  from  milk  and  washing  it  repeatedly  in 
pure  cold  water;  it  is  employed  in  making 
cheese  cakes  and  other  agreeable  dishes. 
When  dried  the  composition  resembles  albu- 
men and  gelatin ; and  is  very  wholesome  and 
nutritious. 

CASHEW  NUT.— This  is  a native  of  the 
West  Indies,  whence  it  is  brought  to  our  mar- 
kets. It  resembles  the  walnut  in  appearance, 
and  has  an  agreeable,  slightly  acid  taste.  The 
eatable  kernel  is  contained  within  two  shells, 
and  between  the  shells  there  is  a thick  rust- 
colored  liquid,  extremely  inflammable,  and 
so  caustic  that  it  will  blister  the  skin.  For 
this  reason,  the  shell  should  be  burned  off 
before  the  nut  is  eaten ; if  it  is  incautiously 
crushed  by  the  teeth  or  hands  the  caustic 
oil  will  blister  the  lips  or  skin  wherever 
it  touches.  The  kernel  is  of  a very  fine 
flavor,  superior  to  that  of  the  almond,  and 
abounds  in  a delicious  milky  juice  when  fresh ; 
it  may  be  eaten  raw,  roasted,  or  pickled.  Some 
also  grind  it  with  cocoa  in  making  chocolate, 
the  flavor  of  which  it  is  said  to  improve. 

CASHMERE.  (See  Shawl.) 

CASSAVA.  {See  Tapioca.) 

CASSIMERE.— This  is  commonly  called 
kerseymere.  It  is  a twilled  woollen  cloth,  light 
of  texture  and  more  pliable  than  plain  cloth, 
and  especially  suitable  for  vests  and  light  coats. 
It  is  either  single  or  double  milled,  the  latter 
being  the  stoutest.  It  is  usually  woven  of  the 
width  of  thirty-four  or  thirty-six  inches,  and  is 
reduced  by  milling  to  twenty-seven  inches. 
From  their  twilled  structure, cassimeres  are  more 
durable  than  plain  cloth  of  equal  lightness. 
There  are  French,  English  and  American  cas- 
simeres; French  is  the  best.  Cassimere  should 
always  be  carefully  shrunk  before  cutting. 

CAST.  (See  Plaster.) 

CASTOR  OIL. — A mild  purgative  obtained 
from  the  nuts  of  the  castor-oil  plant  by  subject- 
ing them  to  a high  pressure.  To  make  it,  the 
fresh  seeds  are  first  bruised  and  then  put  into 
a cold  press ; the  oil  is  then  pressed  out  and 
allowed  to  stand  some  time  for  the  albumen, 
mucilage,  and  other  matters  to  settle,  after  which 
it  is  strained  off.  That  of  good  quality  is  a 
thickish  fluid  of  a very  pale  yellow  color,  the 
best  being  almost  limpid,  with  a slightly  nau- 
seous odor  and  an  oily  taste.  Bad  oil  is  rancid 
and  muddy  yellow.  Castor  oil  is  a mild  ca- 
thartic or  laxative,  operating  without  much 
griping  or  cramps,  and  generally  within  a few 
hours  after  it  is  taken.  It  is  considered  a 
suitable  laxative  in  certain  inflammatory  states 
of  the  bowels,  and  is  used  to  a considerable 


CAT 


CATAWBA  WINE 


87 


extent  in  dysenteric  affections  when  the  pas- 
sages are  bloody  and  attended  with  straining. 
Mixed  with  turpentine  (half  a teaspoonful  of 
turpentine  to  one  tablespoonful  of  the  oil)  it  is 
very  effective  in  expelling  worms.  The  chief 
objection  to  castor  oil  is  its  nauseating  taste  ; 
if,  however,  it  is  put  into  half  a cup  of  strong 
coffee  and  drunk  off  rapidly,  it  is  rendered 
more  endurable.  An  ounce  of  castor  oil, 
mixed  with  fifteen  to  twenty  drops  of  pure 
liquor  potassre,  an  ounce  of  distilled  water,  and 
a drachm  of  spirit  of  pimento  or  of  nutmeg,  will 
make  an  emulsion  which  is  equally  effective 
and  not  unpleasant  to  take.  The  most  agree- 
able way,  however,  to  take  castor  oil  is  to  place 
it  in  the  foam  of  ale  or  porter,  which  pre- 
vents its  adhering  to  the  mouth  and  throat. 
The  usual  dose  is  about  two  tablespoonfuls  for 
adults  and  from  a teaspoonful  upward  for 
children. 

CAT. — There  are  many  varieties  of  the  do- 
mestic cat,  among  the  most  remarkable  of 
which  are  the  Maltese  or  Chartreuse  cat,  of  a 
bluish  gray  color ; the  Persian  cat,  with  long 
white  or  gray  hair;  the  Angora  cat,  with  very 
long  silky  hair,  generally  of  a brownish  white 
color;  and  the  tortoise-shell  or  Spanish  cat, 
the  most  beautiful  of  all.  These  are  all  fairly 
good  mousers  ; but  for  this  purpose  none  of  the 
pet  breeds  are  equal  to  the  common  white,  and 
yellow,  and  spotted  kind.  The  cat  is  probably 
the  cleanliest  of  animals,  avoiding  to  step  in 
any  kind  of  filth,  concealing  its  excrement  in 
the  earth  with  great  care,  and  keeping  its  fur 
in  very  neat  condition  notwithstanding  an  in- 
vincible repugnance  for  water.  It  is  very  easy 
to  raise,  and  is  extremely  prolific,  producing 
from  three  to  six  at  a litter.  If  a male  is  cas- 
trated while  young  (the  best  time  is  when  he  is 
about  six  weeks  old)  he  will  attain  larger  size 
and  be  more  gentle  and  domestic;  it  makes 
him  unsociable,  however,  and  intolerant  of 
the  presence  of  any  other  cat.  If  cats  are  al- 
lowed to  run  at  large,  especially  if  any  open 
fields  or  woods  are  near  at  hand,  they  are 
never  subject  to  disease.  Those  kept  too 
closely  confined  frequently  have  fits,  for  which 
a bucket  of  cold  water  dashed  over  them  is  a 
good  remedy,  but  which  can  only  be  cured  by 
cutting  off  the  end  of  the  tail- — an  operation 
which  causes  only  slight  pain  if  skilfully  done 
with  a sharp  knife  or  when  the  cat  is  in  a fit. 
Although  capable  of  showing  considerable 
fondness  for  an  individual,  cats  seem  to  have 
an  affection  for  places  rather  than  persons, 
and  it  is  very  hard  to  wean  them  from  any 
home  to  which  they  have  grown  accustomed. 
The  only  way  to  induce  them  to  remain  in  a 
new  place  is  to  carry  them  to  it  blindfolded, 
and  to  keep  them  shut  in  for  several  days  until 
they  have  grown  accustomed  to  the  new  sur- 
roundings and  to  seeing  the  familiar  faces 
around. 

CATALEPSY. — A disease  in  which  there 
is  a sudden  suspension  of  volition  and  of  the 
action  of  the  senses ; the  limbs  and  body  pre- 
serving the  different  positions  given  them,  and 


even  the  face  the  expression  which  it  had  when 
the  paroxysm  commenced.  The  circulation 
and  respiration  are  in  most  cases  but  little 
affected  ; but  occasionally  they  are  greatly  de- 
pressed and  even  imperceptible.  This  disease 
bears  a great  resemblance  to  the  mesmeric 
state,  and  is  so  often  feigned  that  many  have 
doubted  and  denied  its  existence.  There  can 
be  no  serious  doubt,  however,  that  it  is  some- 
times though  not  often  a real  disease.  The 
hysterical  and  melancholic  are  most  disposed  to 
it,  and  it  occurs  most  often  in  young  females  of 
a nervous  habit ; the  paroxysm  is  generally 
brought  on  by  some  strong  mental  emotion, 
such  as  religious  excitement,  or  by  some  dis- 
order of  the  digestive  or  secretive  organs.  The 
duration  of  the  attack  is  variable  ; sometimes  it 
is  over  in  a few  minutes,  sometimes  it  lasts 
twelve  or  fourteen  hours,  and  cases  are  record- 
ed in  which  it  has  been  prolonged  to  twenty  and 
even  thirty  days.  During  all  this  time  the  un- 
varying motionless  attitude  and  fixed  expression 
give  a strange  and  corpse-like  look  to  the  suf- 
ferer. In  a case  of  catalepsy  a physician  must 
be  summoned  at  once;  and  the  only  treatment 
that  can  be  ventured  on  in  his  absence  is  to 
loose  all  the  clothes,  to  immerse  the  feet  in  a 
hot  mustard  foot-bath,  and  to  make  cold  appli- 
cations to  the  head.  In  the  intervals  between 
the  fits,  means  should  be  employed  to  improve 
the  general  health  and  to  give  tone  to  the  ner- 
vous system.  As  a rule  cataleptic  patients  re- 
cover from  the  attack  much  sooner  when  left 
entirely  alone  than  when  subjected  to  active 
treatment. 

CATAMENIA.  (See  Menstruation.) 

CATAPLASM. — A plaster  or  poultice  ap- 
plied externally  to  some  part  of  the  body.  It 
is  used  generally  either  to  check  inflammation 
and  allay  pain,  or  to  promote  suppuration  and 
at  the  same  time  lessen  the  pain  which  accom- 
panies it.  For  the  former  purpose  it  is  applied 
cold ; and  cotton-wool,  steeped  in  water,  and 
bound  to  the  part  with  a tight  bandage,  is  a sim- 
ple and  effective  application  for  the  purpose. 
When  intended  to  hasten  the  progress  of  in- 
flammation to  suppuration,  poultices  should  be 
as  hot  as  the  parts  will  bear.  ( See  POULTICES.) 

CATARRH.  ( See  Colds  and  Influenza.) 

CATAWBA  WINE.— One  of  the  best 
and  most  popular  of  the  native  American  wines, 
considered  by  many  to  be  superior  to  most  of 
the  French  and  German  wines,  at  least  such 
of  them  as  are  to  be  had  in  our  markets.  It  is 
made  from  the  Catawba  grapes,  which  grow 
abundantly  in  the  valley  of  the  Ohio  and  in 
other  parts  of  the  country.  It  is  a sweet  wine, 
containing  in  its  pure  state  from  ten  to  twelve 
per  cent,  of  alcohol,  and  is  made  either  into 
still  or  sparkling  wine ; the  latter,  which  is 
most  in  demand,  contains  an  addition  of  alco- 
hol and  consequently  is  stronger.  Catawba 
wine  is  mostly  white,  though  some  red  wine  is 
made.  It  is  fit  for  use  two  years  from  the  time 
the  grapes  are  pressed,  but  reaches  perfection, 
according  to  Mr.  Longworth  when  about  seven 
years  old.  The  still  wine  should  be  drunk  at 


88 


CATERPILLAR 


CATSUP 


a temperature  about  the  same  as  that  of  the 
room. 

CATERPILLAR. — The  common  name  ap- 
plied to  the  larvae  of  the  lepidopterous  insects, 
such  as  butterflies,  moths,  hawk-moths,  etc. 
The  varieties  of  caterpillars  are  practically 
innumerable,  there  being  over  six  hundred  in 
New  England  alone.  Many  of  them  feed  on 
leaves,  some  species  being  restricted  to  a 
single  kind  of  plant;  some  feed  on  flowers, 
some  on  seeds,  some  on  roots,  and  some  even 
on  the  woody  portions  of  the  stems ; others 
on  wool,  hides,  furs,  and  other  anifnal  substan- 
ces, such  as  lard  and  fat.  The  common  cater- 
pillar is  very  destructive  to  trees,  stripping 
them  of  their  foliage  in  an  incredibly  short 
time,  and  unless  vigorously  dealt  with,  they 
will  ruin  an  orchard  of  fruit-trees  in  a single 
season.  The  surest  protection  is  to  plant 
tansy  around  the  roots,  and  when  this  is  not 
practicable,  whitewash  the  trunk  from  the 
ground  up  to  the  height  of  six  feet.  When 
they  build  their  nests  in  a tree  (their  nests  are 
a silky  web  like  that  of  the  spider,  but  much 
more  compact  and  closely  woven),  they  must 
be  cut  down  on  a damp  day  and  destroyed ; or 
else  burned  out  by  fixing  cotton  to  the  end  of  a 
long  pole  and  dipping  it  in  pitch.  Care  must 
be  taken  in  the  latter  case  not  to  injure  the 
tree.  Boring  a hole  in  apple-trees  infested 
with  caterpillars  and  filling  it  with  sulphur  will 
often  drive  them  away  immediately.  The 
caterpillars  which  infest  flowers  and  garden- 
plants,  can  only  be  kept  away  by  watering  the 
plants  frequently  and  copiously,  and  by  ex- 
amining them  often  during  the  Spring  and 
Summer.  Several  drugs  are  recommended  for 
driving  them  off,  but  these  are  nearly  always 
injurious  to  the  plants. 

CATFISH. — Found  in  the  markets  from 
February  to  May,  and  again  in  October  and 
November.  They  weigh  from  a quarter  to 


three-quarters  of  a pound  each,  and  have  large 
flat  heads,  a smooth  slimy  brown  skin,  with  no 
scales  on  the  back,  and  a whitish  belly.  The 
smaller  fish  are  best,  and  all  of  them  should 
be  skinned  before  cooking. 

Fried  Catfish. — Select  small  fish,  skin  them, 
clean,  and  remove  the  heads ; then  sprinkle 
them  with  salt  and  lay  them  aside  in  a cool 
place  for  an  hour  or  so.  Fry  them  in  lard  or 
drippings  over  a brisk  fire,  and  serve  as  soon 
as  done.  They  may  also  be  prepared  by 
dipping  them  first  into  eggs  beaten  to  a froth 
and  then  rolling  them  in  powdered  cracker ; fry 
as  before. 

Stewed  Catfish. — Prepare  as  for  frying,  not 
omitting  to  let  them  stand  in  salt  lor  an  hour. 
Put  them  into  a sauce-pan  over  a moderate 
fire,  pour  in  enough  cold  water  to  cover  them, 


and  stew  slowly  for  half  an  hour  or  till  they 
are  done.  Add  one  teaspoonful  of  butter,  one 
of  flour  mixed  to  a paste  with  a little  cold  water, 
a minced  onion,  a little  parsley  chopped  fine, 
and  pepper.  Let  it  boil  a minute  or  so,  then 
dish  and  serve  with  the  gravy. 

CATHARTICS. — A class  of  medicines  that 
act  strongly  on  the  bowels  as  purgatives.  Their 
number  is  very  large,  and  they  may  be  divided 
into  several  classes : mechanical,  including 
unbolted  meal  of  various  kinds,  fruits,  and 
mustard  seed ; oily,  as  castor  and  croton  oil ; 
saline,  as  magnesia  and  its  carbonate,  sul- 
phate, and  citrate,  sulphate  and  phosphate  of 
soda,  etc. ; acid  or  bitter,  as  rhubarb,  senna, 
colocynth,  and  aloes ; resinous,  as  jalap,  gam- 
boge, scammony ; and  mercurial,  as  calomel 
and  blue  pill.  Their  action  varies  greatly,  from 
the  mild  and  almost  natural  effect  of  magnesia 
and  aloes,  to  the  violent  purging  of  jalap  and 
gamboge.  Cathartics  are  very  commonly  used 
in  domestic  medicine,  and  probably  no  class  of 
drugs  is  so  frequently  abused  ; a resort  to  them 
being  so  easy  as  to  lead  in  many  instances  to 
the  neglect  of  highly  important  hygienic  rules. 
A due  attention  to  diet,  exercise,  and  bathing 
would  be  a far  more  effective  remedy  than  any 
cathartics  for  a majority  of  the  difficulties  for 
which  the  latter  are  used.  In  many  cases, 
however,  their  use  is  necessary,  and  directions 
for  them  are  given  under  the  various  diseases. 
Castor  oil,  epsom  salts,  magnesia,  aloes,  rhu- 
barb, and  senna,  are  the  only  cathartics 
that  should  be  used  without  medical  advice; 
the  most  violent  ones  may  produce  serious 
results.  No  cathartics,  however,  either  should 
or  can  be  relied  upon  to  cure  constipation,  to 
“ work  off  a cold,”  or  to  relieve  dyspepsia;  in 
all  such  cases  a cure  can  be  looked  for  only  in 
a due  observance  of  hygienic  laws. 

CATNIP  or  CATMINT,  a plant  which 
grows  wild  in  the  fields  throughout  the  United 
States,  the  leaves  of  which  are  much  employed 
as  a domestic  remedy.  The  leaves,  which  are 
the  only  part  of  the  plant  used,  are  aromatic, 
and  pungent  and  somewhat  bitter  to  the  taste. 
Cats  are  very  fond  of  them,  and  are  said  to 
use  them  medicinally.  Catnip  tea , the  form  in 
which  catnip  is  administered,  is  an  infusion 
made  by  pouring  hot  water  on  the  leaves  and 
allowing  them  to  steep.  It  acts  as  a tonic  and 
excitant,  and  possibly  is  an  antispasmodic ; ina 
much  diluted  form,  with  a little  sugar  in  it,  it  is 
often  given  to  very  young  infants  to  soothe 
them  and  to  expel  the  wind  from  their  stomachs. 
Chewing  the  leaves  is  said  to  be  good  for  the 
toothache.  The  leaves  may  be  preserved  by  dry- 
ing them  in  the  sun  and  keeping  them  in  a dry 
place.  They  are  best  when  the  plant  is  in  bloom. 

CATSUP. — The  catsups  sold  in  stores  are 
generally  poor  stuff,  made  of  dubious  ingre- 
dients, and  the  fruitful  source  of  indigestion 
and  other  disorders  of  the  stomach.  At  their 
best  they  seldom  equal  the  home  made;  and  it 
is  so  easily  made  that  every  family  should 
provide  its  own  supplies.  In  making  catsup 
never  use  a copper  or  brass  kettle. 


CAUDLE 

Mushroom  Catsup. — Take  : - M ushrooms, 
salt,  pepper  and  allspice. 

Select  mushrooms  full  grown,  and  with  large 
flaps ; put  a layer  of  these  at  the  bottom  of  a 
pan,  and  sprinkle  them  with  salt:  then  an- 
other layer  of  mushrooms  and  salt ; and  so  on 
alternating  the  layers  till  the  desired  quantity 
is  prepared  : let  them  stand  two  or  three 

hours ; then  pound  them  in  a mortar,  or  mash 
them  with  the  hands,  and  let  them  remain  two 
days  (no  longer),  stirring  them  up  and  pressing 
them  well  each  day.  Now  pour  them  into  a 
stone  jar,  and  for  each  quart  add  an  ounce  and 
a half  of  whole  black  pepper,  and  half  an 
ounce  of  allspice ; cover  the  jar  closely,  set  in 
a pan  of  boiling  water,  and  boil  it  for  two 
hours.  Strain  the  juice  off  without  pressing 
the  mushrooms,  into  a clean  stew-pan,  and 
boil  it  very  gently  for  half  an  hour.  Skim 
it  well,  pour  it  into  a clean  jar,  and  let  it  stand 
till  cold  ; then  strain  it  through  a flannel  bag, 
bottle  it,  seal  up  tight,  and  keep  in  a cool  place. 
Examine  it  from  time  to  time  by  putting  a 
strong  light  behind  the  neck  of  the  bottle,  and 
if  any  scum  appears  about  it,  boil  it  up  again 
with  a few  peppercorns. 

Tomato  Catsup. — Take  .--Tomatoes,  I gal.; 
salt,  4 tablespoonfuls ; black  pepper,  4 table- 
spoonfuls ; mustard,  3 tablespoonfuls  ; allspice, 
1 tablespoonful ; cloves,  1 tablespoonful ; cay- 
enne pepper,  1 teaspoonful ; vinegar  or  white 
wine,  1 pt. 

Take  one  gallon  of  nice  ripe  tomatoes,  cut 
them  in  half,  sprinkle  four  even  tablespoonfuls 
of  salt  over  them  and  put  them  in  the  preserv- 
ing kettle  with  one  pint  of  good  vinegar ; let 
them  simmer  slowly  for  three  hours,  stirring 
often  ; then  strain  to  avoid  the  skin  and  seeds  ; 
add  four  tablespoonfuls  of  ground  black  pepper, 
three  of  mustard,  one  of  allspice,  one  of  cloves, 
one  teaspoonful  of  cayenne  pepper,  or  two  or 
three  pods  of  red  pepper ; boil  until  reduced  to 
two  quarts,  then  bottle  and  seal. 

Walnut  Catsup. — Take  /-Young  walnuts, 
10  dozen;  vinegar,  2 yz  pts  ; salt,  ^ lb ; whole 
black  pepper,  \yzoz\  nutmegs,  yz  oz ; 40  cloves  ; 
ginger,  yz  oz;  mace,  y oz. 

Bruise  ten  dozen  young  and  tender  walnuts, 
add  to  them  three  quarters  of  a pound  of  salt 
and  a quart  of  good  vinegar ; let  them  stand 
two  weeks,  stirring  them  every  day : then  strain 
them  through  a cloth  and  squeeze  them,  and 
set  the  juice  aside ; add  to  the  husks  half  a 
pint  of  vinegar,  and  let  it  stand  over  night : 
then  strain  and  squeeze  as  before,  and  add  the 
liquor  thus  obtained  to  that  set  aside  the  day 
before.  Add  one  ounce  and  a quarter  of 
whole  black  pepper,  half  an  ounce  of  nutmegs 
bruised  or  sliced,  40  cloves,  half  an  ounce  of  gin- 
ger, and  a quarter  of  an  ounce  of  mace ; boil  it 
half  an  hour,  then  strain  and  bottle  it  for  use. 

CAUDLE. — This  is  a preparation  very  use- 
ful in  the  sick-room. 

Ale  Caudle. — To  a quart  of  thick  rice  or 
water-gruel  add  a pint  of  ale  and  enough  of 
allspice  to  flavor,  and  of  sugar  to  sweeten  it. 
Boil  for  five  minutes,  stirring  constantly : then 


CAULIFLOWER  89 

strain  it,  and  put  in  a cool  place  till  wanted. 
This  is  very  nourishing  and  palatable. 

Flour  Caudle. — Put  into  a pudding  basin  a 
pound  of  flour,  cover  the  basin  over,  and  set 
it  in  a kettle  of  boiling  water ; keep  it  boiling 
two  hours  : the  flour  will  then  be  converted 
into  a hard  ball  with  a brown  crust,  which 
must  be  removed  : then  grate  the  flour,  and 
set  away  in  a jar  for  use.  To  make  into  a cau- 
dle, rub  a dessertspoonful  of  it  into  five  table- 
spoonfuls of  cold  water ; set  over  the  fire  five 
tablespoonfuls  of  new  milk  and  two  teaspoon- 
fuls of  sugar,  and  ju-t  when  it  boils  add  the 
flour  and  water.  Stir  the  whole  over  a slow 
fire  for  twenty  minutes  : it  is  then  ready  for 
use.  This  caudle  is  good  for  young  children 
whose  bowels  are  too  loose. 

Rice  Caudle. — Mix  one  tablespoonful  of 
ground  rice  in  half  a teacupful  of  cold  water, 
and  pour  it  into  a quart  of  boiling  water. 
Let  it  boil  till  it  thickens,  stirring  all  the 
time : when  it  begins  to  thicken,  add  a wine- 
glass of  brandy,  sweeten  to  taste,  and  flavor  with 
grated  nutmeg  and  lemon  peel.  Boil  it  a little 
longer  until  perfectly  smooth,  and  then  strain 
it.  This  is  a strong  and  highly  nutritious  food. 

CAULIFLOWER.— A plant  of  the  cabbage 
tribe,  differing  from  broccoli  only  in  being 
whiter  and  less  hardy.  It  has  a compact, 
rounded  head  of  very  delicate  flavor,  stand- 
ing on  a stock  eighteen  inches  to  two  feet  in 
height,  surrounded  by  long  leaves.  Two 
crops  of  the  cauliflower  may  be  raised  in  one 
season.  For  the  early  crop,  seed  should  be 
sown  in  September  in  good  rich  soil,  and  in 
about  four  weeks  transplanted  to  a cold  frame, 
set  two  or  three  inches  apart,  and  carefully 
protected  by  glass  during  the  winter.  In  Feb- 
ruary, set  them  in  another  frame,  eight  to 
twelve  inches  apart,  to  prevent  a spindling 
growth  ; and  transplant  to  the  garden  as  early 
in  spring  as  possible.  Set  them  three  feet 
from  each  other,  and  water  them  well  and  hoe 
them  during  dry  weather.  In  transplanting 
lift  a ball  of  earth  with  the  roots  to  secure 
continuous  growth.  For  the  second  crop,  sow 
the  seed  in  an  open  bed  in  May,  and  transplant 
to  the  garden  in  July.  Those  plants  which  do 
not  head  before  frost  may  be  removed  to  a dry 
cellar  or  shed,  covered  with  litter,  and  allowed 
to  head  during  early  winter. 

Boiled  Cauliflower. — White  cauliflowers  are 
the  best.  Take  off  the  outside  leaves,  cut  the 
stalk  off  close  to  the  head,  and  let  them  lie  in 
salt  and  water  for  half  an  hour  before  cooking. 
Boil  them  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  according 
to  size,  adding  a little  salt  to  the  water.  Dish 
carefully  to  avoid  breaking  the  leaves,  and  serve 
at  once  with  drawn  butter. 

Pickled  Cauliflower. — Separate  the  stems, 
wash  them  carefully  and  sprinkle  with  salt, 
using  half  a pint  for  a peck.  In  twelve  hours 
shake  off  the  salt,  lay  the  pieces  in  jars  and 
pour  over  them  boiling  vinegar,  which  has  boiled 
for  five  minutes,  with  these  ingredients  : — To 
one  gallon  of  vinegar  add  half  a pint  of  sugar, 
twelve  blades  of  mace,  twenty  four  white  pep- 


90 


CAVIARE 


CEMENTS 


percorns  ; of  mustard  and  celery  seed,  a table- 
spoonful each,  and  some  bits  of  red  pepper  pods. 
The  jars  or  cans  must  be  closed  at  once. 

Scalloped  Cauliflower.— Boil  as  above, 
and  pack  them,  stems  downward,  in  a buttered 
pudding  dish.  Make  a sauce  with  a cupful  of 
bread-crumbs  beaten  to  a froth  with  two  table- 
spoonfuls of  melted  butter  and  three  of  cream 
or  milk,  one  well-beaten  egg,  and  pepper  and 
salt  to  taste.  Pour  this  over  the  cauliflower, 
cover  the  dish  tightly,  and  bake  six  minutes  in 
a quick  oven,  browning  them  nicely.  Serve 
hot  in  the  dish  they  were  cooked  in. 

Stewed  Cauliflower. — Common  heads  will 
do  for  this.  Boil  them  till  about  half  done ; 
drain  them,  place  them  in  a stew-pan  stems 
downwards,  and  set  on  a slow  fire  with  a 
spoonful  of  fat.  Stir  gently  so  as  not  to  break 
them,  and  in  about  five  minutes  add  half  a gill 
of  broth  (or  half  a teacupful  of  milk  thickened 
with  a tablespoonful  of  flour  or  rice),  and  sea- 
son with  salt  or  pepper ; simmer  till  done, 
stirring  now  and  then,  dish  them,  turn  the 
sauce  over  them,  and  serve  hot. 

CAVIARE. — A kind  of  food  made  of  the 
roes  of  large  fish  such  as  the  sturgeon,  cod, 
and  salmon.  It  is  made  chiefly  in  Russia, 
whence  it  is  exported  to  this  country  in  kegs. 
It  makes  an  excellent  breakfast  dish,  served 
between  slices  of  toast ; and  is  also  good  on 
bread  with  a drop  or  two  of  oil  and  vinegar. 
The  caviare  which  is  made  up  in  thin  cakes  is 
of  an  inferior  quality. 

CAYENNE. — A pepper  made  of  the  several 
varieties  of  the  capsicum  plant,  which  grows 
in  the  East  and  West  Indies,  in  South  Amer- 
ica, and  to  some  extent  in  this  country.  It  is 
the  most  powerful  of  the  spices,  has  an  acrid 
taste,  produces  a fiery  sensation  in  the  mouth 
if  taken  in  any  but  the  smallest  quantities,  and 
is  said  to  promote  the  digestion  of  many  kinds 
of  food  and  especially  of  fish.  It  does  not 
leave  the  irritating  and  weakening  effect  upon 
the  stomach  which  black  pepper  produces  if 
constantly  used.  The  cayenne  of  commerce  is 
in  the  form  of  a powder,  and  it  is  subject  to 
gross  adulterations.  Red  lead  and  vermilion 
are  sometimes  added  to  it  to  preserve  its  color 
which  fades  with  age,  and  cases  of  poisoning 
have  been  traced  to  this  cause ; ground  rice, 
salt,  and  turmeric,  are  more  harmless  ad- 
ditions,— salt  is  nearly  always  added  to  in- 
crease the  weight  and  prevent  the  powder  from 
rising  into  the  air  too  readily  in  the  form  of 
dust.  Guinea  cayenne  is  the  hottest  and 
strongest,  but  that  which  comes  from  the  West 
Indies  is  best.  Cayenne  pepper  makes  an  ex- 
cellent gargle  (a  teaspoonful  steeped  in  a pint 
of  water)  in  scarlet  fever ; and  it  is  also  said  to 
relieve  the  nausea  of  sea-sickness.  Great  care 
must  be  taken  in  handling  not  to  let  it  get  into 
the  eyes,  as  it  is  not  only  very  painful  but 
dangerous. 

CELERY. — An  umbelliferous  plant  which 
in  its  wild  state  is  said  to  be  poisonous,  but 
which  when  brought  under  cultivation  becomes 
an  agreeable  and  wholesome  vegetable.  It 


requires  a deep,  rich,  mellow  soil.  Some  of 
the  best  celery  is  obtained  from  swamp  land, 
and  it  is  a semi-aquatic  plant.  Plant  the  seed 
in  a well-prepared  bed  from  the  end  of  March 
to  the  beginning  of  May ; when  the  plants  are 
two  or  three  inches  high,  transplant  them  to 
another  bed  similarly  prepared.  Let  them 
grow  here  until  they  are  from  six  to  ten  inches 
high,  and  then  transfer  them  to  the  final  bed ; 
plant  in  rows  three  feet  apart,  and  at  regular 
intervals,  in  the  row,  of  eight  inches.  As  they 
advance  in  size  and  become  a foot  or  so  in 
height  the  earth  must  be  heaped  up  about  them 
frequently,  and  nearly  to  the  leaves.  This  lat- 
ter process  is  called  “ blanching.”  The  surface 
soil  must  not  be  too  moist,  but  a wet  subscil  is 
not  so  injurious  as  to  most  other  plants.  The 
season  for  celery  begins  about  the  middle  of 
August,  but  it  is  always  slightly  bitter  till  frost 
has  touched  it ; it  is  found  in  the  markets  till 
about  the  first  of  April.  In  choosing  for  salad, 
select  the  solid,  close,  clean,  and  white  stalks, 
with  a large,  close  heart.  For  soups,  inferior 
stalks,  the  leaves,  and  even  the  seeds,  answer 
every  purpose.  Before  sending  to  the  table  cut 
off  the  roots  and  scrape  the  stalks,  rejecting  any 
that  are  green  and  tough  ; let  the  white,  tender 
leaves  nearest  the  heart  remain.  Keep  it  in 
cold  water  until  it  is  sent  to  the  table. 

Salad. — Clean  the  celery,  and  wipe  it  dry ; 
split  the  stalks  and  cut  into  pieces  about  an 
inch  long,  put  into  a salad  dish  with  salt,  vine- 
gar and  a little  mustard  ; .stir  and  let  it  stand 
an  hour,  then  add  pepper  and  oil,  stir  again,  and 
serve.  Or  use  Mayonnaise  sauce. 

Sauce  (for.  Poultry). — Cut  up  four  or  five 
celery  heads  into  small  pieces,  and  boil  them  in 
half  a pint  of  water  till  tender;  mix  two  tea- 
spoonfuls of  flour  with  half  a teacupful  of  milk 
and  add  it  to  the  celery,  with  half  a teaspoon- 
ful of  salt,  and  a teaspoonful  of  butter;  boil 
it  once  and  serve. 

CEMENTS.— It  would  require  several  pages 
merely  to  enumerate  the  different  kinds  of 
cement,  and  the  different  purposes  to  which 
they  are  applied;  but  we  shall  only  include 
here  such  of  those  as  will  prove  most  useful  in 
the  household. 

Alabaster  Cement. — Take  .'-Beeswax,  I lb; 
rosin,  i lb;  alabaster  (powdered),  J lb. 

This  is  for  mending  broken  alabaster  orna- 
ments, and  is  extremely  strong.  Take  a pound 
of  white  beeswax  and  one  of  rosin,  melt  them, 
and  add  three  quarters  of  a pound  of  finely 
powdered  alabaster.  Stir  the  whole  well  to- 
gether; then  knead  the  mass  in  warm  water  in 
order  to  incorporate  the  alabaster  with  the 
other  ingredients.  The  alabaster  to  be  mend- 
ed must  be  perfectly  dry  and  heated;  the 
cement  must  also  be  heated.  Cover  the  frac- 
tured parts  with  the  cement,  join  them  together, 
bind  them  tightly,  and  let  them  remain  undis- 
turbed for  a week. 

Bottle  Cement. — Take  /-Sealing-wax,  ^ lb; 
rosin,  £ lb;  beeswax,  2 oz. 

This  is  for  sealing  the  corks  of  bottles. 
Melt  together  a quarter  of  a pound  of  sealing 


CENTURY  PLANT 


CHAMPAGNE 


91 


wax,  a quarter  of  a pound  of  rosin,  and  a couple 
of  ounces  of  beeswax;  when  it  froths  stir  it 
with  a tallow  candle.  As  soon  as  it  is  melted, 
dip  the  mouths  of  the  corked  bottles  into  it,  and 
set  them  away  to  cool.  This  is  an  excellent 
cement  for  excluding  air  from  all  such  things 
as  are  injured  by  exposure. 

Cheese  Cement. — Take  .--Cheese ; quick- 
lime ; white  of  egg. 

This  is  very  durable  for  mending  coarse 
china  or  earthen-ware.  Take  some  fresh  cheese, 
pound  it,  and  wash  it  through  warm  water  till 
all  the  soluble  matter  is  extracted ; then  strain 
dry  and  it  will  crumble.  By  drying  it.  upon 
blotting  paper,  it  may  be  kept  a long  time. 
For  use,  mix  the  cheese  with  quicklime  (in  the 
proportions  of  one  ounce  of  cheese  to  half  an 
ounce  of  quicklime),  and  add  enough  white  of 
egg  to  make  it  into  a paste.  When  ready  it 
must  be  applied  immediately,  as  it  dries  quickly, 
and  cannot  be  melted  a second  time. 

China  Cement. — Take  .--Gum-arabic  ; plaster 
of  Paris. 

A very  white  cement  for  mending  fine  china. 
Take  a very  thick  solution  of  gum-arabic  in 
water,  and  stir  into  it  plaster  of  Paris  till  it  is 
of  the  consistency  of  thick  paste.  Apply  it 
with  a brush  to  the  fractured  edges  of  the 
china,  stick  them  together,  and  bind  them.  In 
three  days  the  article  cannot  be  broken  in  the 
same  place. 

Diamond  Cement. — Take  .--Isinglass  ; proof 
spirit ; resin,  or  gum  ammoniac  ; alcohol. 

This  is  very  good  for  mending  broken  glass. 
It  is  made  by  steeping  isinglass  in  water  till  it 
swells,  and  then  dissolving  it  in  proof  spirit,  to 
which  must  be  added  a little  gum  resin  or  gum, 
ammoniac  dissolved  in  the  smallest  possible 
quantity  of  alcohol.  It  should  be  heated  before 
it  is  applied.  It  will  only  partially  resist  moist- 
ure. 

Iron-ware  Cement. — Take  :-\ron  file  dust; 
quicklime  ; whites  of  eggs. 

Beat  the  whites  of  eggs  to  a froth  ; then  stir 
into  them  enough  finely  powdered  quicklime  to 
make  a thin  paste  ; then  add  enough  iron  file 
dust  to  make  a thick  paste.  Fill  the  cracks  in 
iron-ware  with  this  cement,  and  let  it  remain  sev- 
eral weeks  before  using. 

Japanese  Cement. — Mix  rice  flour  with  cold 
water  to  a smooth  paste,  and  boil  it  gently  for 
twenty  minutes.  It  answers  all  the  purposes 
of  wheat  flour  paste,  while  it  is  much  superior 
both  in  transparency  and  in  smoothness. 

Wax  Cement. — Take  .--Yellow  wax  ; turpen- 
tine ; Venetian  red. 

Melt  yellow  wax,  mix  with  its  weight  of  tur- 
pentine, and  add  a little  Venitian  red  to  color 
it.  This,  when  cold,  is  as  hard  as  soap,  but  it 
can  be  softened  by  the  warmth  of  the  hand. 
It  is  useful  to  stop  up  cracks  ; and  is  better 
than  the  hard  cement  for  covering  the  corks  of 
bottles  that  are  not  going  to  be  kept  very  long. 

CENTURY  PLANT.  (See  Agave.) 

CESSPOOL.  (See  Drainage.) 

CHABLIS. — A sweetish  white  wine,  similar 
to  Burgundy,  which  is  raised  near  the  town  of  1 


Chablis,  in  the  south  of  France.  It  is  very 
fine,,  and  much  esteemed  by  epicures  as  an 
accompaniment  to  oysters.  The  best  brands 
are  Bottgucreau,  Mont  du  Millieu , Valmur, 
and  Vaudesir.  It  should  be  drunk  at  a 
temperature  a little  lower  than  that  of  the 
room. 

CHALK. — Mineral  substance,  consisting 
principally  of  carbonate  of  lime  derived  from 
the  shells  of  myriads  of  minute  marine  animals. 
It  is  of  friable  texture,  and  easily  rubbed  to  a 
powder.  In  a powdered  state  it  is  sold  as 
the  prepared  chalk,  so  useful  for  polishing 
brass,  tin,  and  glass.  Fretich  chalk  is  a pure 
variety  of  steatite  or  talc,  used  by  tailors  for 
marking  their  cloth : it  is  also  mixed  with 
cosmetics  to  give  them  body.  Whiting  or 
Spanish  white,  is  chalk  finely  ground  and  pu- 
rified by  washing  and  separating  the  hard  par- 
ticles. It  is  highly  useful  for  cleaning  the 
finer  metals. 

Camphorated  Chalk.  (See  Tooth  Pow- 
ders.) 

CHAMOIS-SKIN.— The  skin  of  the  cham- 
ois, a species  of  goat  or  antelope  which  runs 
wild  in  the  fastnesses  of  the  Swiss  Alps.  The 
skin,  when  properly  tanned,  is  extremely  soft 
and  pliable,  more  so  than  even  that  of  the  kid, 
and  can  be  put  to  many  uses  in  the  household. 
It  is  unequalled  for  polishing  smooth  and  highly 
finished  surfaces,  such  as  jewellery,  silver-ware, 
glass,  pianos,  and  other  furniture.  It  is  also 
excellent  for  packing  away  choice  articles  of 
jewellery  or  table-ware,  as  it  is  comparatively 
impervious  to  dampness.  In  selecting,  choose 
that  which  is  pliable  and  free  from  lumpy  spots. 
If  it  is  once  wetted  it  becomes  harsh  and  can 
afterwards  be  used  only  for  the  coarser  kinds 
of  cleaning ; when  used  as  a duster  it  should 
be  carefully  shaken  out  each  time  or  it  will 
hold  the  coarser  grains  of  dust  and  scratch 
the  furniture. 

CHAMOMILE.  (See  Camomile.) 

CHAMPAGNE.— The  most  celebrated  of 
the  French  wines,  chiefly  produced  in  the 
province  of  that  name.  It  is  generally  under- 
stood in  this  country  to  be  a brisk,  efferves- 
cing, sparkling  white  wine  of  a peculiar  flavor  ; 
but  this  is  only  one  of  several  varieties.  There 
are  both  red  and  white  champagnes,  and  both  of 
them  may  be  either  sparkling  or  still : the  spark- 
ling wines  are  called  mousseux,  and  the  still 
non-mousseux.  The  sparkling  are  most  highly 
esteemed,  on  account  of  their  delicate  flavor, 
and  the  agreeable  pungency  which  is  given 
them  by  the  carbonic  acid  they  contain.  There 
is  a great  difference  in  the  quality  of  champagne 
wines,  according  to  the  particular  vineyards  at 
which  they  have  been  made.  The  finest  are 
produced  in  the  sloping  grounds  on  the  north 
bank  of  the  river  Marne ; and  they  are  mostly 
white  wines.  Dry  champagnes  (i.e.,  not  sweet) 
are  growing  in  favor,  especially  among  those 
with  whom  sugar  disagrees.  There  is  no 
wine,  with  the  possible  exception  of  sherry, 
that  is  more  extensively  adulterated  and  imi- 
| tated  by  artificial  combinations  than  sparkling 


92 


CHAPPED  HANDS 


CHARLOTTE  DE  RUSSE 


champagne.  The  sparkling  of  champagne  is 
properly  caused  by  the  fermentation  of  rock 
candy  introduced  into  still  wine.  Inferior 
wines  have  carbonic  acid  pumped  in  ; in  either 
case  the  sparkle  cannot  be  depended  upon  for 
more  than  two  years.  The  red  champagnes 
are  not  used  much  in  this  country;  they  seldom 
equal  Burgundy  which  they  much  resemble. 
That  of  Glos  de  St.  Thierry  is  considered  the 
best. 

In  selecting  champagne,  many  consider  the 
briskness  and  effervescence  as  a test  of  their 
excellence ; but  a good  judge  will  prefer  a 
liquor  of  moderate  briskness,  as  much  of  the 
aroma  evaporates  with  the  froth.  Champagne 
must  be  kept  in  an  equable  temperature,  and 
cooled  by  ice,  outside  of  the  bottle,  never  in 
the  wine.  It  intoxicates  quickly  and  the  ex- 
citement it  produces  is  of  a more  vivacious  and 
agreeable  character  than  that  which  comes 
from  any  other  wine,  but  its  duration  is 
shorter,  and  the  reaction  less.  For  this  rea- 
son it  is  an  admirable  tonic  for  invalids  and  for 
all  who  are  suffering  from  a low  state  of  the 
system.  The  best  brands  are Pomery  and 
Greno,  Roederer,  Mumm,  Due  de  Montebello, 
Krug,  Giesler,  and  Heidsick.  Veuve  Clicquot 
is  highly  prized  as  one  of  the  best  of  the  sweet 
wines. 

Champagne  Frappee. — This  is  made  by 
freezing  the  champagne  in  salt  and  ice  until  it 
has  the  consistence  of  snow.  When  served  in 
this  way  it  is  very  delicate  and  refreshing. 

CHAPPED  HANDS.— An  excellent  appli- 
cation for  chapped  hands  or  lips  may  be  made 
as  follows : First  dissolve  one  drachm  of  borax 
in  one  ounce  cf  rose-water,  and  add  it  to  half  an 
ounce  of  glycerine  ; melt  one  drachm  of  sperm- 
aceti in  the  same  quantity  of  olive  oil,  and  ten 
drachms  of  pure  lard  ; add  the  solution  to  that, 
little  by  little,  stirring  all  the  time,  and  continue 
to  stir  until  it  is  nearly  cold.  Warm  it  slightly 
before  applying ; it  will  restore  the  skin  to  its 
softness  and  smoothness  without  parching  it 
as  pure  glycerine  does.  A simple  remedy  is 
this  : Take  common  starch,  and  grind  it  with 

a knife  until  it  is  reduced  to  the  smoothest 
powder,  put  it  in  a clean  tin  box,  so  as  to  have 
it  continually  at  hand  for  use.  Then,  every 
time  that  the  hands  are  taken  from  the  suds  or 
dish-water,  rinse  them  thoroughly  in  clear 
water  wipe  them,  and  while  they  are  yet 
damp  rub  a pinch  of  the  starch  thoroughly  over 
them,  covering  the  whole  surface.  If  care  is 
taken  to  wipe  the  hands  perfectly  dry  after 
washing,  chapping  is  not  likely  to  occur. 

CHARCOAL.. — That  part  of  wood  which  re- 
mains after  the  other  elements,  oxygen  and 
hydrogen,  have  been  extracted  by  partial  com- 
bustion. Next  to  the  diamond,  charcoal  is  the 
purest  form  of  carbon  known  to  us.  As  it  ig- 
nites very  readily  it  is  very  useful  in  starting 
fires  of  other  fuel,  and  as  it  gives  out  no  smoke 
or  flame  in  burning  it  can  be  used  under  cir- 
cumstances where  no  other  fuel  would  be  en- 
durable. It  is  also  useful  in  the  kitchen  when 
a sudden  accession  of  heat  is  required,  or  when 


a steady  fire  is  wanted  for  a limited  time.  In 
this  country,  however,  charcoal  is  not  much 
used  for  domestic  purposes  ; it  is  more  expen- 
sive than  wood  or  coal,  it  requires  constant 
attention,  and  its  use,  especially  in  close  rooms, 
is  highly  dangerous.  In  burning,  it  throws  off 
large  quantities  of  carbonic  acid  gas ; and,  as 
this  gas  is  invisible  and  odorless,  suffocation 
from  it  is  peculiarly  liable  to  ensue.  Many 
fatal  accidents  have  resulted  from  burning 
charcoal  in  close  rooms,  or  in  stoves  where 
draughts  are  imperfect.  The  first  sensation 
when  it  has  become  dangerous  is  a slight  sense 
of  weakness  ; the  limbs  feel  powerless  and  the 
head  heavy.  A slight  giddiness,  accompanied 
by  a distinct  feeling  of  flush  or  glow  on  the 
face  and  neck,  succeeds.  Soon  after,  the  per- 
son becomes  drowsy,  wishes  to  sit  down,  but 
commonly  falls  insensible  to  the  floor,  snoring 
heavily  as  in  apoplexy.  When  any  of  these 
symptoms  are  felt,  the  person  should  at  once 
seek  the  open  air.  The  proper  treatment  for 
a person  suffocated  by  charcoal,  is  to  remove 
him  immediately  to  the  open  air;  then  drop 
cold  water  over  his  head  and  chest,  and  if 
breathing  has  ceased,  imitate  respiration  by 
breathing  strongly  into  his  mouth  and  expelling 
the  air  by  pressing  gently  on  his  chest.  When 
he  has  recovered  sufficiently  to  swallow,  ad- 
minister hot  coffee,  or  brandy  and  water.  A 
strong  stimulus,  such  as  hartshorn,  applied  to 
the  feet  is  also  very  good. 

CHARLOTTE  De  RUSSE. — {Chocolate). 
Take  .--Cream  i pt ; powdered  sugar,  ]/2  teacup- 
ful ; chocolate  (grated),  3 tablespoonfuls  ; gela- 
tine, Yz  oz. ; -eggs  4;  vanilla,  1 teaspoonful; 
sponge  cake. 

Heat  a pint  of  cream  slowly  to  the  boiling 
point;  add  half  a cupful  of  powdered  sugar, 
three  tablespoonfuls  of  grated  chocolate  stirred 
into  a little  milk,  and  half  an  ounce  of  gelatine, 
soaked  in  2 tablespoonfuls  of  cold  water  : when 
these  are  dissolved,  add  the  mixture  by  spoon- 
fuls to  the  beaten  yolks  of  four  eggs.  Set  the 
whole  into  a sauce-pan  of  boiling  water,  and 
stir  until  it  becomes  very  hot,  but  do  not  let  it 
boil;  then  remove,  flavor  with  a teaspoonful  of 
vanilla,  and  whip  it  to  a high  froth,  adding  at 
the  last  the  beaten  whites  of  the  four  eggs. 
Line  a mould  with  sponge  cake,  fill  with  the 
mixture,  and  set  upon  the  ice  until  ready  to  be 
served. 

II.  Whip  stiff  one  and  a half  pints  of  cream 
and  put  it  aside  until  it  is  set;  now  run  off 
the  thin  cream  that  has  settled  to  the  bottom 
of  the  vessel;  add  to  it  half  an  ounce  of  gela- 
tin which  has  been  steeped  in  cold  water  for 
two  hours,  five  ounces  of  sugar,  and  a half 
inch  of  vanilla  bean.  Set  it  on  a slow  fire 
until  it  is  thoroughly  dissolved;  then  remove 
the  vanilla  bean,  and  whip  into  the  mixture 
two  raw  yolks  of  eggs;  when  it  is  about  to 
set,  gently  incorporate  it  with  the  whipped 
cream.  Pour  ‘it  into  a mould  carefully  lined 
with  lady-fingers  or  thin  pieces  of  sponge-cake, 
and  set  it  in  a cold  place  to  become  firm,  when 
it  will  be  ready  for  use. 


CHECK  (BANK) 


CHEESE 


93 


CHECK  (BANK.) — A check  is  a written 
order  addressed  to  a banker,  by  a person  hav- 
ing money  on  deposit  with  him,  directing  him 
to  pay  on  presentment  to  a person  named 
therein,  or  to  his  order,  or  to  bearer,  a certain 
sum  of  money. 

The  following  is  the  form  of  a check  payable 
to  bearer : 

No.  26.  New  York,  May  1,  1876. 

National  Park  Bank, 

Pay  to  John  Doe,  or  bearer, 

One  hundred  and  seventy-one  50-100  dollars. 
$171.50.  Richard  Roe. 

If  the  foregoing  were  written  “ to  John  Doe 
or  order  ” (instead  of  bearer),  no  person  could 
get  the  money  but  the  one  to  whose  order  the 
check  is  drawn,  unless  the  check  is  endorsed. 
See  Endorsement  under  Promissory  Notes. 

In  filling  out  checks  it  is  advisable  to  begin 
to  write  the  amount  as  near  the  left  hand  mar- 
gin of  the  blank  as  possible,  so  as  not  to  leave 
room  for  inserting  a larger  sum.  While  it  is  a 
general  rule  that  negotiable  paper  is  vitiated  by 
an  alteration,  even  when  it  comes  into  the 
hands  of  an  innocent  third  party,  it  has  recently 
been  decided  that  the  maker  is  liable  on  an  al- 
tered note,  bill,  or  check  to  a bona  fide  holder, 
who  takes  it  in  the  usual  course  of  his  business, 
before  maturity,  if  he  issues  it  in  such  a condi- 
tion that  it  may  be  easily  altered  without  de- 
tection. 

Checks  closely  resemble  bills  of  exchange, 
but  differ  in  the  following  particulars : They 
are  always  drawn  on  a bank  or  banker ; they 
are  payable  immediately  on  presentment,  and 
are  not  allowed  days  of  grace ; they  are  not 
presented  for  acceptance  merely,  although  they 
sometimes  are  for  certification  ; the  drawer  is 
not  discharged  by  delay  in  presentment,  unless 
he  is  prejudiced  thereby,  as  by  the  intermedi- 
ate failure  of  the  banker. 

Checks  are  governed  by  the  same  rules  with 
regard  to  negotiability,  transfer,  endorsement, 
presentment,  and  notice  of  non-payment  as 
promissory  notes,  which  see. 

A certified  check  is  one  which  is  marked  as 
“ good  ” on  its  face  by  the  cashier,  or  other 
proper  officer  of  the  bank  on  which  it  is  drawn. 
The  bank  thereby  becomes  liable  as  acceptor, 
and  is  bound  to  pay  the  check  when  presented 
by  an  innocent  holder  for  value  (i.  e.  one  who 
has  honestly  given  value  for  it),  whether  it 
has  funds  of  the  drawer  on  deposit  or  not. 

As  before  stated,  the  drawer  of  a check  is 
not  discharged  by  delay  in  presentment,  unless 
he  is  prejudiced  thereby.  But  in  order  to 
charge  the  endorser  the  holder  of  a check  must 
exercise  due  diligence  in  presenting  it  for  pay- 
ment. When  the  parties  reside  in  the  same 
town  it  should  be  presented  by  the  close  of 
business  hours  on  the  next  secular  day  after  its 
receipt.  When  the  parties  do  not  reside  in 
the  same  town,  and  presentment  is  to  be  made 
through  the  post  office,  the  holder  has  until 
post  time  of  such  next  secular  day. 

CHECKERBERRY. — A little  red  berry, 
much  like  a miniature  crab-apple,  which  is 


found  growing  upon  a shrub  from  four  to  six 
inches  high,  on  low  sandy  soils,  usually  among 
pines.  It  is  very  nice  to  eat  raw  as  taken  from 
the  bush,  and  it  is  also  used  in  syrups  and  con- 
fectionery. Checkerberries  are  sometimes  put 
in  whiskey  or  spirits,  making  “ tea-berry  rum.” 
They  are  found  in  the  markets  in  the  winter 
and  spring  months.  The  leaves  of  the  checker- 
berry  bush  make  the  essence  of  wintergreen. 
See  Wintergreen 

CHEESE. — Cheese  is  obtained  exclusively 
from  the  milk  of  animals,  and  its  quality  varies 
with  the  class,  breed,  and  food  of  the  animal, 
and  the  process  of  manufacture.  The  most 
ordinary  source  of  cheese  is  the  milk  of  the 
covv,  and  there  are  certain  varieties  of  cows 
which  produce  much  cheese  and  little  butter, 
as  there  are  others  which  produce  much  butter 
and  little  cheese.  The  kind  of  food  given  to 
the  cows  is  very  important,  for  just  in  propor- 
tion to  the  richness  of  the  milk  in  casein  and 
cream  is  the  richness  of  the  cheese.  The 
value  of  cheese  as  an  article  of  diet  has  not 
been  entirely  established.  If  we  consider  its 
chemical  composition  it  is  one  of  the  richest  of 
foods  in  nutritive  elements  ; but  Dr.  Smith  has 
found  that  the  popular  belief  that  it  is  not 
easily  digested  is  true.  This  objection,  how- 
ever, applies  only  to  the  new  and  poor  cheese ; 
those  that  are  old  and  rich,  not  only  digest 
easily  but  promote  the  digestion  of  other  food. 
That  which  is  old  and  dry  (but  not  decayed) 
may  be  given  to  children  to  relieve  constipa- 
tion. 

To  Make. — Some  of  the  best  of  foreign 
cheeses  are  made  of  skimmed  milk,  but  in 
domestic  manufacture  it  is  impossible  to  pro- 
duce good  cheese  unless  the  milk  is  put  in 
whole.  The  utensils  required  for  making 
cheese  are  the  cheese  tub , in  which  4he  milk  is 
coagulated  and  the  curd  pressed  ; a large  brass 
kettle  for  heating  it  in ; the  cheese  press , a 
power  obtained  by  lever,  screw,  or  weight ; the 
cheese  cloth , a piece  of  thin  open  linen ; a 
cheese  tray  or  ladder  j and  cheese  boards , 
circular  pieces  of  wood  on  which  the  cheeses 
are  put  in  the  cheese  room.  These  should  all 
be  washed  thoroughly,  scalded,  and  dried  in 
the  air  each  time  they  are  used. 

The  substance  used  for  coagulating  the 
milk  is  rennet , from  the  stomach  of  a calf. 
It  can  be  bought  already  cured,  and  is  pre- 
pared for  use  by  soaking  it  in  a quart  of  water 
for  several  days  with  a bit  of  lemon-peel  and 
two  or  three  cloves ; after  it  has  soaked  long 
enough,  hang  the  rennet  up  to  dry,  and  bottle 
the  water  for  use.  The  quantity  of  rennet  to 
be  used  will  depend  altogether  on  its  strength, 
and  as  this  varies  it  is  impossible  to  give  any 
precise  directions  as  to  it.  If  the  rennet  be 
good,  however,  half  a teacupful  ought  to  curdle 
ten  gallons  of  milk  in  from  an  hour  to  an  hour 
and  a half. 

When  all  is  ready,  strain  the  milk  into  the 
tub ; then  heat  a portion  of  it  in  the  kettle  (be 
careful  not  to  smoke  it)  and  add  it  to  the  cold 
till  the  whole  is  raised  to  9 50  to  98°  Fahren- 


94 


CHEESE 


heit.  Then  stir  in  the  rennet,  and  if  the  curd 
has  not  formed  in  an  hour,  add  a little  more. 
When  the  curd  has  become  firm  take  a long 
knife  and  cut  it  into  small  checks  to  the  bottom 
of  the  tub;  great  care  must  be  taken,  or  part 
of  the  curd  will  run  off  into  the  whey  and  the 
cheese  be  injured.  When  the  whey  is  of  a 
greenish  color  the  curd  has  been  well  formed. 
After  the  curd  has  sunk  to  the  bottom,  dip  out 
some  of  the  whey,  and  cut  the  curd  up  into 
still  smaller  pieces;  then  let  it  stand  for  a half 
or  three  quarters  of  an  hour  to  settle  thor- 
oughly. It  is  now  time  to  separate  the  curd 
from  the  whey.  Tilt  up  the  tub  slightly;  col- 
lect the  curd  at  the  upper  side;  place  upon  it 
a semicircular  board  fitting  the  tub  loosely;  on 
this  board  place  a heavy  weight,  and  as  the 
whey  drains  to  the  lower  side  of  the  tub  ladle 
it  out.  This  operation  of  putting  the  curd 
under  the  weighted  board  must  be  repeated 
several  times;  then  cut  it  up  again  into  small 
pieces,  turn  the  mass  upside  down,  and  press 
again  until  every  particle  of  the  whey  has  been 
extracted.  Close  attention  is  required  in  this 
part  of  the  operation.  The  whey  being  all 
pressed  out,  the  curd  must  now  be  scalded. 
Cut  or  break  it  into  extremely  small  pieces,  put 
it  into  the  linen  cloth,  immerse  it  in  the  brass 
kettle  containing  warm  water  enough  to  cover 
it,  and  raise  the  temperature  to  105°,  and  let  it 
remain  half  an  hour  or  till  heated  through; 
then  add  cold  water  gradually  till  the  temper- 
ature is  reduced  to  about  90°.  Then  drain 
the  curd  thoroughly  as  before,  and  salt  it, 
allowing  four  ounces  of  fine  salt  for  every  ten 
pounds  of  curd,  and  mixing  it  in  thoroughly. 
Put  it  into  the  linen  cloth,  place  it  in  the 
cheese  hoops,  spreading  the  cloth  out  smoothly, 
and  then  set  it  into  the  cheese-press  and  let  it 
remain  two  days.  When  taken  from  the  press 
grease  it  all  over  with  common  butter  or  butter 
made  of  whey-cream  and  set  it  away  to  ripen. 
It  should  be  turned  and  greased  every  day  till 
firm,  and  afterwards  should  be  turned  and 
greased  at  least  once  a week  for  six  months. 

Good  cheese  does  not  require  to  be  colored; 
but,  if  it  is  desired,  dip  a piece  of  arnotto  (or 
anatto)  into  a bowl  of  milk  and  rub  it  around 
the  side  till  the  milk  assumes  a deep  red  color. 
Add  this  to  the  milk  of  which  cheese  is  to  be 
made  in  sufficient  quantity  to  impart  a bright 
orange  color  to  the  latter.  This  in  no  way 
affects  the  taste  or  smell  of  the  cheese,  but 
only  makes  it  a rich  orange  yellow  which 
deepens  with  age.  Arnotto  is  adulterated  with 
red  lead,  however,  which  is  poisonous,  and  it 
should  therefore  be  used  carefully.  Sage  cheese 
is  made  by  putting  in  sage  juice  along  with  the 
fennet. 

The  cheese-room  in  which  cheese  is  put  to 
ripen  may  be  a loft,  and  should  be  airy  and  dry. 
It  should  be  kept  of  an  equable  temperature  : 
too  much  warmth  will  make  the  cheese  sweat 
and  lose  its  oily  parts,  and  too  much  air,  or  the 
rays  of  the  sun,  will  dry  it  too  fast  and  make  it 
crack;  a moderate  ventilation  with  a temper- 
ature of  about  650  to  70*  is  best.  Cheese  is 


liable  to  a kind  of  blistering,  called  heaving ; 
it  is  caused  by  a slight  fermentation  and  the 
formation  of  air  in  the  interior.  The  air  may 
be  released  by  pricking  the  cheese  deep  in  the 
blistered  places,  and  removing  it  for  a time  to 
a cooler  situation. 

Cheese  should  be  kept  in  a dry  cool  place ; 
and  after  it  is  cut,  it  should  be  wrapped  in  a linen 
cloth  and  put  in  a tight  tin  box  till  again 
required  for  use. 

Cottage  Cheese. — This  is  not  cheese  prop- 
erly speaking,  but  it  is  a very  pleasant  prepar- 
ation of  milk.  Turn  the  milk  by  adding  a 
little  rennet  or  setting  in  a warm  (but  not  hot) 
place.  When  the  curd  has  formed,  put  it  into 
a bag  of  coarse  linen,  and  hang  it  up  to  dry  till 
not  another  drop  of  whey  can  be  squeezed  out 
of  it.  Then  crumble  it  up  fine,  salt  it  to  taste, 
and  thin  it  to  the  consistency  of  paste  with 
sweet  cream.  Cottage  cheese  is  very  nice 
eaten  with  sugar  or  preserves  ; it  is  best  when 
fresh. 

Cream  Cheese. — Take  sour  cream,  salt  it 
to  taste,  and  hang  it  up  in  a linen  bag  to  drain 
until  dry ; this  will  take  two  or  three  days. 
Then  put  it  in  a deep  dish,  still  in  the  bag,  and 
let  it  stay  two  weeks  to  ripen,  sprinkling  salt 
over  it  every  day.  If  wanted  to  ripen  quickly, 
cover  it  with  mint  or  nettle  leaves.  Cream 
cheese  is  more  digestible  than  ordinary  cheese 
both  because  it  is  softer  and  more  readily 
masticated,  and  has  a smaller  proportion  of 
casein. 

The  best  cheese  is  not  colored,  but  many 
cheeses  are  colored  by  saffron,  marigold  leaves, 
sage  grass,  and,  as  already  explained,  by  an- 
natto. 

Cows  not  exceeding  4 years  old  yield  the 
best  milk  for  cheese.  The  proportion  of 
cheese  obtained  from  milk  varies  according  to 
the  quality  of  the  milk,  the  weather  and  season. 
In  summer  a gallon  often  makes  a pound  of 
cheese,  while  at  other  times  3 may  be  required. 

Milk  often  tastes  of  the  food  on  which  the 
cows  are  fed.  The  milk  of  turnip-fed  cows 
has  a disagreeable  flavor  which  can  be  eradi- 
cated by  a small  quantity  of  saltpetre  added  to 
the  milk  while  warm  from  the  cow. 

Cheese  is  frequently  infested  by  maggots. 
To  prevent  these,  rub,  brush  and  keep  the 
cheese  dry,  well  aired  and  each  kind  by  itself. 
In  Holland,  where  hydrochloric  acid  is  used 
instead  of  rennet,  the  cheeses  are  reported 
never  to  have  worms.  But  Holland  cheeses  are 
rather  hard  because  of  the  use  of  this  acid. 

Wine  added  to  curd  rapidly  ripens  cheese. 

If  cheese  aids  digestion,  it  is  the  kind  in  which 
the  process  of  decay  has  begun,  which  by  induc- 
ing decomposition  in  the  food  already  taken, 
acts  as  sour  leaven  does  when  incorporated 
with  dough. 

Cheese  is  made  from  the  milk  of  goats,  sheep, 
and  asses,  as  well  as  cows.  The  Tartars  get 
their  cheese  from  mares’  milk,  the  Bedouins  of 
the  desert  from  camels’.  In  tropical  climates 
buffalo’s  milk  is  used,  and  the  Laplander  makes 
a delicious  cheese  from  reindeer’s  milk.  The 


CHEESE 


CHERRY 


95 


Chinese  have  made  cheese  from  peas  and 
beans.  In  parts  of  Germany  potatoes  are 
boiled,  mashed  and  mixed  with  the  curd.  In 
Arabia  and  the  East  a most  unpalatable  cheese 
is  made  by  drying  butter-milk  curds  into 
cheese,  which  is  powdered  for  use. 

Cheese-making  is  more  than  4000  years  old. 
In  the  book  of  Job  (chap.  x.  10)  is  found, 
“ Hast  thou  not  poured  me  out  as  milk  and 
curdled  me  like  cheese.” 

Homer  (900  B.  C.)  in  the  Odyssey,  makes 
Ulysses,  in  the  cave  of  the  Cyclops,  admire 
“ the  bending  shelves  with  loads  of  cheeses 
prest.” 

Euripides,  (407  B.  C.)  Theocritus,  and  the 
early  poets,  frequently  allude  to  it.  Jt  was  a 
common  species  of  food  in  ancient  Rome. 

Varieties  in  Market. 

The  following  cheeses  can  generally  be 
found  in  the  New  York  stores.  It  is  best  to 
take  the  advice  of  a reliable  dealer,  regarding 
the  quantity  of  any  cheese  that  it  is  wise  to 
lay  in  at  a time. 

Strong , in  this  list,  means  of  a high  flavor 
and  odor,  but  not  necessarily  sharp.  Most 
new  cheeses  are  relatively  mild,  and  develope 
their  characteristics,  especially  sharpness, 
with  age. 

American  Cheeses — Pine  Apple, — English 
Dairy  (imitations  of),  Factory,  and  the  home- 
made Cottage  cheese,  like  the  Schmeer  Kase 
of  the  Germans. 

None  of  the  American  cheeses  are  classed 
among  strong  cheeses.  They  are  good  all 
the  year  around,  but  the  Cottage  is  best  in 
summer. 

English  Cheeses  (Of  variable  strength, 
sometimes  sharp). — Stilton  comes  first  in 
fame  and  price.  It  is  so  named  from  the 
place  where  it  was  first  sold.  The  cheeses 
are  mostly  manufactured  in  Leicestershire.  It 
takes  two  years  to  properly  mature  the  cheese 
for  use;  then  it  becomes  decayed,  blue,  and 
moist.  It  is  a common  trick  to  hasten  its 
maturity  by  putting  each  separate  cheese  in  a 
bucket  and  covering  it  with  horse  dung.  This 
rapidly  gives  the  required  appearance  of  matur- 
ity- 

In  a district  of  Ross-shire  they  ripen  their 
cheeses  to  make  them  like  Stilton,  by  burying 
them  below  high-water  mark. 

Cottenham. — A strong  kind  of  Stilton. 

Cheddar  (Mild).  ■ — Made  from  new  milk, 
retaining  its  natural  cream. 

English  Dairy  (Medium). 

Dutch  Cheese.  — Dutchmans  Head  or 
Edam  (Medium).  — Not  equal  to  the  best 
cheeses  of  England,  being  hard. 

French  Cheeses  are  generally  for  winter 
consumption,  and  come  to  us  only  from  October 
to  May. 

Brie  Cheeses  (Mild). — Are  made  from  cream. 

Camembert  (Strong). — A little  like  the  Swiss. 

Mont  d’Or( Mild). — From  central  France. 
Made  from  goats’  milk. 


Pont  de  Salu  (Very  strong). 

Pont  d'Evlque  (Mild). — A very  pleasant 
cheese.  More  flavor  than  Brie. 

Roquefort  (Medium  and  sharp)— Made  from 
the  milk  of  goats  and  sheep,  and  ripened  with 
great  care  in  caverns 

Solferino  (Strong). 

German  Cheeses. — Lim  burger  {very  stron°). 
—Not  considered  ready  for  consumption  until 
partly  putrified. 

Schabzieger  or  Sap  Sago— Which  gets  its 
green  color  from  melitot  leaves. 

Italian  Cheeses.  — Livarno  (Strong).  Par- 
mesan (Medium — slightly  sharp). — From  the 
most  fertile  Milanese  territory,  it  is  so  full  of 
oil  that  it  has  been  erroneously  supposed  that 
oil  was  added  to  the  curd.  It  was  formerly 
supposed  to  be  made  from  goat’s  milk,  but 
it  is  made  merely  of  skimmed  cow’s  milk 
manipulated  in  a peculiar  way.  The  best  Par- 
mesan is  kept  three  or  foilr  years,  and  none  is 
sent  to  market  until  it  is  at  least  six  months 
old. 

Scotch  Cheese. — (Dunlop.)—  Which  gets 
its  flavor  from  lovage  leaves,  is  the  only  one 
known  here. 

Swiss  Cheeses. — Gruyere  is  the  best  of 
the  Swiss  cheeses,  many  of  which  are  cele- 
brated. It  is  made  in  the  canton  of  Fribourg. 
Its  peculiar  flavor  is  said  to  be  owing  to  the 
herbage  of  the  mountain  pastures  on  which 
the  cows  feed. 

Neufchatel  (Variable). — Is  sold  in  small 
rolls,  covered  with  tin-foil;  it  is  simply  a cream 
cheese  such  as  is  described  above. 

CHERRY. — This  is  one  of  the  most  de- 
licious of  the  summer  fruits.  Among  the  many 
varieties  which  appear  in  the  markets  the 
Ox-hearts  and  White-hearts  are  the  best ; but 
besides  these  are  the  Black-hearts,  May-dukes, 
Dikemans,  Black-mazzards,  Black-eagle,  Honey, 
and  Kentish  or  common  sour  cherries.  They 
ripen  at  the  South  as  early  as  the  middle  of 
May,  and  thence  find  their  way  to  northern 
markets ; and  from  this  time  till  August  they 
are  abundant  in  favorable  seasons.  Cherries 
make  an  excellent  and  refreshing  dessert,  and 
their  flavor  is  much  improved  by  putting  them 
on  ice  an  hour  or  two  before  serving  them. 
The  Kentish  or  common  sour  cherries  are 
much  used  for  pies,  tarts,  puddings,  and  the 
like.  Wild  cherries  are  a little  purplish-black 
berry  growing  in  long  bunches  and  looking 
more  like  currants  than  the  cultivated  varieties. 
They  have  a sweetish,  pungent,  and  slightly 
insipid  taste  ; and  are  considered  wholesome  as 
long  as  the  seeds  are  not  swallowed  or  cracked 
in  the  mouth.  Cultivation  has  improved  the 
wild  cherry  much,  both  in  taste  and  size,  and 
no  doubt  more  could  be  done  in  this  direction. 

Bounce  (Cherry). — Take  ten  pounds  of  cher- 
ries— half  of  sour  and  half  of  sweet — and  beat 
them  to  a pulp  in  a deep  wooden  tub ; then 
put  them  into  an  earthen-ware  jar,  stir  in  three 
pounds  of  white  sugar,  and  add  five  quarts  of 
good  whiskey.  Stir  together  thoroughly  and 
decant  it  into  a demijohn,  where  it  can  be 


96 


CHESTNUT 


CHICKEN 


corked  up  tightly.  Shake  every  day  for  four 
weeks  ; then  let  it  stand  four  weeks  without 
shaking.  Then  strain  and  bottle  for  use. 
Cherry  bounce  improves  as  it  grows  older. 

Brandy  (Cherry).— This  is  made  by  simply 
dropping  ripe  wild  cherries  into  good  brandy, 
corking  it  up  tightly  and  leaving  them  to  soak 
for  at  least  two  months.  It  is  pleasant,  but 
highly  intoxicating,  and  should  not  be  drunk 
often  nor  in  large  quantities. 

CHESTNUT. — The  chestnut  is  the  most 
farinaceous  and  least  oily  of  all  the  nuts  and  is 
consequently  very  easy  of  digestion.  T he 
American  variety  grows  very  abundant  in  the 
Middle  States,  Virginia,  the  Carolinas,  and  the 
upper  part  of  Georgia.  It  ripens  with  the  first 
frost  and  continues  in  season  throughout  the 
winter.  The  European  or  Spanish  chestnut  is 
a much  larger  variety,  but  is  not  so  sweet  nor  so 
daintily  flavored.  In  Italy,  Spain  and  the  south 
of  France  they  are  a staple  article  of  food  and 
are  prepared  in  a variety  of  ways.  A well-known 
English  writer  on  food  says : “ Chestnuts 

stewed  with  cream  make  a much  admired  dish, 
and  many  families  prefer  them  to  all  other  stuf- 
fings for  turkeys  : they  make  an  excellent  soup, 
and  I have  no  doubt  that  chestnuts  might  be 
advantageously  used  in  cooking  so  as  to  make 
many  agreeable  and  wholesome  dishes.  I have 
had  them  stewed  and  brought  to  the  table  with 
salt  fish,  when  they  have  been  much  admired  ; 
but  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  introduce  any 
article  of  food  that  has  not  been  sanctioned  by 
long  custom.”  In  boiling  them,  add  enough 
salt  to  give  the  water  a strong  flavor.  In  roast- 
ing cut  a slice  in  the  rind  before  putting  them 
in  the  fire.  In  keeping  them,  occasionally  pick 
out  the  wormy  ones. 

CHEST-PROTECTOR.— A pad  of  flannel, 
or  other  suitable  material,  to  be  suspended  over 
the  chest.  Of  special  use  when  gentlemen 
change  temporarily  in  cold  weather  from  high 
vest  and  scarf  to  low  vest  and  neck-tie.  Its  use 
in  such  changes  can  not  be  too  strongly  urged. 

CHICKEN  (For  instructions  as  to  raising 
see  Poultry.  Also  see  Birds). — The  term 
“chicken”  is  commonly  applied  by  poulterers 
to  all  fowls  under  a year  old ; but  properly 
speaking  it  includes  only  the  female  fowls  un- 
der four  months  old  and  the  males  that  are 
less  than  three  months.  From  four  months  to 
twelve  months  the  females  are  pullets  and 
after  that  hens ; the  males  are  cocks  after  the 
age  of  seven  or  eight  months,  and  are  only  fit 
for  soup  or  boiling  when  more  than  a year  old. 
When  very  young  the  males  and  females  are 
equally  delicate  and  tender.  (See  Capon.)  In 
the  opinion  of  physicians  the  flesh  of  the 
chicken  at  three  months  old  is  the  most  deli- 
cate and  easy  to  digest  of  all  animal  food ; 
hence  it  is  peculiarly  adapted  for  the  stomach 
of  invalids  or  the  constitutionally  weak. 

The  best  mode  of  killing  chickens  is  by 
wringing  the  neck,  but  if  this  is  not  done  skil- 
fully so  as  to  break  the  spinal  cord  at  the  start 
it  causes  much  suffering.  The  practice  of 
killing  them  by  sticking  a knife  through  the 


upper  jaw  into  the  brain  and  picking  them 
while  they  bleed  slowly  to  death  is  inexcusably 
cruel. 

In  selecting  chickens  (for  purposes  of 
convenience  we  shall  include  all  we  have  to 
say  about  fowls  under  this  head)  choose  those 
in  which  the  eyes  are  full  and  bright,  and  the 
feet  moist,  soft,  and  limber.  When  stale  the 
eyes  will  be  dry  and  sunken,  and  the  feet  and 
legs  dry  and  stiff;  if  very  stale  the  body  or 
some  parts  of  it  will  be  dark-colored,  and 
sometimes  green.  To  distinguish  a chicken 
from  an  old  fowl,  see  that  the  lower  end  of  the 
breast-bone  is  soft  like  gristle,  and  that  the 
spurs  (of  the  male)  are  soft,  loose,  and  short ; 
when  old  the  comb  and  legs  are  rough,  the 
spurs  hard  and  firmly  fixed,  and  both  cock  and 
hen  have  a hard  breast  bone.  The  very  young 
broiling  chickens  are  about  the  size  of  a quail 
or  partridge ; of  these  select  the  plumpest. 
Never  take  chickens  of  any  kind  which  have 
been  brought  to  market  dead  and  with  the  en- 
trails in  ; and  never  eat  them  until  they  have 
been  dead  at  least  eight  hours.  Before  cook- 
ing chickens  wash  them  out  well  in  two  waters, 
then  if  there  is  any  odor  in  the  cavity  add  a 
little  soda  to  the  water  and  wash  them  out 
again. 

Boiled  Chicken.— Prepare  the  fowl  as  above. 
Make  stuffing  of  one  cupful  of  bread-crumbs, 
one  tablespoonful  of  butter,  one  egg,  half  a 
teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  one  tablespoonful  of 
sweet  marjoram  ; mix  them  well  together,  and 


stuff  in  as  much  as  the  fowl  will  hold.  Put 
the  fowl  into  a pot  of  water  in  which  a piece 
of  salt  pork  has  been  boiling  for  some  time, 
and  boil  steadily  from  one  to  two  hours  accord- 
ing to  size.  Pork  is  not  absolutely  necessary 
in  boiling  chickens,  but  it  greatly  improves  it ; 
if  not  used  add  some  salt  to  the  boiling  water. 
A chicken  should  never  be  boiled  unless  it  is 
old  and  tough. 

Broiled  Chicken. — Chickens  for  broiling 
should  be  young  and  tender ; if  at  all  tough 
suspend  them  for  half  an  hour  over  the  vapor 
of  a steaming  kettle.  Split  them  down  the 
breast;  salt  both  sides  and  butter  them  slightly; 
then  lay  them  inside  downward  on  a buttered 
gridiron  and  broil  till  brown,  turning  them 
several  times.  It  will  take  from  a half  to 
three-quarters  of  an  hour.  When  done,  butter 
them  well  and  serve  smoking  hot. 

Broth  (Chicken). — Boil  a chicken  until  the 
flesh  separates  from  the  bones,  then  skim  and 
season  with  a little  salt.  A little  rice  may  be 
added,  and  if  desired  a sprig  of  parsley  may  be 


CHICKEN 


CHICKEN  POX 


97 


used  to  flavor  it.  This  is  an  excellent  food  for 
invalids  and  will  be  relished  when  the  stomach 
rejects  almost  everything  else. 

Croquettes,  (Chicken.)  See  Croquettes. 

Fricassee  (Chicken.) — Joint  the  fowls,  wash 
and  put  them  in  a sauce-pan  with  hardly  enough 
cold  water  to  cover  them;  add  half  a dozen  thin 
slices  of  salt  pork  arid  one  or  two  grated  onions  ; 
heat  slowly  and  boil  very  gently  until  the  chick- 
ens are  tender ; then  season  with  pepper,  add  half 
a pint  of  milk,  two  well  beaten  eggs  and  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  flour  mixed  to  a smooth  cream 
with  a little  of  the  milk;  stir  slowly  while  it 
simmers  for  a few  moments,  then  serve  hot, 
having  placed  the  breasts  across  the  centre  of 
the  platter  and  arranged  the  legs  and  wings 
around  them ; garnish  with  rice  boiled  dry. 

If  it  is  desired  to  have  the  chicken  brown, 
stew  it  without  the  pork,  meanwhile  fry  the 
pork,  and  when  the  chicken  is  tender  take  it 
out  of  the  pot,  and  fry  it  in  the  pork  fat  until  it 
is  a light  brown,  adding  a little  minced  parsley; 
then  dish  and  pour  the  gravy  over  it. 

Fried  Chicken. — Chickens  for  frying  must 
be  young  and  tender.  Joint  them,  wash  and 
wipe  them  dry.  sprinkle  pepper  over  them,  and 
roll  them  in  flour.  Fry  some  salt  pork  until 
all  the  grease  is  extracted ; and  in  this  fat  fry 
the  chicken  until  each  piece  is  a rich  brown  on 
both  sides.  Dish  (in  a hot  dish),  and  make  a 
gravy  by  adding  to  the  fat  and  a teacupful  of 
milk,  a tablespoonful  of  flour  ; pour  this  gravy 
over  the  chicken  and  serve  hot.  Or  the  chick- 
en may  be  served  without  gravy. 

Pot-pie  (Chicken). — Cut  a large  chicken 
into  six  or  eight  pieces,  and  also  half  a pound 
of  salt  pork ; put  a pint  of  hot  water  into  a pot, 
lay  in  some  of  the  pork,  then  a layer  of  the 
chicken,  then  some  paste  dumplings,  and  above 
these  some  boiled  potatoes  sliced : cover  with 
a thick  pie-crust,  slit  this  crust  across  the  top, 
heat  slowly  and  boil  for  an  hour  and  a half  or 
two  hours.  Brown  the  crust  by  putting  a hot 
oven-lid  over  the  pot  for  some  minutes  ; remove 
this  crust  without  breaking;  empty  the  chicken 
into  a dish  and  place  the  crust  over  it. 

Roast  Chicken. — Wash  the  chicken  clean  ; 
stuff  as  directed  for  boiling ; baste  thoroughly 
with  butter  or  lard  ; and  roast  about  an  hour, 


Chicken  for  Roasting. 


turning  it  frequently.  Stew  the  inwards  till 
tender,  and  till  only  a little  water  remains ; cut 
them  up  fine  ; mix  in  gravy  from  dripping-pan, 
thicken  with  browned  flour,  and  season  with 
butter,  salt,  and  pepper.  Crab-apple  or  cran- 
berry sauce  is  excellent  to  eat  with  it. 

7 


Salad  (Chicken). — This  is  made  of  cold 
chicken.  Take  the  meat  from  the  bones  and 
cut  it  up  into  very  small  pieces  ; cut  the  white 
parts  of  celery  into  pieces  about  half  an  inch 
long,  and  mix  about  as  much  with  the  chicken 
as  there  is  of  the  latter.  Just  before  it  is  sent 
to  the  table,  pour  over  it  a dressing,  made  as 
follows: — Mix  one  even  teaspoonful  of  dry 
mustard,  two  of  salt,  one  and  a half  of  vinegar ; 
and  a pinch  of  cayenne  ; add  a raw  egg,  beat  it 
well,  and  then  beat  in  thoroughly  half  a pint  of 
sweet  oil,  as  it  is  added  in  a thread-like  stream ; 
flavor  with  vinegar  or  lemon  juice.  Arrange 
the  delicate  leaves  of  the  celery  around  the 
edges  of  the  dish.  Crisp  and  tender  lettuce 
may  be  used  in  the  salad  instead  of  celery.  It 
is  customary  to  eat  bread  and  butter  or  crack- 
ers with  chicken  salad. 

Stewed  Chicken. — i.  Cut  the  chicken  into 
pieces  as  for  frying.  Put  them  in  a sauce-pan 
with  a tablespoonful  of  butter,  and  let  them 
remain  until  slightly  browned  ; then  take  the 
chicken  off,  and  stir  into  the  gravy  two  tea- 
spoonfuls of  flour,  one  onion  minced  fine, 
halfa  dozen  sprigs  of  minced  parsley,  and 
half  a teaspoonful  of  salt.  Add  a pint  of 
broth  (or  half  a pint  of  broth  and  half  a pint 
of  wine),  put  the  chicken  back  into  the  pan, 
stew  gently  till  tender,  and  serve  with  the 
sauce. 

2.  (With  Celery.) — Select  a tender  chicken 
of  medium  size,  stuff  as  for  boiling,  and  put  it 
in  a sauce-pan  or  pot.  Cut  a large  head  of 
celery  into  small  bits,  mix  it  with  an  onion 
minced  fine,  and  season  with  white  pepper, 
salt,  and  a teaspoonful  of  mace ; put  this  all 
around  the  chicken,  cover  the  whole  with  boil- 
ing water  and  set  it  where  it  will  simmer  for 
two  hours  or  until  done.  Dish  the  chicken, 
and  prepare  a gravy  for  it  as  follows : mix 
together  three  ounces  of  butter  and  two  table- 
spoonfuls of  flour,  and  stir  it  into  the  gravy 
in  the  sauce-pan  ; add  a teacupful  of  cream,  let 
the  whole  come  to  a boil,  and  pour  it  over  the 
chicken. 

CHICKEN  POX.  — A disease  of  a very 
mild  character  to  which  infants  and  young 
children  are  liable.  It  is  usually  preceded  by 
a slight  feverishness,  and  after  two  or  three 
days  a few  reddish  spots,  small  oval  blisters 
like  pearls,  appear  about  the  shoulders,  chest 
and  arms,  and  sometimes  on  the  face  and  head. 
These  blisters  are  accompanied  by  consider- 
able itching,  which  causes  them  to  be  soon 
broken  ; and  about  the  fifth  day  they  begin  to 
dry  up  into  scales,  which  fall  off  in  a few  days, 
leaving  a slight  discoloration  and  occasionally 
a slight  pitting  of  the  skirK  Sometimes,  in 
delicate  children,  the  blisters  become  pustular, 
and  are  accompanied  by  high  fever;  but  in 
general  the  disease  is  unattended  with  danger, 
and  requires  no  other  treatment  than  attention 
to  diet,  laxative  medicines  and  cooling  drinks. 
Care  must  be  taken,  however,  lest  the  child 
catch  cold  during  this  trifling  disease,  or  se- 
rious lung  disease  may  result.  Chicken  pox  is 
contagious 


98 


CHICORY 


CHILDREN 


CHICORY,  or  Succory,  or  Wild  Endive, 

is  a plant  belonging  to  the  dandelion  family, 
and  grows  wild  in  many  portions  of  the  United 
States,  and  in  most  parts  of  Europe.  It 
blossoms  here  in  August  and  September,  and 
may  be  easily  recognized  by  its  bright  blue 
flowers.  In  its  wild  state,  chicory  sends  up  a 
stem  from  one  to  three  feet  in  height,  though 
under  cultivation  it  often  attains  six  feet.  The 
young  shoots  and  leaves  are  very  generally 
used  in  France  for  salads,  sauces,  and  the 
like,  and  the  green  root  is  said  to  equal  pars- 
nips when  cooked  in  the  same  way;  but  at 
present  the  root  only  is  employed  to  adulterate 
coffee  or  to  make  a separate  beverage  ; proba- 
bly half  the  ground  coffee  sold  in  this  country 
contains  fifty  per  cent,  of  chicory.  Large 
crops  of  it  are  raised  for  the  acknowledged 
purpose  of  adulterating  coffee.  The-  roots 
are  dried,  cut  into  bits,  and  roasted ; when 
ground  it  is  of  the  same  color  as  coffee,  but  it 
has  neither  the  essential  oil  nor  the  aromatic 
flavor  of  coffee.  In  fact  it  has  been  found  by 
chemical  analysis  that  chicory  possesses  but 
few  elements  in  common  with  coffee,  and  con- 
tains very  little  of  the  nutritive  properties  so 
often  claimed  for  it.  It  cases  where  it  is  used 
for  a long  time  its  effects  are  often  deleterious, 
especially  upon  the  nervous  system.  For  this 
reason,  notwithstanding  its  cheapness,  and  its 
agreeable  taste,  it  cannot  be  recommended  as  a 
beverage.  (See  Endive.) 

CHILBLAINS. — These  are  simply  a mild 
form  of  frost  bite  ; though  not  dangerous  they 
are  troublesome,  and  if  neglected,  may  produce 
sores  which  may  last  all  winter.  As  they 
usually  appear,  the  skin  (generally  of  the  toes, 
heel,  or  ball  of  the  foot)  is  reddened  and 
somewhat  swelled,  painful  on  pressure,  with 
considerable  tingling  and  itching  ; if  severe  they 
sometimes  proceed  to  ulceration.  When  they 
are  formed  but  not  broken,  rub  them  well  two 
or  three  times  a day  with  a lotion  made  of 
equal  parts  or  turpentine  and  laudanum ; or 
sweet  oil  and  spirits  of  turpentine  ; or  make  an 
ointment  of  dry  mustard  and  lard  (a  teaspoonful 
of  mustard  to  an  ounce  of  lard).  The  opiate 
liniment  of  the  Pharmacopasia  is  an  excellent  ap- 
plication. If  the  skin  is  broken  none  of  the  above 
must  be  used.  Make  an  ointment  of  pure  mut- 
ton suet  and  powdered  chalk,  by  stirring  the 
chalk  into  the  melted  suet ; or  mix  warm  suet 
with  whiting  to  a stiff  paste.  Spread  on  a 
piece  of  linen,  and  apply  to  the  sore,  wrapping 
it  up  in  a bandage,  or  still  better  get  a drachm 
or  two  of  red  precipitate  ointment  from  the 
apothecary.  Chilblains,  when  once  they  have 
formed  lodgment,  have  a tendency  to  return 
every  winter ; persons  liable  to  them  should 
avoid  sudden  alternations  of  heat  and  cold,  and 
may  bathe  the  threatened  parts  in  alcohol,  or 
stimulating  lotions.  When  their  feet  are  cold 
and  damp,  they  should  at  once  put  on  dry 
stockings. 

CHILDREN. — Medical  writers  have  found 
it  convenient  to  divide  childhood  into  two 
distinct  periods : first,  that  of  infancy,  which 


extends,  to  put  it  in  round  numbers,  to  the  end 
of  the  second  year ; and  second,  that  of  child- 
hood proper,  which  ends  only  when  the  chil- 
dren have  reached  maturity.  The  rules  to  be 
laid  down  are  so  different  in  the  two  stages 
that  they  can  very  well  be  separated  from  each 
other,  and  we  shall  treat  here  only  of  children 
who  have  entered  upon  the  second  period  ; 
for  what  we  have  to  say  of  very  young  children 
see  Infants. 

Of  course  there  are  many  suggestions  which 
apply  equally  in  both  stages  ; it  is  always  im- 
portant, for  instance,  that  the  nursery  should 
be  thoroughly  ventilated,  that  the  most  scru- 
pulous cleanliness  should  be  preserved  in  it, 
and  that  the  daily  bath  for  each  child  should  be 
considered  not  a luxury  but  a necessity.  This 
latter  is  often  neglected,  but  it  is  really  essen- 
tial to  perfect  health.  Vital  processes  are  much 
more  rapid  in  children  than  in  adults,  they 
throw  off  a larger  portion  of  refuse  matter  pro- 
portionately in  a day,  and  enough  of  this 
refuse  is  discharged  through  the  skin  to  ren- 
der a complete  bath  each  day  necessary  to 
cleanliness.  If  this  is  given  rightly,  children 
will  soon  learn  to  enjoy,  and  even  demand  it  ; 
but  there  are  one  or  two  facts  which  must  be 
borne  in  mind.  Some  children  have  a nervous 
horror  of  cold  baths  who  will  take  kindly  to  a 
tepid  one  ; and  others  seem  to  have  a hearty 
preference  for  the  cold.  It  is  safe  in  such 
cases  to  consult  the  child’s  wishes,  though 
after  the  period  of  infancy  it  is  desirable  to 
accustom  them  to  baths  not  warmer  than  luke- 
warm,— frequent  warm  baths  have  a debilitating 
effect.  It  is  nof  necessary  to  use  soap  every 
time  children  are  bathed,  and  when  it  is  used 
it  should-  be  purified  white  or  castile  soap. 
(See  Soap.)  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  child 
is  wiped  dry,  and  a gentle  friction  is  excellent 
for  the  skin. 

Diet. — The  time  of  weaning  is  the  most 
critical  period  in  a child’s  early  life,  and  great 
caution  must  be  observed  in  introducing  it  to 
new  food.  Even  if  it  has  been  “ raised  on  the 
bottle”  the  time  has  now  come  when  the  diet 
must  be  amplified,  and  this  is  a matter  of  such 
importance  that  the  mother  should  keep  a con- 
stant oversight  over  it  and  put  a stop  at  once 
to  the  use  of  any  article  that  is  found  to  be 
injurious.  “ The  rule  should  be  scrupulously 
adhered  to,  and  only  the  simplest  and  most 
easily  digested  food  is  to  be  used.  Spiced 
dishes  ; those  which  are  commonly  called  very 
rich,  that  is,  in  which  there  is  a great  deal  of 
butter  or  fatty  substance  ; pickles  of  all  sorts  ; 
most  fruits  preserved  in  thick  syrup; — all  this 
class  of  substances  are  to  be  absolutely  forbid- 
den. Milk  may  still  be  freely  allowed,  and  should 
constitute  at  least  a large  part  of  at  least  one 
meal  every  day.  The  ordinary  simple  vege- 
tables may  generally  be  used  if  well  cooked, 
except  cabbages,  green  corn  and  beans,  whether 
green  or  dry.  The  vegetables  which  are  eaten 
uncooked  should  be  forbidden,  as  they  are, 
without  exception,  difficult  of  digestion.  Most 
nuts  and  dried  fruits  are  injurious ; boiled 


CHILDREN 


09 


chestnuts  ought  to  be  prohibited.  Sugar  is 
often  blamed  for  much  that  it  does  not  do. 
When  given  at  meal  times,  and  in  moderate 
quantities,  I do  not  remember  to  have  seen 
it  do  any  harm.  ' Candies,  however,  I do 
not  include  in  this  remark.  These  are 
often  injurious  from  the  effect  of  other 
ingredients  than  the  sugar;  those  which 
are  painted  are  especially  to  be  avoided,  the 
paint  often  containing  very  poisonous  com- 
pounds of  lead,  arsenic,  and  other  metals.”  * 
A white  potato,  roasted,  not  boiled,  should 
be  the  first  vegetable  given  to  a child ; but 
in  the  summer  time  its  effect  should  be 
carefully  watched,  and  if  the  stomach  is  de- 
ranged it  must  be  discontinued.  One  of  the 
most  fruitful  sources  of  sickness  with  young 
children  is  giving  them  animal  food  indis- 
criminately, and  too  often.  Beef,  mutton,  and 
chicken  are  the  only  articles  fit  for  children ; 
duck,  goose,  and  poultry  in  general  ought  to  be 
avoided. 

There  is  probably  no  practice  more  injurious 
than  that  of  allowing  children  to  eat  at  short 
intervals  through  the  day.  It  is  necessary  that 
the  stomach  should  rest  between  meals. 
“After  a certain  amount  of  food  has  been 
taken  into  it,”  to  quote  again  from  Dr.  Parker, 
“digestion  commences,  and  if  no  more  than 
proper  is  eaten,  or  it  be  not  too  unmanageable, 
it  is  all  dissolved  and  passed  into  the  intestines. 
After  the  stomach  has  thus  disposed  of  a meal, 
it  ought  to  have  time  to  rest,  for  it  is  no  more 
possible  for  the  stomach  to  keep  digesting  all 
the  time,  than  it  is  for  the  legs  to  keep  walking 
all  the  time.  If  it  is  attemped  to  make  it  do 
so,  it  becomes  exhausted  and  weakened,  and 
then  cannot  digest  even  proper  quantities  of 
simple  food.  This  produces  what  is  generally 
known  as  dyspepsia,  and  is  attended  by  sour 
stomach  and  many  other  inconveniences.”  The 
rule  should  be  that  children,  as  well  as  grown 
people,  should  have  regular  hours  for  their 
meals,  and  not  be  allowed  to  eat  between  them. 
They  will  usually  be  willing  to  go  three  or 
four  hours,  and  'they  can  be  allowed  to  eat 
oftener  than  adults,  provided  it  is  at  regular 
times. 

Dress. — The  human  body,  like  any  other 
thing  of  greater  warmth  than  the  surrounding 
air,  has  a constant  tendency  to  part  with  its 
excess  of  heat  by  radiation,  of  course  the 
greater  the  surface  exposed  the  more  readily 
will  radiation  occur ; and  yet,  in  compliance 
with  a reckless  and  ignorant  fashion,  we  con- 
stantly see  children  with  arms,  chest,  and  legs 
bared  in  the  coldest  weather.  Of  the  danger 
involved  in  this,  a distinguished  Paris  physi- 
cian says  : — “ I believe  that  during  the  twenty 
years  I have  practised  my  profession  in  this 
city,  20,000  children  have  been  carried  to  the 
cemeteries,  a sacrfice  to  the  custom  of  ex- 
posing their  arms  naked.  Put  the  bulb  of 
a thermometer  in  a baby’s  mouth,  the  mer- 
cury rises  to  99°.  Now  carry  the  same  to  its 

* 7^le  Hand-book  for  Mothers;  a guide  to  the  care  of  young 
children,  by  Edward  H.  Parker,  M.  D.,  New  York. 


little  hand ; if  the  arm  be  bare,  and  the  even- 
ing cool,  the  mercury  will  sink  to  50°.  Of 
course  all  the  blood  that  flows  through  these 
arms  must  fall  from  io°  to  40°  degrees  be- 
low the  temperature  of  the  heart  Need  I say, 
when  these  currents  of  blood  flow  back  into 
the  chest,  the  child’s  vitality  must  be  more 
or  less  compromised  ? And  need  I add 
that  we  ought  not  to  be  surprised  at  the  fre- 
quent recurring  affections  of  the  tongue,  throat, 
and  stomach  ? I have  seen  more  than  one 
child  with  habitual  cough  and  hoarseness, 
choking  with  mucus,  entirely  and  permanent- 
ly relieved  by  simply  keeping  the  hands  and 
arms  warm.”  Children  should  not  only  be 
warmly  clad,  but  every  part  of  the  body  should 
have  equal  protection.  The  low-necked,  short, 
and  sleeveless  dresses  in  which  mothers  are 
so  fond  of  showing  off  young  children,  is  a 
vanity  which  cannot  be  indulged  with  safety 
in  all  latitudes  and  seasons.  During  the 
severe  winters  in  the  northern  portions  of 
our  country,  there  should  be  no  portion  of 
the  surface  of  a child’s  body  exposed  to  the 
external  air.  It  is  folly  to  attempt  to  “hard- 
en ” it  by  exposure ; the  skin  in  a healthy  con- 
dition is  always  soft,  and  open,  and  always 
retains  its  sensibility  to  changes  of  tempera- 
ture. Our  houses  are  so  warm,  however,  that 
it  is  well  to  make  a marked  difference  between 
indoor  and  outdoor  clothing ; this  is  best  done 
by  relying  for  extra  warmth  upon  coats,  cloaks, 
furs  and  such  exterior  garments  as  can  easily 
be  put  on  and  off.  If  the  ordinary  clothing 
be  too  heavy,  that  worn  on  going  out  is  apt 
to  be  too  light  to  protect  the  body  against  the 
difference  in  temperature,  a danger  which  is 
especially  to  be  avoided.  Children’s  clothing 
should  be  made  so  as  to  fit  loosely  and  easily, 
and  to  give  free  play  to  every  kind  of  exercise 
of  body  and  limb.  Especially  should  no  por- 
tion of  it  be  allowed  to  bind  tightly  any  por- 
tion of  the  frame.  Not  only  will  the  tight- 
ening of  the  dress  cause  permanent  distor- 
tion, and  thus  defeat  the  very  ends  for  which 
such  dresses  are  used,  but  will  so  interfere 
with  the  regular  circulation  of  the  blood  and 
action  of  the  various  organs  as  to  produce 
functional  derangement,  and  often  fatal  dis- 
ease. As  the  children  grow  up,  the  clothing 
of  the  boy  is  generally  sensible  enough; 
but  in  the  case  of  girls  the  pernicious  prac- 
tice of  wearing  corsets  and  tight  belts  is  too 
often  permitted  by  mothers  in  weak  def- 
erence to  a fashion  which  is  not  only  very  un- 
healthy but  perverted  in  taste.  “ The  proper 
way  to  dress  a young  girl,”  says  Miss  Beecher, 
in  her  “American  Woman’s  Home”  “is  to 
have  a cotton  or  flannel  close-fitting  jacket  next 
the  body,  to  which  the  drawers  should  be  but- 
toned. Over  this  place  the  chemise;  and  over 
that  such  a jacket  as  the  one  here  drawn,  to 
which  should  be  buttoned  the  hoops  and  other 
skirts.  Thus  every  article  of  dress  will  be  sup- 
ported by  the  shoulders.  The  sleeves  of  the 
jacket  can  be  omitted,  and  in  that  case  a strong 


100  . 


CHILDREN 


lining,  and  also  a tape  binding,  must  surround 
the  arm  hole,  which  should  be  loose.” 

Concerning  their  night  dress,  if  the  child 
should  be  in  the  habit  of  constantly  kick- 
ing off  the  covering  it  is  well  to  substitute 
for  the  ordinary  night-gown,  a pair  of  drawers 
with  a body  reaching  up  to  the  neck  and 
with  legs  long  enough  to  cover  the  feet.  It 
can  open  either  behind  or  in  front,  and  has 
the  advantage  for  the  child,  that  if  it  does 
kick  off  the  coverings  it  is  not  entirely  ex- 
posed. The  thinness  of  the  material  of  which 
it  is  made  should  vary  with  the  season ; 
red  flannel  is  excellent  in  winter.  For  direc- 
tions for  cutting  children’s  clothes,  see  Chil- 
dren’s Clothing. 

Signs  of  disease. — To  those  who  are  not 
accustomed  to  the  care  of  children  it  seems  a 
difficult  matter  to  ascertain  when  they  are  sick, 
or  this  being  known,  to  tell  what  is  the  matter. 
There  is  not,  however,  as  much  difficulty  as 
might  be  anticipated;  but  in  order  that  the 
physician  may  form  a right  judgment  it  is  ne- 
cessary for  the  mother  to  observe  carefully  any 
peculiarities  which  the  child  presents.  Even 
before  children  talk,  or  learn  the  sign  language 
which  precedes  speech,  they  give  very  certain 
indications  of  sickness;  and  these  must  form 
the  basis  of  any  intelligent  treatment.  The 
healthy  child  is  usually  very  active ; its  eye  is 
bright,  and  it  is  almost  constantly  running 
about  or  occupied  with  its  toys.  When  the 
child  becomes  sick  this  ceases.  The  eyes 
become  either  dull  and  heavy  or  else  extremely 
bright ; it  lies  still,  or  if  it  runs  about,  it  is 
languidly  and  with  difficulty,  and  but  for  a few 
moments.  When  this  is  observed,  the  child 
should  be  watched,  for  further  symptoms. 
Some  of  the  earliest  and  most  common  signs 
of  disease  are  derived  from  the  heat  of  the 
body,  which  changes  both  generally  and 
locally. 

In  health  the  skin  of  the  child  is  warm,  and 


the  surface  feels  smooth  and  soft.  In  a great 
many  diseases  it  becomes  very  hot  throughout 
its  whole  extent,  giving  to  the  hands  and  head 
especially  a sensatiorf  of  burning,  while  the 
skin  seems  rough  and  hard.  This  dry,  burn- 
ing, general  heat  does  not  imply  the  existence 
of  any  special  disease,  but  it  shows  that  there 
is  some  disturbance  of  economy,  the  cause  of 
which  should  be  looked  for  and  if  possible 
removed.  The  palms  of  the  hands  in  partic- 
ular are  often  found  to  be  unusually  hot,  and 
by  the  early  observance  of  this  symptom  the 
physician  or  the  parent  may  obtain  a clue  to  the 
existence  of  other  disturbances.  Still  the  child 
is  not  to  be  considered  sick  for  this  reason 
only.  Generally  it  only  indicates  the  necessity 
of  providing  less  fatiguing  sports,  or  longer 
periods  of  rest  for  the  child ; or  else  of  guard- 
ing against  any  undue  excitement  to  which  it 
may  be  subject.  The  head  is  another  part  of 
the  body  which  is  frequently  too  hot.  This  is 
perceptible  to  the  touch  of  the  hand,  and  is 
sometimes  greater  on  the  forehead  and  again 
in  the  back  of  the  head.  When  this  is  slight 
it  is  not  necessary  to  take  much  notice  of  it ; 
but  ascertain,  if  possible,  whether  or  not  there 
is  any  apparent  cause  for  it.  When  it  becomes 
very  marked,  if  there  is  no  vomiting,  or  twitch- 
ing of  the  arms  or  face,  or  any  other  indications 
of  illness,  it  can  be  allayed  by  bathing  the 
head  with  cool  (not  very  cold)  water.  If  the 
child  is  constipated,  a mild  purgative  mav  be 
used,  say  half  a teaspoonful  of  spiced  syrup  of 
rhubarb,  sufficient  to  produce  a single  move- 
ment. If,  however,  the  heat  of  the  head  in- 
creases and  becomes  very  great,  the  child 
tossing  its  head  from  side  to  side,  or  rolling  it 
unceasingly ; or  if  there  are  any  twitchings  of 
the  face,  eyelids,  or  mouth ; or  if  the  child 
cries  with  pain,  putting  its  hands  to  its  head, 
starting  suddenly  in  its  sleep,  or  waking  with 
a frightened  air,  then  a physician  should  be 
called  in  without  delay. . Excessive  heat  of 
the  chest  and  abdomen  also  frequently  ac- 
companies diseases  of  the  bowels,  or  indicates 
the  approach  of  a fever.  Here  it  is  not  neces- 
sarily a serious  sign,  though,  when  a child  is 
ailing,  it  is  well  to  notice  whether  or  not  it 
exists. 

The  head  and  face  also  give  by  their  posi- 
tion, indications  of  importance,  which  should 
not  be  overlooked.  Rolling  the  head  from  side 
to  side  is  a common  accompaniment  of  brain 
disease,  but  it  is  not  a certain  indication  of  it, 
as  is  thought  by  some.  It  should  lead  to 
increased  care  and  attention,  a more  minute 
observation  of  the  condition  of  the  child,  but 
it  need  not  be  regarded  as  a sign  of  disease 
beyond  relief.  The  general  expression  of  the 
face  may  be  that  of  pain  or  of  listlcssness, 
of  suffering  or  of  that  indifference  to  every- 
thing which  is  scarcely  less  pitiable  in  a child. 
A heavy,  dull  look  is  among  the  earliest  indica- 
tions of  ill-health.  Most  of  the  ordinary 
disturbances  are  accompanied  by  this  change 
in  the  expression,  which  experienced  mothers 
learn  to  interpret  by  saying  that  the  child  does 


CHILDREN’S  CLOTHING 


CHIMNEYS 


101 


not  look  well.  The  cause  of  it  should  be 
sought,  and,  if  possible,  removed ; it  may  be 
the  only  indication  which  is  apparent  of  a 
headache,  or  it  may  be  the  first  announcement 
of  a fever. 

Languor  and  approaching  fever  are  often 
made  known  by  the  mode  in  which  the  eyelids 
are  raised ; great  heaviness  of  the  eyes  is  a 
sign  not  to  be  neglected  at  any  time,  and  in- 
ability to  raise  the  lid  should  be  at  once  made 
known  to  the  physician.  This  is  perhaps  the 
best  place  to  add  that  to  see  a sick  child  shed 
tears  is  always  a good  sign.  When  it  occurs 
after  a protracted  or  a severe  illness,  it  may  be 
looked  upon  almost  as  a crisis,  furnishing  de- 
cided evidence  of  improvement. 

Dr.  Parker,  to  whom,  together  with  Drs. 
Combe  and  Jacobi,  we  are  indebted  for  most 
of  these  suggestions,  says  : — “ When  a child 
gives  any  indications  of  being  unwell,  it  is 
wise  to  notice,  especially  if  there  is  excessive 
heat  of  the  head,  whether  or  not  light  and  noise 
trouble  it.  If  on  being  carried  towards  the 
window  it  shuts  its  eyes,  wholly  or  in  part, 
wrinkling  them  with  that  expression  that  adults 
have  when  they  have  a headache  and  shun  the 
light,  it  should  be  reported  to  the  physician. 
This  accompanies  simple  headache  in  children, 
as  well  as  in  adults,  but  is  sometimes  of  more 
importance.  If  noise  troubles  the  child  it 
will,  if  able  to  talk,  say  so;  but  if  not,  there 
will  be  increased  restlessness,  a cringing  when 
the  door  is  shut  violently,  and  an  evident  effort 
to  avoid  every  jarring  sound.  When  this  is 
noticeable,  it  is  best  to  seek  a physician’s  ad- 
vice.” 

It  will  have  been  observed  that  we  have  not 
intended  to  enter  here  upon  the  treatment  of 
special  diseases,  but  only  to  point  out  those 
symptoms  which  are  the  preliminary  stages  of 
all  sickness,  and  which  in  the  case  of  children 
are  especially  important.  In  these  stages  the 
care  and  watchfulness  of  a mother  are  indis- 
pensable supplements  to  the  physician’s  skill, 
and  may  frequently  be  a substitute  for  it ; and 
so  important  is  a precise  knowledge  of  their 
bearings  upon  health  and  disease  that  mothers 
would  do  well  to  give  them  careful  study.  For 
the  special  diseases,  see  Croup,  Diarrhoea 
Measles,  Scarlet  Fever,  etc. 

CHILD  REN’S  CLOTHING.— The  garments 
worn  by  children  are  in  almost  every  case  adapt- 
ed from  those  of  older  people.  Hence  in  giving 
directions  about  making  clothing  generally,  we 
give  all  that  is  of  importance  in  reference  to 
children’s  wear.  Under  almost  every  topic  we 
add  suggestions  of  the  manner  in  which  this 
garment  or  that  may  be  made  suitable  for  a 
child,  and  often,  it  is  but  to  make  the  garment 
smaller  and  it  is  at  once  available.  For  ex- 
ample, the  reduced  circular  is  the  baby’s 
cloak ; the  capeline  suggests  the  child’s  “ red 
riding-hood ; ” various  patterns  of  caps  make 
various  kinds  of  juvenile  head-gear,  while  the 
directions  for  making  different  dresses,  the 
»Princesse,  the  basque,  and  the  blouse  waist, 
are  easily  altered  a little  as  suggested  under 


each  head  to  produce  a garment  Entirely  suit- 
able for  a little  girl.  The  child’s  s<tcqud  and 
round  jacket  are  much  like  that  of  the  grpyvn 
person  ; the  little  child’s  under  garment,  drawers 
and  waist  in  one,  is  made  from  the  same  pattern 
as  the  bathing-drawers  and  the  infant’s  long 
robe  is  an  adaptation  of  the  French  chemise- 
pattern.  (See  Undergarments). 

Hence  it  has  seemed  desirable  not  to  occupy 
space  with  the  repetition  of  what  can  be  better 
explained  elsewhere,  and  it  is  merely  our  ob- 
ject here  to  refer  the  reader,  searching  for 
directions  in  making  children’s  garments  to 
the  different  topics  under  which  they  will  be 
found  suitably  explained. 

CHILLS  AND  FEVER.  (See  Ague.) 

CHIMNEYS. — The  causes  of  smoky  chim- 
neys are  generally  faults  of  construction. 
Every  chimney-flue  should  be  built  of  equal 
dimensions  from  bottom  to  near  the  top,  with 
no  projections  or  irregularities  in  it,  with  as  few 
changes  of  direction  as  possible,  and  with  the 
inside  surface  smooth  and  regular.  For  these 
reasons,  smooth  round  earthen  pipes  make 
excellent  flues.  But  pipes  used  for  smoke 
flues  should  be  unglazed,  highly  glazed  ones 
do  not  absorb  the  acids  from  the  smoke,  but  let 
them  drip.  At  the  top,  however,  it  should  be 
slightly  narrowed,  as  this  causes  the  smoke  to 
be  ejected  with  more  force,  and  diminishes  the 
volume  of  descending  currents.  As  a general 
rule,  the  longer  the  flue  the  stronger  the 
draught,  and  for  this  reason  tall  chimneys  sel- 
dom smoke  ; the  lengthening  of  a flue  by  a few 
feet  will  frequently  remove  all  tendency  to 
smoke.  If  a flue  serves  for  more  than  one 
fireplace  or  stove,  it  is  in  many  cases  impos- 
sible to  secure  a good  draught ; sometimes  it 
will  work  well,  but  by  far  the  best  rule  is  to 
have  a separate  flue  for  each  fire.  The  or- 
dinary size  is  8 x 8,  or  eight-inch  round  pipe. 
The  maker  of  the  furnace  or  any  other  special 
heater,  should  be  consulted  regarding  the  size 
of  the  flue  needed.  In  blocks  of  city  buildings, 
the  circular  clay  pot,  so  universally  used  in 
most  European  cities,  is  the  best  form  of  cap- 
ping chimneys,  especially  where  there  are  a 
number  in  one  stock.  This  arrangement  allows 
of  a free  circulation  of  air  between  each  flue, 
thus  preventing  the  escaping  gas  entering  an 
adjoining  flue.  (See  Cleaning.) 

The  fireplace  may  either  be  too  wide  or  too 
high  in  front ; or  the  throat  may  be  too  large 
for  the  smoke ; it  should  be  only  large  enough 
to  carry  off  the  heated  air,  and  should  open  into 
the  fireplace  at  as  abrupt  an  angle  as  possible. 

A high  building  or  a tree  standing  close  to 
the  chimney  and  overtopping  it,  often  disturbs 
the  draught.  The  wind  passing  over  these 
objects,  falls  down  like  water  over  a dam,  and 
stops  the  ascending  current  so  that  the  smoke 
is  forced  back  into  the  room,  or  the  wind  may 
strike  against  the  higher  object,  and,  rebound- 
ing, may  form  eddies,  and  thus  beat  down  the 
smoke.  The  remedy  for  this  is  to  increase  the 
height  of  the  chimney  or  to  mount  it  with  a 
turncap  or  cowl , which  is  so  constructed  that 


102 


CHINA 


CHLOROFORM 


the  effect  of  any  passing  wind  is  to  draw  off 
the  air  and  smoke  from  the  chimney. 

It  is  well  known  that  a smoky  chimney  is 
often  relieved  by  opening  a window  or  outer 
door ; when  this  is  the  case  it  is  a sign  either 
that  there  is  not  enough  air  to  supply  the 
draught  for  that  particular  chimney,  or  that 
some  other  fireplace  in  the  tightly  closed  house 
with  a strong  draught  and  without  any  easy 
source  of  supply  is  being  furnished  with  air 
for  combustion  by  means  of  a downward  cur- 
rent, established  through  the  other  cold  flue, 
which  is  thus  made  to  reverse  its  intended 
action,  and  the  fire  consequently  parts  with  its 
smoke  into  the  room  instead  of  up  the  chim- 
ney. When,  under  these  circumstances,  an  outer 
door  or  window  is  opened,  the  immediate 
supply  of  fresh  air  is  so  considerable,  that  the 
demand  for  down  draught  anywhere  in  the 
house  no  longer  exists,  and  an  ascending  cur- 
rent is  easily  secured  in  any  of  the  flues.  This 
result  will  be  a permanent  one  after  the  window 
or  door  is  closed  again  just  so  long  as  all  the 
fires  (in  the  absence  of  special  provision)  can 
draw  enough  air  for  their  combustion  through 
door  or  window  crevices. 

Currents  of  air  through  a room,  as  from  door 
to  door  or  window  to  window,  when  open,  may 
counteract  the  chimney  draught ; or  a door  in 
the  same  side  of  the  room  with  the  chimney 
may,  when  suddenly  opened  or  shut,  whisk  a 
current  across  the  fireplace  to  be  followed  by 
a puff  of  smoke.  The  remedy  is  obvious.  When 
there  are  two  fireplaces  in  the  same  room,  or 
in  rooms  communicating  by  open  doors,  both 
are  very  likely  to  smoke  and  one  is  certain  to 
do  so  unless  in  the  first  case  a very  large  sup- 
ply of  fresh  air  is  provided  ; in  the  second  the 
door  should  be  shut.  Any  hole  in  the  flue, 
such  as  an  opening  for  a stove-pipe,  or  a dis- 
lodged brick,  will  be  very  likely  to  cause  a poor 
draught.  Where  ventilating  openings  are 
needed  in  the  same  chimney  with  smoke  flues, 
they  should  be  separated  from  the  smoke  flues. 
A simple  way  is  to  divide  a large  flue  with  a 
metal  plate.  The  heat  in  the  smoke  part  will 
thus  cause  a draft  in  the  ventilating  part. 

CHINA.  (See  Earthenware.) 

CHINTZ. — A calico  printed  in  a peculiar 
pattern  in  which  flowers  and  other  devices  are 
printed  in  five  or  six  different  colors  upon  a 
white  or  colored  ground.  The  only  articles  of 
dress  for  which  it  is  used  are  morning  wrappers 
and  dressing-gowns  ; but  it  makes  very  pretty 
lambrequins  and  bed-hangings,  and  is  now 
much  used  for  covering  bedroom  sofas  and 
chairs.  It  comes  in  pieces  a yard  wide. 

To  clean. — Take  two  pounds  of  rice,  and 
boil  it  in  eight  quarts  of  water  till  soft.  When 
done,  pour  the  whole  into  a tub  ; let  it  stand 
till  about  the  warmth  used  for  colored  linens, 
then  put  the  chintz  in,  and  use  the  rice  instead 
of  soap  ; wash  it  in  this  till  the  dirt  is  out ; 
then  boil  a second  quantity  as  above,  but  strain 
the  rice  from  the  water,  and  mix  it  in  warm 
water  ; wash  in  this  till  clean  ; afterwards  rinse 
it  in  the  water  the  rice  has  been  boiled  in,  and 


this  will  answer  the  end  of  starch,  and  no  dew 
will  affect  it.  If  a gown,  it  should  be  taken 
to  pieces  ; and  when  dried,  be  careful  to  hang 
it  as  smooth  as  possible.  After  it  is  dry,  rub 
it  with  a sleek  stone,  but  use  no  iron. 

If  the  chintz  is  very  dirty  it  may  be  scoured 
with  ox-gall  and  water,  which  will  not  injure 
the  colors. 

CHITTERLINGS. — The  intestines  and  fat 
of  hogs,  calves  or  other  animals  prepared  in  a 
special  way  for  cooking.  They  are  taken  from 
the  hog  while  warm  ; then  the  entire  gut  is 
slit  or  cut  open,  well  cleaned,  and  they  are 
ready  for  use.  To  cook,  wash  them  out  in 
fresh  water,  put  them  in  a frying-pan  contain- 
ing some  hot  fat,  and  fry  them  till  brown. 
Though  not  a delicate  "dish  they  are  not 
disagreeable,  and,  like  tripe,  are  very  easily 
digested. 

CHLORAL. — Poison.  Symptom Slow, 
noisy  breathing,  excessive  drowsiness  or  un- 
consciousness. Treatmeyit : Artificial  respira- 
tion. See  Drowning. 

A colorless  dense  liquid,  of  a caustic  taste 
and  suffocating  odor,  formed  by  the  action  of 
clhorine  on  alcohol.  It  has  a very  soothing  in- 
fluence, and  now  enters  largely  into  the  treat- 
ment of  nervous  diseases.  The  dose  is  from 
ten  to  fifteen  grains  in  a little  water.  More 
than  this  should  never  be  used  except  as  pre- 
scribed by  a physician.  Several  lives  have 
been  lost  lately  on  account  of  the  general  im- 
pression that  chloral  is  harmless. 

CHLORIDE  LIME.  See  Disinfectants. 

CHLORODYNE. — A recent  remedy  for 
neuralgia,  patented  by  Dr.  L.  C.  Browne,  Jr., 
is  supposed  to  consist  essentially  of  chloro- 
form, Indian  hemp,  morphia,  and  hydrocyanic 
acid.  The  dose  for  adults  is  20  to  30  drops. 

CHLOROFORM.  — POISON.  Sytnptoms : 
Unconsciousness,  stoppage  of  respiration,  and 
feeble  action  of  the  heart.  Treatment:  Draw 
out  the  tongue  (with  foroeps  or  pincers,  if  ne- 
cessary), and  produce  artificial  respiration  as 
with  the  drowned  (see  Drowning).  In  some 
cases  it  has  been  found  efficacious  to  have  the 
legs  placed  over  an  attendant’s  shoulders,  and 
the  body  raised  so  that  the  head  will  be  lowest. 

A mixture  of  alcohol,  water,  and  chloride  of 
lime  rectified.  It  is  a clear,  limpid  fluid  with- 
out color,  of  an  agreeable  pungent  odor,  and 
very  sweet  taste.  It  is  very  volatile,  evaporat- 
ing with  great  rapidity  when  exposed  to  the 
air,  and  soon  loses  its  strength.  Before  using 
drop  a few  drops  into  water  ; if  the  chloroform 
is  pure  they  will  fall  to  the  bottom  without 
becoming  milky.  When  taken  internally,  chlo- 
roform acts  as  a sedative,  narcotic,  and  anti- 
spasmodic  ; it  is  {dso  employed  sometimes  as 
an  external  applicat-'on  for  relieving  pain. 
By  far  the  most  important  use  to  which  it  is 
put,  however,  is  that  of  an  anaesthetic.  There 
it  always  a certain  amount  of  danger  in  tak- 
ing chloroform,  even  under  proper  advice,  and 
it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  no  one  can  take 
it  with  safety  on  his  own  responsibility.  It 
should  under  no  circumstances  be  taken  by 


CHOCOLATE 


CHOLERA 


103 


persons  liable  to  epileptic  attacks,  congestion 
of  the  brain,  or  disease  of  the  heart ; or  by 
any  one  immediately  after  meals.  ( See  Anaes- 
thetics.) 

CHOCOLATE. — A substance  made  from  the 
seeds  of  the  cacoa-tree  which  grows  extensively 
in  the  West  Indies  and  South  America.  The 
seeds  are  about  the  size  of  an  almond,  and  when 
broken  into  small  pieces  are  subjected  to  great 
pressure  until  they  are  reduced  to  a rough 
powder,  after  which  they  are  mixed  with  sugar 
and  rolled  into  a very  thick  paste,  or  into  a 
very  fine  powder,  called  Chocolate.  Chocolate 
is  less  exciting  to  the  nervous  system  than  tea 
or  coffee,  and  at  the  same  time  it  contains  a 
much  larger  proportion  of  nutritive  matter. 
Its  flavor,  moreover,  is  not  lessened  by  the 
addition  of  milk,  so  that  it  may  be  boiled  in 
milk  only  and  thus  produce  a most  agreeable 
and  nutritive  food.  " There  are,  therefore," 
says  Dr.  Edward  Smith,  “many  persons, 
states  of  system,  and  circumstances,  in  which 
its  use  is  to  be  preferred  to  either  tea  or  coffee.” 

To  prepare  for  the  table , break  five  ounces 
into  bits  and  melt  over  the  fire  with  one  gill  of 
boiling  water  ; add  gradually,  three  gills  of 
water  (making  in  all,  one  pint)  ; and,  when 
boiling,  add  a quart  of  hot  milk;  let  it  boil  a 
few  minutes,  then  serve.  It  may  be  sweet- 
ened either  on  the  fire  or  at  the  table,  (see 
Caramel.) 

The  reader  will  probably  understand  the 
use  of  the  chocolate-mill  shown  in  the  engrav- 
ing ; but  it  may  be  as  well  to  observe,  that  it 
is  worked  quickly  round  between  both  hands 


Chocolate  Mill. 

to  give  a fine  froth  to  the  chocolate.  It  also 
serves  in  lieu  of  a whisk  for  working  creams, 
or  jellies,  to  a froth  or  whip. 

Iced  Chocolate. — Set  four  ounces  of  grated 
chocolate  over  a slow  fire  in  a tin  pan  with  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  water;  when  dissolved  take 
it  from  the  fire;  add  nearly  a teacupful  of  warm 
water  and  work  it  thoroughly  with  a spoon ; 
then  mix  it  with  an  equal  quantity  of  cold 
syrup  of  sugar,  freeze  and  serve. 

Broma  is  a preparation  of  chocolate  and 
arrow-root. 

CHOCA. — This  is  made  by  mixing  a cupful 
of  chocolate  (prepared  for  table)  with  a cupful 
of  coffee.  It  is  a very  pleasant  breakfast  drink. 


CHOKING. — Get  on  all  fours,  or  lean  over 
the  back  of  a chair,  and  cough.  A violent  slap 
with  the  open  hand,  between  the  shoulders, 
will  often  effect  a dislodgement ; but  if  this 
fails  after  being  repeated  once  or  twice,  look 
into  the  throat  and  see  if  there  is  anything  that 
can  be  reached  with  the  thumb  and  finger  and 
if  so  pull  it  out.  An  obstruction  can  generally 
be  carried  down  by  swallowing  pieces  of  bread 
or  potato  slightly  masticated  or,  better  still,  a 
raw  egg,  fresh  from  the  shell  and  with  its  orig- 
inal consistency  broken  as  little  as  possible. 
Sometimes  the  obstruction  will  go  down  too 
far  to  be  reached  by  the  fingers ; in  such  cases 
copious  draughts  of  water  should  be  swallowed 
rapidly,  and  if  this  fails  to  remove  it  give 
mustard  water  or  any  other  emetic.  Should 
vomiting  fail  to  bring  up  the  obstruction,  then 
mechanical  means  must  be  tried.  Take  a long 
spoon,  bend  it  slightly,  make  the  patient  throw 
his  head  well  back,  and  push  the  handle  boldly 
down  the  throat ; if  it  is  kept  well  to  the  back 
of  the  throat  no  harm  can  be  done.  The  same 
operation  may  more  conveniently  be  performed 
by  a bit  of  sponge  attached  to  a piece  of  whale- 
bone. Occasionally  substances  will  get  into 
such  a position  in  the  throat  as  to  necessitate 
a surgical  operation,  but  these  are  not  usually 
the  cases  in  which  there  is  immediate  danger 
of  suffocation,  and  there  will  be  time  enough 
for  the  doctor  to  come. 

CHOLERA. — It  is  impossible  to  give  very 
minute  directions  for  unprofessional  treatment 
and  fortunately  they  would  be  superfluous,  as 
cholera  very  rarely  occurs  in  this  country  in 
places  where  physicians  are  not  to  be  had.  In 
its  first  stage  (the  so-called  stage  of  invasion) 
cholera  is  very  similar  to  the  ordinary  summer 
complaints.  As  during  the  prevalence  of  chol- 
era, diarrhceal  troubles  are  likewise  extremely 
common,  it  is  not  possible  at  the  outset  in  any 
given  case  to  predict  the  termination,  but 
though  some  of  the  cases  may  be  harmless, 
many  of  them  do  ultimately  pass  into  cholera. 
The  importance  therefore  of  checking  these 
preliminary  discharges  cannot  be  too  earnestly 
impressed  upon  the  public.  The  pre-eminent 
symptom  of  developed  cholera  is  excessive 
watery  purging,  frequently  though  not  always 
unattended  with  pain.  The  passages  from  the 
bowels  afterwards  become  thin,  pale,  slightly 
turbid,  like  rice-water,  without  any  offensive 
smell,  and  all  control  over  the  bowels  is  in  a 
great  measure  lost.  In  a short  time  vomiting 
takes  place,  cramps  in  the  limbs  are  developed 
and  in  a few  hours  at  the  longest  the  strength 
of  the  patient  is  gone,  the  body,  the  tongue, 
and  even  the  breath  are  quite  cold,  and  the 
nails  turn  blue.  There  is  great  thirst,  and 
usually  constant  vomiting;  the  eyes  sink  far 
into  the  head,  and  a change  takes  place  in  the 
voice,  which  becomes  a small  squeaking  whis- 
per, so  unnatural  and  so  peculiar  that  certain 
physicians  who  have  seen  much  of  cholera, 
could  distinguish  it  by  the  voice  alone. 

Recoveries  from  cholera,  after  it  has  once 
taken  hold  upon  the  system,  do  occur,  though 


104  CHOLERA  INFANTUM 


CHOWDER 


the  prospect  is  not  encouraging.  The  time 
to  arrest  the  disease  is  in  its  early  stages,  and 
not  a moment  should  he  lost.  During  a cholera 
epidemic,  with  the  first  symptoms  of  diarrhoea, 
get  the  patient  to  bed,  and  apply  mustard  over 
the  bowels.  Thirty  drops  of  laudanum  may  be 
given  to  a grown-up  person  with  hot  brandy  and 
water,  and  a physician  should  at  once  be  sent 
for. 

Cholera  is  most  likely  to  visit  damp,  dirty 
places,  wherethe  water  is  not  good,  and  people 
who  are  dirty  and  intemperate  have  less  chance 
of  recovering  from  it.  Persons  in  attendance 
upon  cholera  patients  do  not  appear  especially 
predisposed  to  the  disease.  It  is  believed, 
therefore,  that  they  may  be  safely  nursed  by 
their  relatives  and  friends. 

It  is  well  to  take  the  following  precautions: 
where  sickness  does  not  as  yet  exist,  water- 
closets,  drains,  etc.,  should  be  disinfected, 
care  should  be  taken  that  the  water  is  pure,  and 
no  cabbage  or  other  green  vegetable  should  be 
included  in  the  diet.  The  discharges  should 
be  mixed  with  dry  earth  and  if  possible  buried 
at  a distance  from  the  house,  the  bed-pans 
should  be  washed  with  copperas,  and  the  bed- 
clothes upon  which  a cholera  patient  has  been 
lying  should  be  subjected  to  prolonged  boiling 
before  they  are  used  again. 

CHOLERA  INFANTUM.— This  disease 
usually  occurs  between  the  third  and  twenty- 
third  months.  It  is  caused  by  improper  food, 
or  too  much  food,  impure  air,  hot  weather,  and 
never  by  teething  alone.  Its  first  symptom  is 
generally  a slight  feverishness,  and  this  is  fol- 
lowed by  a diarrhoea  with  thin  watery  dis- 
charges, and  a little  later  by  vomiting ; some- 
times the  vomiting  and  diarrhoea  commence  at 
the  same  time,  and  these  are  the  worst  cases. 
Emaciation  begins  very  soon,  or  within  a few 
days,  the  hands  and  feet  become  cold,  the  head 
and  surface  of  the  abdomen  hot,  the  face  pale 
and  shrunken,  the  eyes  dull  and  heavy,  and  the 
pulse  irregular  and  quick;  by  degrees  the 
child  becomes  sleepy,  and  finally  sinks  into  a 
state  of  insensibility. 

Treatment.  — At  the  first  symptom  of 
cholera  infantum,  a physician  should  be  sent 
for.  Put  the  child  into  a warm  bath,  or  apply 
flannels  dipped  in  hot  water  to  the  bowels,  and 
keep  in  an  ordinary  posture.  If  a physician 
cannot  be  had,  dissolve  a teaspoonful  of  gum- 
arabic  in  an  ounce  of  peppermint  water  and 
give  a teaspoonful  every  half  hour.  A milder 
astringent  may  be  made  thus : — mix  together 
three  ounces  of  chalk  mixture,  half  an  ounce  of 
tincture  of  kino  (or  catechu),  and  half  an  ounce 
of  compound  tincture  of  cardamoms.  Of  this 
the  dose  for  a child  eighteen  months  old  is  one 
teaspoonful  every  two  hours  if  the  discharges 
are  frequent,  and  at  larger  intervals  if  not — 
care  being  taken  to  shake  the  bottle  before 
pouring  out  the  medicine.  If  there  is  much 
thirst,  give  6 or  io  drops  of  brandy  in  a teaspoon- 
ful of  water,  or  mucilage,  every  1 5 or  20  minutes. 
It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  the 
stomach  of  the  child  be  at  rest.  Therefore, 


for  some  hours  no  food  or  drink  should  be 
given.  Further  than  this,  nothing  can  be  done 
without  the  advice  of  a physician. 

CHOLERA  MORBUS.— This  is  usually 
caused  by  improper  food,  such  as  green  or 
decayed  fruit  and  bad  vegetables.  It  commonly 
comes  on  in  the  night,  and  is  marked  by  sudden 
and  severe  vomiting,  followed  by  purging  and 
accompanied  by  severe  cramps,  generally  in 
the  bowels  and  sometimes  in  the  legs.  An- 
other feature  of  the  disease  is  thirst,  though 
the  skin  is  quite  cool. 

Treatment. — Put  the  patient  to  bed,  cover  the 
bowels  with  a mustard  plaster,  and  keep  him  on 
his  back  till  the  vomiting  and  purging  have 
ceased  for  several  hours.  Laudanum  and  tinct. 
of  camphor  in  doses  of  10  to  15  minims  each 
may  be  given,  and  if  immediately  vomited 
should  be  repeated.  If  rejected  a second  time, 
30  drops  of  laudanum  may  be  added  to  a little 
thin  starch  and  given  as  an  injection.  The 
remedy  may  be  repeated  every  hour  until  the 
vomiting  and  purging  are  arrested.  To  attain 
prompt  success  in  the  treatment,  it  is  impor- 
tant, while  vomiting  continues,  to  withhold 
liquids,  which  from  the  intense  thirst  are  usual- 
ly craved  by  the  patient.  Pieces  of  ice  placed 
in  the  mouth  assist  the  patient  in  enduring  the 
necessary  act  of  self-denial.  When  the  patient 
begins  to  crave  food,  a cup  of  hot  tea  will 
probably  throw  him  into  a perspiration  : before 
that  nothing  but  the  medicine  and  bits  of  ice 
should  be  given. 

CHOPS.  (See  Mutton.) 

CHOW  CHOW. — A name  given  to  a kind 
of  mixed  pickles  originally  brought  from  China, 
but  now  made  in  this  country  by  simply  taking 
equal  quantities  of  the  various  kinds  of  pickles, 
mincing  them  up  fine,  and  mixing  them  to- 
gether. A nice  way  to  prepare  is  to  make  the 
chow-chow  and  then  fill  the  large  bell-peppers 
with  it  after  first  removing  the  veins  and  seeds. 

CHOWDER. — This  popular  dish  is  made  in 
many  different  ways,  and  of  several  different 
kinds  of  fish,  besides  clams.  The  following 
receipt  for  clam  chowder  is  from  an  old  club- 
house caterer : 

Clam  Chowder. — Fry  half  a dozen  slices 
of  salt  pork,  chop  it  up  into  rather  small  pieces, 
and  sprinkle  them  over  the  bottom  of  a pot  ; 
place  over  this  a layer  of  potatoes  cut  into 
small  pieces ; over  this  a layer  of  minced 
onions  ; and  then  a layer  of  clams,  with  some 
small  crackers  (split)  on  the  top.  Season  with 
salt  and  pepper,  and  if  desired  a little  thyme 
and  a few  cloves  may  be  added.  Pour  on  this 
a portion  of  the  fat  left  from  frying  the  pork, 
and  then  put  in  another  course  of  layers  as 
before.  Repeat  the  process  until  the  pot  is 
nearly  full,  or  until  enough  is  in,  and  season 
each  time.  Then  cover  with  water,  set  over  a 
slow  fire,  and  boil  about  three-quarters  of  an 
hour.  When  nearly  done,  stir  gently,  finish 
cooking,  and  serve  hot.  If  it  is  found  too  thin 
when  done,  boil  a little  longer  ; if  too  thick,  add 
a little  water.  Whether  the  chowder  is  thick 
or  not,  however,  will  depend  on  the  amount  of 


CHROMOS 


CIDER 


105 


potatoes  and  crackers  used.  Send  around  wal- 
nut pickles  with  the  chowder. 

Fish  Chowder. — This  is  made  exactly  like 
clam  chowder,  fish  cut  up  into  small  pieces, 
being  substituted  for  clams.  The  best  fish  for 
chowder  are  haddock  and  striped  bass;  but 
cat-fish  make  a very  nice  dish.  Fish  chowder 
may  be  pleasantly  flavored  with  lemon  juice. 

CHROMOS Chromos  are  simply  engrav- 

ings printed  in  colors  by  a process  which  re- 
sembles lithography.  In  some  few  instances 
they  are  very  good,  but  as  a general  thing  they 
are  far  less  desirable  than  steel  engravings  at 
the  same  price.  Since  there  are  so  many  of 
them  in  our  houses,  however,  and  since  they 
are  often  framed  in  such  a way  as  to  be  unpro- 
tected from  dust  and  dirt,  it  may  be  well  to 
know  that  the  kind  apt  to  be  framed  without 
glass  can  be  cleaned  by  moistening  a soft  cloth 
in  lukewarm  water  and  gently  washing  the  face 
of  the  picture,  afterwards  wiping  it  dry.  The 
varnish  protects  the  colors.  ( See  Pictures.) 

CHRYSANTHEMUM.-This  flowerblooms 
so  late  in  the  season  that  it  is  frequently 
called  the  “ Christmas  flower  ” ; and  as  it  fills  a 
place  in  this  respect  occupied  by  no  other 
flower  it  should  be  cultivated  in  every  garden. 
Chrysanthemums  grow  very  vigorously  in  a 
rich  light  soil  (a  light  admixture  of  sand  is 
good  for  them) ; and  are  entirely  hardy  except 
at  the  extreme  north,  where  they  must  be 
wintered  under  sods.  They  are  most  easily 
propagated  from  cuttings,  taken  in  August,  or 
from  the  shoots  sent  up  by  the  roots  after 
blooming  ; they  may  be  obtained  of  any  florist. 
Good  specimens  should  have  but  one  stem 
with  short,  thick-set  branches,  which  may  be 
made  to  grow  by  pinching  off  the  end  shoots, 
thus  encouraging  the  side  branches.  They 
should  be  watered  liberally,  and  liquid  manure  is 
very  good  just  when  the  plants  begin  to  bloom. 

There  are  three  varieties  of  chrysanthemums  : 
the  large-flowered  kind,  most  suitable  for  out- 
door culture  ; the  dwarf  or  Pompone,  which 
blooms  beautifully  in-doors  ; and  Japan  Chrys- 
anthemums. Of  the  large-flowering  kind, 
choice  varieties  are  : — Alarm,  crimson ; Annie 
Salter,  canary  yellow;  Boule  d'Or,  a golden 
yellow ; Boul  de/Ve  ige,  pure  white ; Captiva- 
tion, light  purple ; Cassy,  orange  and  buff ; 
Erecta  Superba,  clear  sulphur-yellow  ; Heor- 
inine,  silver  white;  Prince  Albert,  crimson 
red;  Mount  Aetna,  fiery  crimson;  Queen  of 
England,  blush ; King  of  Yellows,  yellow ; 
and  Vesta,  white.  Of  the  Pompone,  or  dwarf 
kind,  the  best  are: — Acton,  golden  yellow; 
Andromeda,  cream  color  ; Christiana,  canary 
yellow;  Mrs.  Dix,  blush  ; Iris,  white  tipped 
with  rose  ; Miranda , bright  rose  ; Riquiqui, 
violet  plum ; Roi  de  Lilliput,  maroon ; Soul- 
anges,  pure  rose  ; Theresita,  lilac  ; and  Trev- 
enna,  pure  white.  Japan  Chrysanthemums  are 
novelties  from  Japan,  with  tasselled  or  quilled 
flowers.  The  finest  are  Mons  Bonnet , amber ; 
and  Laciniatus,  creamy  white. 

CHUB. — A fish  of  which  there  are  several 
varieties ; lake  chub  or  lake  dace, the  blue  sucker, 


and  the  chub  of  New  York.  They  are  all  fresh- 
water fish,  shaped  like  the  perch,  covered  with 
large  coarse  scales,  and  generally  small  in  size. 
Chub  are  in  season  during  the  fall  and  winter 
months — the  latter  the  best.  They  are  not 
much  esteemed  as  food,  being  as  a general  thing 
watery,  tasteless,  and  bony ; but  occasionally 
the  chub  of  New  York  in  the  mid-winter  sea- 
son is  juicy  and  sweet.  The  best  way  to  cook 
it  is  to  boil  with  the  scales  on ; or  if  it  is  large 
enough,  stuff  and  roast.  It  is  apt  to  turn  yel- 
low in  boiling.  A good  chowder  may  also  be 
made  of  it.  ( See  Chowder.) 

CHURNING.  (See  Butter.) 

CIDER. — A fermented  liquor  prepared  from 
the  juice  of  apples ; although  it  is  not  usually 
reckoned  among  the  wines,  yet  it  belongs  to 
that  class  of  beverages  as  much  as  those  made 
from  currants,  gooseberries,  or  other  fruits. 
The  apples  from  which  cider  is  made  should 
not  be  permitted  to  fall  on  the  ground ; they 
ought  to  be  hand-picked,  or,  if  shaken  from 
the  tree,  coarse  cloths  or  straw  should  be 
placed  under  it.  All  prematurely  ripe  and  un- 
sound apples  should  be  rejected.  If  the 
weather  is  fine,  the  fruit  may  be  exposed  in 
the  open  air,  if  not,  it  should  be  placed  in 
sheds  or  lofts,  until  it  is  thoroughly  ripe.  The 
usual  way  of  making  cider  is  to  pound  or  grind 
the  apples  to  a pulp  or  pomace  ; this  pulp  is 
then  placed  in  a properly  constructed  press 
and  the  juice  pressed  out.  The  juice  should 
then  be  put  into  barrels,  and  then  into  a cellar 
where  the  temperature  will  not  fall  below  6o° 
nor  rise  above  750.  An  active  fermentation 
will  commence  in  a few  hours,  which  should  be 
permitted  to  continue  with  the  bung  open  until 
the  hissing  sound,  so  readily  discernible  where 
carbonic  acid  gas  is  escaping,  ceases.  The 
cider  should  then  be  drawn  off  into  clean 
barrels,  separating  it  from  its  sediment ; these 
should  be  bunged  up  for  a few  days,  then 
opened,  and  the  fermentation  allowed  to  begin 
again.  This  second  fermentation  will  be  of 
short  duration.  The  cider  should  now  be 
racked ; the  bungs  must  be  tightly  closed ; 
and  if  intended  for  draught  use  it  should  be 
kept  in  a cool  cellar.  If  it  is  intended  for  bot- 
tling, it  should  be  bottled  early  in  the  spring ; 
this  prevents  an  undue  fermentation,  and 
secures  a proper  degree  of  life  in  the  bottle. 

Cider  is  fit  for  drinking  as  soon  as  fermenta- 
tion ceases,  but  it  reaches  perfection  at  the 
end  of  two  years.  In  bottles  it  can  be  kept 
twenty  or  thirty  years  without  spoiling,  unless 
the  cork  decays.  Cider  is  not  so  nutritious  as 
beer  or  ale,  but  it  is  a very  agreeable  and  mild- 
ly stimulating  drink  in  hot  weather — its  acids 
assisting  materially  in  quenching  thirst ; and  it 
is  recommended  as  an  antiseptic  in  cases  of 
low  fever. 

It  is  said  that  natural  cider  will  not  keep  if 
removed  in  cask  after  it  has  been  made,  and  in 
order  to  fortify  it  to  bear  transportation,  it  is 
necessary  to  add  sugar.  This  so  far  injures 
it  that  it  may  renew  fermentation ; but  it  tem- 
porarily masks  the  acid  flavor,  and  makes  the 


106 


CIRCULARS 


fluid  more  agreeable  to  the  palate  of  those  not 
accustomed  to  its  use.  “Newark  cider” is  the 
best  that  can  be  obtained  in  New  York  stores, 
and  there  is  no  better  anywhere. 

CIDER,  Mulled.  (See  Mulled  Cider.) 

CINNAMON.— The  inner  bark  of  the  cin- 
namon tree  which  grows  extensively  in  China, 
Ceylon,  and  the  East  generally,  and  is  also  cul- 
tivated in  the  West  Indies  and  South  Amer- 
ica. The  best  comes  from  Ceylon,  where  the 
largest  quantity  grows.  Some  of  the  Chinese 
is  very  good,  but  inferior  to  that  from  Ceylon ; 
the  Cayenne  is  thicker,  but  not  so  good;  that  from 
Brazil  is  the  worst.  Cinnamon  is  the  most 
agreeable  of  the  spices ; its  odor  is  very 
fragrant,  and  its  taste  highly  aromatic,  hot,  but 
not  too  pungent  to  be  pleasant  on  the  tongue, 
and  without  any  bitterness.  The  best  is 
scarcely  thicker  than  paper,  and  in  long  pieces, 
of  a light  yellow  color,  a dark  color  being  a 
mark  of  inferiority.  It  is  safest  to  buy  it  in 
sticks,  for,  when  ground,  it  is  generally  adul- 
terated with  cassia  (which  is  sometimes  sub- 
stituted for  it),  and  with  baked  wheat  flour,  sago 
meal,  or  arrow-root. 

An  essential  oil  is  made  from  the  inferior 
qualities  of  cinnamon  which  is  often  much  used 
in  perfumery,  medicine,  and  as  a substitute  for 
the  spice. 

CIRCULARS. — The  measures  required  for 
the  circular  are  : i,  the  length  desired  for  the 
garment ; 2,  the  size  of  neck  (XV.).*  The  paper 
taken  for  the  pattern  should  be  four  inches 
longer  than  the  measure,  and  should  form  a 
square  of  these  dimensions.  This  square  should 
now  be  folded  diagonally,  in  halves,  which 
gives  us  a triangle.  Next,  fold  this  triangle  in 
halves,  and  we  have  a smaller  triangle  (Fig.  1), 


CL 


the  side  a,  d,  b being  open.  Cut  as  repre- 
sented by  the  dotted  lines,  b indicating  the 
neck,  which  should  be  cut  out  but  little,  leaving 
room  to  cut  it  more  accurately  after  the  pat- 
tern is  opened  and  put  together.  Now  unfold 
the  paper,  and  we  have  half  of  the  circular,  the 
half  being  in  two  pieces  and  requiring  to  be 
pasted  together.  The  fulness  of  the  circular 
may  be  diminished  at  pleasure  by  cutting  off  a 
strip  from  the  front  or  the  back,  as  is  indicated 
by  the  dotted  line  in  the  back  in  Fig.  2,  and  the 
inner  line  parallel  to  the  front.  In  cutting  the 
garment,  the  material  should  be  folded  double, 
the  line  of  the  back  laid  upon  the  fold.  The  cir- 
cular will  thus  be  cut  out  whole,  but  if  it  be  very 
long,  the  material  will  not  be  wide  enough,  and 
will  require  piecing  on  the  corners  of  the  front. 

* For  explanation  of  ltoman  numerals,  see  Cutting 
and  Fitting. 


By  modifying  the  circular  we  obtain  the 
talma,  which  is  cut  in  the  following  way  : The 

pattern  remains  the  same,  but  instead  of  the 
line  of  the  back  lying  the  straight  way  of  the 
cloth,  either  we  fold  the  cloth  bias  and  lay  the 
pattern  on  it,  thus  cutting  it  bias  in  the  back 
but  without  a seam  ; or,  leaving  the  cloth  folded 
as  for  the  circular,  we  move  the  pattern  along 
at  the  lower  edge,  leaving  the  neck  at  the 
same  place  where  it  was,  until  the  line  of  the 
back  lies  upon  the  bias,  and  thus  cut  the  gar- 
ment with  a seam  in  the  back.  Also  the  talma 
has  a seam  taken  up  on  the  shoulder.  (Fig. 
2,  a.)  By  prolonging  this  seam  down  the 


dotted  line,  we  represent  the  fronts  separate 
from  the  back.  Thus  the  talma  may  be  cut  in 
four  ways,  that  is  to  say,  it  may  be  whole ; it 
may  have  a seam  in  the  back  and  thus  be  in 
two  pieces  ; it  may  have  seams  in  the  shoul- 
ders and  none  in  the  back,  thus  being  in  three 
pieces ; or,  it  may  have  seams  in  the  shoulders 
and  a seam  in  the  back,  thus  being  in  four 
pieces.  Which  of  these  four  ways  is  prefer- 
able will  depend  on  the  width  of  the  material 
to  be  used.  The  inside  line  of  the  edge  (Fig. 
2)  represents  the  favorite  shape  of  this  gar- 
ment, although  it  may  assume  any  other  contour 
desired. 

In  connection  with  the  circular  we  have 
usually  a hood,  especially  where  the  garment  is 
made  of  waterproof.  We  shall  therefore  ex- 
plain the  two  forms  of  hood  in  general  use. 

For  the  first,  a little  circular  is  to  be  cut, 
according  to  the  rule  given  above,  five  or  six 
inches  deeper  than  the  desired  length  of  the 
hood.  This  edge  will  then  be  turned  up,  and 
a tape  stitched  along  the  inner  side  to  admit  a 
drawing-string  or  an  elastic,  an  inch  being  left 
above  the  tape,  to  make  a sort  of  ruffle  when 
the  elastic  is  drawn  up. 

The  second  shape  of  hood  is  made  in  two 
pieces,  the  border  being  cut  out  as  a facing 
and  applied  externally.  The  hood  itself  will 
be  cut  after  the  pattern  of  the  cape  ( see 
Cape),  and  the  border  cut  by  the  hood, 
making  the  border  deeper  in  the  back  than  in 
front.  These  hoods  may  be  cut  of  any  length, 


CISTERN 


CLAMS 


107 


and  are  very  stylish  made  Ion"  and  narrow  in 
the  back,  pointed,  and  trimmed  with  heavy  cord 
and  tassels. 

In  using  either  of  these  shapes  of  hood,  a 
lining  may  be  employed,  which  may  be  quilted 
and  wadded  if  desired  ; by  using  bright-colored 
silk  for  the  lining,  a very  pretty  effect  is  pro- 
duced, especially  where  the  garment  is  made  for 
a child. 

From  the  circular  pattern  may  be  cut  a very 
simple  form  of  dressing-gown,  to  be  made  in 
some  cotton  material  or  in  flannel.  It  requires 
no  lining,  except  over  the  shoulders.  Having 
cut  the  circular  of  sufficient  length  to  touch  the 
floor,  or  longer  in  the  back  if  desired,  do  not 
reduce  the  fulness  of  the  circular  at  all  in  the 
front  or  back,  but  make  a seam  on  the  shoulder 
as  in  the  pattern  for  the  talma  (Fig.  2).  Let 
the  seam  be  as  long  as  the  shoulder  length, 
(XIV.),  and  cut  out  the  arm-size  at  the  end  of 
this  seam  in  accordance  with  the  measure 
(IX.).  Cut  the  sleeve  after  the  pattern  ( see 
Dress),  and  put  it  in,  using  a heavy  cord  to 
strengthen  the  arm-size.  Add  to  the  wrapper 
a square  collar,  and  pockets  stitched  on  to  the 
front  breadths  ; the  collar,  cuffs,  and  pockets 
having  some  simple  trimming.  Fasten  the  gar- 
ment with  buttons  from  the  neck  to  the  bottomi 
of  the  dress  (a  dozen  good-sized  ones  will  be 
sufficient),  and  confine  it  at  the  waist  with  a 
leather  belt  if  the  material  be  cotton,  or  cord 
and  tassels,  if  it  be  flannel. 

CISTERN. — A reservoir  for  water,  which  it 
is  sometimes  necessary  to  construct  in  houses 
where  there  is  no  public  supply  of  water.  When 
sunk  in  the  ground,  cisterns  differ  from  wells 
in  receiving  their  water  by  artificial  channels, 
and  not  natural  springs.  In  dry  localities, 
where  the  supply  of  other  water  is  uncertain, 
they  frequently  take  the  place  of  wells,  being 
constructed  of  large  size,  and  connecting  with 
numerous  channels  for  collecting  the  rain  water 
that  falls  upon  the  surrounding  surface.  Cis- 
terns are  usually  built  of  brick,  but  a cheaper 
method  is  to  dig  a hole  in  the  ground  of  the 
required  size,  and  plaster  it  with  hydraulic 
cement  directly  upon  the  walls.  Sand  and 
gravel  thus  cemented  over  stand  perfectly  well, 
and  make  durable  sides  and  bottom  to  the 
cistern.  Indoor  cisterns  should  be  made  of 
strong  slate  with  a perfectly  smooth  surface ; 
and  as  slate  is  liable  to  be  broken  by  a heavy 
blow,  it  is  advisable  to  have  it  in  a wooden 
casing  or  at  least  provided  with  a front  of  wood. 
Every  cistern  should  also  have  an  over-flow 
waste-pipe , which  is  a pipe  fixed  either  at  the 
side  or  perpendicularly  in  the  bottom  with  the 
opening  at  the  level  which  the  water  would  be 
when  the  cistern  is  sufficiently  full.  If  by  any 
accident  the  ball-cock  should  be  out  of  order,  or 
if  there  is  no  ball-cock,  the  superfluous  water 
that  would  otherwise  overflow  will  pass  down 
this  waste-pipe.  It  is  also  desirable  to  have  a 
filter  attached,  and  all  water  for  drinking 
should  be  filtered.  A serviceable  filter  can 
easily  be  made  with  merely  a small  sponge  and 
a little  broken  charcoal.  ( See  Water.) 


CITRIC  ACID. — {See  ACIDS.) 

CITRON. — A fruit  of  a low  evergreen  tree, 
of  the  same  species  as  the  lemon  ; larger  and 


less  succulent,  but  more  acid.  Its  juice  is  a 
good  substitute  for  lemon  juice.  The  rind  is 
best  known  in  this  country.  The  choicest 
comes  from  Leghorn  and  Nice. 

CIVET. — A substance  taken  from  the  civet 
cat,  and  having  a perfume  similar  to  that  of 
musk  and  ambergris.  It  comes  chiefly  from 
the  East  and  Africa.  Its  consistence  is  like 
that  of  honey,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  very 
liable  to  adulteration  by  honey.  Civet  was 
formerly  esteemed  very  highly  as  a stimulant 
and  antispasmodic  medicine  ; but  castor  and 
musk,  also  animal  secretions,  have  taken  its 
place,  and  it  is  now  used  only  for  perfuming 
the  more  fragrant  soaps. 

CLABBER. — Also  called  “ bonny-clabber 
milk  that  has  become  thick  and  nearly  solid 
in  the  process  of  souring.  If  it  stands  too 
long  after  forming,  it  decomposes  and  runs 
off  into  whey ; but  if  taken  while  fresh,  cov- 
ered with  cream,  and  sprinkled  with  sugar, 
it  is  delicious,  and  said  to  be  one  of  the 
most  digestible  forms  in  which  milk  can  be 
taken. 

CLAMS. — There  are  several  varieties,  but 
only  two,  the  hard-shell  (or  quahaug)  and  the 
soft-shell,  are  often  met  with  in  our  markets. 
The  season  for  clams  is  from  May  to  Septem- 
ber. ( See  Soups.) 

Boiled  Clams.  — Select  thin-edged  ones. 
Wash  them  carefully  and  put  them  into  a pot, 
over  a hot  fire,  with  very  little  water,  so  as  to 
save  their  juices ; when  they  open,  leave  the 
juice  in  the  pot,  take  the  clams  from  their 
shells  and  put  them  in  ; add  butter,  pepper,  and 
a very  little  salt,  and  boil  them  ten  minutes. 
Remove  and  serve  hot. 

Broiled  Clams Take  large,  long  clams; 

treat  like  oysters  (which  see). 

Broth  (Clam).— This  is  excellent  for  inva- 
lids, being  the  best  food  known  for  giving 
tone  to  a deranged  stomach ; it  may  even 
be  given  in  small  quantities  to  sick  children 
over  six  months  old.  Select  small  clams  ; break 
the  shells,  and  put  the  clams  with  the  juice 
into  a smaH'boiler  or  stew-pan;  add  enough 
water  to  modify  the  salty  taste,  and  boil  for  ten 
minutes.  Strain,  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Chowder  (Clam)  (See  Chowder.) 


108 


CLARET 


CLEANING 


Fritters  (Clam). — Mince  a dozen  clams  fine. 
To  the  juice  add  one  pint  of  milk,  three  eggs 
well  beaten,  and  flour  enough  to  make  a thin 
batter;  season  with  pepper  and  salt,  stir  in 
the  minced  clams,  and  fry  quickly  in  hot  lard. 
Unless  the  fritters  are  fried  quickly  they  will 
be  too  greasy.  Instead  of  mincing  the  clams, 
they  can  be  dipped  whole  in  the  batter,  and 
fried  as  above. 

Pickled  Clams. — This  is  the  form  in  which 
clams  are  sent  to  the  interior,  or  prepared  to 
be  eaten  raw.  They  can  be  pickled  for  do- 
mestic use  in  the  same  way  as  oysters.  (See 
Oysters.) 

Roast  Clams. — i.  Put  them  in  a pan  over 
a hot  fire ; when  they  open,  empty  the  juice 
into  a sauce-pan ; and  add  the  clams  ; add  some 
butter,  and  season  with  pepper  and  very  little 
salt.  Leave  on  the  fire  three  minutes,  and 
then  serve. 

2.  To  roast  them  after  the  fashion  of  “clam 
bakes,”  place  them  on  a stone,  edge  down- 
wards, and  cover  over  lightly  with  dry  brush 
and  sage.  Set  the  brush  on  fire,  and  when  it 
is  a little  more  than  half  burnt,  pull  out  some 
of  the  clams  and  try  them,  and,  if  done,  brush 
away  the  fire  and  cinders.  Remove  the  clams 
from  their  shells,  and  season  with  catsup,  but- 
ler, and  spices  to  taste. 

CLARET. — All  those  wines  which  are 
know  to  us  as  claret  are  the  product  of  the 
country  around  Bordeaux  ; but  in  France  there 
is  no  wine  known  as  claret,  which  is  simply  a 
corruption  of  clariet , a term  applied  there  to 
any  red  or  rose-colored  wine.  The  genuine 
wines  of  Bordeaux  are  of  great  variety,  that 
being  one  of  the  most  famous  wine  districts  of 
France,  and  a number  of  them  are  of  the  first 
quality.  The  principal  vineyards  are  those  of 
Medoc,  Palus,  Graves,  and  Blanche,  the  pro- 
duce of  each  being  different  in  character. 
The  red  Medoc  wines  are  the  best,  and  are 
known  as  Lalour , Lafitte , Chateau  Margaux , 
etc.  When  in  perfection,  they  are  of  a rich 
red  color,  have  a most  agreeable  bouquet,  and 
are  strong  without  being  intoxicating.  The 
Lafitte  is  considered  to  have  the  finest  flavor; 
the  Chateau  Margaux  is  next  in  rank  ; the 
Latour  is  the  strongest,  and  has  the  fullest 
body,  but  lacks  the  softness  of  the  others. 
Besides  these  there  are  vast  quantities  of  sec- 
ond and  third  rate  Medoc  wines,  which  seldom 
find  their  way  out  of  France  in  a pure  state. 
All  the  Medoc  wines  are  improved  by  a sea 
voyage. 

The  wines  of  Graves  are  so  called  from  the 
gravelly  soil  on  which  they  are  produced  ; they 
are  both  red  and  white,  but  the  latter  is  most 
celebrated.  Some  of  the  red  resemble  Bur- 
gundy in  flavor,  but  are  inferior  to  good  Me- 
doc wines. 

Another  class  of  white  Bordeaux  wines  well 
known  in  this  country  are  Barsac , Sauterne 
and  Beaume , which  have  the  advantage  of 
keeping  long  and  having  considerable  dryness. 

The  Palus  wines  are  inferior  to  the  Medoc 
and  Graves.  They  are  strong  and  rough  when 


new,  and  are  often  used  to  mix  with  Medoc 
wines  to  give  them  additional  strength  and 
body ; when  old,  some  of  them  have  a fine 
bouquet. 

The  Bordeaux  wines,  when  genuine,  are 
among  the  best  that  France  produces;  but 
they  seldom  reach  us  in  a pure  state.  The 
inferior  are  mixed  with  the  better  kind  for  ex- 
portation ; and  very  often  they  are  adulterated 
with  the  cheap  Spanish  wines  of  Alicant,  or 
with  brandy. 

Claret  should  usually  be  drunk  a little 
warmer  than  the  temperature  of  the  room,  but 
in  warm  weather  is  good  iced.  The  highest 
grades  of  claret  will  keep  for  from  fifteen  to 
eighteen  years,  constantly  improving  in  deli- 
cacy. After  that  time  they  rapidly  deterio- 
rate. 

Claret  Cup. — A few  sprigs  of  balm,  a slice 
or  two  of  cucumber ; pour  over  them  one  pint 
of  sherry,  half  a pint  of  brandy,  a lump  cr  so 
of  oleo-saccharum  and  the  strained  juice  of  one 
lemon  and  three  oranges,  half  pint  of  curagoa, 
one  gill  of  raspberry  syrup,  three  bottles  of 
plain  soda  and  three  bottles  of  claret.  Sweeten 
to  taste,  draw  the  herbing  and  serve.  This  is 
the  quantity  for  twenty  people. 

Claret  Cup. — II.  Peel  one  lemon  fine,  cover 
with  pounded  sugar,  pour  over  a glass  of 
sherry ; add  one  bottle  of  claret,  sprig  of  ver- 
bena and  bottle  of  soda  water. 

Cooling  Cup. — Half  fill  a punch  bowl  with 
slices  of  pine-apple  (the  rind  cut  therefrom) 
and  lemon  cut  very  thin  ; arrange  in  alternate 
layers,  each  layer  being  thickly  strewed  with 
white  granulated  sugar.  Pour  over  the  fruit 
as  much-  claret  as  will  fill  the  bowl ; cover 
closely,  and  let  it  stand  six  hours.  Then  put 
in  a piece  of  ice ; when  cold  add  a bottle  of 
plain  soda  water. 

Claret  Punch.  (See  Mulled  Drinks.) 

CLAY.  (See  Bricks.) 

CLEANING. — Wherever  directions  for 
cleaning  come  most  conveniently  under  the 
special  articles,  they  will  be  found  there.  (See 
Brass,  Carpets,  Feathers,  Ink  Stains, 
Matting,  Marble,  Oil-cloths,  Silver- 
ware, Stoves,  Grease,  Stains,  etc.,  etc.) 
We  confine  ourselves  here  to  such  things  as 
are  not  mentioned  elsewhere,  or  are  mentioned 
in  such  connection  as  to  render  it  desirable  to 
bring  instructions  for  cleaning  them  together 
under  this  head. 

Alabaster.  (To  clean.) — Spots  of  grease 
may  be  first  removed  by  a cloth  dipped  in 
spirits  of  turpentine ; then  immerse  the  article 
in  water,  rub  it  with  a painter’s  brush,  and 
dry  it;  and  finish  by  rubbing  it  with  a soft 
brush  dipped  in  finely  powdered  plaster  of 
Paris. 

Bottles.  ( To  clean.)—  Bottles  should  always 
be  scalded,  but  care  must  be  taken  not  to  put 
them  too  suddenly  into  hot  water.  If  not  very 
dirty  they  may  be  washed  in  simple  soap-suds, 
and  afterwards  rinsed  out  in  pure  water ; but 
if  they  are  very  dirty  or  smell  badly,  a little 
soda  or  oxalic  acid  should  be  put  in  each  one. 


CLEANING 


109 


If  there  is  any  substance  which  water  alone 
will  not  remove,  pour  in  a few  bird-shot  with 
the  water  and  shake  them  around.  Bottles 
that  have  had  medicine  in  them  may  be 
cleaned  by  putting  ashes  and  water  in  each, 
immersing  them  in  cold  water,  and  then  heat- 
ing the  water  gradually  until  it  boils.  When 
they  have  boiled  an  hour,  take  from  the  fire, 
and  let  them  remain  in  the  water  till  cold ; then 
wash  in  soap  suds,  and  rinse  in  clear  water. 

Brushes.  (To  clean.') — Hair  brushes  should 
be  washed  in  soda  and  warm  water,  or  ammonia 
and  cold  water,  dipping  the  bristles  frequently 
downward  into  the  water,  but  keeping  the  backs 
as  dry  as  possible  ; when  the  bristles  look  clean, 
rinse  the  brush  in  cold  water,  shake  it  without 
wiping  the  bristles,  and  set  it  in  the  air  to  dry. 
Soap  softens  bristles. 

Carriages.  {To  clean.) — Remove  cushions 
and  carpets  and  clean  with  wisp  broom.  Dust 
the  carriage  with  feather  duster.  Go  over  dirt 
to  ?noisten  well  with  a hose  (regulating  stream 
with  thumb  rather  than  using  a nozzle),  or,  in 
default  of  this,  a “watering-pot.”  Wash  the 
body  with  a sponge  and  plenty  of  water  keep- 
ing the  sponge  free  from  dirt.  Never  rub  any 
part — rather  “wash.”  Wash  the  wheels  with 
a different  sponge  and  lots  of  water,  the  more 
the  better.  Prop  your  wheel  so  as  to  turn  it, 
going  over  each  spoke  separately.  After  re- 
moving the  dirt,  wipe  lightly  with  moist  cham- 
ois. Clean  the  silver  with  “whitening”  or 
“ lamp-black.”  Remove  the  wheels  and  wipe 
the  axles  and  boxes  thoroughly  and  apply  a 
little  sweet  oil  to  the  axle  twice  a week  at 
least.  Never  use  warm  water  on  a carriage. 

Combs.  (To  clean.)  — Clean  combs  with 
brushes  ; washing  makes  the  teeth  split  and  the 
material  rough.  Clean  fine  tooth  combs  by 
throwing  strands  of  thread  over  a hook,  draw- 
ing tight,  and  inserting  between  all  the  teeth. 

Earthen- ware.  (To  clean.) — Scald  and 

wash  it  out  thoroughly  with  ashes  and  a cloth. 
If  there  is  any  smell  in  jars  let  them  stand 
filled  with  water  and  a little  soda. 

Gilding.  (To  clean .) — Gently  wipe  with 
cotton  dipped  in  sweet  oil;  linen  should  never 
be  used,  as  it  deadens  the  gilding.  To  prevent 
flies  from  staining  gilding,  simply  wash  it  over 
at  the  beginning  of  Summer  with  water  in  which 
two  or  three  onions  have  been  boiled. 

Gloves  (Kid).  (To  clean.) — Benzine  is  the 
best  thing.  Pour  some  of  it  into  a wash-basin, 
put  on  the  gloves  and  wash,  as  in  washing  hands. 
Do  not  have  a light  or  fire  in  the  room  for  fear 
of  explosion.  Magnesia,  moist  bread,  or  India- 
rubber  are  all  good  for  light  kid  gloves : rub 
on  thoroughly,  the  magnesia  dry,  with  a light 
flannel.  If  dirty  enough  to  need  dyeing,  sew 
up  the  tops  of  the  gloves,  and  rub  them  over 
with  a sponge  dipped  in  a decoction  of  saffron 
and  water.  (See  Dyeing.) 

Harness.  (To  clean.) — Have  a large  hook 
covered  with  leather,  and  padded,  suspended 
from  the  ceiling.  Upon  this  hang  the  harness. 
With  a sponge,  wrung  out  and  well  rubbed 
with  castile  soap,  wipe  well  all  over  until 


clean.  Pull  the  straps  from  the  loops  and 
buckles,  occasionally  in  washing,  to  keep  all 
parts  neat.  Now  wipe  the  patent  leather 
parts — previously  treated  as  above — with  a 
moist  chamois,  and  then  polish  with  a clean, 
soft  dry  one.  Never  wet  this  second  chamois. 
Now  and  then  put  a little  sweet  oil  on  the 
patent  leather.  If  the  harness  is  covered  with 
mud,  wash  with  a sponge  in  clear  water  first , 
and  then  proceed  as  above.  If  exposed  to 
much  rainy  weather,  a little  neats-foot  oil 
may  be  applied  once  in  a month  or  two : or- 
dinarily, once  in  six  months  will  suffice.  Silver 
mounting  will  continue  in  good  order  by  rub- 
bing with  the  dry  chamois  after  washing — if 
needed,  “whitening”  may  be  used.  Gold 
mounting  requires  .simple  wiping  with  the 
chamois.  Prince’s  metal  and  brass  require 
cleaning  with  “ rotten-stone  ” or  some  of  the 
preparations  found  at  the  saddler’s.  Steel  bits 
are  the  handsomest  and  are  easily  kept  bright 
if  wiped  as  soon  as  removed  from  the  horse  : 
if  rusted  rub  with  fine  sand,  moistened  with 
water.  A little  sweet  oil  will  prevent  their 
rusting  while  not  in  use. 

Most  of  the  varnishes  and  patent  blackings 
are  injurious  to  the  leather.  A little  “ liquid 
black  ” from  the  dyer’s  will  be  all-sufficient  for 
rubbed  spots,  and  castile  soap  for  polish. 

Hearths.  (To  clean.) — Wash  free-stone 
hearths  in  water  without  soap;  while  damp, 
rub  on  free-stone  that  has  been  reduced  to  a 
powder  ; let  it  remain  till  dry  and  then  rub  it 
off.  If  the  hearth  is  stained,  rub  it  hard  with 
a piece  of  free-stone  ; if  you  wish  it  to  look 
dark,  rub  it  over  with  hot  soft  soap,  alone  or 
diluted  with  water.  For  brick  hearths,  apply 
redding  (or  red  clay)  mixed  with  thin  hot 
starch  and  a little  milk. 

House-Cleaning. — Most  of  the  advice  on 
this  subject  is  already  included  elsewhere  in 
this  article,  and  under  Floors,  Grease, 
Marble,  Paint,  Stains.  It  is  worth  while 
to  add,  however,  that  to  walls  painted  in  dis- 
temper, or  simply  whitewashed,  water  cannol 
be  applied,  and  they  can  only  be  brushed  care- 
fully. Kalsomined  walls  can  be  lightly  and 
quickly  wiped  with  damp  cloths. 

Knives.  {To  clean.) — The  handles  of 
knives,  especially  if  of  ivory  or  horn,  should 
never  be  dipped  in  hot  water.  The  blades 
should  be  cleaned  by  rubbing  vigorously  with 
a soft  flannel  and  Bath  brick.  If  rusty  or 
deeply  stained,  use  wood  ashes  rubbed  on 
with  a newly  cut  Irish  potato  ; this  will  remove 
spots  when  nothing  else  will.  If  the  ivory 
handles  become  yellow  they  may  be  rubbea 
with  fine  sand-paper. 

Marble  Steps.— Scrub  with  sand  and  water, 
with  the  hearth-stone,  or  with  this  mixture  : — 
Boil  half  a pint  of  size  with  the  same  quantity 
of  whiting  and  of  pipe  clay,  in  two  quarts  of 
water;  the  stones  must  be  first  washed  clean 
with  water,  and  this  mixture  afterwards  laid 
smoothly  on  with  a cloth ; when  dry,  they  must 
be  rubbed  with  a dry  cloth  or  flannel. 

| Mirrors.  (To  clean.) — Mirrors  and  looking- 


110 


CLEANING 


CLOTHING 


glasses  may  be  washed  with  a soft  sponge 
dipped  in  spirits  of  wine  (or  water  with  a little 
ammonia  in  it),  no  more  of  the  glass  being 
wet  at  once  than  can  be  immediately  wiped  off, 
as  dampness,  in  altering  the  temperature  of 
the  glass,  unsettles  the  coating  at  the  back 
which  gives  it  its  power  of  reflecting  objects. 
While  wet,  the  glass  should  be  dusted  with 
powdered  blue  or  whiting  tied  up  in  a muslin 
bag,  and  then  rubbed  off  with  a soft  linen  dus- 
ter or  silk  handkerchief  or  pieces  of  chamois- 
skin. 

Paint.  (To  dean) — Soap  should  never  be 
put  on  paint.  For  ordinary  cleaning  scour  the 
paint  with  a brush  less  hard  than  that  used  for 
floors,  using  warm  water ; before  it  dries  wash 
it  off  with  a piece  of  old  flannel  dipped  in  clear 
cold  water,  and  wipe  dry  with  a linen  cloth.  If 
the  paint  is  very  much  soiled,  smear  a piece  of 
flannel  in  whiting,  mixed  to  the  consistency  of 
paste  in  warm  water ; rub  the  surface  to  be 
cleaned  briskly,  and  wash  off  with  cold  water. 
Grease  spots  will  in  this  way  be  almost  in- 
stantly removed  as  well  as  other  dirt,  and  with- 
out injuring  the  paint. 

Paper-hangings.  (To  clean) — Brush  all 
the  dust  off  carefully  with  a brush  and  rub  the 
walls  with  thick  slices  of  stale  bread,  beginning 
at  the  top  of  the  room,  care  must  be  taken  not 
to  rub  the  paper  too  hard,  and  to  rub  down- 
wards with  a perpendicular  stroke  ; if  the  rub- 
bing is  horizontal  the  wall  will  be  covered  with 
smears.  The  dirty  surface  of  the  bread  must 
be  cut  away  from  time  to  time,  and  the  pieces 
renewed  as  often  as  necessary.  There  is  no 
way  of  removing  grease  spots  or  other  stains 
from  wall  paper. 

Papier-mache.  (To  clean) — Papier  machd 
articles  should  be  washed  with  a sponge  and 
cold  water,  without  soap,  lightly  dredged  with 
flour  while  damp,  and  polished  with  flannel. 

Pots,  Kettles,  etc.  (To  clean) — As  soon 
as  a pot  or  frying-pan  has  been  emptied  of  what 
was  cooked  in  it,  it  should  be  filled  with  hot  water 
and  set  back  upon  the  fire  to  scald  thoroughly. 
After  cleaning,  it  should  be  wiped  dry  before 
being  set  away  into  the  closet  or  it  is  likely  to 
rust.  If  grease  or  any  substance  gets  caked 
in  it  so  as  to  resist  the  action  of  water,  it  may 
be  dissolved  by  a little  pearlash.  Copper  uten- 
sils should  be  cleaned  with  brick-dust  and  flan- 
nel ; if  the  outsides  are  to  be  highly  polished, 
use  a composition  of  one  ounce  of  spirits  of 
hartshorn,  half  a pint  of  vinegar,  one  ounce  of 
rotten-stone,  and  one  ounce  of  soft  soap ; mix 
the  soap  and  rotten-stone  together  first,  and 
then  add  the  hartshorn  and  vinegar.  Tins 
should  be  kept  clean  by  rubbing  them  with 
sifted  wood-ashes,  or  whiting,  or  Bath  brick. 

The  “ chain-cloth,”  a network  of  steel  rings, 
resembling  an  old  fashioned  reticule  is  of  great 
service  in  cleaning  kettles  that  have  been  badly 
burned. 

Shawls.  (To  clean) — Either  woollen  or  silk 
shawls  may  be  cleaned  very  thoroughly  in  this 
way : Pare  and  grate  raw  and  mealy  potatoes 
and  for  each  pint  of  potato-pulp  add  two  quarts 


of  cold  water.  Let  it  stand  five  hours,  then 
strain  the  water  through  a sieve  and  rub  as 
much  of  the  potato  pulp  through  as  possible ; 
let  the  strained  water  stand  to  settle  again,  and 
when  clear  turn  the  water  off  from  the  dregs 
carefully.  Put  a clean  white  sheet  on  a per- 
fectly clean  table,  lay  over  it  the  shawl  to  be 
cleaned  and  pin  it  down  tightly.  Dip  a sponge 
that  has  never  been  used  into  the  potato  water, 
and  rub  the  shawl  with  it  until  clean ; then 
rinse  the  shawl  in  clear  water  and  salt  (a  teacup- 
ful of  salt  to  a pailful  of  the  water).  Spread  it 
on  a clean,  level  place  where  it  will  dry  quickly, 
— if  hung  up  to  dry  the  colors  are  apt  to  run 
and  leave  the  shawl  streaked.  Fold  it  up 
while  damp,  and  let  it  remain  half  an  hour ; then 
wrap  it  in  a clean  white  cloth,  and  put  it  under 
a heavy  weight  until  it  is  dry.  If  there  are  any 
grease  spots  on  the  shawl,  they  should  be  ex- 
tracted before  it  is  washed. 

Windows.  (To  clean) — Wash  each  pane 
separately  with  old  flannel  and  warm  water, 
but  do  not  let  the  water  run  on  the  sash. 
Dry  quickly  with  a soft,  clean  linen  cloth, 
wiping  the  corners  carefully  ; polish  with  dry 
chamois  skin,  or  newspapers  rubbed  soft  be- 
tween the  hands.  If  the  glass  is  very  dim 
with  dirt  or  smoke,  dissolve  a little  washing- 
soda  in  the  water ; or  use  whiting  mixed 
smoothly  in  some  water.  The  addition  of  a 
little  gin  to  the  water  is  also  a great  improve- 
ment. Paint  or  putty  may  be  removed  from 
the  glass  by  dissolving  sufficient  pearl-ash  in 
hot  water  to  make  it  very  strong;  then  satu- 
rate the  spots  with  it,  let  it  remain  till  nearly 
dry,  and  then  rub  it  off  hard  with  a woollen 
cloth.  Whiting  may  be  used  on  the  spots  if 
they  are  very  obstinate. 

CLOCK. — Clocks  are  so  cheap  now,  that 
their  usefulness  and  companionableness  should 
secure  them  a place  in  nearly  every  room  in 
the  house.  There  should  always  be  one  in  the 
kitchen  especially,  or  where  the  cook  may  easily 
consult  it;  much  of  the  careless  and  unscientific 
cooking  which  disgraces  American  kitchens  is 
owing  to  the  habit  that  prevails  there  of  guess- 
ing at  the  time.  The  whole  art  of  keeping 
clocks  in  order — so  far  at  least  as  they  can  be 
kept  in  order  by  one  not  acquainted  with  their 
construction  — consists  in  winding  them  up 
regularly  and  properly.  If  once  the  mechan- 
ism becomes  disarranged  and  they  refuse  to 
keep  time,  it  is  best  not  to  tinker  with  them, 
but  take  them  at  once  to  a clockmaker.  If 
the  ordinary  pendulum  clock  runs  too  slow,  this 
may  be  remedied  by  screwing  the  little  nut  at 
the  base  of  the  pendulum  a little  higher;  if  it 
runs  too  fast  the  pendulum  should  be  lowered 
slightly.  A clock  that  is  driven  by  weights 
must  be  so  placed  that  its  sides  will  be  exactly 
perpendicular. 

CLOTHING.— It  is  foreign  to  our  purpose 
to  enter  here  into  the  history  of  dress  or  a 
description  of  prevailing  fashions  ; the  forms 
of  dress,  being  subject  to  the  arbitrary  rule  of 
fashion,  are  seldom  permitted  to  be  regulated 
by  individual  feeling  of  convenience  or  utility, 


CLOTHING 


111 


and  this  branch  of  the  subject  has  by  common 
consent  been  handed  over  to  the  milliners, 
dressmakers,  and  tailors.  There  are,  however, 
certain  physical  principles  respecting  clothing 
that  are  permanent  and  universal,  and  attention 
to  these  will  ensure  healthy  dress,  notwithstand- 
ing the  eccentricities  of  form  and  fashion. 

The  usual  temperature  of  the  body  is  about 
98° ; and  its  heat  is  constantly  being  thrown 
off  into  the  surrounding  air.  Clothing  checks 
or  prevents  this  loss  in  some  degree : and  it 
follows  of  course  that  the  materials  which  are 
the  best  non-conductors  form  the  warmest 
clothing.  But  there  are  several  other  circum- 
stances to  be  taken  into  consideration  in 
choosing  materials.  The  skin,  by  its  struc- 
ture, performs  the  function  of  regulating 
the  temperature  — by  perspiration  through 
its  pores  the  excess  of  heat  is  carried  off ; 
hence  when  this  function  is  deranged,  and 
the  insensible  perspiration  obstructed,  disease 
is  the  consequence.  In  addition  to  this  ser- 
vice, the  pores  of  the  skin  serve  as  an  outlet 
for  matters  no  longer  necessary  in  the  animal 
economy,  and  which  if  retained  would  prove 
injurious  ; and  we  may  observe  that  the  skin  is 
abundantly  supplied  with  minute  nerves,  which 
are  the  source  of  feeling,  and  which  require  a 
certain  degree  of  warmth  to  preserve  their 
vital  action.  From  these  facts  it  is  easy  to 
learn  that  clothing  should  be  of  such  a nature 
as  not  to  impede  the  escape  of  the  perspired 
matter  but  to  let  it  pass  through  its  texture  ; 
that  it  should  be  of  such  non-conducting  quality 
as  to  confine  the  heat  generated  by  the  blood 
sufficiently  to  preserve  the  activity  of  the  ner- 
vous system ; and  that  by  its  lightness,  soft- 
ness, and  pliancy,  it  should  permit  the  free 
action  of  the  limbs. 

Applying  these  principles,  it  is  plain  that 
clothing  for  summer  wear  should  be  made  of 
materials  which  conduct  heat  rapidly;  while 
that  for  winter  should  be  made  of  such  as 
conduct  heat  slowly.  Now  the  power  of  con- 
duction of  all  substances  available  for  clothing 
depends  largely  on  the  capacity  for  holding 
air ; those  which  hold  most  of  this  worst  of  all 
conductors  of  heat  become,  in  consequence, 
bad  conductors  themselves,  and  those  which 
hold  least  are  necessarily  good  ones.  Thick  and 
loose  textures  are  obviously  better  holders  of 
air  than  thin  and  closely-woven  ones,  and  there- 
fore woollen  clothing  will  keep  in  the  bodily 
heat  and  feel  warmer  than  that  made  of  linen. 
The  capacity  of  dress  for  holding  air  will  also, 
it  is  clear,  be  increased  by  numerous  layers 
and  looseness  of  fit ; while  it  will  be  diminished 
by  tightness ; it  is  obvious  then  that  warmth 
will  be  best  secured  by  clothes  which  fit  loosely 
and  are  composed  of  successive  layers.  Moist- 
ure increases  the  conducting  power  of  cloth- 
ing, because  it  fills  up  the  interstices  of  the 
material  and  thus  excludes  the  air.  Wool 
absorbs  moisture  less  rapidly  than  linen  or 
cotton  or  any  other  material,  and  its  conduct- 
ing power  is  very  little  increased  by  it.  For 
all  these  reasons  woollen  clothing,  next  the  skin 


especially,  is  better  than  any  other,  no  matter 
what  may  be  the  season  of  the  year ; and  it 
may  be  so  adjusted  as  to  meet  the  requirements 
of  both  winter  and  summer. 

Linen  is  the  best  conductor  of  heat  of  all  the 
materials  used  for  clothing,  and  as  it  does  not 
absorb  so  much  of  the  perspired  matter  as 
wool,  it  leaves  the  pores  of  the  skin  partially 
clogged  up.  It  also  feels  colder  to  the  skin 
than  wool,  and  robs  the  body  of  heat  very 
rapidly  when  first  put  on.  It  is  a step  there- 
fore in  the  direction  of  health  as  well  as  econo- 
my that  it  has  been  nearly  superseded  by  cot- 
ton in  some  of  the  most  important  articles  of 
dress.  Cotton,  in  its  powers  of  conducting 
heat,  holds  a middle  ground  between  linen 
and  flannel,  and  should  be  used  when  the  latter 
is  inappropriate. 

The  choice  of  colors  in  dress,  though  gen- 
erally .a  matter  of  fashion  or  mere  caprice,  is 
only  less  important  than  choice  of  materials. 
Of  all  colors  black  reflects  least  and  absorbs 
most  of  the  heat  that  strikes  upon  it,  which 
warmth  it  communicates  to  the  body ; but,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  radiates  more  than  any  other 
color,  and  of  course  gives  out  more  of  the 
heat  which  it  receives  from  the  skin,  producing 
a counteracting  effect.  White,  on  the  con- 
trary, is  least  warmed  by  external  heat  but  is 
more  effectual  in  confining  the  heat  of  the 
body.  The  difference  between  them  with  re- 
spect to  warmth  is  that  black  clothes  are  hottest 
when  the  sun  is  most  powerful,  and  white 
warmest  when  the  sun  has  least  power ; 
speaking  generally,  white  is  coolest  in  summer 
and  black  in  winter.  The  inference  from  this  is 
that  for  steady  wear,  white  is  most  appropriate 
for  underclothes,  while  the  best  color  for  outside 
apparel  is  a neutral  tint  such  as  gray  or  brown. 

We  hope  it  is  superfluous  to  urge  the  neces- 
sity of  frequent  change  of  clothing ; but  it 
should  be  borne  in  mind  that  continuous  wear 
of  the  same  apparel  is  not  only  uncleanly  but 
detrimental  to  health.  That  which  is  worn 
next  the  skin,  no  matter  what  its  texture  is, 
should  be  frequently  washed,  and  the  outer 
garments  should  be  changed  from  time  to  time 
to  admit  of  a lengthened  purification  by  shaking 
and  exposure  to  air.  Frequent  cleansing  of  a 
garment,  apart  from  its  propriety,  has  the  effect 
of  keeping  the  material  open  and  soft  and 
pervious  to  the  air,  which,  as  has  been  shown, 
is  essential  to  maintaining  the  warmth  of  the 
body.  The  open  fleecy  texture  of  woollen  cloth 
especially,  if  not  often  stirred  by  shaking, 
beating,  or  brushing,  will  become  so  pressed 
and  matted  by  constant  use  as  to  lose  many 
of  its  peculiar  advantages.  A most  healthy 
and  cleanly  practice  is  to  shake  each  article 
of  apparel  every  morning  just  before  it  is  put 
on  the  body. 

One  point  in  which  people  generally  are 
much  too  careless  is  in  making  the  changes  of 
underclothing  that  are  considered  necessary  for 
the  different  seasons.  Too  great  haste  in 
making  this  change,  especially  in  the  spring, 
has  been  and  is  one  of  the  most  fruitful  sources 


112 


CLOTHES  WRINGER 


COCOANUT 


of  coughs,  colds,  and  the  related  diseases. 
Such  a change  should  never  be  made,  until  the 
weather  is  entirely  settled,  in  other  words,  until 
steady  hot  weather  has  come  in.  The  practice 
too  often  indulged  in  by  young  girls  of  chang- 
ing about  from  day  to  day  as  the  weather  hap- 
pens to  vary  is  reckless  to  the  point  of  foolish- 
ness. 

To  Render  Non-Inflammable. — Linen  and 
cotton  goods  may  be  rendered  non-inflam- 
mable by  steeping  them  in  a solution  of  sul- 
phate of  ammonia  (seven  parts  to  one  hundred 
parts  of  water),  or  tungstate  of  soda  (twenty 
parts  to  one  hundred  of  water),  and  then  drying 
them.  T ungstate  of  soda  is  the  best  on  account 
of  its  not  interfering  in  any  way  with  the  process 
of  ironing.  Clothing  prepared  in  this  manner 
may  be  held  in  the  flame  of  a candle,  or  gas,  or 
lamp,  without  taking  fire ; that  portion  of  the 
stuff  in  direct  contact  with  the  fire  becomes 
charred  and  is  destroyed,  but  it  does  not 
ignite,  and  consequently  the  burning  does  not 
spread  to  the  rest  of  the  material. 

To  Render  Waterproof. — Into  a gallon  of 
water  put  a quarter  of  an  ounce  of  yellow 
soap,  and  let  it  boil  for  half  an  hour,  skim, 
and  when  cold  put  in  the  cloth  or  garment ; let 
it  remain  in  soak  for  twenty-four  hours.  Take  it 
out  and  hang  it  to  drain,  and  when  half  dry  put 
it  into  the  following  solution  : half  a pound  of 
alum,  and  a quarter  of  a pound  of  sugar  of  lead, 
dissolved  in  three  gallons  of  water.  Let  it  soak 
about  four  hours,  and  then  hang  to  dry  without 
wringing.  The  solution  does  not  alter  the  ap- 
pearance or  texture  of  the  article  immersed ; and 
the  process  does  not  require  to  be  repeated. 

For  directions  for  making  Women's  and 
Children's  Clothing  and  widergarments,  see 
Cutting,  and  Fitting,  and  under  the  names 
of  the  respective  garments. 

CLOTHES  WRINGER.  {See  Wringer.) 

CLOVES. — Every  part  of  the  clove-tree 
abounds  in  aromatic  oil,  but  it  is  most  fragrant 
and  plentiful  in  the  unexpanded  flower-buds, 
which  in  a dried  state,  form  the  cloves  of  com- 
merce. Cloves  grow  in  several  parts  of  the 
tropical  world,  but  the  best  come  from  the 
East  Indies.  In  choosing  select  those  of  a 
lightish  brown  which  are  not  shrivelled.  The 
oil  of  cloves  may  be  obtained  by  expression 
from  the  fresh  flower-buds,  but  the  usual 
method  of  obtaining  it  is  by  distillation.  Few 
essential  oils  have  a more  extensive  use  in  perfu- 
mery than  that  of  cloves.  It  combines  well  with 
grease,  soap,  and  spirit,  and  forms  a leading 
feature  in  some  of  the  most  popular  handker- 
chief essences.  For  essence  of  cloves,  dissolve 
oil  of  cloves  in  the  proportion  of  2 oz  of  oil  to 
1 gal.  spirit. 

COAGULATION.— The  thickening  of  a 
substance  that  has  been  fluid,  as  the  formation 
of  curd  from  milk  when  rennet  is  boiled  with  it 
or  when  it  has  clabbered. 

COAL.  ( See  Anthracite,  Bituminous 
Coal,  Cannel  Coal,  and  Charcoal.) 

COBBLER.  (Fruit.) — Take  half  a glassful 
of  the  juice  of  any  fruit ; sweeten  to  taste, 


and  fill  up  the  glass  with  ice  broken  very 
fine. 

Sherry  Cobbler. — Fill  a large  glass  full  of 
ice  broken  up  fine ; fill  the  interstices  with 
sherry,  add  a tablespoonful  of  powdered  white 
sugar,  and  about  a square  inch  of  lemon  peel 
that  has  had  the  oil  pressed  to  the  surface. 
Stir  together  thoroughly,  and  drink  through  a 
tube  or  a straw. 

COCHINEAL. — The  product  of  the  cochi- 
neal insect  ( Coccus  Cacti),  a native  of  Brazil, 
whence  it  is  shipped  in  large  quantities  to  all 
parts  of  the  world.  It  is  used  in  dyeing  scarlet, 
crimson,  and  related  colors,  and  is  the  substance 
from  which  carmine  is  made.  ( See  Carmine, 
and  Dyeing.) 

COCKLE. — A kind  of  shell-fish  very  abund- 
ant and  highly  thought  of  in  Europe,  but  scarce 
in  this  country  and  seldom  seen  in  our  mar- 
kets. It  is  shaped  like  the  clam,  but  wrinkled 
and  rough  ; and  is  generally  picked  up  with 
the  round  clam  in  the  mouths  of  rivers  and 
bays  near  the  ocean.  They  have  a peculiar 
and  agreeable  flavor,  and  are  regarded  as  a 
very  wholesome  food  ; they  may  be  eaten  raw, 
boiled,  or  fried,  and  are  very  good  used  as 
sauce  instead  of  oysters.  If  pickled  like  mus- 
sels they  will  keep  for  several  days. 

COCKROACHES.— These  are  one  of  the 
worst  of  the  insect  pests.  They  maybe  destroy- 
ed by  pouring  boiling  water  into  their  haunts,  or 
setting  a mixture  of  arsenic  mixed  with  mo- 
lasses and  Indian  meal  round  the  places  which 
they  frequent.  Chloride  of  lime  and  sweetened 
water  will  also  poison  them ; as  will  hellebore 
rubbed  over  with  molasses.  Cockroaches  must 
be  dealt  with  promptly,  as  they  multiply  rapidly 
and  soon  overrun  the  house.  (See  ROACHES.) 

COCKTAIL.  (See  under  Whiskey.) 

COCOA. — Cocoa  is  generally  purer  than 
chocolate,  which  is  a preparation  of  the  same 
bean,  and  is  also  more  nutritious.  The  best 
comes  from  Trinidad,  and  may  be  had  in  the 
original  seed  or  nibs,  flaked,  or  ground  and 
prepared  like  chocolate  in  small  square  pack- 
ets. The  latter  is  a mixture  of  cocoa  and 
arrowroot.  The  surest  way  of  getting  cocoa 
pure  is  to  buy  the  beans  and  roast  them,  after- 
wards grinding  them  like  coffee  or  simply 
bruising  them.  It  deteriorates  by  keeping, and 
it  is  best  to  buy  it  in  small  quantities  at  a time. 

When  prepared  cocoa  is  used,  make  it  in  the 
same  way  as  chocolate.  (See  Chocolate.) 
When  the  cocoa  nibs  are  prepared  add  two 
ounces  of  them  to  a quart  of  boiling  water,  and 
boil  an  hour  and  a half ; then  add  a quart  of 
fresh  milk,  let  it  heat  almost  to  boiling,  and 
then  remove  from  the  fire  and  serve. 

COCOANUT. — The  fruit  of  the  cocoa  palm 
which  grows  wild  throughout  the  tropics  and  is 
especially  abundant  in  the  eastern  parts  of 
Asia  and  the  islands  of  the  Indian  seas.  Those 
in  our  markets  are  generally  brought  from 
Baracoa  and  Brazil.  Besides  the  white,  solid 
kernel  which  is  used  so  extensively  for  pies, 
puddings,  cakes  and  the  like,  cocoanuts  con- 
tain a creamy  liquid,  called  milk ; in  buying 


select  those  in  which  the  milk  can  be  heard 
when  they  are  shaken.  Cocoanut  should  be 
grated  fine  before  using. 

COD. — This  fish  is  found  in  all  the  northern 
parts  of  the  world  and  especially  on  the  banks  of 
Newfoundland,  Cape  Breton,  and  New  England. 


It  may  be  had  in  our  markets  throughout  the 
year;  from  October  to  May  alive,  after  this 
they  come  packed  in  ice,  from  the  northern 
fisheries.  There  often  appear  codfish  of  va- 
rious colors  or  markings  ; some  full  of  streaks, 
light  and  dark,  many  of  the  usual  gray  color, 
others  of  a greenish  gray,  and  others  still  of  a 
reddish  brown.  The  fishermen  say  this  is 
caused  by  their  being  taken  in  different  waters, 
and  apply  to  them  the  names  of  rock-cod , shoal- 
cod,  etc.  When  fresh,  the  flesh  is  white  and 
firm,  the  neck  is  thick,  the  gills  red,  and  the 
eyes  bright.  The  tongue  is  cut  out  when  the 
fish  is  first  caught ; and  these,  with  the  air 
bladder  or  sack,  called  sounds  are  cured  and 
found  on  sale.  They  are  highly  nutritious,  be- 
ing almost  pure  gelatine. 

Balls  (Codfish  ). — Take  .--codfish,  picked,  Yz 
pt. ; milk  % cupful ; cornstarch  2 even  table- 
spoonfuls ; butter  14  the  size  of  an  ess;  esfss 
3 ; potatoes  10  or  1 1,  medium  sized.  Soak  the 
fish  all  night  (if  very  salt  in  a great  deal  of 
water)  then  press  the  water  from  it  and  pick  it 
very  fine  ; boil  and  mash  the  potatoes  ; add  the 
butter  and  the  milk,  in  which  the  corn-starch  is 
mixed,  to  the  hot  potato,  throw  in  the  fish 
with  the  eggs  and  beat  the  whole  until  so  light 
that  it  looks  like  pound-cake.  Fry  in  balls,  in 
deep  lard,  or  brown  like  muffins  in  rings  on  the 
griddle. 

Boiled.  (Fresh.) — Soak  it  for  half  an  hour 
in  cold  water,  slightly  salted  ; then  drain  it  and 
wipe  dry.  Put  it  into  a pot  with  water  enough 
to  fairly  cover  it,  add  a little  salt,  and  boil  for 
half  an  hour  or  more  according  to  the  size  of  the 
fish.  Dish,  and  garnish  with  scraped  horse- 
radish, or  parsley,  or  both;  surround  with 
slices  of  fried  roe,  and  accompany  with  oyster 
sauce.  Another  nice  dressing  is  with  egg 
sauce  poured  over  it  on  the  dish  ; garnish  with 
slices  of  hard-boiled  eggs  and  sprigs  of  parsley. 
Boiled  cod  is  also  eaten  with  Anchovy,  Caper, 
or  Dutch  sauce. 

Boiled.  (Salt.) — Soak  it  in  cold  water  for 
two  days,  changing  the  water  two  or  three 
times  ; then  scale  it  well  and  clean.  A shorter 
way  is  to  place  it  one  night  in  lukewarm  water, 
renewing  the  latter  several  times ; it  is  then 
ready  for  use  next  day.  Lay  the  fish  in  a 
kettle,  cover  it  with  cold  water,  set  it  on  a slow 
fire,  let  it  boil  about  two  minutes  ; then  take  the 
kettle  from  the  fire,  cover  it  over  tightly,  and 


>D  113 

let  it  stand  ten  minutes.  Drain  the  fish,  dish 
it,  and  serve  as  above. 

Chowder.  (Codfish.)  — Cut  a codfish  of 
six  or  seven  pounds  into  slices  about  an  inch 
thick;  slice  half  a dozen  medium-sized  pota- 
toes ; cut  one  pound  of  salt  pork  into  thin 
slices  and  fry  them  brown.  Grease  the  bottom 
of  the  pot  and  put  in  a layer  of  the  fish,  then 
a layer  of  the  potatoes  and  pork,  with  some 
pilot-bread  or  crackers  ; and  so  on,  alternately, 
till  all  is  in  the  pot.  Pour  over  the  whole  a 
quart  of  water  and  a pint  of  milk,  add  salt  and 
pepper  to  taste,  and  a few  onions  if  they  are 
liked,  and  boil  twenty  minutes. 

Picked-up  Codfish. — Pick  the  fish  into 
small  pieces,  the  smaller  the  better.  Freshen 
by  leaving  it  in  water  an  hour ; pour  off  the 
water,  fill  up  with  fresh,  and  set  over  the  fire 
until  it  just  comes  to  a boil ; then  pour  the 
water  off,  and  put  on  the  fish  just  enough  hot 
water  to  cover  it ; add,  to  a quart  of  the  soaked 
fish,  a level  tablespoonful  of  butter,  a table- 
spoonful of  flour,  and  a dust  of  black  pepper. 
Let  it  boil  ten  minutes,  and  when  it  has  been 
taken  off  the  fire  thicken  by  stirring  in  two 
well-beaten  eggs.  Dish  and  serve  hot. 

Remnants  of  Codfish. — Remnants  of  fish 
left  over  make  a pretty  and  agreeable  dish 
prepared  thus  : Pick  the  flakes  of  fish  away 
from  the  bones  and  skin  before  they  become 
cold.  . When  wanted  put  them  into  a stew-pan 
with  what  was  left  of  the  sauce  (anchovy, 
oyster,  or  other)  with  which  they  were  original- 
ly served.  Add  a dozen  or  more  fresh  oysters 
with  their  juice ; if  these  are  not  enough  to 
moisten  the  fish  (and  it  only  requires  to  be  just 
moistened),  make  up  the  deficiency  with  a 
spoonful  or  two  of  melted  butter.  Warm  care- 
fully over  a slow  fire,  and  when  once  hot 
through  take  it  off.  Surround  the  rim  of  the 
dish  with  a wall  of  nice  mashed  potatoes,  so  as 
to  leave  a hollow  in  the  middle ; in  this  hollow 
place  the  warmed-up  fish  with  its  sauce. 
Sprinkle  over  the  fish  grated  bread-crumbs  or 
crackers ; set  the  whole  for  a few  minutes  in  a 
quick  oven  ; and  when  nicely  browned  on  the 
top,  serve. 

Stewed,  with  Eggs. — Prepare  the  fish  as 
for  balls.  Take  a pint  of  fresh  milk,  heat  it 
almost  to  boiling,  stir  into  it  gradually  three 
eggs  well  beaten,  a tablespoonful  of  butter,  a 
little  chopped  parsley,  a little  pepper,  and  lastly 
the  fish.  Boil  it  up  once,  turn  it  into  a deep 
covered  dish,  and  serve  hot.  This  is  an  excel- 
lent dish  for  either  breakfast  or  supper. 

Tongues  and  Sounds. — Soak  them  twenty- 
four  hours,  changing  the  water  once;  then 
throw  them  into  boiling  water  and  boil  ten 
minutes.  Serve,  covered  with  egg  sauce  and 
garnished  with  toast. 

2.  Boil  as  above,  and  let  them  cool.  Then 
dip  them  in  batter,  or  roll  them  in  bread-crumbs 
and  egg,  and  fry  to  a crisp  brown.  So  treated 
they  either  make  a nice  dish  by  themselves,  or 
are  an  appropriate  garnish  for  both  salt  and 
fresh  cod  boiled. 

3.  After  cooking  them,  scrape  off  the  skin, 


114 


CODEIA 


COFFEE 


cut  them  into  small  pieces,  and  stew  them  in  a 
little  milk  five  or  ten  minutes  till  tender.  Just 
before  taking  up,  add  a little  butter  and  a little 
Hour-paste.  Serve  with  cold  boiled  eggs  cut 
up  over  them. 

CODEIA. — An  alkaloid  contained  in  opium. 
It  possesses  hypnotic  properties  but  produces 
only  moderate  anodyne  effects.  It  is  used  to 
produce  sleep,  or  to  quiet  cough  in  persons 
who  do  not  tolerate  opium  or  morphia.  The 
dose  is  from  1 to  i grain,  in  pill  form,  or  dis- 
solved in  syrup.  One  dose  only  should  be 
taken  in  one  day  without  the  doctor’s  advice. 

CODLING. — This  fish  is  also  known  as 
“ hake.”  It  appears  to  be  a species  of  the 
codfish,  but  is  not  considered  equal  to  the  lat- 
ter in  flavor  or  in  nutritive  value.  It  weighs 
from  one  to  twenty  pounds,  and  is  in  season 
from  September  to  December,  though  even 
then  it  is  by  no  means  abundant  in  our  markets. 
It  may  be  broiled  or  fried  like  blue-fish,  or 
boiled  like  cod. 

COD-LIVER  OIL. — Several  kinds  of  livers 
are  employed  to  make  this  oil,  but  the  cod  yield 
it  most  abundantly.  Its  great  virtue  prob- 
ably lies  in  its  easy  digestibility.  Probably  in 
those  cases  where  it  does  so  much  good,  it 
re-establishes  the  balance  of  nutrition,  enabling 
other  substances  to  be  made  use  of  in  the  ani- 
mal economy  which  were  before  rejected. 
Under  its  use  patients  sometimes  marvellously 
increase  in  weight  and  improve  in  general 
appearance,  their  blood  becoming  richer,  and 
their  complexion  ruddier,  even  though  they  are 
taking  no  iron.  Its  use  is  thus  indicated  in  a 
great  variety  of  exhausting  diseases,  especially 
those  where  there  is  chronic  wasting  with 
gradual  emaciation.  Individuals,  too,  with 
swollen  glands,  which  themselves  interfere 
with  nutrition,  are  almost  invariably  benefited 
by  its  use;  and  one  of  the  most  obstinate 
complaints  known — chronic  rheumatism  and 
rheumatic  gout — frequently  yield  to  its  in- 
fluence. Where  there  is  scrofula,  and  a ten- 
dency to  consumption,  cod-liver  oil  is  invalu- 
able ; even  in  advanced  pulmonary  consumption 
its  effects  are  wonderful.  Nor  is  it  of  less 
value  in  treating  the  diseases  of  the  bones  and 
joints  in  scrofulous  persons.  In  the  wasting 
diseases  of  childhood,  there  is  no  remedy  to  be 
compared  with  cod-liver  oil. 

It  is  a common  assertion  on  the  part  of 
patients  that  they  cannot  take  the  oil  because 
it  makes  them  sick.  The  first  thing  to  be  done 
under  such  circumstances  is  to  secure  the 
purest  and  most  palatable  oil  possible  ; it  should 
be  perfectly  clear,  and  have  not  the  slightest 
trace  of  rancidity  about  it.  Good  oil  has  a slightly 
fishy  smell,  and  taste,  that  is  all.  Then  it  should 
be  given  in  small  doses;  let  the  patient  begin 
with  a tablespoonful,  or  even  less,  a few  drops 
if  no  more  can  be  tolerated.  It  may  be  given 
in  anything  the  patient  fancies,  water,  milk, 
orange  wine,  curacao,  etc.,  and  it  is  best  given 
within  half  an  hour  after  a meal  ; some  like  it 
immediately  after.  Even  this  may  upset  the 
stomach,  and  then  it  must  be  tried  the  last 


thing  at  night,  after  the  patient  has  lain  down 
in  bed.  As  soon  as  the  patient  becomes  accus- 
tomed to  it,  the  dose  must  be  gradually  and 
carefully  increased,  taking  care  not  to  overload 
the  stomach,  until  he  can  take  a tablespoonful 
or  more  three  or  four  times  a day.  When  the 
stomach  utterly  rejects  it,  the  oil  is  to  be  rubbed 
into  the  stomach  and  bowels  with  the  hand  or 
a warm  flannel.  This  plan  is  especially  adapt- 
ed for  children.  In  marasmus  and  other  wast- 
ing diseases,  when  digestion  is  entirely  sus- 
pended, a wide  band  of  flannel  dipped  in  warm 
cod-liver  oil  and  bound  round  the  bowels, 
renewing  it  as  it  dries,  may  save  the  child’s 
life.  The  addition  of  a few  drops  of  Sulphuric 
Ether  to  the  oil,  in  some  cases,  renders  its 
digestion  possible. 

COFFEE. — Coffee  is  said  to  be  a native  of 
Arabia,  but  it  has  spread  from  thence  through- 
out the  tropical  portions  of  the  world  and  parts 
of  the  temperate  zone ; it  will  grow  in  any 
climate  where  the  temperature  does  not  fall 
below  55°.  The  best  coffee  of  commerce 
comes  from  Arabia,  and  is  known  as  Mocha , 
the  next  best  is  the  Java,  and  after  that  the 
Ceylon , Bourbon,  and  Martinique.  The  prin- 
cipal supply  of  the  United  States  however  is 
derived  from  Brazil,  which  furnishes  three- 
fourths  of  the  whole  import.  This  is  known 
as  the  Rio,  and  is  the  kind  always  supplied  un- 
less another  variety  is  asked  for. 

The  only  way  to  secure  pure  coffee  is  to 
buy  the  raw  beans,  roast  and  grind  them  at 
home.  When  coffee  is  bought  already  roast- 
ed, the  disadvantage  is  in  its  losing  its  de- 
licate aroma  very  rapidly ; when  it  is  both 
roasted  and  ground,  it  very  generally  is 
adulterated  with  chicory,  peas,  or  potatoes. 
Good  coffee  cannot  by  any  means  be  made 
from  it,  and  in  many  cases  dangerous  de- 
coctions have  been  made  from  adulterated 
coffee.  In  buying  raw  coffee,  choose  that 
which  is  dry  and  light ; the  coffee  which 


Fig.  i.  Coffee  Roaster. 


feels  dense  and  weighty  is  green.  Coffee 
which  is  from  eight  to  ten  months  old  is  the 
best  selection. 


COFFEE 


115 


The  roasting  of  coffee  in  a proper  manner 
requires  great  nicety,  and  cannot  be  done  suc- 
cessfully without  the  aid  of  some  such  appar- 
atus as  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  figures, 
which  may  be  had  in  the  furnishing  stores. 
Fig.  i is  inexpensive,  and  the  supply  of  char- 
coal needed  for  it  is  very  trifling  indeed ; fig. 
2 is  larger,  and  about  double  the  price.  The 
cylinder  which  contains  the  coffee  should  be 
only  half  filled,  and  it  should  be  turned  rather 
slowly  over  the  fire,  which  should  never  be 
very  fierce,  until  a strong  aromatic  smell  is 
emitted ; the  movement  should  then  be  quick- 
ened, as  the  bean  is  in  that  case  quite  heated 
and  it  will  scorch  before  it  is  roasted  through 
• if  slowly  finished.  When  the  coffee  is  of  a 
light,  chestnut-brown  color,  which  can  be  as- 
certained by  sliding  back  the  door  of  the 
cylinder  and  looking  at  it  occasionally  towards 
the  end  of  the  process,  spread  it  quickly  over 
a large  dish,  beat  up  the  white  of  an  egg  with 


a tablespoonful  of  melted  butter,  and  stir  up 
well  with  it,  and  then  cover  it  over  with  a 
thickly  folded  cloth.  Let  it  remain  thus  until 
it  is  quite  cold ; then  put  it  into  canisters  or 
bottles  where  the  air  cannot  get  at  it. 

For  grinding  coffee  there  are  two  kinds  of 
coffee-mills,  those  which  are  portable  and 
others  for  fixing  against  the  walls.  It  should 
be  ground  to  a moderately  fine  powder ; if  it 
is  too  coarse  the  essence  will  be  only  partially 
extracted  from  it  in  making,  while  if  it  is  too 
fine  the  water  will  not  percolate  through  it 
and  it  will  not  be  clear.  No  more  should  be 
ground  at  a time  than  will  suffice  for  a single 
making. 

Coffee,  (boiled) — Allow  a tablespoonful  of 
ground  coffee  to  each  person ; and  for  each 
tablespoonful  a coffee-cupful  of  water.  Let 
the  water  boil,  and  while  it  is  boiling  stir  in 
the  coffee ; allow  it  to  boil  hard  five  minutes, 
then  set  it  where  it  will  simmer  for  ten  min- 
utes ; pour  out  a large  cupful,  hold  it  high 
over  the  coffee-pot,  and  pour  it  in  again ; re- 
peat this,  and  then  set  it  on  the  stove  where 
it  will  keep  hot  without  simmering  for  five  or 


ten  minutes  longer.  Coffee  made  thus  will  be 
perfectly  clear  unless  it  is  mismanaged. 
Should  fining  be  necessary,  however,  use  a 
pinch  of  isinglass,  or-a  small  piece  of  the  skin 
of  salt  codfish,  or,  better  still,  the  shell  of  a 
raw  egg  with  a little  of  the  white  adhering  to 
it. 

Coffee,  (Filtered) — There  are  a great  num- 
ber of  patent  coffee-pots  designed  to  make 
coffee  after  the  Continental  method  without 
boiling,  and  as  minute  directions  for  using  ac- 
company each  one  we  wiLl  only  mention  that 
the  principle  involved  in  each  is  very  simple 
and  consists  in  allowing  hot  water  to  percolate 
slowly  through  ground  coffee  into  a receptacle 
below.  Some  of  them  are  good,  though  need- 
lessly expensive;  but  a simple  filter  or  per- 
colator, as  it  is  called,  will  answer  perfectly  well, 
and  they  can  be  obtained  to  fit  any  coffee-pot. 
In  making  coffee  by  this  method  allow  rather 
more  coffee  than  when  it  is  to  be  boiled ; 
spread  the  grounds  over  the  percolator;  and 
pour  on  the  boiling  water,  slowly  till  the  coffee 
is  saturated  and  then  more  rapidly.  Should 
the  coffee  not  be  strong  enough,  run  it  through 
the  filters  again.  Coffee  made  thus  is  thought 
to  have  a more  delicate  and  aromatic  flavor 
than  when  boiled;  but  on  the  other  hand,  Mr. 
Donovan,  a prominent  English  chemist,  who 
has  made  a special  study  of  the  matter,  thinks 
that  it  requires  boiling  for  a little  time  to  ex- 
tract the  bitter  principle  in  which  much  of  the 
exhilarating  quality  of  coffee  resides. 

A plan  which  we  have  ourselves  tried  with 
perfect  satisfaction  is  to  put  the  grounds  in  a 
flannel  bag  suspended  from  the  inner  side  of 
the  lid  of  the  coffee-pot  so  as  to  be  immersed 
in  the  water,  and  boil  for  ten  minutes.  Made 
thus,  coffee  is  always  strong  and  clear. 

Iced  Coffee.  — Make  strong  coffee,  and 
when  it  is  cold  mix  it  with  an  equal  quantity 
of  fresh  cream,  sweeten  to  taste,  and  freeze. 
Iced  tea  may  be  made  in  the  same  way. 

Cafe  a la  Militaire. — Make  some  coffee  as 
strong  and  clear  as  possible  ; sweeten  it  in  the 
cup  with  white  sugar  almost  to  a syrup ; then 
pour  half  a wineglass  of  brandy  on  the  top 
gently  over  a spoon,  set  fire  to  it  with  a light- 
ed paper,  and  when  the  spirit  is  partly  con- 
sumed, blow  out  the  flame  and  then  drink  the 
coffee  hot. 

Cafe  Noir. — This  is  the  very  essence  of 
coffee  and  it  has  become  customary  to  serve 
it  immediately  after  dessert — either  before 
leaving  the  table,  or  in  the  parlor  the  moment 
dinner  is  ended.  In  the  latter  case  it  is  com- 
monly followed  by  wines.  To  make  it,  proceed 
exactly  as  above,  but  add  only  about  a third 
as  much  water,  the  object  being  to  make  the 
strongest  possible  infusion.  About  two-thirds 
of  a small  cupful — not  more — sweetened  al- 
most to  syrup  with  white  sugar  in  lumps  is 
usually  taken  to  each  person.  White  sugar 
candy  in  powder  may  be  served  with  it,  in 
addition  to  the  sugar  in  lumps. 

COFFEE-POTS. — Coffee-pots  designed  for 
coffee  that  is  made  simply  by  boiling  are  made 


COKE 


COLIC 


11*6 

of  tin,  zinc,  or  Britannia  metal.  Those  of  zinc 
are  better  and  more  durable  than  the  tin  ; the 
Britannia  pots  are  the  prettiest  and  most 
showy,  but  they  cannot  be  set  on  the  fire  or 
even  near  it  without  melting. 

There  is  an  immense  variety  of  patent  coffee- 
pots for  making  coffee  by  filtering  ; all  draw 
the  hot  water  through  the  ground  coffee.  The 
principle  is  very  simple  and  any  of  them  prob- 
ably can  be  used  with  satisfaction.  The  best 
one  that  we  know  is  the  “ Eureka,”  though  there 


VS  / 


A.  Body  of  the  pot,  to  hold  the  water  after  it  has  passed 
through  the  coffee. 

B.  Water  joint,  to  be  filled  with  water,  which,  receiving  the 
rim  of  the  cover  (G),  makes  an  absolutely  tight  joint. 

C.  Filter,  with  perforated  bottom. 

D.  Discharge. 

F.  Valve,  to  close  the  spout  when  not  pouring. 

G.  Hoop  of  cover. 

K.  Cup  with  perforated  bottom,  to  distribute  the  water 
evenly  over  the  coffee. 

The  parts  C and  K are,  in  some  shape,  common  to  nearly  all 
coffee  machines.  In  many  they  are  put  on  top  of  the  pot 
instead  of  inside  of  it. 

may  be  others  as  good.  An  examination  of  it, 
however,  will  explain  the  good  features  com- 
mon to  all,  as  well  as  some  peculiar  to  this 
invention.  The  French  cafitiere  is  excellent 
and  not  very  expensive  ; so  is  the  Vienna  coffee- 
pot ; and  Dr.  Smith  especially  recommends  an 
English  invention  known  as  Ash's  Kaffee- 
Kanne. 

COKE.  That  which  remains  from  coal 
after  the  hydrogen  has  been  eliminated ; the 
kind  chiefly  employed  for  domestic  purposes 
in  this  country  is  what  remains  in  the  gas  re- 
torts after  the  gas  has  been  extracted  from 
the  coal  for  illumination.  Coke  as  a fuel  has 
the  advantage  of  kindling  more  quickly  than 
anthracite,  and  giving  out  an  intense  radiant 
heat  without  either  smoke  or  flame  ; it  is  there- 
fore particularly  convenient  for  many  purposes. 
From  the  clearness  with  which  it  burns  and 
the  intensity  of  its  heat,  it  is  excellent  for  cer- 
tain operations  of  the  cook,  when  a bright, 
clear  fire  is  wanted,  as  for  broiling,  roasting, 
etc.  Its  disadvantages  are  that  it  burns  out 


rapidly  and  will  not  keep  a fire,  and  that  it 
leaves  a great  deal  of  ashes.  When  burnt  by 
itself,  moreover,  in  close  fires,  it  requires 
watching  to  prevent  it  from  fusing  that  part 
of  the  iron-work  of  the  stoves  or  ranges 
with  which  it  comes  in  contact.  It  is  best  to 
mix  it  with  other  coal,  and  used  in  this  way,  it 
makes  an  excellent  and  economical  fuel. 

It  is  a notion  of  some  that  coke  is  more 
sulphurous  than  coal ; but  this  is  impossible, 
as  the  sulphur  is  eliminated  by  the  very  pro- 
cess of  converting  coal  into  coke.  Burned  by 
itself,  however,  coke  has  all  the  bad  qualities 
of  charcoal,  giving  out  carbonic  acid  gas, 
which,  if  the  current  or  draught  up  the  chim- 
ney is  not  sufficient,  will  fall  down  into  the 
apartment. 

COLANDER. — A deep  tin  vessel,  shaped 
like  a dish-pan,  with  holes  perforated  in  the 
bottom  and  sometimes  in  the  sides,  used'  for 
separating  the  liquid  part  of  substances  from 
the  solid.  Its  varied  usefulness  renders  it  an 
essential  part  of  the  furniture  of  the  kitchen. 

COLD  CREAM. — Take  a quarter  of  an 
ounce  of  white  wax  and  shred  it  into  a bowl, 
with  one  ounce  of  almond  oil.  Place  the  bowl 
by  the  fire  till  the  wax  is  melted ; then  add 
one  ounce  of  rose-water,  little  by  little,  mean- 
while beating  the  mixture  smartly  with  a fork; 
this  is  to  make  the  water  incorporate  with  the 
other  ingredients,  and  the  beating  must  be 
continued  till  it  is  accomplished.  Then  pour 
it  into  jars  for  use. 

Or,  take  of  best  lard  one  pound,  and  of 
spermaceti  four  ounces,  and  melt  the  two  to- 
gether ; then  add  one  ounce  of  rose-water, 
and  beat  it  in  as  above  directed. 

COLDS. — A cold,  however  slight,  should  be 
attended  to  at  once.  When  one  is  felt  to  be 
coming  on,  take  a Turkish  bath  if  it  can  be  had, 
and  if  not,  a common  vapor  bath.  Or  if  the 
time  can  be  spared,  go  to  bed,  take  ten  grains 
of  Dover’s  powder  with  a little  sugar,  cover 
the  chest  with  a hot  poultice  of  bran  or  oatmeal, 
and  in  an  hour  after  the  powder  drink  a pint 
of  hot  tea  or  thin  gruel ; next  morning  take  a 
mild  cathartic — either  Epsom  salts  or  a Seidlitz 
powder  in  warm  water.  If  the  cold  has  come 
on,  but  is  only  slight,  drink  a pint  of  cold  water 
on  going  to  bed  and  put  on  some  extra  bed- 
clothes so  as  to  produce  perspiration.  A good 
remedy  also,  is  to  soak  the  feet  in  hot  water, 
not  above  the  ankle,  with  a handful  of  salt  in  it ; 
do  this  just  before  going  to  bed  and  drink  co-t 
piously  of  hot  tea,  or  whey,  or  lemonade.  If 
compelled  to  go  out  to  business,  put  on  plenty 
of  clothes  and  move  about  as  much  as  possible. 
(See  Chest  Protector  and  Influenza.) 

COLIC. — There  are  several  kinds  of  colic, 
all  accompanied  by  severe  griping  pains  in  the 
bowels,  with  distention  or  flatulence,  nausea, 
or  vomiting  ; and  as  the  hardness  or  distention 
of  the  belly  increases,  cramps  or  spasms  occur 
either  in  the  abdominal  muscles  or  in  those  of 
the  thighs  and  legs.  The  only  diseases  with 
which  colic  can  be  confounded  are  cholera  and 
inflammation  of  the  bowels  ; from  the  former  it 


COLORS 


COMPOTES  117 


is  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  diarrhoea ; 
and  from  the  last  by  the  pain  being  relieved 
by  pressure.  The  exciting  causes  of  colic  are 
very  numerous,  but  it  usually  comes  from  ex- 
posure to  cold,  from  eating  acid  or  unripe  fruit, 
or  from  the  food  taken  into  the  stomach  being 
indigestible.  A common  cause  of  colic  is  the 
arrest  of  digestion  from  attempting  severe  men- 
tal labor  immediately  after  eating. 

Treatment. — Colic  may  sometimes  be  re- 
lieved by  applying  hot  cloths  to  the  stomach, 
and  giving  a close  of  castor  oil  with  plenty 
of  spice,  such  as  grated  nutmeg,  cinnamon, 
etc.  If  this  does  not  arrest  it,  and  especially 
if  cramps  are  felt,  give  an  opiate  (ten  drops 
of  laudanum)  and  a good  drink  of  hot  ginger 
or  cinnamon  tea.  After  a severe  attack,  it 
is  well  to  take  a mild  aperient,  and  to  abstain 
from  all  irritating  substances  in  the  food,  such 
as  fruit,  green  vegetables,  etc.  In  many  cases 
the  absorption  of  medicine  does  not  take  place 
in  the  stomach,  and  the  pain  continues.  When 
this  is  the  case  a dose  of  from  3 to  5 drops  of 
Majendie’s  Solution  of  morphia  into  the  skin 
by  means  of  a hypodermic  syringe  will  afford 
relief  in  a few  minutes’  time. 

COLORS.  ( To  Restore .) — When  the  color  of 
any  fabric  has  been  destroyed  by  acid,  wash 
the  spot  with  ammonia  to  neutralize  the  same, 
after  which  an  application  of  chloroform  will, 
in  almost  all  cases,  restore  the  original  color. 
The  use  of  ammonia  is  common,  but  that  of 
chloroform  is  but  little  known. — Another  plan 
with  articles  which  will  not  be  damaged  by  wet- 
ting is  to  boil  them  in  a ley  made  of  equal  parts 
of  quick-lime  and  wood  ashes,  rinsing  them  out 
afterwards  in  weak  alum  water,  and  pressing 
them  well  when  nearly  dry.  {See  Painting.) 

COLOGNE. — Eau  de  Cologne,  a favorite 
perfume,  named  after  the  city  of  Cologne  where 
it  was  first  made  and  where  its  manufacture  is 
still  extensively  carried  on.  It  consists  of  alco- 
hol perfumed  with  the  essential  oils.  Cologne 
can  always  be  bought  of  the  druggists,  but  it 
is  frequently  inferior,  and  it  can  easily  be  made 
at  home.  The  following  is  Fontenelle’s  famous 
recipe : — Take  a quarter  of  an  ounce  each  of 
dried  rosemary,  thyme,  sweet  marjoram,  worm- 
wood, balm,  and  hyssop ; a quarter  of  an  ounce 
each  of  cloves,  cinnamon,  angelica  root,  juniper- 
berries,  anise,  cummin,  fennel,  caraway-seeds, 
fresh  orange  peel,  and  oil  of  bergamot ; and  a 
half  ounce  each  of  cardamoms,  lavender-flowers, 
and  bruised  nutmeg ; the  whole  to  be  steeped 
in  five  pints  of  warm  alcohol  several  days,  and 
then  distilled. — A simpler  recipe  is  to  put  a 
pint  of  pure  alcohol  into  a bottle  and  add  a tea- 
spoonful each  of  oil  of  bergamot,  oil  of  lavender, 
oil  of  lemon,  and  orange-flower  water.  Cork 
tightly  and  shake  well. 

COMBS. — The  best  toilet  combs  are  those 
made  of  buffalo  horn,  or  tortoise-shell ; the  rub- 
ber combs  break  easily  and  are  likely  to  warp 
out  of  shape,  especially  if  they  are  ever  wetted. 
Combs  should  never  be  put  in  water,  however, 
even  to  wash  them  ; for  it  not  only  warps  them, 
but  makes  the  teeth  split  and  roughens  the 


substance  of  which  they  are  made.  {See 
Cleaning.) 

COMMODE. — This  name  was  formerly  ap- 
plied to  a chest  of  drawers  with  a place  above 
them  for  hanging  clothes,  which  combined  the 
advantage  of  both  bureau  and  wardrobe.  As 
understood  now  at  the  furniture  stores,  it  means 
a highly  convenient  article  of  furniture  for 
holding  the  chamber  and  keeping  it  out  of 
sight. 

COMPOST. — Any  refuse  which  has  enough 
organic  matter  to  become  rotten.  What  is 
usually  termed  compost  is  made  of  the  dung  of 
any  animal,  but  especially  of  cows  and  horses, 
mixed  with  earth.  It  is  useful  in  the  flower 
garden  and  indispensable  in  the  planting  of 
roses  and  other  flowers  demanding  a rich  soil, 
and  in  the  cities  may  be  obtained  of  florists 

COMPOTES. — Compdtes  are  fruits  prepared 
in  syrup  for  immediate  use,  and  differ  from 
jams  in  being  cooked  less  and  containing  less 
sugar.  They  are  very  delicate  when  properly 
made  and  form  an  excellent  accompaniment 
for  pies,  puddings,  or  dumplings.  Or  they  may 
be  served  alone  with  a little  pastry-crust,  and 
in  this  way  make  one  of  the  most  tempting  and 
wholesome  of  desserts.  Compotes  will  keep 
two  or  three  days  in  a damp,  cool  closet,  but 
are  likely  to  ferment  if  kept  longer;  for  this 
reason  they  should  be  made  in  small  quantities 
at  a time. 

Apple  Compote.  — Take  .--apples,  sugar, 
water. 

Peel,  cut  into  halves,  and  core  some  apples  ; 
after  letting  them  lie  for  a short  time  in 
cold  water,  drain  them,  and  put  them  into  enough 
syrup  (made  of  sugar  and  water)  to  cover  them 
well,  in  which  boil  them  till  they  are  soft ; then 
place  them  in  a dish  and  strain  the  syrup  over 
them.  This  compote  may  be  improved  by  boil- 
ing some  of  the  apple  in  the  syrup  to  a jelly, 
straining  it,  and  pouring  it  over  the  halves  as 
above  directed. 

Apricot  {Green)  Compote.— Take : '-Apricots, 
1 lb  ; sugar,  8 oz  ; water,  ^ pt. 

Take  a pound  of  green  apricots,  throw  them 
into  hot  water,  and  as  they  rise  to  the  surface 
take  them  out  and  wipe  off  the  down  carefully. 
Make  a syrup  of  eight  ounces  of  white  sugar  and 
three-quarters  of  a pint  of  water  boiled  together 
ten  minutes ; into  this  syrup  put  the  apricots, 
stew  them  gently  twenty  minutes,  then  turn 
them  into  a dish  and  strain  the  syrup  over  them. 

Apricot  {Ripe)  Compote. — Take  .--Same  as 
in  previous  receipt. 

Peel,  divide  into  halves,  and  stone  some  ripe 
apricots,  and  then  prick  them  all  over  with  a 
needle.  Put  them  into  a syrup  made  as  in  pre- 
ceding recipe;  stew  them  gently  for  ten  min- 
I utes ; turn  them  into  a dish,  and  strain  the 
syrup  over  them. 

Berry  Compotes. — Very  nice  compotes  may 
be  made  of  blackberries,  raspberries,  straw- 
berries, or  gooseberries,  by  washing  them  care- 
fully, putting  them  into  a syrup  made  as  above, 
and  boiling  them  from  one  to  five  minutes. 
Raspberries  and  strawberries  are  so  delicate 


118 


CONGER-EEL 


CONSTIPATION 


as  to  require  very  little  boiling,  and  it  is  best 
to  take  them  off  when  they  have  boiled  up 
once. 

Cherry  Compote.—  Take  /-Cherries,  i lb; 
sugar,  5 oz ; water,  '/2  pt. 

Simmer  five  ounces  of  sugar  with  half  a pint 
of  water  for  ten  minutes ; throw  into  the  syrup 
thus  made  a pound  of  cherries  weighed  after 
they  are  stalked,  and  let  them  stew  gently  for 
twenty  minutes.  It  is  a great  improvement  to 
stone  the  cherries,  but  a larger  quantity  will  be 
required  for  a dish. 

Currant  Compote. — Made  same  as  Berry 
Compote. 

Fig  Compote. — Take  .--Sugar,  4 oz ; rind  and 
juice  of  1 lemon  ; water,  1 pt ; dried  figs,  1 lb  ; 
wine,  2 wineglassfuls. 

Put  into  a porcelain  lined  pot,  four  ounces 
of  fine  white  sugar,  the  rind  of  a large 
and  fresh  lemon  (or  orange-juice  and  rind), 
and  a pint  of  cold  water.  When  the  sugar 
is  dissolved,  add  a pound  of  nice  dried  figs, 
and  place  the  pot  over  a moderate  fire  where 
the  figs  may  heat  and  swell  slowly  and  be  very 
gently  stewed.  When  they  are  quite  tender, 
which  will  be  in  about  two  hours,  add  two  wine- 
glassfuls  of  wine,  and  the  strained  juice  of  the 
lemon  ; arrange  them  in  a glass  dish  and  serve 
them  cold.  This  dish  is  very  fine. 

Orange  Compote. — Take  .--Oranges  ; sugar, 
and  water. 

Peel  some  large  sweet  oranges,  cut  them 
into  slices  crosswise,  and  remove  the  seed. 
Make  some  syrup  as  directed  above,  but 
do  not  pour  it  over  the  oranges  until  it  is  cold. 
This  compote  requires  no  boiling. 

Peach  Compote. — Take  .-  — Peaches  {quite 
ripe),  1 doz ; white  sugar,  1 o oz ; water,  1 pt ; 
lemon-juice. 

Pare  a dozen  ripe  peaches,  put  them  into 
a syrup  made  of  ten  ounces  of  white  sugar 
boiled  in  a pint  of  water  for  ten  minutes,  and 
stew  them  very  gently  for  ten  minutes,  stir- 
ring often.  Dish  the  fruit ; reduce  the  syrup 
by  quick  boiling  almost  to  a candy,  pour  it  over 
the  peaches,  and  serve  them  hot  for  a second- 
course  dish,  or  cold  for  dessert.  The  peaches 
should  be  quite  ripe,  and  will  be  found  delicious 
dressed  thus.  If  desired,  a little  lemon-juice 
may  be  added  to  the  syrup. 

Plum  Compote. — Take  .--Plums ; sugar,  10 
oz;  water,  1 pt. 

Select  ripe  plums,  prick  them  with  a needle, 
and  put  them  into  cold  water  while  boil- 
ing a pan  of  water  into  which  they  must 
be  put  as  soon  as  the  water  boils.  When 
they  rise  to  the  surface  of  the  hot  water,  take 
them  out  and  put  them  again  into  cold  water. 
Make  a syrup  of  ten  ounces  of  sugar  to  a pint 
of  water,  and  boil  them  up  in  it.  Put  them  into 
a basin  and  let  them  cool,  and  then  boil  them 
up  once  more ; skim  them  well  and  let  them 
cool  for  use. 

CONGER-EEL.— A kind  of  eel,  sometimes 
called  the  “ American  Conger,”  much  larger 
than  the  common  variety,  being  from  three  to 
tour  feet  long  with  the  tail  ending  in  a sharp 


point.  They  are  in  season  from  November  to 
April,  but  they  are  rather  scarce  in  the  markets 
and  are  not  much  esteemed  as  food.  Cooked 
same  as  Eel.  f 

CONSOMME. — Consommi  is  concentrated 
or  very  strong  broth  or  soup.  It  may  be  eaten 
either  by  itself  or  will  serve  as  a sauce  or  gravy 
for  other  meats  according  to  the  way  in  which  it 
is  made.  To  make,  put  five  pounds  of  lean 
fresh  beef  into  a soup-kettle,  add  three  quarts 
of  cold  water  and  a tablespoonful  of  salt,  and  set 
it  on  a brisk  fire.  When  the  water  boils,  place 
the  kettle  on  a moderate  fire  and  skim  off  the 
scum  which  rises  to  the  surface  ; then  add  one 
carrot,  one  small  turnip,  one  onion,  two  cloves, 
two  cloves  of  garlic,  and  a stalk  of  celery.  Let 
it  simmer  slowly  from  seven  to  eight  hours,  and 
it  is  then  ready  for  serving. 

A consommi  of  poultry  may  be  made  by 
roasting  a couple  of  fowls  until  they  are  about 
one-third  done,  and  then  putting  them  in  a soup- 
kettle  with  three  pounds  of  lean  beef,  and  three 
quarts  of  cold  water  and  salt.  Boil  up  as 
directed  above,  and  add  the  same  vegetables 
and  seasonings.  After  it  has  simmered  for 
three  hours,  take  the  fowls  out  of  the  kettle,  and 
let  the  rest  simmer  three  hours  longer.  Ladle 
out  the  vegetables,  strain  the  liquor  that 
remains,  and  that  liquor  is  the  best  consomme 
that  can  be  made.  It  is,  of  course,  highly 
nutritious  and  very  strengthening  to  invalids 
when  their  stomach  can  stand  it. 

CONSTIPATION  — This  is  one  of  the 
most  common  of  ailments  and  one  of  the  most 
difficult  to  deal  with,  for  though  it  is  the  fruit- 
ful source  of  many  diseases  it  is  itself  less  a 
disease  than  an  indication  of  functional  de- 
rangement. Of  course  the  retention  of  excre- 
mentitious  matter  in  the  intestines  produces 
serious  disturbance  of  the  whole  system,  which, 
however,  is,  as  a rule,  readily  cured  by  medi- 
cal treatment,  and  the  adoption  of  suitable 
hygienic  habits.  Dr.  Andrew  Combe,  in  his 
treatise  on  physiology,  says  : “In  the  natural 

and  healthy  state,  under  a proper  system  of 
diet,  and  with  sufficient  exercise,  the  bowels 
are  relieved  regularly,  once  every  day,”  and 
he  adds  that  '■'■habit  is  powerful  in  modifying 
the  result,  and  in  sustaining  healthy  action 
when  once  fairly  established.  Hence  the  obvious 
advantage  of  observing  as  much  regularity  in 
relieving  the  system  as  in  taking  our  meals.” 
From  the  earliest  age,  people  should  accustom 
themselves  to  going  to  the  water  closet  at  a 
fixed  period  of  each  day ; and  one  who  persists 
in  this  long  enough  to  make  it  a habit  will  sel- 
dom suffer  from  constipation.  This  habit  may 
be  supplemented  by  a glass  of  cold  water  every 
morning  before  breakfast,  which  is  to  some 
persons  a laxative;  and  alternate  contraction 
and  expansion  of  the  muscles  of  the  abdomen 
may  be  tried.  Such  exercise  continued  ten 
minutes  a day,  and  persevered  in  for  a week  or 
two,  may  cure  ordinary  cases  of  constipation, 
provided  proper  food  is  taken.  For  this  pur- 
pose bread  made  of  unbolted  flour  and  fruit 
{especially  cooked  fruit),  should  enter  largely 


CONSUMPTION 


119 


into  the  diet.  Two  Compound  Rhubarb  pills 
may  be  taken  at  bedtime  for  a few  nights,  but 
exercise,  diet  and  regular  habits  should  be  the 
main  agents  in  effecting  recovery.  For  ob- 
stinate constipation  use  injections  containing 
a little  salt,  or  soap-suds,  or  better  still,  get  the 
advice  of  a physician. 

CONSUMPTION. — The  technical  name  for 
this  disease  is  Phthisis,  or  wasting.  By  it  is 
meant  that  form  of  lung  disease  where  first  of 
all  there  is  a deposit  of  new  material  in  the 
substance  of  the  lung.  After  a time  this  softens 
and  breaks  down ; it  is  expectorated  and  leaves 
cavities  behind.  This  process  is  accompanied 
by  fever  of  a peculiar  kind,  and  general  wast- 
ing of  the  body;  whence  the  name.  The  de- 
posit in  the  lungs  is  by  no  means  always  of 
the  same  character,  though  that  was  taken  for 
granted  up  to  a very  recent  period.  The  pro- 
cesses which  lead  to  this  deposit  are  two  in 
number  — one  is  inflammation  of  the  lung 
substance,  and  the  other  is  a deposit  of  a new 
growth  called  tubercle.  Most  frequently  the 
two  processes  are  associated,  for  the  deposit  of 
the  new  growth  sets  up  inflammation  and  its 
consequences.  When  the  substance  of  the 
lung  becomes  inflamed,  we  have  to  deal  with  a 
very  different  set  of  phenomena  than  when  the 
air  passages  alone  are  so  affected.  The  disease 
may  assume  a very  acute  form,  such  as  cannot 
be  mistaken,  or  it  may  steal  on  insidiously, 
especially  if  it  spreads  from  the  air  tubes  to  the 
lung  substance.  The  consequence  of  such  an 
inflammation  is  the  choking  up  of  the  little 
cavities  of  which  the  lung  consists  in  a portion 
of  its  substance,  and  the  material  thus  deposit- 
ed may  either  remain  there  for  a length  of  time, 
or  at  once  proceed  to  soften  and  break  down. 
In  this  process  the  damaged  material  of  the 
lung  too  may  take  part.  It  may  soften  as  well 
as  the  newly-deposited  substance,  and  breaking 
down  and  being  expectorated,  leave  behind  a 
cavity  in  the  substance  of  the  lung.  This  pro- 
cess may  go  on  quickly  or  slowly,  sometimes 
very  slowly,  especially  if  other  changes  go  on 
at  the  same  time,  such  as  indurate  the  texture 
of  the  lung,  as  what  has  been  called  fibroid 
phthisis,  a very  slow  form  of  the  malady.  But 
again  there  may  be  a deposit  of  new  substance, 
the  process  being  by  no  means  inflammatory, 
and  this  new  growth  which  is  laid  down  in  the 
substance  of  the  lung  is  called  tubercle.  Once 
deposited,  its  history  is  the  same,  or  nearly  so, 
as  that  of  the  inflammatory  material  laid  clown 
in  the  lung  cavities.  It  softens  and  breaks 
down,  the  injured  texture  of  the  lung  doing  so 
also,  and  so  a cavity  is  formed.  There  is  yet 
another  mode  and  kind  of  deposit ; that  due  to 
syphilis.  This  is,  perhaps,  if  a diagnosis  can 
be  made,  the  most  hopeful  variety  of  the 
disease.  To  both  the  former  varieties  of  dis- 
ease there  may  be  a strong  hereditary  proclivity ; 
if  so,  this  is  a circumstance  which  tells  most 
unfavorably  on  behalf  of  the  patient,  for  there 
are  few  diseases  in  which  a hereditary  character 
is  more  prominent  than  that  which  commonly 
goes  by  the  name  of  pulmonary  consumption. 


It  is  of  the  very  first  importance  that  this  dis- 
ease should  be  diagnosed  in  the  earliest  stages, 
for  it  is  then  that  certain  of  its  forms  may  be 
treated  with  tolerable  confidence  of  success, 
and  all  can  be  dealt  with  to  most  advantage. 
That  form  which  promises  most  by  timely 
treatment  is  the  inflammatory  form,  especially 
that  which  comes  on  in  a patient  who  has  long 
been  in  depressed  health  from  whatever  cause. 
It  commonly  begins  with  a slight  cough,  which, 
however,  persists,  and  will  not  go  away,  and 
the  patient  gets  gradually  thinner.  The  res- 
piration indicates  feebleness,  being  wavy  in 
character,  or  even  jerking.  Besides  this,  there 
are  certain  sounds  only  to  be  appreciated  by  a 
skilled  ear.  If  with  all  this,  there  is  a bad  fami- 
ly history,  the  case  is  one  demanding  prompt  ac- 
tion. This  may  be  taken  with  good  hope  of  suc- 
cess. F ever  is  a most  important  element  in  such 
cases.  If  it  keeps  high,  the  chances  do  not  im- 
prove ; if  it  gradually  diminishes  and  totally 
disappears,  the  patient  may  be  said  to  have  re- 
gained his  health.  Take  now  a case  of  tuber- 
cular consumption.  It  may  arise  from  the  for- 
mer, or  it  may  be  developed  from  the  products 
of  some  long  standing  disease  of  other  organs, 
or  one  lung  may  infect  the  other.  This  form  is 
not  so  common  as  the  other.  Its  origin  is  very 
insidious ; but  having  begun  it  goes  on.  There 
is  considerable  uneasiness.  At  night  the  tem- 
perature is  high ; and  there  are  troublesome 
night  sweats.  There  is  a persistent  cough,  and 
very  likely  pain  in  one  side.  The  appetite  is 
very  capricious,  and  very  likely  there  is  diar- 
rhoea. With  such  cases,  too,  a huskiness,  or 
even  loss  of  voice,  is  by  no  means  uncommon. 
This  rarely  occurs  in  any  other  variety  of  con- 
sumption, and  so  may  be  looked  upon  as  proof 
positive  of  the  existence  of  this  form,  if  any 
consumption  be  present. 

For  the  public,  however,  it  is  of  less  conse- 
quence to  know  what  variety  of  consumption 
the  patient  labors  under,  than  to  know  that  he 
has  got  some  form  of  the  disease,  or  is  likely 
to  have  it,  if  the  malady  he  labors  under  is  not 
arrested.  Accordingly,  an  abstract  of  the  com- 
monest signs  is  now  given ; for  we  desire  to 
impress  the  public  very  earnestly  that  it  is  in 
its  earliest  stages  that  consumption  is  remedi- 
able. The  earliest  symptoms  are  very  probably 
connected  with  digestion ; the  appetite  becomes 
capricious  ; there  are  pains  in  the  chest,  with 
some  cough  often  dry  and  hacking,  with  a small 
quantity  of  frothy  expectoration.  There  is  de- 
bility, flushing  of  the  face  on  the  slightest  ex- 
ertion; at  other  times  the  countenance  is  pale, 
except  there  be  a hectic  patch  of  red  in  the 
middle  of  the  cheek.  The  eyes  look  unusually 
white  and  pearly ; there  is  some  fever  at  night, 
and  a tendency  to  night  sweats.  Very  likely 
there  is  some  spitting  of  blood;  This  occurs  in 
a very  considerable  portion  of  cases,  and  is  of- 
ten the  earliest  symptom  calling  for  attention. 
Provided  it  is  clear  that  the  blood  does  not 
come  from  the  gums  or  throat,  any  bleeding  by 
the  mouth,  especially  in  a young  person,  de- 
mands attention.  As  the  disease  advances 


120 


CONSUMPTION 


emaciation  increases,  so  that  the  joints  become  i 
enlarged  by  shrinking  of  the  limbs.  The  club- 
bed appearance  of  the  ends  of  the  fingers  in 
consumptives  is  probably  due  to  circulatory 
disturbances.  The  night  sweats,  fever  and 
diarrhoea  are  the  means  of  reducing  the  bodily 
strength  and  substance;  while  in  some  instan- 
cies, excessive  expectoration  aids  materially 
in  this  process.  The  capricious  appetite  and 
the  imperfect  digestion  leave  the  bodily  supply 
very  deficient,  but  the  spirits  of  the  patient  are 
good,  and  it  is  often  distressing  to  see  one 
doomed  to  an  early  death  talking  of  the  future 
in  a tone  of  assured  confidence.  A trouble- 
some complication  sometimes  seen  is  fistulae  in 
the  lower  bowel,  which,  if  not  relieved,  taxes 
the  patient’s  strength  sadly.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  is  always  a risk  that  if  an  operation  be 
attempted  the  wound  will  not  heal,  and  so  the 
latter  risk  is  worse  than  the  first.  Usually  if  the 
disease  be  not  arrested  the  patient  dies  of  ex- 
haustion ; sometimes  he  is  suffocated  or  bleeds  to 
death,  consciousness  continuing  to  the  last.  But 
this  result  is  by  no  means  inevitable  ; and  the 
dread  of  the  disease  as  being  universally  and  un- 
erringly fatal,  which  was  wont  to  prevail,  has 
been  shown  to  be  without  just  foundation.  Un- 
doubtedly, if  a patient  with  a bad  family  history 
is  seen  for  the  first  time  when  the  disease  is 
well  advanced,  we  have  little  ground  for  hope. 
True,  also,  that  the  tubercular  form  of  the  dis- 
order is  less  amenable  to  treatment  than  is  the 
inflammatory.  Yet  due  care  being  exercised, 
there  are  few  cases  which  cannot  be  benefited  ; 
a goodly  number  which  can  be  cured  complete- 
ly, or,  at  all  events,  the  lungs  so  healed  that  each 
may  be  enabled  to  lead  A long  life  in  moderate 
comfort. 

Treatment. — The  first  and  greatest  point  of 
all  is  the  selection  of  the  conditions  under 
which  the  patient  is  to  live.  Unfortunately,  in 
too  many  instances,  this  is  not  possible  ; but 
where  it  is  possible,  and  the  disease  is  in  an 
early  stage,  much  may  be  done.  On  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe,  there  may  be  found  in  differ- 
ent health  resorts,  people  who  have  all  their 
lives  had  bad  chests,  but  who  by  wandering 
from  health  resort  to  health  resort,  according 
to  the  season  of  the  year,  are  able  to  maintain 
life  comfortably.  If  such  a thing  is  not  possi- 
ble, we  must  try  next  to  select  the  most  favor- 
able conditions  possible.  The  first  great  point 
in  selecting  an  abode  is  the  avoidance  of  damp  ; 
it  should  be  situated  on  a dry  and  porous  soil. 
This  is  even  of  greater  importance  than  tem- 
perature, though  that  too  is  important,  inasmuch 
as  fresh  air  is  a necessity,  and  daily  exercise  in 
the  open  air  even  in  winter  is  a thing  very 
greatly  to  be  desired.  Such  patients  must  take 
the  greatest  possible  care  of  themselves — no 
risks  must  be  run.  They  must  live  plainly ; 
but  their  food  must  be  nutritious.  They  must 
avoid  excitement,  but  cheerful  society  is  of  the 
greatest  possible  value.  They  must  not  fatigue 
themselves,  but  daily  exercise  is  incumbent. 
They  must  not  be  exposed  to  too  great  heat ; 
but  cold  is  even  more  to  be  dreaded.  Hence 


the  rule,  which  is  a good  one,  always  to  keep 
indoors  between  sunset  and  sunrise.  They 
must  try  to  keep  the  skin  open  ; but  they  must 
avoid  perspiration.  Hence  baths  must  be  regu- 
lated in  temperature  for  the  individual  — tepid, 
cool,  or  cold,  as  the  case  may  be.  The  bowels 
must  be  kept  open,  but  if  they  are  loose,  the 
diarrhoea  must  be  checked.  Finally,  such 
patients  are  on  no  account  to  go  without 
flannels  ; whilst  the  outer  clothing  should  be 
changed,  if  desirable,  to  suit  the  different  peri- 
ods of  the  day  and  year.  At  all  times  it  must 
be  warm,  so  as  to  avoid  risks  from  cold.  For 
those  in  the  very  early  stage  of  phthisis  nothing 
perhaps  does  so  much  good  as  a sea  voyage  in 
a mild  climate— to  the  West  Indies  for  instance  ; 
though  many  prefer  the  longer  voyage  to  Aus- 
tralia or  New  Zealand;  often  these  do  great 
good,  but  they  must  be  undertaken  early,  or  the 
result  will  be  the  reverse  of  favorable.  Change 
of  climate  in  females  is  apt  to  provoke  derange- 
ment of  the  menstrual  function.  This  should 
be  seen  to,  as  any  excessive  flow  w^ould  be  very 
weakening.  This,  moreover,  has  to  be 
borne  in  mind,  that  in  consumption  this  func- 
tion almost  entirely  ceases,  and  generally  does 
so  altogether.  Patients,  the  subjects  of  con- 
sumption, have  often,  early  in  the  disease,  a 
rooted  objection  to  fat  as  an  article  of  food. 
This  is  the  more  important,  as  of  all  substances 
it  is  to  them  the  most  necessary.  If,  therefore, 
they  refuse  to  take  fat  as  food,  we  must  en- 
deavor to  give  it  as  medicine.  The  form  of  fat 
which  is  most  easily  digested  is  cod  liver  oil. 
If  this  be  given,  it  need  have  no  disagreeable 
taste,  beyond  a slight  fishy  flavor  which  to 
many  is  agreeable.  It  is  to  be  given  to  the 
patient  cautiously.  Often  one  will  say,  “ I can- 
not take  cod  liver  oil ; it  always  makes  me  sick. 
I have  tried  it  again  and  again  always  with  the 
same  results.”  You  inquire,  and  find  they  have 
been  endeavoring  to  take  one  or  two  tablespoon- 
fuls at  a time.  As  a matter  of  course  they  get 
upset ; but  if  they  reduce  the  quantity  to  a tea- 
spoonful, or  even  a few  drops,  they  gradually 
get  accustomed  to  it,  and  take  almost  any 
quantity.  Cod  liver  oil  is,  however,  food,  rath- 
er than  medicine,  and  the  best  time  for  taking  it 
is  just  after  a meal.  The  fish  oil  used  in  this  way 
should  be  entirely  devoid  of  color ; every  trace 
of  color  is  an  impurity.  Next  to  cod  liver  oil 
as  a remedy  comes  iron.  This,  too,  is  best  dealt 
with  as  a food  ; that  is  to  say,  given  along  with 
the  meals.  The  best  preparation  is  the  reduced 
iron,  which  can  be  taken  in  soup.  If  this  is  not 
attainable,  the  freshly  prepared  carbonate 
should  be  given.  Next  to  these  remedies,  to 
be  taken  along  with  or  after  food,  to  add  to  the 
value  of  food,  comes  anything  which  will  aid 
digestion.  Pepsine,  as  procured  from  the  pig’s 
stomach,  is  for  this  purpose  exceedingly  useful, 
enabling  the  food  to  be  digested  with  ease  and 
comfort,  when  otherwise  it  would  only  pass  in- 
to the  intestines,  there  to  putrefy  and  ferment, 
and  so  set  up  diarrhoea.  Four  or  five  grains 
may  be  taken  for  a dose  just  after  a meat  meal. 
If  that  does  not  suit,  meat  digested  beforehand 


CONTUSIONS 


COOKER 


121 


might  be  tried.  When  cod  liver  oil  cannot  be 
taken,  other  kinds  of  oil  may  be  tried.  Of  these 
the  best  are  cream  and  salad  oil.  When  no  oil 
can  be  taken,  rubbing  it  into  the  skin  does  good ; 
but  it  creates  a horrid  smell,  which  is  very  trying 
to  the  patient.  Syrup  of  the  iodide  of  iron  may  be 
given  along  with  the  oil,  and  often  does  good. 
Iodide  of  potassium  seldom  does,  except  the 
disease  be  syphilitic  in  its  origin.  If  prescribed 
at  all,  it  had  better  be  given  in  decoction  of 
bark.  But  of  bark,  the  best  preparations  are 
the  compound  tincture  and  the  liquid  extract, 
given  in  doses  of  a drachm  or  so  three  or  four 
times  a day.  It  is  often  well  to  combine  some 
acid  with  the  bark ; the  best  is  the  dilute  nitro- 
muriatic  acid,  in  doses  not  exceeding  twenty 
minims.  If  the  perspirations  be  very  trouble- 
some, it  is  customary  to  give  dilute  sulphuric 
acid ; but  any  acid  does  good.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  very  frequently  good  to  give  alkalies 
instead  of  acids.  These  certainly,  combined 
with  bitters,  very  greatly  strengthen  the  appetite 
and  aid  digestion.  Liquor  potassae  is  common- 
ly given  in  doses  of  5,  10,  or  15  minims,  some- 
times with  bark,  sometimes  with  gentian  or 
other  bitters.  Certain  remedies  called  hypo- 
phosphites  have  been  highly  extolled  as  rem- 
edies in  the  earlier  stages  of  the  disease ; 
but  their  value  is  uncertain,  though  they 
often  seem  to  do  good.  Counter-irritation  is 
good  if  employed  judiciously,  so  as  not  to  weak- 
en the  patient.  It  is  of  most  benefit  where  the 
pleura  is  concerned,  and  the  patient  cannot  lie 
in  certain  positions  on  account  of  pain.  It 
must,  however,  be  employed  cautiously;  the 
best  form  is  some  liniment,  such  as  croton  oil 
and  turpentine  mixed.  Flying  blisters,  kept 
on  for  only  a few  hours  speedily  create  counter- 
irritation, without  causing  it  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  prove  injurious. 

Of  the  complications  to  be  dealt  with  one  or 
two  yet  remain  to  be  noticed.  First  comes  the 
bleeding.  This  it  must  always  be  remembered 
is  a serious  matter,  for  it  may  cause  death. 
When  it  comes  on,  absolute  rest  must  be  en- 
joined, cold  applied  to  the  chest,  ice  taken  in- 
ternally, and  gallic  acid  with  sulphuric  acid 
freely  imbibed.  Oil  of  turpentine  is  also  useful, 
though  perhaps  less  directly.  Night-sweats 
have  been  alluded  to ; mineral  acids,  unless 
forbidden,  are  best  for  them.  Diarrhoea  must 
be  dealt  with  cautiously.  It  must  not,  however, 
be  allowed  to  weaken  the  patient ; chalk,  opium, 
and  acids  are  the  best  remedies.  If  the  throat 
is  bad,  nitrate  of  silver  is  the  best  application. 
For  the  cough,  a little  opium,  or  belladonna  may 
be  given ; but  it  is  better  treated  on  general 
principles. 

CONTUSIONS.  (See  Bruises.) 

CONVALESCENCE. — The  period  of  recov- 
ery from  sickness  is  a most  important  one,  and 
demands  in  many  instances  as  much  care  as  the 
sickness  itself.  The  body  is  weak,  susceptible 
to  impressions,  and  disposed  to  morbid  actions  ; 
and  many  times  a relapse  is  brought  on  by 
causes  which  would  not  affect  the  body  at  all 
when  it  is  in  a healthy  condition.  Of  course 


after  the  disease  has  been  subdued  the  ap- 
petite returns,  and  it  is  in  the  matter  of  diet 
that  most  harm  is  done  during  convalescence. 
As  to  the  food  to  be  given,  the  advice  of 
the  physician  should  always  be  acted  upon, 
as  the  directions  vary  with  the  disease.  It 
should  be  nutritious  and  easily  digested,  and  in 
many  cases,  quite  unstimulating ; and  it  should 
be  given  often  and  in  small  quantities  at  a time. 
Too  rich  food  or  too  much  of  it  will  overload 
the  stomach  and  result  in  indigestion  ; and  thus, 
in  the  eagerness  to  recover  the  lost  strength, 
mistakes  are  made  whose  consequences  are 
sometimes  serious.  Convalescents  may  take 
light  nourishment  with  advantage  early  in  the 
morning,  as  soon  as  they  awake  ; an  egg,  for 
instance,  dropped  into  a glass  of  sherry  wine, 
or  a drink  of  milk  which  is  usually  well-borne  by 
the  most  delicate  stomachs.  If  the  patient  is  so 
weak  as  still  to  require  watching,  a little  warm 
beef-tea  or  chicken  broth  should  be  ready  to  give 
in  case  of  his  waking  during  the  night.  An 
orange  to  suck,  or  lemonade  to  sip,  though 
unnutritious,  are  refreshing  and  antifebrile ; 
and  whatever  tends  to  give  tone  to  the 
system  assists  toward  recovery.  Care  must 
be  taken  not  to  allow  efforts  to  be  made 
in  the  matter  of  exercise  too  early ; nor,  in 
fact,  must  convalescents  be  pushed  forward 
too  rapidly,  or  tried  beyond  their  strength  in 
any  way — beyond  their  strength  of  digestion,  of 
sitting  up,  or  of  attending  to  business.  ( See 
Diet,  and  Sick-room.) 

CONVOLVULUS.— The  botanic  name  for 
the  pretty  dwarf  Morning  Glory,  with  blue, 
white-eyed  flowers,  which  grows  wild  in  the 
fields  throughout  the  country,  and  is  one  of  the 
favorite  vines  for  garden  culture.  It  is  a hardy 
annual,  easy  to  cultivate,  and  a profuse  bloomer, 
and  is  in  flower  from  June  to  September.  Sow 
the  seeds  in  May,  scratching  them  lightly  into 
the  soil. 

COOKER  (Warren’s  Patent). — This  uten- 
sil, the  appearance  of  which  is  shown  in  the  ac- 
companying cuts,  is  the  invention  of  Capt 


The  Warren  Cooker. 


Frederick  P.  Warren,  of  the  British  navy. 
It  was  first  designed  for  the  preparation  of 


122 


COOKER 


COOKERY 


food  for  soldiers  and  sailors  ; but  it  worked  so 
admirably  that  it  was  introduced  into  the  regu- 
lar trade  in  England,  where  it  achieved  a com- 
plete success.  Its  introduction  into  this 
country  dates  from  1870,  and  we  can  say, 
after  more  than  a year’s  constant  use  of  one, 
that  it  accomplishes  all  that  is  claimed  for  it. 

The  principle  of  the  Cooker  is  that  a tightly- 
closed  vessel  containing  the  meat  to  be  cooked 
is  surrounded  by  steam,  except  at  its  bottom, 
which  rests  in  boiling  water,  and  at  a small 
portion  of  the  upper  part  of  its  sides, which  is 
exposed  to  the  air.  The  meat  rests  on  a false 
bottom,  which  prevents  its  coming  in  contact 
with  that  portion  of  the  vessel  that  is  in  con- 
tact with  the  water  at  21 20.  The  exposure  of 
the  portion  of  the  sides  that  is  not  steam- 
jacketed  causes  a loss  of  heat  that  reduces  the 
temperature  of  the  closed  vessel  to  about 
2100,  or  2 degrees  less  than  that  of  boiling 
water.  As  Liebig  has  demonstrated,  this  is 
the  best  cooking  heat.  While  the  full  heat  of 
boiling  water  coagulates  the  albumen  of  the 
meat  in  such  a way  as  to  render  it  hard,  tough, 


Warren  Cooker  (Sectional  View.) 


and  stringy,  this  lower  temperature  cooks  it 
completely,  and,  so  far  from  making  it  tough, 
seems  to  render  it  more  tender.  The  result 
is  that  the  meat  is  cooked  much  more  effectu- 
ally and  temptingly,  and  at  a loss  of  weight 
only  about  half  of  that  produced  by  the  ordi- 
nary modes  of  cooking ; while  those  nourish- 
ing juices,  which  by  the  ordinary  modes  would 
have  been  thrown  off  in  vapor,  are  condensed 
and  thrown  back  upon  the  meat,  and  nothing 
is  wasted.  The  cooker  is  divided  into  com- 
partments so  that  meat  and  several  kinds  of 
vegetables  can  be  cooked  at  the  same  time ; 
and  its  working  is  so  simple  that  the  cook’s 


chances  of  spoiling  food  are  reduced  to  a 
minimum.  It  is  literally  true  in  fact  that  the 
cooker  will  cook  the  staple  dishes  of  an  entire 
dinner  with  less  demand  upon  the  attention 
than  is  usually  made  by  the  boiling  of  pota- 
toes. 

COOKERY.  With  the  exception  of  a few 
fruits  and  vegetables,  every  substance  used  as 
food  by  man  requires  cooking  in  some  foim  be- 
fore its  nutritious  elements  can  be  properly 
assimilated.  It  is  not  enough  to  have  good  raw 
material,  and  an  abundance  of  it,  but  it  is  also 
necessary  to  render  it  agreeable  to  the  taste  and 
fit  for  human  sustenance.  Now  as  wholesome 
food  is  probably  the  most  necessary  condition 
of  health,  the  art  of  preparing  it  should  be 
reckoned  one  of  the  most  important  in  the 
whole  range  of  occupations ; yet  it  is  not  an 
exaggeration  to  say  that  there  is  more  ignor- 
ance displayed  in  our  kitchens  than  in  any 
other  department  of  human  industry.  Of 
carpenters,  bricklayers,  masons,  coachmen,  or 
gardeners,  we  demand  knowledge  and  practical 
skill  in  their  special  work ; but  of  the  cook, 
the  results  of  whose  experiments  must  affect 
us  more  intimately  than  any  other  whatever, 
we  hardly  make  a pretense  of  exacting  an  ac- 
quaintance with  even  the  rudiments  of  the  art. 
In  fact  it  is  just  these  rudiments  that  are  most 
neglected.  It  is  not  very  difficult  to  obtain 
cooks  who  can  make  good  cakes,  pies,  pud- 
dings, and  fancy  dishes,  and  when  skill  in  this 
is  lacking  it  can  usually  be  supplied  by  the 
mistress  of  the  house  ; but  the  notion  is  cur- 
rent that  such  apparently  simple  processes  as 
roasting,  boiling,  and  baking  come  by  nature 
and  are  too  unimportant  to  require  study  or 
practice.  Many  persons,  too,  associate  the 
idea  of  great  wealth  with  culinary  perfection, 
though  nothing  could  be  more  mistaken. 
Baked  bread,  and  roasted,  broiled,  and  stewed 
meats  and  vegetables  must  always  and  under 
all  conditions  form  the  staple  articles  of  our 
diet ; and  skill  in  preparing  these  is  not  only 
compatible  with  limited  means,  but  is  import- 
ant just  in  proportion  to  the  smallness  of  the 
amount  that  can  be  spent  on  luxurious  dain- 
I ties.  Careme,  the  most  famous  of  French 
cooks,  when  he  had  fixed  upon  his  career, 
took  a long  series  of  lessons  in  roasting  from 
the  best  cooks  of  Paris  : he  found  it  necessary 
to  give  months  to  the  mastery  of  this  single 
process,  deeming  it,  as  he  said,  “ the  founda- 
tion of  the  whole  culinary  art ; ” and  knowl- 
edge of  these  simple  processes  should  be 
either  exacted  of,  or  imparted  to,  every  one 
who  undertakes  even  the  plainest  family  cook- 
ing. Nor  is  it  necessary  that  cooks  should 
study  chemistry  in  order  to  become  proficients 
in  their  art.  On  the  contrary,  the  principles 
of  science  applicable  to  cookery  are  few  and 
simple,  and  cooks  have  only  to  exercise  their 
senses  diligently,  and  give  heed  to  the  results 
they  indicate,  and  they  will  soon  master  all 
the  essentials  of  good,  plain  cooking.  A 
thorough  practical  knowledge  of  the  processes 
described  in  our  articles  on  Boiling,  Broil- 


COOKIES 


COPPER-WARE 


123 


ing,  Frying,  Roasting,  and  Stewing,  will 
form  a really  good  cook  far  sooner  and  more 
completely  than  any  mere  array  of  receipts 
can  do,  however  minutely  they  may  be  ex- 
plained ; and  we  commend  them  to  the  careful 
study  of  every  one  who  is  responsible  for  the 
management  of  the  kitchen.  Mastery  of  these 
and  of  the  details  given  in  the  articles  on  the 
Kitchen,  will  render  it  unnecessary  for  us  to 
add  more  here  to  the  specific  directions  given 
throughout  the  volume — except  perhaps  a few 
words  on  seasoning. 

Seasoning  is  the  rock  on  which  inexperi- 
enced cooks  are  most  frequently  wrecked,  and 
it  is  a branch  of  the  subject  most  difficult  to 
give  instructions  about,  since  tastes  differ  so 
widely,  and  the  amount  of  seasoning  often 
depends  on  considerations  of  individual  health. 
The  effect  of  seasonings,  added  in  reasonable 
quantity,  is  to  increase  the  digestibility  of  food. 
They  effect  that  object  either  by  stimulating 
the  action  of  the  gastric  juices,  or  by  giving 
an  impetus  to  all  the  bodily  functions  in  such 
a way  that  its  effects,  general  in  themselves, 
become  in  their  turn  a cause  of  increased  ac- 
tivity in  the  functions  of  the  stomach.  The 
absence  of  seasoning  has  for  its  effect  the 
prolonged  retention  in  the  stomach  of  many 
relaxing  and  obstructive  substances  which 
have  little  power  of  themselves  to  solicit  the 
action  of  that  organ.  Immoderate  use  of 
seasonings  has  for  its  results,  first,  the  pro- 
duction of  an  artificial  appetite,  which  tempts 
to  the  loading  of  the  stomach  with  more  food 
than  it  can  properly  digest,  and  consequently 
produces  either  acute  or  chronic  irritation ; 
and,  second,  it  is  sure  to  bring  on  in  the  end 
languor  and  debility  of  the  digestive  organs, 
and'  derangement  of  all  the  related  functions. 
The  cook’s  practice  must  be  guided  by  the 
habits  and  tastes  of  her  employer;  at  the  out- 
set, it  is  best  to  be  light-handed  with  the 
spice — many  stomachs  are  deranged  for  days 
by  an  over-dose  of  pepper  or  cayenne.  When 
once,  either  by  experiment  or  inquiry,  the 
proper  proportions  have  been  hit  upon,  they 
should  be  carefully  maintained  thereafter,  as 
any  material  variation  in  the  amount  or  degree 
of  seasonings  is  not  only  ungrateful  to  the 
palate,  but  injurious  to  the  health. 

COOKIES. — Take  a teacupful  of  butter,  two 
teacupfuls  of  sugar,  half  a teacupful  of  milk, 
four  eggs,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  baking-powder, 
and  half  a grated  nutmeg  (or  flavor  with  lemon). 
Mix  these  all  well  together,  and  add  flour  enough 
to  make  a batter  just  stiff  enough  to  be  worked 
with  well-floured  hands  ; roll  out,  cut  into  round 
cakes,  and  bake  in  a quick  oven. 

Sugar  Cookies. — Take  one  egg,  one  teacup- 
ful of  butter,  two  teacupfuls  of  sugar,  six  table- 
spoonfuls of  milk,  one  dessert-spoonful  of  bitter 
almonds,  one  teaspoonful  of  cream-tartar,  half  a 
teaspoonful  of  saleratus  and  flour.  Roll  out, 
cut  into  cakes,  and  sift  sugar  over  before  baking. 

COOLERS.— The  methods  employed  in  do- 
mestic economy  for  producing  artificial  cold 
may  be  reduced  to  three : i,  the  application  of 


some  body  naturally  colder  than  that  to  be  cool- 
ed ; 2,  by  evaporation  ; 3,  by  the  solution  of 
certain  saline  substances.  Sometimes  two  of 
these  methods  are  combined  to  increase  the 
effect.  The  first  method  is  almost  universally 
practiced  where  ice  can  be  had,  and  for  this 
purpose  water-coolers,  and  wine-coolers,  and 
cream-freezers,  are  especially  manufactured. 
When  ice  is  used  to  cool  wine,  it  will  not  be 
very  effectual  if  applied,  as  is  frequently  done, 
only  to  the  bottom  of  the  bottle  ; for  the  cold- 
est part  of  the  liquid  being  already  at  the  bot- 
tom cannot  ascend,  nor  can  the  upper  part, 
which  is  the  warmest,  change  places  to  be  cool- 
ed, so  that  the  cooling  will  be  very  imperfect. 
To  cool  the  wine  effectually,  the  whole  bottle 
should  be  plunged  into  the  ice  ; but  before  this 
is  done  it  is  best  to  decant  it,  as,  if  there  is  any 
sediment  in  the  wine,  it  will  mix  with  it  as  if 
the  bottle  had  been  shaken,  owing  to  the  up 
and  down  currents  that  always  take  place  in 
the  cooling.  When  ice  cannot  be  procured, 
well  water  supplies  a useful  substitute  to  a cer- 
tain degree.  A well  of  forty  to  fifty  feet  deep 
always  preserves  the  mean  temperature  of  the 
country,  and  consequently  is  colder  than  the 
summer  heat  of  any  place  ; hence  if  a bucket 
of  water  be  drawn,  and  a bottle  of  wine  or  other 
liquor  immediately  placed  in  it,  it  may  be  cooled 
considerably. 

One  of  the  most  general  and  useful  modes 
of  cooling  is  by  evaporation.  Any  substance 
which  is  wetted  with  water,  and  kept  in  the  air, 
will  be  cooled  by  the  evaporation  of  the  water, 
and  all  the  more  rapidly  if  placed  in  the  wind. 
A bottle  of  wine,  or  an  earthenware  jug  of  water 
or  any  other  liquid  may  be  cooled  surprisingly 
by  wrapping  it  in  a wet  cloth  and  placing  it  in  a 
shady  place.  It  is  best  to  suspend  it  either 
under  a tree  or  in  a passage,  so  as  to  expose  it 
to  the  briskest  current  of  air  that  can  be  ob- 
tained , and  as  fast  as  the  water  evaporates  the 
cloth  should  be  resprinkled.  The  third  method 
of  freezing  and  cooling  is  by  the  solution  of 
chemicals,  as  follows  : 1 lb  of  muriate  of  am- 
monia, finely  powdered  and  intimately  mixed 
with  2 lbs  of  nitrate  of  potash,  also  powdered. 
This  mixture  is  to  be  known  as  No.  1.  No.  2 is 
made  by  crushing  3 lbs  of  sal-soda.  To  use, 
take  an  equal  quantity  in  bulk  of  No.  1 and 
No.  2,  stir  well  together  ; then  introduce  into 
the  freezer,  and  add  as  much  cold  water  as 
will  dissolve  the  mixtures.  For  example,  if  1 
pint  of  No.  1 is  used,  and  1 pint  of  No.  2,  it 
will  take  1 pint  of  water  to  dissolve  them;  and 
if  the  materials  employed  are  cold,  the  tem- 
perature will  fall  to  35  degrees  below  freezing 
point.  The  two  powders,  Nos.  1 and  2,  must 
be  kept  separate  in  close-covered  vessels  ; if 
the  crushed  sal-soda  is  exposed  to  the  air,  it 
loses  the  water  it  contains  and  is  much  weak- 
ened, while,  if  the  other  mixture  is  exposed,  it 
absorbs  moisture  from  the  air,  and  is  dissolved. 

COPPER-WARE.— Chemists  and  physicians 
have  repeatedly  pointed  out  the  dangers 
arising  from  the  use  of  copper  vessels  in  culi- 
nary operations  ; but  on  account  of  the  mellea- 


124 


CORDIALS 


bility  and  hardness  of  the  metal,  it  still  enters 
largely  into  the  manufacture  of  kitchen  utensils. 
There  are  many  reasons  why  these  utensils 
should  be  banished  from  the  household  ; they 
not  only  frequently  impart  a peculiar  and  disa- 
greeable taste  to  food  prepared  in  them,  but 
are  highly  dangerous  unless  they  receive  an 
amount  of  attention  which  they  are  not  at  all 
likely  to  receive  under  the  present  management 
of  our  kitchens.  If  copper  is  put  away  damp 
or  in  a damp  place,  it  rusts  and  is  converted  . 
into  a carbonate  of  copper,  which  is  a violent 
poison.  It  is  also  acted  upon  by  fat  and  oil  of 
every  description,  this  same  carbonate  of  cop- 
per being  found  : therefore  when  copper  vessels 
have  been  used  for  preparing  food,  fat  should 
never  be  suffered  to  remain  in  them.  Many 
cases  of  poisoning  have  occurred  from  soup,  or 
other  food  into  which  fat  entered  largely,  having 
been  left  for  some  time  in  copper  boilers.  It 
is  also  easily  acted  upon  by  acetic  acid  or  vine- 
gar, and  a green  substance  is  formed,  well  known 
by  the  name  of  verdigris.  This  is  an  acetate 
of  copper,  the  poisonous  nature  of  which  is 
generally  known  ; it  is  a powerful  emetic,  pro- 
ducing vomiting  as  soon  as  it  is  swallowed, 
without  exciting  nausea. 

Tinning  on  the  inside  prevents  copper  ves- 
sels from  having  the  injurious  effects  upon  the 
food  prepared  in  them  which  they  would  other- 
wise have  ; but  the  tin  is  very  likely  to  get  rub- 
bed off  before  attention  is  attracted  to  it.  All 
copper  vessels  should  be  examined  every  time 
they  are  used ; the  inside  and  the  covers 
should  be  kept  well  tinned,  and  no  food  should 
be  allowed  to  remain  in  them  any  longer 
than  is  necessary  for  preparing  it  for  the 
table. 

CORDIALS. — For  those  of  commerce  see 
under  their  respective  names,  or  under  Liq- 
ueurs. 

Anise-seed  Cordial. — Take  : — Oil  of  anise- 
seed,  oz;  refined  sugar,  2 lbs;  rectified  spir- 
its, 4 gals.;  alum,  yz  oz.  Mix  the  several  in- 
gredients ; bottle  and  seal. 

Blackberry  Cordial. — Take  .--Blackberries ; 
sugar  ; cinnamon  ; brandy,  or  whiskey. 

Place  blackberries  in  a kettle  over  the  fire, 
with  a very  small  quantity  of  water  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  kettle.  Let  them  boil  until  quite 
soft,  and  then  strain  them  through  a bag  until 
the  juice  is  all  extracted.  Put  the  juice  on  the 
fire  again,  sweeten  to  the  taste  with  white  sugar, 
and  throw  in  a little  bag  of  stick  cinnamon. 
After  it  has  boiled  about  half  an  hour,  take  it 
off,  and  stir  in  brandy  or  whiskey  enough  to 
make  it  as  strong  as  desired  ; then  bottle  it,  and 
seal  the  bottles  with  wax.  This  makes  a very 
pleasant  and  invigorating  drink. 

Caraway  Cordial. — Take:- Oil  of  caraway, 
Yi  oz  ; sugar,  2 lbs  ; rectified  spirits,  4 gals  ; oil 
of  cinnamon,  5 drops;  oil  of  orange,  1 drop;  oil 
of  lemon,  1 drop;  alum,  yz  oz. 

Put  three  eighths  of  an  ounce  of  oil  of  cara- 
way, and  two  pounds  of  sugar  into  four  gallons  of 
rectified  spirits  ; add  five  drops  of  oil  of  cinna- 
mon, one  drop  of  the  essential  oil  of  orange, 


and  one  of  the  essential  oil  of  lemons ; fine 
with  half  an  ounce  of  alum. 

Cinnamon  Cordial. — Take:- Oil  of  cinna- 
mon, 1 pwt  ; sugar,  4 lbs ; rectified  spirits,  y 
lb ; orange  peel,  lemon  peel,  cardamom  seed,  yz 
oz  each  ; water,  1 gall ; alum. 

Dissolve  one  pennyweight  of  oil  of  cinnamon 
with  four  pounds  of  sugar  in  three  quarters  of 
a pound  of  rectified  spirits ; add  half  an  ounce 
each  of  orange  peel,  lemon  peel  and  cardamom 
.seeds ; put  one  gallon  of  water  to  the  whole. 
Fine  with  alum,  and  if  you  wish  it  colored,  add 
some  burnt  sugar. 

Citron  Cordial. — Take  :-Ess.  of  lemon  and 
ess.  of  orange,  % oz  each ; sugar,  2 lbs ; lemon 
peel  and  orange  peel,  2 oz  each  ; rectified  spirits, 

3 galls  ; dried  figs,  3 lbs. 

Beat  up  a quarter  of  an  ounce  of  essence  of 
lemon,  and  as  much  of  that  of  orange,  with  two 
pounds  of  refined  sugar  ; add  to  this  two  ounces 
each  of  dried  lemon  and  orange  peel ; infuse 
this  in  three  gallons  of  rectified  spirits  that  has 
stood  upon  three  pounds  of  dried  figs  for  a 
week.  If  it  is  too  strong,  add  some  water. 

Gin  Bitters. — Take  .--Ess.  of  lemon,  and  ess. 
of  orange,  y oz  each ; oil  of  wormwood,  1 
drachm  ; orange  peel,  '/z  lb  ; sugar,  3 lbs  ; gin, 

5 galls. 

Mix  half  an  ounce  each  of  the  essence  of 
lemon  and  orange,  one  drachm  of  oil  of  worm- 
wood, and  half  a pound  of  dried  orange  peel, 
with  three  pounds  of  refined  sugar;  add  this  to 
five  gallons  of  the  best  gin,  and  let  the  whole 
remain  together  two  weeks,  when  it  will  be 
ready  for  use.  Dilute  with  water  to  the  taste. 

Ginger  Cordial. — Take  .--Whiskey,  1 gall; 
ginger,  y2  lb  ; currants,  4 lbs;  bitter  almonds,  2 
oz ; lemons,  3 ; sugar,  5 lbs. 

To  a gallon  of  good  whiskey,  add  half  a 
pound  of  bruised  ginger,  four  pounds  of  red 
or  white  currants,  two  ounces  of  bitter  almonds, 
the  juice  of  three  lemons  and  the  rind  of  one. 
Let  it  stand  ten  days ; then  strain  it  twice,  add 
five  pounds  of  white  sugar,  and  bottle  it  for 
use. 

Quince  Cordial. — Take  .--Quinces  ; French 
brandy ; sugar ; bitter  almonds,  or  peach  ker- 
nels ; cloves. 

Take  ripe  quinces,  wipe  off  the  fur,  and  grate 
them  fine.  Press  out  the  juices  of  the  pulp 
through  a strong  cloth,  and  to  each  quart  of  the 
juice  put  two  thirds  of  a quart  of  h rench  brandy, 
a pound  and  a half  of  white  sugar,  a hundred 
bitter  almonds,  or  peach  kernels,  and  a dozen 
cloves.  Put  it  in  a stone  pot,  cover  it  tightly, 
and  keep  it  a week  in  a warm  place  ; then  skim 
and  bottle  it,  and  let  it  remain  a year  before 
using  it. 

Peach  Cordial. — Take  .--Peaches  ; French 
brandy  ; sugar. 

Select  ripe,  juicy  peaches,  wash  and  wipe 
them  to  get  off  the  down,  and  gash  them  to  the 
stone.  Put  to  each  peck  of  peaches  a gallon 
of  French  brandy,  and  cover  them  up  tightly. 
Let  the  whole  remain  two  months,  then  drain 
the  brandy  off  the  peaches,  add  enough  cold 
water  to  render  it  of  about  the  strength  of  good 


CORDUROY 


CORN 


125 


white  wine,  and  to  every  three  gallons  of  it  put 
four  pounds  of  white  sugar.  Stir  up  well  ; 
let  it  stand  a couple  of  days,  stirring  it  well 
each  day ; then  turn  it  into  a wine-cask,  close 
tightly  and  draw  as  wanted. 

‘'CORDUROY.— A thick  cotton  stuff,  ribbed 
or  corded,  the  projecting  part  having  a pile 
like  velvet.  1 1 is  very  strong  and  durable,  and 
much  used  for  men’s  clothing.  The  best  kinds 
are  twilled. 

CORIANDER. — This  annual  plant,  of  East- 
ern origin,  is  cultivated  in  this  country  for  its 
seeds,  which  are  highly  aromatic  and  pungent, 
and  form  one  of  the  less  agreeable  spices  : they 
are  employed  in  cooking  for  flavoring  cakes,  etc., 
by  the  confectioner  for  incrusting  with  sugar, 
and  by  the  druggist  in  medicine.  Its  leaves 
are  also  sojnetimes  used  in  soups  and  salads. 

CORN. — The  “corn”  of  America  is  In- 
dian corn,  or  maize,  and  its  use  here  is  more 
extensive  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  world. 
Ground  into  meal  after  it  arrives  at  maturity, 
it  makes  excellent  bread 
and  enters  into  a multi- 
tude of  dishes  ; but  these 
are  treated  of  in  their 
appropriate  places,  and 
we  shall  confine  ourselves 
here  to  the  green  corti 
prepared  and  eaten  as  a 
vegetable.  There  are 
many  varieties  of  this,  of 
which  the  sweet  corn  is 
considered  best  for  boil- 
ing ; and  of  this  quality 
there  are  several  kinds, 
caused  from  peculiar  cul- 
ture, soil,  or  climate.  To  raise,  it  should  be 
planted  in  good  garden  soil  as  soon  as  the 
frost  is  well  out  of  the  ground,  and  at  intervals, 
until  July  1st;  putting  three  or  four  grains  in 
hills,  three  feet  apart  each  way.  It  is  necessary 
to  keep  the  ground  free  from  weeds  by  frequent 
hoeing. 

Green  corn  appears  in  the  southern  markets 
about  the  ist  of  June,  whence  it  is  brought 
north ; in  the  Middle  States  it  is  ready  for 
use  by  the  middle  of  July  in  favorable  sea- 
sons; and  in  the  New  England  States  about 
the  ist  of  August.  By  a succession  of  crops 
it  continues  to  be  soft  and  good  until  the  mid- 
dle of  October,  and  sometimes  later.  Green 
corn,  as  found  in  the  markets,  has  generally 
been  plucked  too  young ; it  should  at  least 
have  attained  its  full  size  of  kernel,  and  is  never 
unwholesome  if  used  then.  It  also  soon  dete- 
riorates after  it  is  gathered.  If  possible  it 
should  be  eaten  the  same  day  it  is  picked;  by 
the  second  day  it  inevitably  loses  much  of  its 
flavor,  and,  moreover,  becomes  difficult  of  di- 
gestion. If  any  is  to  be  kept  over  twenty-four 
hours,  it  is  better  to  shave  it  off  and  cook  it ; 
that  is,  if  there  be  ice  to  keep  it  on,  for  when 
cooked  it  sours  readily. 

Boiled. — Boiling  on  the  cob  is  the  simplest 
way  of  cooking  corn,  and,  all  things  considered, 
the  best.  Strip  off  the  outer  husk  of  the  ears 


till  the  inmost  covering  is  reached ; turn  this 
back  and  carefully  pick  off  every  thread  of  silk  ; 
then  put  them  into  a boiler  with  only  enough 
hot  water  to  cover  them,  in  which  a tablespoon- 
ful of  salt  has  been  dissolved,  and  cover  the 
boiler  closely;  cook  from  ten  to  fifteen  minutes 
for  young  and  tender  corn,  while  twenty  min- 
utes ought  to  cook  sufficiently  any  sweet  corn 
that  is  fit  to  be  eaten  green.  Serve  in  a covered 
dish,  or  cover  closely  with  a napkin. 

Some  prefer  to  have  the  corn  cut  from  the 
cob  while  hot  and  seasoned  with  butter,  pepper, 
and  salt,  before  it  is  sent  to  the  table. 

Dried. — Corn  for  drying  should  be  picked 
early  in  the  morning,  husked  and  cooked  at 
once,  shaved  thin  with  a sharp  knife,  and  dried 
as  rapidly  as  possible,  either  in  the  oven,  in  a 
drying-rack  or  chamber,  or,  better  still,  under 
a hot-bed  sash.  If  properly  managed,  it  can 
often  be  thoroughly  dried  in  a single  fair  day, 
and  this,  is  very  desirable,  as  no  fruit  or  vegeta- 
ble deteriorates  so  much  by  exposure  as  green 
corn.  Grated  green  corn  can  also  be  dried, 
but  it  requires  even  greater  care,  as  it  is  best 
not  to  scald  it  before  drying.  Dried  corn  pack- 
ed away  in  a dry  place,  can  be  kept  through  the 
winter ; and  when  subsequently  soaked  out  in 
milk-warm  water  it  can  be  used  for  most  pur- 
poses as  well  as  when  freshly  grated. 

Fritters. — Grate  the  corn,  or  having  scored 
every  row  of  grains  lengthwise,  cut  off  the  mere 
outer  part,  then  push  out  the  cream  and  kernel 
with  the  back  of  the  blade.  To  the  corn  cut 
from  twelve  large  ears,  add  two  well-beaten  eggs, 
three  even  tablespoonfuls  of  flour,  and  salt  to 
the  taste.  Mix  well  and  drop  in  hot  lard  a 
fourth  of  an  inch  deep.  When  browned  on  one 
side,  turn  the  other. 

Muffins,  etc. — Very  nice  muffins  can  be  made 
with  one  part  grated  corn,  one  part  water,  and 
two  parts  of  wheat-flour  or  oatmeal ; or  it  may 
be  baked  in  a covered  spider.  Griddle  cakes, 
biscuit,  and  other  dishes,  can  be  readily  con- 
trived by  an  intelligent  cook. 

Roasted. — Green  corn  can  be  roasted  by 
placing  it,  properly  husked  and  silked,  on  a 
gridiron  over  a bed  of  coals,  and  turning  it  fre- 
quently. A better  way  is  to  open  the  husks, 
pick  off  all  the  silk,  replace  the  husks  closely, 
and  then  bury  the  ears  thus  protected  in  hot 
wood  ashes.  In  either  case  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  scorch  it,  as  the  scorched  portions  are 
indigestible. 

Stewed. — To  a quart  of  corn,  cut  as  for  Frit- 
ters, add  half  a pint  of  rich  milk,  and  stew  until 
cooked  in  a covered  tin  pail  placed  in  a kettle 
two-thirds  full  of  boiling  water.  Cover  the  ket- 
tle and  allow  about  two  hours,  removing  the 
covers  occasionally  to  stir  the  corn.  Ten 
minutes  before  serving  add  salt,  white  pepper, 
and  two  or  three  ounces  of  butter. 

II.  (With  Tomatoes.) — Cut  the  corn  from  the 
cob  and  put  it  with  an  equal  quantity  of  toma- 
toes that  have  been  sliced  and  peeled ; stew 
these  together  for  half  an  hour  ; then  season  to 
taste  with  salt  and  pepper — a very  little  sugar 
may  also  be  added  if  the  sweetish  flavor  is 


126 


CORNS 


COUGH 


liked;  stir  in  a liberal  piece  of  butter;  simmer  I 
the  whole  together  a quarter  of  an  hour  longer. 
Serve  in  a covered  dish.  ( See  Succotash.) 

CORNICE. — (See  Curtains.) 

CORNS — are  always  caused  by  the  pressure 
of  tight  boots  and  shoes,  the  friction  of  loose 
and  unyielding  ones,  or  badly  fitting  stockings. 
The  preliminary  to  any  permanent  cure  must 
be  the  removal  of  the  cause ; no  foot  can  be 
kept  free  from  corns  unless  a proper  shoe  is 
worn,  without  the  ridiculous  high  heels  which 
are  a prolific  source  of  other  troubles  besides 
this  minor  one.  This  being  attended  to,  the 
corn  can  be  easily  eradicated.  All  that  is  ne- 
cessary is  to  soften  it  by  soaking  the  foot  in 
warm  water,  and  then  remove  it  with  the  finger- 
nail, or  a needle,  blunt  knife,  or  file  of  steel,  or 
pumice-stone.  When  the  corn  is  of  long  stand- 
ing, however,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  resort 
to  severe  measures.  In  such  a case  soak  it  in 
warm  water  and  pare  it  down  carefully  with  a 
sharp  knife  ; then  soap  the  cut  surface  slightly, 
take  a bit  of  lunar  caustic,  and  gently  touch  the 
soaped  and  cut  surface  once  or  twice ; after  a 
little  time,  wipe  off  the  soap,  and  apply  a small 
bit  of  diachylon  plaster,  spread  either  on  linen 
or  leather.  In  a few  hours  the  tenderness  will 
subside,  and  the  surface,  where  touched  by  the 
caustic,  will  be  brown  or  blackish  and  the  pres- 
sure of  the  shoe  can  be  very  well  borne.  Be 
careful  not  to  apply  the  caustic  beyond  the 
horny  spot.  In  very  obstinate  corns  a surgeon 
should  be  sought.  The  operation  for  removing 
corns  is  painless,  bloodless,  and  brief ; and  it 
will  be  effectual  if  the  exciting  causes  be  after- 
wards avoided.  The  fenestrated  corn  plasters 
sold  by  the  apothecaries  are  to  be  recommend- 
• ed.  Cook's  Infallible  Corn  Remedy  has  proved 
of  great  service  to  the  writer  and  many  of  his 
friends. 

For  soft  corns,  between  the  toes,  dissolve  a 
piece  of  ammoniac,  of  the  size  of  a bean,  in  an 
ounce  of  warm  water,  and  apply  hot. 

CORPULENCE.  ( See  Banting  and  Diet.) 

CORROSIVE  SUBLIMATE.— Poison.— 
Sytnpt07ns : Intense  pain  in  the  bowels  and 
stomach,  with  vomiting  and  diarrhoea.  Treat- 
ment: Mix  the  whites  of  twelve  eggs  in  two 
quartsof  water,  and  give  in  the  largest  possible 
draughts  every  three  minutes  till  the  vomiting 
occurs.  Flour  and  water  will  answer,  though 
not  so  sure  as  the  above;  and  warm  water, 
swallowed  copiously,  will  help  when  nothing 
else  is  in  reach.  Tincture  of  Peruvian  bark  is 
a good  remedy.  Also  milk,  either  sweet  or  sour. 

A bi-chloride  of  mercury,  often  used  in 
medicine  for  cutaneous  and  other  diseases, 
and  in  the  household  for  destroying  vermin. 
Taken  internally  it  is  a violent  poison,  corrod- 
ing the  parts  with  which  it  comes  in  contact. 

CORSETS. — As  usually  worn,  corsets  have 
no  support  from  the  shoulders,  and  conse- 
quently the  entire  weight  of  the  dress, petticoats, 
etc.,  resting  upon  or  above  them,  presses  upon 
the  hips  and  abdomen,  and  this  in  such  a way 
as  to  disuse  and  weaken  some  of  the  most  im- 
portant supporting  muscles  of  theabdomen,  and 


impede  abdominal  breathing.  Of  course  such 
an  unnatural  mode  of  dressing  is  injurious  at 
best — curvature  of  the  spine  being  a common 
result ; but  when  too  tightly  laced,  as  they  gen- 
erally are,  they  compress  the  lungs  and  heart, 
thus  impeding  the  vital  functions  of  respiration 
and  circulation,  and  producing  debility  and  not 
infrequently  the  most  terrible  organic  diseases. 
Corsets  should  always  be  made  to  pass  over 
and  derive  support  from  the  shoulders  ; and 
the  metal  plate  or  busk  up  the  front  should  be 
dispensed  with  entirely.  It  is  a great  improve- 
ment also  to  use  a silk  cord,  instead  of  cotton 
or  linen,  for  lacing  them. 

COSMETICS. — This  term  is  usually  applied 
to  substances  used  for  the  purpose  of  beautify- 
ing the  skin.  They  may  be  divided  into  two 
kinds : those  which  are  injurious  and  even 
dangerous  by  reason  of  some  of  the  ingredients 
of  which  they  are  really  composed  ; and  those 
which,  though  harmless  in  themselves,  are  high- 
ly injurious  when  applied  to  the  skin,  because 
they  arrest  that  insensible  perspiration  through 
the  pores  by  which  the  temperature  of  the  body 
is  preserved  and  a large  part  of  its  refuse  mat- 
ter thrown  off.  Under  the  first  class  fall  near- 
ly all  those  French  preparations,  so  often  used 
in  the  toilet,  such  as  Pearl-white,  beruse,  Rouge, 
and  the  like  ; these  are  never  composed  of  the 
harmless  materials  which  are  claimed  to  be  em- 
ployed, and  in  Rouge  arsenic  has  repeatedly 
been  detected.  The  least  objectionable  article 
used  as  a cosmetic  is  the  mixture  of  hydrated 
oxide  of  bismuth  with  the  subnitrate  of  the 
same  metal,  known  as  the  m agister  of  bismuth. 
Applied  to  the  skin,  its  only  injurious  effects 
appear  to  be  the  interruption  of  the  insensible 
perspiration  referred  to  above,  which  after  long- 
continued  use  produces  a tendency  to  clammi- 
ness ; a slight  nausea,  too,  is  sometimes  experi- 
enced in  consequence  of  its  use,  accompanied 
with  spasms  and  flatulence.  It  has  the  disa- 
greeable quality,  however,  of  turning  black  on 
the  face  when  exposed  to  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen, a gas  frequently  met  with  in  badly-ventila- 
ted rooms,  and,  indeed,  everywhere  that  gas  or 
sewers  exist.  The  perfume  of  onion  also  has 
a tendency  to  turn  it  black.  There  is  nothing, 
it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  that  can  really  beauti- 
fy the  skin  except  bathing,  exercise,  and  a reg- 
ular compliance  with  the  laws  of  health. 

COSTIVENESS.  ( See  Constipation.) 

COTTON.  (See  Clothing.) 

COUGH. — A cough  is  merely  the  symptom 
of  some  other  disease,  and  gives  warning  of 
danger.  It  should  never  be  doctored  as  such, 
but  its  treatment  must  depend  on  the  disease 
by  which  it  is  caused.  When  it  is  aggravated 
by  a constant  titillation  in  the  throat  relief 
may  be  had  by  dissolving  a bit  of  hoarhound 
or  lemon  candy  in  the  mouth  and  swallowing 
the  saliva.  A pinch  of  salt  dissolved  on  the 
tongue  is  also  good.  When  the  cough  is 
simply  the  accompaniment  of  a cold,  the  fol- 
lowing is  a good  remedy: — Mix  eight  tea- 
spoonfuls of  molasses,  forty  of  vinegar,  two 
of  antimonial  wine,  and  four  drops  of  laud- 


COUNTERPANE. 


COW 


127 


anum  ; take  two  teaspoonfuls  at  night  and  one 
in  the  morning. 

When  a child  has  a cough  as  an  accompani- 
ment of  a cold,  quite  small  doses  of  syrup  of 
ipecacuanha  are  usually  very  good.  To  a 
child  only  a month  or  two  old,  the  syrup  of 
tolu  may  be  given  in  doses  of  one-fourth  of  a 
teaspoonful,  in  a teaspoonful  of  water,  every 
three  or  four  hours.  When  the  child  is  older, 
say  three  but  under  six  months,  use  the  syrup 
of  ipecacuanha,  but  of  this  only  three  to  five 
drops  in  a teaspoonful  of  water,  once  in  three 
or  four  hours.  From  the  sixth  to  the  twelfth 
month,  five  to  twelve  drops  may  be  given ; and 
during  the  second  year  from  a fourth  to  a 
half  teaspoonful.  When  these  doses  cause 
vomiting,  let  a longer  interval  elapse  between 
them.  For  children  that  are  over  two  years 
old,  nothing  is  better  than  the  old-fashioned 
“ brown  mixture,”  which  is  made  thus  : — Take 
of  powdered  gum  arabic,  two  drachms  ; extract 
of  liquorice,  two  drachms ; boiling  water,  four 
ounces  (one  gill).  Dissolve  the  gum  arabic 
and  liquorice  in  the  water,  and  add  of  wine  of 
antimony,  two  drachms  (two  teaspoonfuls),  and 
of  laudanum,  twenty  drops.  The  medicine 
should  be  thoroughly  shaken  up  before  the 
dose  is  poured  out.  Half  .a  teaspoonful  may 
be  given  every  three  hours  to  a child  under 
four  years,  and  may  be  increased  to  one  tea- 
spoonful, given  with  the  same  interval.  For 
an  older  child,  a correspondingly  larger  dose 
may  be  given  ; the  proper  quantity  may  be 
judged  of  from  the  fact  that  the  dose  for  an 
adult  is  one  tablespoonful.  This  mixture  will 
not  keep  well  in  a warm  place,  and  small  quan- 
tities should  therefore  be  made  at  once. 

COUGH-CANDY.  {See  Candy.) 

COUNTERPANE.  {To  clean.)—  White  cot- 
ton counterpanes  should  be  washed  in  a large 
quantity  of  strong  suds  twice  over,  scalded, 
and  then  rinsed  ki  clear  cold  water;  on  no 
account  wrung,  but  carried  to  the  drying  ground 
in  a washing-tub  and  spread  out  over  the  line. 
Before  they  are  thoroughly  dry,  they  should 
be  folded  quite  smooth  and  flat,  and  left  in  that 
state  for  ten  or  twelve  hours,  after  which  they 
should  be  opened  and  aired,  to  get  rid  of  the 
musty  smell. 

COW. — In  the  following  observations  we 
confine  ourselves  to  treating  of  cows  intended 
for  the  domestic  dairy.  Cows  may  be  bought 
at  any  of  the  markets  or  fairs  throughout  the 
country,  and  cost  from  60  to  125  dollars.  It 
is  important  in  selecting  one  that  she  should 
be  a good  milker,  and  in  healthy  condition, 
though  if  a rich  milker  she  may  be  very  lean. 
Indeed,  this  is  a good  sign,  if  the  cow  is  evi- 
dently vigorous  and  is  in  full  milk— it  indicates 
that  she  secretes  fat  with  the  milk  rather  than 
in  the  flesh.  By  way  of  suggestion  on  these 
points  we  quote  from  Mr.  R.  L.  Allen’s  treatise 
on  “Domestic  Animals.”  He  says  : “ There 
are  certain  points  in  a good  milker  that  can 
hardly  be  mistaken.  She  should  be  descended 
from  the  best  milking  stock  ; her  head  should 
be  small  or  of  medium  size,  muzzle  fine,  and 


nostrils  flexible  and  expanded ; face  long, 
slender,  and  dishing;  cheeks  thin  ; eyes  full, 
mild,  and  prominent ; horns  delicate  and  \fabty; 
long,  thin,  lively  ear,  with  the  inside. oi, an 
orange  color ; neck  thin  and  small  at  its  junc- 
tion with  the  head;  deep  chest,  but  not  too 
heavy  before ; back  level  and  broad ; well 
! ribbed ; belly  large  ; low  flanks  ; wide  thighs, 
but  thin  ; short  legs,  and  standing  well  apart ; 
large  milking  veins;  loose,  capacious  udder, 
coming  well  out  behind ; good  teats ; loose, 
mellow  skin,  of  a deep  yellow;  and  a fine, 
thick  coat  of  glossy  hair.”  But  these  de- 
scriptive indications  will  be  of  little  or  no  use 
to  a person  inexperienced  in  the  purchase  of 
cows  ; and  it  is  best  to  have  the  selection  made 
by  some  one  skilled  in  the  matter,  in  whom 
confidence  can  be  placed.  In  order  to  make 
sure  of  obtaining  a cow  that  will  continue  in 
milk  a long  time,  it  is  best  to  buy  one  with  a 
calf  from  a fortnight  to  a month  old.  It  is  a 
common  trick,  in  offering  cows  for  sale,  to 
leave  them  unmilked,  in  order  that  their  dis- 
tended bags  may  impose  on  the  buyer.  It  is 
never  safe  to  buy  a cow  that  has  been  sub- 
jected to  this  treatment. 

A cow  may  have  her  first  calf  when  between 
two  and  three  years  old.  The  average  time  of 
gestation  is  from  40  to  41  weeks  ; though  they 
sometimes  go  only  34  and  occasionally  overrun 
44.  A dry,  unoccupied  stall  or  yard  is  best  for 
her  to  calve  in;  and  if  there  is  any  serious  de- 
lay or  difficulty  in  the  birth,  she  may  be  assis- 
ted by  placing  the  foetus  in  the  right  position, 
and  gently  pulling  it  with  every  throe  of  the 
dam.  When,  from  neglect,  a calf  is  dropped 
in  the  yard  or  field,  there  is  great  danger  of  its 
perishing  (and  this  may  imperil  the  life  of  the 
cow).  Should  this  happen,  and  the  mother 
take  cold  (which  may  be  known  by  her  shiver- 
ing and  refusing  her  food),  she  ought  immedi- 
ately to  be  driven  into  a warm  place,  together 
with  her  calf,  and  fed  with  a warm  bran  mash 
and  a little  hay,  and  should  not  be  suffered  to 
drink  cold  water. 

Before  the  calf  has  drawn  all  he  wants  at 
morning  and  evening,  the  bag  should  be 
quickly  and  thoroughly  emptied  of  all  the  milk. 
If  strong  and  vigorous,  the  calf  is  the  best 
doctor  for  garget  or  caked  bag.  He  may  be 
allowed  to  suck  or  not,  at  the  option  of  the 
owner;  but  if  the  cow  is  to  be  “ dry-milked,” 
the  calf  should  be  separated  from  her  as  soon 
as  he  is  able  to  stand  up.  The  cow  should  be 
stinted  in  her  food  for  two  or  three  days,  and 
not  fed  freely  for  a week.  Avoid  fat  in  a breed- 
ing cow.  Too  high  feeding  is  the  cause  of 
milk  fever,  caked  bag,  and  a host  of  evils: 
and  very  poor  feed,  except  at  calving  time,  is 
almost  equally  objectionable. 

A cow  should  be  dried  off  at  least  for  two 
weeks  before  calving,  and  the  milk  should  not 
be  used  by  the  family  until  four  days  after  the 
event.  Always  see  that  the  calf  gets  the  first 
milk  of  the  cow. 

Diseases. — Many  cows  are  lost  from  the 
want  of  knowledge  how  to  treat  certain  diseases 


128 


cow 


to  which  they  are  liable,  so  we  include  here 
such  remedies  as  can  be  easily  applied,  and 
are  likely  to  prove  effective. 

Caked  Bag  may  be  removed  by  washing 
with  warm  water  frequently;  poultice  the  bag 
with  belladonna  leaves  poultice  ; in  bad  cases 
wash  with  a weak  solution  of  carbolic  acid. 

Choking  is  usually  caused  by  a root  get- 
ting stuck  in  the  throat.  If  within  - arm’s 
length,  it  may  be  removed  by  the  hand.  Or 
pour  down  the  throat  a pint  bottleful  of  soft 
soap,  mixed  with  sufficient  hot  water  to  make 
it  run  freely.  Should  this  fail  to  remove  it, 
tie  up  the  fore-leg  with  a small  cord  close  to 
the  body,  and  give  the  cow  a sudden  start  with 
a whip.  You  may  pass  a small  smooth  rod 
easily  down  the  animal’s  throat,  inserting  first 

a piece  of  wood  o in  its  mouth,  and 

keeping  the  rod  pressed  back  of  the  wind-pipe. 

Garget  is  an  intense  form  of  caked  bag,  and 
shows  itself  in  hard  bunches  on  the  udder. 
Bleed  the  cow,  give  a large  dose  of  Epsom 
salts,  and  wash  the  udder  as  in  caked  bag. 

Hoof  Ail  is  indicated  by  lameness,  fever,  and 
a soft  swelling  just  above  the  hoof.  In  all 
these  cases  treat  with  carbolic  acid  and  keep 
the  hoof  clean. 

Hoven  is  a temporary  ailment,  caused  by 
eating  too  freely  of  fresh  and  generally  wet 
clover,  or  other  succulent  food.  It  is  known 
by  the  swelling  of  the  paunch,  and  difficulty  of 
breathing,  and  unless  speedily  relieved,  suffoca- 
tion and  death  will  ensue.  The  paunch  is  full 
of  gas,  caused  by  the  decomposition  of  the  food. 
In  the  early  stages,  when  not  too  severe,  it  may 
be  cured  by  any  of  the  following  remedies  : — A 
pint  of  gin  poured  down  the  throat.  From  one 
to  two  pints  of  lamp  or  other  oil.  Strong  brine. 
A tablespoonful  of  hartshorn  in  a pint  of  water. 
A wineglassful  of  gunpowder,  mixed  with  cold 
lard  and  forced  in  balls  into  the  stomach.  A 
teaspoonful  of  unslaked  lime,  dissolved  in  a 
pint  of  warm  water,  shaken  and  given  imme- 
diately. A pint  of  tolerably  strong  ley.  By  far 
the  best  treatment  of  Hoven,  however,  is  half 
an  ounce  of  carbonate  of  ammonia,  in  a pint  of 
cold  water — or  pour  cold  water  over  the  back ; 
when  very  bad  cases  occur,  puncture  with  a 
trochar  or  knife,  half  way  between  the  last  rib 
and  the  hip  and  four  inches  from  the  spine,  to 
let  out  the  gas. 

Mange  or  Scab  is  denoted  by  the  ani- 
mal rubbing  the  hair  off  the  eyes  and  other 
parts ; the  skin  is  scaly  or  scabby,  sometimes 
appearing  as  if  covered  with  large  seed-warts. 
Wash  the  skin  with  soap  and  warm  water,  and 
rub  the  spots  with  a mixture  of  sulphur  and  lard. 
When  the  skin  is  cracked  take  one  pound  of 
sulphur,  a quarter  of  a pound  of  resin,  two 
ounces  of  mercurial  ointment,  and  one  pint  of 
linseed  oil ; melt  the  resin  and  warm  the  oil, 
and  when  partly  cooled,  stir  in  the  sulphur ; 
when  cold  add  the  mercurial  ointment,  mixing 
all  well.  Rub  this  thoroughly  with  the  hand 
on  the  affected  parts.  Mange  is  in  all  animals 
a parasitic  disease.  Wash  with  a solution  of 
carbolic  acid  i to  20  or  1 to  30  of  water. 


Milk  Fever  is  caused  by  cows  being  in  high 
condition  at  the  time  of  calving ; it  can  almost 
always  be  avoided  by  keeping  them  in  mode- 
rate feed  and  flesh.  To  cure,  bleed  freely, 
say  six  to  ten  quarts ; then  give  from  one  to 
one  and  a half  pounds  of  Epsom  salts,  to  be 
repeated  in  half-pound  doses  every  six  hours 
till  the  cow  purges  freely.  When  purgatives 
are  tardy  in  their  action  an  injection  of  warm 
water  and  soap  should  be  given.  Only  bleed 
in  early  stage,  keep  the  animal  moving  every 
20  minutes,  and  give  drenches. 

Scour , or  diarrhoea,  may  be  cured  by  giving 
any  of  the  fixed  oils  1 pt,  or  an  ounce  of 
powdered  chalk,  nurse  well  and  give  good  food. 
Diarrhoea  is  caused  by  the  presence  of  an 
irritant  in  the  stomach,  which  must  be  removed. 

Sore  Teats  may  be  cured  by  rubbing  them 
with  goose  oil,  cream,  or  new  milk.  Or  wash 
the  bag  and  teats  with  warm  water,  and  apply 
the  ointment : melt  together  one  ounce  of  yel- 
low wax  and  three  ounces  of  lard,  and  when 
cool  rub  in  a quarter  of  an  ounce  of  sugar  of 
lead,  and  a drachm  of  alum  finely  powdered. 

Warts  are  of  two  kinds:  the  first,  on  the 
outer  skin,  may  be  removed  by  rubbing  with 
camphorated  olive  oil.  The  other  kind  pene- 
trate into  the  flesh  and  may  be  removed  by 
a ligature  of  fine  thread  or  silk ; tie  it  tightly 
round  the  wart,  and  it  will  fall  off  in  a few 
days. 

Wounds.  In  simple  wounds  always  catch  the 
skin  together  with  two  or  three  stiches,  having 
first  well  cleansed  the  part.  Then  place  over 
this  a small  rag  wet  with  water  only,  with  1 or 
2 drops  of  carbolic  acid  ; over  this  place  some 
India  rubber  or  oil  silk,  the  object  is  merely 
to  exclude  the  air  and  prevent  decomposition. 
Dry  earth  is  useful  in  cases  where  there  is  a 
great  discharge  of  matter. 

Food — The  modes  of  feeding  cows  are  tech- 
nically divided  into  grazing,  or  feeding  on  grass 
in  the  fields ; soiling,  or  giving  them  green  food 
cut  and  taken  into  the  house ; and  stall-feeding, 
which  is  confined  chiefly  to  hay  and  grain, 
together  with  succulent  roots,  either  raw  or 
steamed.  Notwithstanding  all  that  has  been 
said  concerning  the  good  qualities  of  certain 
roots  and  artificial  grasses,  experience  has 
shown  that  no  food  is  comparable  to  good  nat- 
ural early  pasture  for  milch  cows;  for  not  only 
does  it  yield  a greater  quantity  of  milk,  but  the 
flavor  of  grass  butter  may  always  be  distin- 
guished by  its  superior  richness  and  delicacy, 
from  that  made  of  milk  produced  by  feeding  in 
the  stall.  Roots  of  all  kinds,  as  carrots,  pars- 
nips, mangel-wurzel,  and  potatoes  are  excellent 
food  for  cows,  as  also  are  peas  and  cotton-seed. 
Turnips  are  much  used,  but  unless  fed  immedi- 
ately after  milking,  they  impart  a disagreeable 
flavor  to  the  milk  and  butter.  In  the  winter,  to 
keep  cows  in  the  best  condition  for  milk,  they 
should  have  abundance  of  hay  (clover-hav  is 
best),  and  cornstalks  cut  up,  thoroughly  soaked 
in  water  for  half  a (Lay,  and  then  sprinkled  with 
corn-meal;  oil-cake  is  good.  The  amount  of 
meal  may  vary;  but  corn-meal  alone,  in  large 


COWPOX 


CRACKNELS 


129 


quantities,  is  too  heating.  Common  salt  is  much 
relished  by  cows,  and,  when  added  in  moderate 
quantities  to  their  food,  is  said  to  improve  their 
milk  as  well  as  their  general  health. 

The  best  time  to  feed  cows  is  as  soon  as 
possible  after  daylight  in  the  morning,  at  noon, 
and  a little  before  sunset,  leaving  sufficient 
intervals  for  them  to  lie  down  and  ruminate. 

The  water  given  to  cows  should  be  of  the 
purest  kind,  and  they  should  have  access  to  it 
at  all  times,  or  have  it  frequently  offered  to 
them.  Some  recommend  stirring  a handful  of 
corn  or  oat-meal  in  each  draught  occasionally. 

Milking.— This  is  an  important  operation, 
and  unless  it  is  properly  done,  not  only  will  a 
reduced  yield  of  milk  be  the  result  but  the 
cow  herself  will  be  spoiled.  It  is  best  to  milk 
twice  a day,  at  intervals  of  about  twelve  hours, 
though  if  a great  deal  of  milk  is  given  it  pays 
to  milk  three  times  a day,  as  nearly  as  possible 
eight  hours  apart.  In  milking,  sit  with  the  left 
knee  close  to  the  right  leg  of  the  cow,  the  head 
pressed  against  her  flank,  the  left  hand  always 
ready  to  ward  off  a kick,  which  the  gentlest 
cow  may  give  almost  without  knowing  it,  if  her 
tender  teats  be  cut  by  long  nails,  or  if  a wart 
be  hurt,  or  her  bag  be  tender.  Put  the  fingers 
round  the  teat,  close  to  the  bag ; then  firmly 
close  the  forefinger,  immediately  squeezing 
with  the  other  fingers.  The  forefinger  prevents 
the  milk  from  flowing  back  into  the  udder, 
while  the  others  press  it  out.  A cow  must  be 
stripped  dry  every  time  she  is  milked  or  she 
will  gradually  dry  up.  Moreover,  not  only  will 
the  quantity  of  milk  be  diminished,  but  the  qual- 
ity will  also  be  inferior ; the  first  of  the  milk 
is  poorest,  and  it  gradually  becomes  richer 
until  the  last  drainings  of  the  udder  are  nearly 
as  rich  as  cream.  Never  stop  while  milking, 
as  this  may  cause  some  cows  to  hold  up  their 
milk. 

COWPOX. — The  disease  caused  by  vacci- 
nation. It  is  in  the  vast  majority  of  cases 
nothing  more  than  a slight  fever  which  lasts 
while  the  pustule  is  in  its  most  inflamed  stages, 
and  requires  no  special  treatment.  In  those 
few  instances  where  vaccination  causes  a vio- 
lent fever  it  is  generally  complicated  with  some 
other  causes,  and  cannot  be  treated  without 
medical  advice. 

CRAB. — Though  not  so  popular  as  lobsters, 
crabs  are  among  the  most  pleasantly  flavored 
fish  of  their  class.  They  are  in  season  from 
June  to  January,  but  are  considered  to  be  more 
wholesome  in  the  cold  months.  The  middling 
size,  when  heavy,  lively,  and  possessed  of  large 
claws,  are  the  best  and  sweetest ; if  light,  they 
are  poor  and  watery.  When  crabs  are  stale, 
the  eyes  look  dead,  the  claws  hang  down,  and 
there  is  no  muscular  activity ; in  this  condition 
they  are  not  fit  to  eat.  The  female  is  consid- 
ered inferior  to  the  male,  and  may  be  distin- 
guished by  the  claws  being  smaller,  and  the 
apron,  which  appears  on  the  white  or  under 
side,  larger.  Soft-shell  Crabs  are  deemed  a 
great  luxury ; but  they  must  not  be  kept  over 
night,  as  the  shells  harden  in  twenty-four  hours. 
9 


Boiled. — Crabs  must  be  put  on  the  fire  with 
the  water  cold ; if  put  into  hot  water,  they  have 
the  extraordinary  faculty  of  “ shooting  ” their 
claws,  which  spoils  them.  Heat  gradually,  and 
boil  half  an  hour.  Then  put  them  in  a dish, 
face  downwards,  to  dry. 

Cold  Dressed  (or  Deviled)  Crab. — Open 
boiled  crabs  by  raising  the  body  from  the  shell 
without  breaking  the  latter.  Carefully  remove 
the  gills  and  other  uneatable  parts.  Pick  all 
the  white  meat  from  the  claws  and  body ; do 
the  same  with  what  is  good  of  the  inside,  i.e., 


Dressed  Crab. 


the  white  and  yellow  curd  and  the  coral.  Chop 
these  tolerably  fine ; mix  them  together,  season- 
ing with  oil,  vinegar,  mustard  and  pepper ; then 
return  them  to  the  empty  shell,  which  must  pre- 
viously have  been  cleaned,  and  send  to  the 
table  garnished  with  sprigs  of  fresh  parsley. 
Accompany  it  with  rolls  and  butter. 

Hot  Dressed  (or  Deviled)  Crab. — Pick  and 
prepare  the  meat  as  before,  adding  bread-crumbs 
and  pounded  mace  or  grated  nutmeg  to  the  sea- 
soning. Warm  the  whole  gently  in  a sauce-pan  ; 
replace  it  in  the  crab-shell ; sprinkle  bread- 
crumbs over  the  top,  and  brown  in  a hot  oven. 
Serve  as  soon  as  browned. 

Plain.— Crab  allowed  to  stand  until  it  is  cold, 
then  opened  and  with  its  claws  cracked,  accom- 
panied with  a little  fresh  salad,  is  as  agreeable 
and  wholesome  a way  as  any  of  serving  it. 

Salad. — Crabs  make  a perfect  salad.  Use 
Mayonnaise  dressing.  See  Salad. 

Soft-Shell  Crab. — Pull  off  the  spongy  sub- 
stance from  the  sides  and  the  sand-bags ; 
wash  carefully  in  cold  water,  and  wipe  dry. 
Put  them  into  a pan  of  hot  lard  or  butter,- and 
fry  them  to  a light,  crisp  brown.  If  lard  is 
used,  a little  salt  must  be  added ; butter  is  salt 
enough.  Serve  hot,  garnished  with  sprigs  of 
green  parsley.  This  is  a delicious  dish. 

CRACKERS. — Rub  six  ounces  of  butter 
into  two  pounds  of  sifted  flour ; dissolve  one 
teaspoonful  of  saleratus  in  a wineglassful  of 
milk  and  strain  it  on  the  flour  ; add  a teaspoon- 
ful of  salt,  and  enough  milk  to  enable  you  to 
roll  the  dough  out.  Beat  it  with  a rolling-pin 
for  half  an  hour,  roll  it  out  thin,  cut  into  cakes 
with  a tumbler,  and  bake  in  a moderately  quick 
oven  till  crisp  and  hard. 

CRACKNELS.— Beat  up  thirteen  eggs  with 
a quarter  of  a pound  of  powdered  loaf  sugar 
untd  they  are  quite  light;  then  stir  in  three 
pounds  of  flour  and  a quarter  of  an  ounce  of 
sal-volatile  reduced  to  a very  fine  powder. 
Mix  these  well  together  and  roll  the  paste  out 


130 


CRADLES 


CRAPE 


thin ; cut  out  the  cracknels  with  a wineglass 
or  tumbler,  throw  them  into  boiling  water  for 
one  or  two  minutes,  then  put  them  into  cold 
water.  After  they  have  remained  there  three 
minutes  take  them  out  and  bake  in  a rather 
quick  oven.  These  are  very  delicate  and  eatable. 

CRADLES. — The  use  of  cradles  for  rocking 
babies  to  sleep  is  now  very  generally  con- 
demned by  medical  writers  as  injurious  to  the 
brain  and  paralyzing  to  the  nervous  system. 
A French  physician  goes  so  far  as  to  declare 
it  to  be  a source  of  idiocy  and  mental  weak- 
ness. Even  on  grounds  of  convenience,  how- 
ever, their  use  should  be  abandoned.  When 
once  a child  becomes  accustomed  to  being 
rocked  asleep  he  will  never  go  to  sleep  without 
it,  nor  even  lie  down  ; whereas  if  children  are 
dealt  with  properly,  it  is  surprising  how  early 
they  can  be  taught  to  lie  down  alone  and  go  to 
sleep  without  waiting  to  be  soothed.  Rocking 
is  only  liked  by  nurses  who  find  it  convenient 
for  putting  babies  to  sleep  when  they  ought, 
perhaps,  to  be  carrying  them  about  in  the  open 
air. 

CRADLE.  (Wine.) — A small  basket,  like 
that  shown  in  the  engraving,  used  in  serving 
Burgundy,  Latour,  and  other  wines  which 
throw  down  a precipitate.  The  precipitate  or 
“ dregs  ” being  deposited  on  the  side  of  the 
bottle,  the  wine  can  be  poured  off  clear,  which 
it  is  impossible  to  do  when  the  bottle  is  shifted 


from  a horizontal  to  an  upright  position,  as  in 
serving  in  the  ordinary  way.  The  wine  should 
of  course  be  placed  in  the  cradle  on  the  same 
•side  on  which  it  lay  in  the  bin,  with  as  little 
agitation  as  possible.  Hence  it  is  well  to  have 
a uniform  plan  of  storing  bottles — with  labels 
up  or  down. 

CRAMP. — A violent  and  involuntary  muscu- 
lar contraction.  It  is,  perhaps,  most  readily 
induced  by  cold,  especially  after  prolonged 
exercise.  This  is  probably  the  reason  why  it 
so  often  occurs  in  swimmers,  and  is  supposed 
to  account  for  a good  many  of  the  lives  lost  by 
drowning.  The  best  remedy  for  Cramp  is  rub- 
bing, especially  with  some  stimulant  applica- 
tion, such  as  spirit ; but  it  is  the  rubbing 
which  is  most  valuable.  (See  Colic.) 

CRANBERRY. — A well-known  native  fruit, 
growing  wild  in  rich,  moist  low  lands,  and  pro- 
ducing large  crops  without  cultivation.  The 
cultivated  fruit,  however,  is  the  largest,  most 
perfect,  and  of  the  best  flavor.  The  season  for 
the  fresh  fruit  commences  about  the  1st  of 
September  and  continues  until  April ; but  they 
can  be  dried  in  the  sun  and,  in  this  condition, 
kept  throughout  the  year.  There  arc  several 


varieties  of  cranberries,  but  only  two  at  present 
extensively  cultivated  or  found  in  the  markets  : 
these  are  the  cherry  and  the  bell,  the  former  * 
resembling  the  cherry  in  appearance  and  being 
considered  the  best ; while  the  bell  is  oval  in 
shape  and  somewhat  the  larger  of  the  two. 
Cranberries  make  excellent  pies,  tarts,  jellies, 
etc.,  and  are  unrivalled  as  an  accompaniment 
for  turkey  and  other  poultry,  and  for  game. 
They  are  considered  astringent,  and  are 
thought  to  restore  the  appetite ; and  they  are 
sometimes  fermented  into  an  intoxicating 
liquor,  which  is  put  into  whiskey  to  disguise  its 
peculiar  flavor. 

(See  Compotes,  Jellies,  Pies,  Preserves, 
and  Tarts.)  * 

Sauce  (Cranberry.) — Choose  light  colored 
cranberries ; look  them  over  and  take  out  all 
that  are  defective ; wash  them  well,  and  put 
them  over  the  fire  more  than  covered  with  cold 
water  ; cover  the  saucepan  and  cook  until  the 
skins  are  tender,  adding  more  water  if  necessa- 
ry ; add  a pound  of  granulated  sugar  for  every 
pound  of  cranberries,  let  them  simmer  ten  or 
twelve  minutes,  then  put  them  away  in  a wide 
mouthed  crock  and  keep  them  covered. 

Tea.  (Cranberry.)— Select  nice  ripe  cran- 
berries ; mash  them,  pour  boiling  water  on 
them,  and  then  strain  off  the  water  and  sw'eeten 
it  to  taste  ; grate  nutmeg  over  the  top.  This 
is  a very  pleasant  drink  for  the  sick. 

CRANE. — A long-legged,  long-necked,  and 
long-billed  bird,  of  the  same  species  as  the 
great  blue  heron.  It  sometimes,  but  very 
rarely,  makes  its  ajjpearance  in  our  markets, 
though  it  is  very  abundant  in  the  Southern  and 
Western  States  from  the  middle  of  October  to 
the  middle  of  April,  and  is  said  to  be  well 
flavored  and  delicate  when  young.  Cook  like 
wild  turkey. 

CRAPE. — A light,  transparent  stuff,  made 
of  raw  silk,  gummed  and  twisted  in  the  mill, 
and  woven  without  crossing ; when  dyed  black 
it  is  much  used  for  mourning.  Crapes  are 
either  crisped  or  smooth ; the  former,  being 
double,  expresses  the  deepest  mourning,  and  it 
owes  its  peculiar  appearance  to  a larger  quanti- 
ty of  gum  being  added  to  the  silk  in  dressing  it. 
White  crape  is  used  in  various  dresses,  but 
soils  very  easily.  China  crape  is  a beautiful 
variety,  remarkably  firm  in  texture  and  weighty 
in  substance,  which  is  usually  dyed  in  various 
shades  of  pink  and  other  gay  colors,  and  used 
in  rich  dresses,  shawls,  etc. 

Cleaning  Crape— When  a drop  of  water 
falls  on  black  crape  it  leaves  a conspicuous 
white  mark.  To  obliterate  this,  spread  the 
crape  on  a table  and  place  underneath  the 
stain  a piece  of  old  black  silk ; with  a large 
camel-hair  brush  dipped  in  common  ink,  go 
over  the  stain,  and  then  wipe  off  the  ink  with  a 
bit  of  old  soft  silk.  It  will  dry  immediately, 
and  the  stain  will  be  seen  no  more. — Old  rusty 
blade  Italian  crape  may  be  made  to  look  as  good 
as  new  by  dipping  it  in  skimmed  milk  and  water 
(equal  parts),  with  a bit  of  glue  in  it,  made 
scalding  hot ; after  dipping  the  crape,  clap  and 


CRASH 


CRESS 


131 


pull  dry  like  muslin. — China  crape  scarfs,  if  the 
fabric  be  good,  can  be  washed  as  frequently  as 
may  be  required  without  injuring  them.  Make 
a strong  lather  of  soap  and  water,  suffer  it  to 
cool ; when  cold,  or  nearly  so,  wash  the  scarf 
quickly  and  thoroughly,  and  dip  it  immediately 
in  cold  hard  water  in  which  a little  salt  has 
been  thrown  (to  preserve  the  colors);  rinse, 
squeeze,  and  hang  it  out  to  dry  in  the  open  air, 
when  the  more  rapidly  it  dries,  the  cleaner  it 
will  be. 

CRASH. — A kind  of  coarse  linen  cloth, 
much  used  for  towels,  tablecloths,  and  the 
like.  It  comes  of  various  qualities  and  kinds, 
some  being  figured  and  very  closely  woven, 
while  others  are  coarse  and  flimsy. 

CRAZINESS.  {See  Insanity.) 

CREAM.— To  procure  the  largest  amount 
of  cream,  the  milk  should  be  placed  in  very 
shallow  pans,  never  more  than  three  inches 
deep.  Twelve  hours  in  summer,  and  twenty- 
four  in  winter,  will  be  sufficient  time  for  the 
milk  to  stand  for  “creaming,”  though  it  may 
often  be  kept  longer  with  advantage.  Three 
quarts  of  really  good  milk  will  produce  about  a 
pint  of  cream.  The  cream  should  be  removed 
with  a perforated  skimmer  which  has  been 
dipped  in  cold  water  to  prevent  the  cream, 
when  thick,  from  adhering  to  it.  It  should  be 
kept  in  a deep  covered  dish  in  a cool  place, 
where  the  temperature  is  uniform.  The  con- 
sistency of  cream  increases  by  exposure  to 
air.  In  three  or  four  days  it  becomes  so  thick 
that  the  vessel  which  contains  it  may  be  invert- 
ed without  spilling  it.  In  eight  or  ten  days 
more  it  becomes  a soft  solid,  and  its  surface 
becomes  tough ; it  has  now  no  longer  the 
flavor  of  cream,  but  has  acquired  that  of  cheese. 
This  is  the  process  for  making  cream  cheese. 
{See  Cake  and  Ice  Cream.) 

Artificial  Cream. — (To  eat  with  stewed  fruit 
or  tarts.)  Take  .--Fresh  milk,  I pt;  sugar,  I 
tablespoonful ; eggs,  yolks  of  2. 

Put  a pint  of  new  milk  into  a saucepan,  add 
a tablespoonful  of  sugar,  set  it  on  a very  low 
fire,  or  the  hot  iron  plate  of  a cooking-stove  ; 
break  into  it  the  yolks  of  two  eggs,  and  keep 
stirring,  always  one  way,  until  it  becomes  as 
thick  as  ordinary  cream.  It  must  never  reach 
the  boiling  point. 

Coffee  Cream. -Take  .--Cream,  3 pts ; ground 
coffee,  2 dessert-spoonfuls ; eggs,  yolks  of  8. 

Into  three  pints  of  cream,  put  two  dessert- 
spoonfuls of  ground  coffee,  and  sweeten  to 
taste.  Boil  it  for  half  an  hour;  then  let  it 
stand  to  settle.  Pour  off  the  cream  from  the 
coffee-grounds,  and  stir  into  it  the  yolks  of 
eight  eggs ; then  simmer  slowly  until  the 
whole  is  of  the  consistency  of  thick  boiled 
custard.  Serve  in  cups  or  glasses,  like  cus- 
tard. 

Lemon  Cream. — Take  /-Eggs,  3;  lemons, 
2 or  3 ; water,  if  pt ; loaf  sugar,  lb. 
i Beat  up  well  the  whites  of  three  eggs  and  the 
yolk  of  one,  and  stir  them  together ; add  the 
juice  of  two  large  lemons  or  three  small  ones, 
half  a pint  of  water,  and  half  a pound  of  loaf 


sugar,  pounded  fine.  Mix  these  together 
thoroughly  ; set  them  over  a slow  fire,  stirring 
constantly  the  same  way ; when  warm,  put 
in  the  rind  of  one  lemon,  peeled  very  thin. 
When  it  thickens  well,  remove  the  lemon 
peel,  and  take  the  cream  off  the  fire.  On  no 
account  must  it  be  allowed  to  boil.  Serve  in 
custard-cups,  or  glasses. 

Orange  Cream. — Made  same  as  Letnon. 

Tea  Cream. — Take  .--Milk,  1 qf;  green 
tea,  2 oz ; cream,  1 qt ; eggs,  yolks  of  6. 

Pour  a quart  of  boiling  milk  over  two  ounces 
of  green  tea  in  a teapot ; put  the  lid  on,  and 
let  it  stand  on  a moderately  hot  part  of  the 
stove  for  a quarter  of  an  hour.  Then  pour  off 
the  milk  ; mix  it  with  a quart  of  good  cream  ; 
stir  in  the  yolks  of  six  eggs,  well  beaten ; 
sweeten  to  taste  ; and  thicken  over  a very 
gentle  fire,  stirring  all  the  time.  Serve  as 
before. 

Whipped  Cream. — Whip  one  quart  of  thick 
cream  until  it  is  stiff,  taking  care  that  it  is  not 
overdone,  as  it  then  would  produce  butter. 
When  the  cream  is  whipped,  add  one  ounce 
of  clarified  gelatin,  five  ounces  of  powdered 
sugar,  one  wineglass  of  brandy,  one  table- 
spoonful of  essence  of  vanilla,  and  the  yolk  of 
one  egg.  Carefully  rub  a mould  with  the  oil 
of  sweet  almonds  ; pour  the  cream  into  it,  and 
set  it  away  on  ice.  When  about  to  serve,  turn 
it  out  on  its  dish,  ornament  the  base  with  rasp- 
berries, strawberries,  apricots,  greengages,  or 
peaches,  or  any  bright,  clear-colored  fruit  jel- 
lies. This  cream  is  used  for  the  purpose  of 
garnishing  Charlotte,  Chantilly  cake,  merin- 
gues, etc. 

CREAM  CHEESE.  {See  Cheese.) 

CREAM  OF  TARTAR. — Cream  of  tartar  is 
usually  sold  as  a powder,  but  in  this  state  is 
almost  always  adulterated  with  chalk,  clay, 
gypsum,  sand,  or  flour.  It  is  best  therefore  to 
buy  it  in  the  crystalline  form  in  which  it  is  re- 
ceived from  the  French  manufacturers ; it  can 
be  pulverized  at  home  in  a mortar  or  piece  of 
cloth.  Keep  it  tightly  corked  in  a glass  jar  or 
bottle. 

Beverage  {cream  of  tartar). — Pour  a pint  of 
boiling  water  on  two  teaspoonfuls  of  cream-tar- 
tar ; sweeten  to  taste,  and  flavor  with  lemon 
peel.  If  this  is  too  acid,  add  more  boiling 
water.  This  is  a very  refreshing  summer 
drink. 

CRESS. — There  are  several  species  of  this 
pleasantly  flavored  and  aromatic  herb  the  shoots 
of  which  are  much  used  as  a salad.  The  most 
common  is  the  water-cress , which  is  found  in 
abundance  on  the  banks  of  fresh,  clear  streams, 
from  March  until  May,  and  again  from  Septem- 
ber to  November.  {See  Water  Cress.)  An- 
other kind  is  called  garden-cress , or  pepper 
grass,  which  is  also  eaten  as  a salad  when 
young.  It  has  a pleasant,  refreshing,  pungent 
taste,  and  is  abundant  during  the  spring  months. 
A third  species  is  called  the  winter-cress ; this 
is  a much  larger  plant,  which  grows  about 
hedges,  and  the  young  leaves  are  used  as  a 
salad  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year.  The 


132 


CREWEL 


CROUP 


flavor  of  this  variety  is  very  pungent  and  bit- 
ing. Still  another  species  is  called  Indian- 
cress  or  nasturtium.  ( See  Nasturtium.) 

CREWEL. — A kind  of  woollen  yarn  very 
slightly  twisted.  It  comes  in  every  color,  and 
is  used  in  several  kinds  of  embroidery. 

CRIMPING.— The  process  of  producing  a 
kind  of  plaiting  or  fluting  on  frills  or  ruffles. 
It  is  done  by  a machine  with  two  grooved  roll- 
ers, the  lower  of  which  is  heated  by  a cylin- 
drical piece  of  iron  made  red  hot  and  inserted 
in  it.  The  crimping  is  performed  merely  by 
putting  the  ruffles  between  the  rollers  when 
they  have  become  hot,  and  turning  the  handle. 

CROCKERY.  ( See  Earthen-ware.) 

CROCUS. — The  only  kind  of  Crocus  known 
to  our  gardens  is  the  early  blooming  spring 
bulbs.  These  are  hardy  little  plants.  Plant 
them  two  inches  deep,  in  a sunny  spot,  about 
the  first  of  October,  either  by  themselves  or 
as  a border.  Enrich  the  soil  with  a liberal 
quantity  of  well-rotted  cow  manure  and  enough 
pure  sand  to  make  it  rather  loose.  Just  before 
the  ground  freezes  up,  a good  covering  of  coarse 
manure  and  straw  should  be  spread  over  the 
bed.  In  the  spring  rake  off  the  straw,  the 
bulbs  will  be  found  well  up,  the  white  stalks 
will  soon  turn  green,  and  an  abundance  of 
bloom  will  follow.  As  winter  approaches, 
cover  them  as  before ; they  will  bloom  year 
after  year. 

For  blooming  in  the  house  the  crocus  is  only 
valuable  as  an  early  flower,  its  blooms  being 
fugitive ; a few,  however,  planted  with  other 
bulbs,  produce  a pretty  effect.  The  soil  for 
them  should  be  one  part  loam,  one  part  sand, 
and  water  should  be  sparingly  given.  As  soon 
as  the  flowers  fade,  and  the  tips  of  the  leaves 
begin  to  turn  yellow,  water  should  be  gradually 
withheld,  and  the  bulbs  thus  dried  off.  When 
dry,  the  earth  should  be  carefully  shaken  off, 
and  the  dry  bulb  put  away  for  the  next  autumn’s 
planting.  Some  of  the  choicest  varieties  of  the 
crocus  are  : — Grootverst,  Caroline  and  Queen 
Victoria , white ; Scotch , yellow  ; David  Rizzio, 
blue;  Albion , violet;  Gra7id  Lilas , lilac;  Sir 
Walter  Scott , variegated ; and  Othello , very 
dark  purple. 

CROQUETTES. — Take  io  ozs  of  chicken, 
freed  of  bone  and  skin,  cut  into  small  neat 
dice,  with  2 ozs  of  mushrooms,  and  2 ozs  of 
ham  cut  in  dice  also.  Place  on  the  fire  I table- 
spoonful of  chopped  shallot,  2 of  chopped 
parsley,  I blade  of  pounded  mace,  a saltspoon- 
ful  of  powdered  thyme,  white  pepper  and  salt 
to  taste.  Fry  these  in  a sautoir  with  2 ozs  of 
butter  ; then  add  I)  ozs  flour;  stir  a minute, 
then  add  I gill  of  broth;  when  it  boils  add  the 
mince,  and  the  yolks  of  2 eggs  ; stir  the  mix- 
ture until  it  leaves  the  bottom  and  sides  of  the 
stewpan,  then  pour  it  on  a well-oiled  dish  to 
cool.  Form  it  into  any  shape  desired  ; bread- 
crumb in  the  usual  manner  ; fry  them  to  a 
clear  yellow  in  plenty  of  hot  lard,  pile  them 
up  on  a napkin,  and  send  them  to  the  table  at 
once. 

Croquette  of  Sweetbreads. — Cut  io  ozs  of 


sweetbread  in  small  neat  dice,  3 ozs  of  mush- 
rooms, and  1 oz  of  red  tongue  in  dice  also  ; 
then  incorporate  with  £ pint  of  reduced  alle- 
mande  sauce  ; season  with  nutmeg,  white 
pepper,  and  salt ; 1 tablespoonful  essence  of 
anchovies  and  a piece  of  chicken  glaze. 
Broad-crumb  them  in  the  usual  manner,  and 
fry  them  in  hot  lard  until  they  are  of  a light 
brown. 

Rice Wipe  clean,  in  a dry  cloth,  seven 

ounces  of  rice,  put  it  into  a clean  stew-pan, 
and  pour  on  it  a quart  of  new  milk ; let 
it  swell  gently  by  the  side  of  the  fire,  and  stir 
it  often  that  it  may  not  stick  to  the  pan,  nor 
burn  ; when  it  is  about  half  done,  stir  to  it 
five  ounces  of  powdered  sugar,  and  six  bitter 
almonds  beaten  extremely  fine  ; the  thin  rind 
of  half  a fresh  lemon  may  be  added  in  the  first 
instance.  The  rice  must  be  simmered  until  it 
is  soft,  and  very  thick  and  dry  ; it  should  then 
be  spread  on  a dish  and  left  until  cold,  when 
it  is  to  be  rolled  into  small  balls,  which  must 
be  dipped  into  beaten  egg,  and  then  covered 
in  every  part  with  the  finest  bread-crumbs. 
When  all  are  ready,  fry  them  to  a light  brown 
in  fresh  butter,  and  dry  them  well  before  the 
fire,  upon  a sieve  reversed  and  covered  with 
a very  soft  cloth,  or  with  a sheet  of  white  blot- 
ting-paper. Pile  them  in  a hot  dish,  and  send 
them  to  the  table  quickly.  (See  Lobster.) 

CROUP. — This  most  dreaded  of  all  the  dis- 
eases to  which  children  are  liable,  requires 
immediate  attention,  for  if  neglected  it  may 
destroy  life  in  one  or  two  days.  It  commences 
with  hoarseness  and  a short  dry  cough,  which 
in  a few  hours  becomes  husky,  and  the  cry 
hoarse;  then  the  cough  becomes  peculiarly 
metallic,  or  “brassy,”  as  it  is  called;  the  diffi- 
culty of  breathing  quickly  increases,  and  soon 
becomes  very  distressing,  thf  child  seems  to 
fight  for  breath  and  to  require  all  its  strength 
to  force  the  air  in  and  out  of  the  chest ; the 
face  is  flushed,  and  the  voice  and  breathing 
make  a peculiar  crowing  or  cooing  sound  which 
it  is  impossible  to  describe,  but  which  once 
heard  will  never  be  forgotten.  Unless  the 
disease  is  arrested,  all  these  symptoms  increase, 
the  difficulty  of  breathing  becomes  greater  and 
greater,  and  the  child  literally  strangles  to 
death.  Before  describing  the  treatment  to  be 
pursued,  it  may  be  well  to  explain  that  there 
are  two  varieties  of  croup,  one  of  which  is  call- 
ed membranous  or  true  croup,  and  the  other 
spasmodic  croup.  The  spasmodic  is  of  the 
most  frequent  occurrence,  but  fortunately  is 
a very  mild  disease,  and  is  seldom,  very  sel- 
dom, fatal.  The  membranous  is  of  much  more 
rare  occurrence,  but  it  is  very  often  fatal.  At 
first  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  between  them, 
and  it  is  because  of  this  that  it  is  wise  to  seek 
the  advice  of  a physician  as  soon  as  the  attack 
commences  ; fortunately  the  spasmodic  is  rarely 
liable  to  develop  into  the  membranous. 

Treatment. — To  save  a child  when  taken 
with  membranous  croup,  domestic  remedies 
must  not  be  relied  on.  Night  or  day  send  at 
once  for  a doctor.  Till  the  doctor  comes  pro- 


CRUMPETS 


CUCUMBERS 


133 


ceed  in  this  way : Keep  the  child  in  a warm 

room,  and  give  from  half  a teaspoonful  to  two 
teaspoonfuls  of  syrup  of  ipecac,  according  to 
the  age  of  the  child  (half  a teaspoonful  to  a 
child  under  a year  old,  a teaspoonful  when  be- 
tween one  and  two,  and  two  teaspoonfuls  when 
over  three);  if  this  has  no  effect,  repeat  the 
dose  every  fifteen  minutes,  and  give  warm  water 
to  drink,  until  the  child  vomits  freely ; put  the 
feet  into  hot  water  and  mustard  till  the  skin  is 
quite  red  ; and  on  the  chest  and  well  up  to  the 
throat  place  a large  poultice  made  of  two  parts 
of  oatmeal  or  bran  and  one  part  mustard,  and 
keep  it  on  till  it  reddens  the  skin  (which  will 
be  but  a short  time  in  a young  child).  When 
the  disease  is  spasmodic  croup,  the  effect  of 
the  vomiting  is  usually  to  loosen  the  cough  and 
to  restore  it  to  a more  natural  sound ; when 
this  is  done  the  distress  is  removed.  This 
variety  of  croup  comes  on  most  frequently  in 
the  night,  the  child  awaking  from  its  sleep  to 
cough,  or  even  coughing  without  waking.  Af- 
ter vomiting  has  occurred  and  the  cough  ceased, 
the  child  often  falls  asleep  at  once,  and  may 
pass  the  rest  of  the  night  without  further  trouble. 
The  disease,  however,  is  very  apt  to  recur  at 
the  same  time  on  the  succeeding  night,  and 
this  should,  if  possible,  be  prevented.  During 
the  intervening  day  the  child  should  be  kept 
in  a moderately  warm  room,  and  be  given  such 
medicine  as  the  doctor  may  direct.  The  follow- 
ing old-fashioned  remedy  may  do  where  nothing 
better  can  be  procured  : Mix  in  a teacup  equal 

parts  of  molasses  and  good  strong  vinegar; 
let  it  stand  where  it  will  just  keep  warm,  and 
give  the  child  a teaspoonful  as  often  as  once 
every  hour.  If  the  breathing  becomes  heavier 
as  night  comes  on,  repeat  the  vomiting  and 
poulticing  as  before. 

A child  that  is  subject  to  attacks  of  spasmodic 
croup  should  be  guarded  with  unusual  care 
from  changes  of  the  weather,  and  all  those 
influences  which  are  found  by  observation  to 
precede  the  paroxysms  ; and  the  clothing  should 
be  carefully  arranged  to  protect  the  chest,  and 
in  general  to  keep  him  more  constantly  warm. 
A child  that  has  survived  one  attack  of  mem- 
branous croup,  (a  very  rare  object,  because  the 
disease  is  almost  always  fatal,)  should  be  still 
more  carefully  guarded  against  all  these  in- 
fluences. There  is  no  advantage  in  excessive 
anxiety;  yet  it  must  be  felt,  under  the  circum- 
stances, that  the  child’s  life  hangs  on  a more 
slender  thread  than  that  which  before  sustained 
it.  At  all  events,  wash  such  children,  and  all 
children,  once  or  twice  daily,  in  cool  or  cold 
water,  and  rub  them  warm  afterwards.  You 
will  thus  harden  them  and  render  them  less 
liable  to  be  influenced  by  changes  of  tem- 
perature. 

CRUMPETS.— I.  Take  .--Raised  bread  dough 
3 teacupfuls ; melted  butter  or  cream,  y2  tea- 
cupful; eggs,  3;  milk. 

Take  three  cups  of  raised  bread  dough  and 
work  into  it,  with  the  hand,  half  a teacupful  of 
melted  butter  or  rich  cream,  three  eggs,  and 
enough  milk  to  make  a thick  batter.  Turn  it 


into  a buttered  bake-pan,  let  it  stand  until  it 
is  light,  and  then  put  it  into  the  oven ; it  will 
bake  in  half  an  hour.  Or  the  batter  may  be 
put  into  tins  and  cooked  like  muffins. 

n.  Take  .--Same  as  before,  with  a teacupful 
of  white  Sugar  added. 

Take  three  teacupfuls  of  raised  dough,  and 
work  into  it  half  a teacupful  of  melted  butter; 
beat  together  three  eggs  and  a teacupful  of  fine 
white  sugar,  and  add  them  to  the  dough ; put 
it  into  buttered  pans  and  bake  twenty  minutes. 

CUCUMBERS.  — The  cucumber,  though 
usually  regarded  as  a vegetable,  is  botanically 
one  of  the  fruits,  and  belongs  to  the  order  of 
melons.  Almost  the  only  way  in  which  cucum- 
bers are  used  in  this  country  is  in  salad,  and 
when  young,  for  making  pickles ; but  in  Eng- 
land, France,  and  Germany,  they  are  dressed 
for  the  table  in  various  ways,  of  which  frying 
is  one,  and  are  said  to  be  much  more  whole- 
some when  thus  prepared  than  when  eaten  raw. 
In  cultivation,  the  cucumber  requires  a sunny 
situation,  a deep  and  rich  soil,  and  plenty  of 
moisture.  The  seed  should  be  planted  as  soon 
as  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground,  in  hills  about 
two  feet  apart  each  way.  They  will  grow  with 
scarcely  any  care  ; though  the  young  plants  are 
subject  to  the  depredations  of  numerous  insect 
foes.  The  best  way  to  prevent  these  is  to 
cover  the  plants  with  boxes  having  gauze  tops, 
which  should  be  kept  over  them  until  the  fo- 
liage is  large  and  abundant.  As  an  early  veg- 
etable, scarcely  any  other  can  be  as  successful- 
ly forced  in  the  hot-bed ; but  the  best  sort 
should  be  selected  for  this  purpose.  Cucumbers 
begin  to  make  their  appearance  from  the  South 
in  April;  in  the  Middle  States  they  ripen  about 
the  middle  of  June,  and  so  continue  in  the  mar- 
ket until  November,  after  which  they  are  found 
in  a cured  state  or  pickled.  (See  Pickles.) 

Fried  Cucumbers. — Pare  and  soak  in  cold 
water  half  an  hour  ; then  cut  them  lengthwise 
into  very  thick  slices,  throw  them  into  ice 
water,  and  after  they  have  remained  ten  min- 
uted, take  them  out  and  wipe  each  slice  dry 
with  a cloth.  Sprinkle  with  pepper  and  salt, 
roll  in  flour,  and  fry  to  a light  brown  in  butter 
or  lard.  This  is  the  best  way  of  cooking  cu- 
cumbers, and  prepared  thus  they  are  far  more 
wholesome  than  when  raw. 

Raw  Cucumbers. — Select  those  in  which 
the  middle  is  yet  crisp  and  hard,  pare  them 
well,  and  cut  crosswise  in  very  thin  slices; 
dress  with  salt,  pepper,  and  vinegar,  and  let 
them  stand  half  an  hour  in  a cold  place  before 
serving.  A little  olive  or  sweet  oil  may  be 
added  for  those  who  like  it,  and  a few  slices  of 
onions  mingled  with  the  cucumbers  is  a great 
improvement  and  renders  them  more  digestible. 

Stewed  Cucumbers. — Pare  the  cucumbers, 
cut  them  into  quarters  lengthwise,  take  away 
the  seeds,  and  stew  them  in  butter  until  quite 
tender.  On  removing,  sprinkle  them  with  salt 
and  pounded  mace.  A portion  of  the  juice 
remaining  in  the  sauce-pan  may  be  thickened 
with  flour  and  poured  over  them. 

Stuffed  Cucumbers.  — This  is  a German 


134 


CULLENDER 


CURRANT 


dish.  Peel  the  cucumbers  whole,  scoop  the 
seeds  out  carefully  at  the  stalk  end,  and  fill  the 
cavity  with  a stuffing  composed  of  minced  cold 
veal,  bread-crumbs  in  small  quantity,  eggs,  and 
finely  chopped  lemon  peel.  Put  butter  in  a 
stew-pan  and  when  it  is  melted,  lay  the  stuffed 
cucumber  in  it  and  add  a little  pepper,  mace, 
and  chopped  onions ; cover  with  good  broth 
and  stew  gently  till  well  done — say  half  to  three 
quarters  of  an  hour.  Then  take  the  cucum- 
bers carefully  out  of  the  broth,  and  arrange 
them  on  a dish.  Reduce  and  thicken  the  broth 
by  boiling  down ; strain  it,  and  pour  while  very 
hot  over  the  cucumbers. 

CULLENDER.  ( See  Colander.) 

CUMMIN  SEED.— The  fruit  or  seed  of  the 
cummin  plant,  cultivated  in  the  East  from  the 
earliest  times.  They  have  a bitter,  aromatic 
taste,  and  a peculiar  fragrance,  and  though  sel- 
dom used  in  this  country,  enter  largely  into  the 
composition  of  French  ragouts  and  other  dish- 
es. They  are  also  put  into  liquors. 

CUPHEA. — The  most  desirable  plant  of  this 
family  for  culture  is  the  little  Mexican  b.  ignea, 
which  blooms  very  profusely  and  for  a long 
time.  Plant  the  seed  in  June  or  July  in  a soil 
of  about  three  parts  loam  and  one  each  of  sand 
and  manure  ; it  grows  about  a foot  high  and  is 
always  in  bloom.  In  autumn  the  plants  may  be 
potted  and  removed  to  the  house,  where,  if 
watered  freely,  they  will  be  covered  all  winter 
with  a profusion  of  bright  scarlet  tubes,  tipped 
with  a ring  of  black  and  white. 

CURACOA. — A liqueur  first  made  in  the 
island  of  that  name.  A fair  quality  can  be 
made  at  home  by  taking  the  rind  of  six  oranges, 
peeling  off  as  thin  as  possible,  without  retain- 
ing any  of  the  white  skin.  Put  it  into  a glass 
jar  with  a cover  closing  tight;  pour  over  it  a 
quart  each  of  best  brandy  and  rectified  spirits 
of  wine.  Let  it  steep  in  a warm  place  for  a fort- 
night ; then  strain  the  liquor  carefully  away 
from  the  orange  peel.  Melt  two  pounds  of 
loaf  sugar  into  a wineglassful  of  water,  and 
when  nearly  cold,  pour  it  into  the  liquor,  stir- 
ring well.  Then  bottle  it  off,  and  use  as  re- 
quired. ( See  LiqueursA 

CURD.  ( See  Cheese.) 

CURRANT. — There  are  several  varieties  of 
this  well-known  garden  fruit,  but  the  chief 
division  is  into  red  and  black  currants.  The 
latter  is  of  a different  species  from  the  common 
currant,  not  having  the  same  flavor,  but  a flat 
and  strong  taste,  and  is  considered  best  for  jam, 
jelly,  etc.,  especially  for  the  sick.  The  cultiva- 
tion of  the  currant  is  extremely  easy,  as  it  will 
grow  in  almost  any  garden  soil,  in  the  open  sun 
or  in  the  shade  of  fences,  when  the  fruit  is  long- 
er in  ripening  but  still  sure.  In  planting,  select 
well-ripened,  straight,  short  shoots,  removing 
all  the  buds  or  eyes  from  the  lower  portions 
which  are  to  be  inserted  in  th3  soil,  which  will 
prevent  future  “suckers”  from  springing  up 
around  the  stem.  After  the  stem  has  been  trim- 
med upright  for  two  or  three  feet,  a thin  spread- 
ing head  should  be  carefully  grown  by  trimming 
off  all  superfluous  wood  as  it  makes  its  appear- 


ance. About  mid-summer  the  ends  of  the  fruit- 
bearing branches  should  be  pinched  off,  in 
order  to  allow  the  strength  of  the  plant  to  go 
into  fruit.  But  the  currant  will  reward  the  least 
degree  of  attention  that  can  be  given  to  it,  and 
is  on  this  account  one  of  the  most  desirable  of 
the  smaller  garden  fruits.  Among  the  best 
varieties  are  Cherry , Red,  White-Dutch,  and 
White-Grape.  The  green  currants  are  much 
sought  after,  just  before  they  begin  to  color  or 
grow  red,  for  pies,  tarts,  etc.  They  are  gener- 
ally in  market  about  the  first  of  June;  in  July 
they  ripen,  and  will  then  remain  on  the  bushes 
until  September,  especially  if  covered.  ( See 
Cake,  Custard,  Jam,  Jelly,  Pies,  Pre- 
serves, and  Tarts.) 

Dried  Currants  are  imported  from  abroad, 
and  are  sold,  in  grocery  stores  and  occasionally 
in  the  markets.  The  best  come  from  the  Levant 
and  the  Grecian  islands,  and  the  new-dried  fruit 
arrives  here  in  December  and  January. 

Raw.  - — Select  nice  fresh  currants  and  stem 
them  carefully ; sprinkle  powdered  sugar  liber- 
ally over  the  bottom  of  a clish,  put  in  a thick 
layer  of  currants,  sprinkle  in  more  sugar,  add 
another  layer  of  currants,  and  continue  until 
the  desired  quantity  is  prepared.  Set  on  ice» 
until  time  to  serve.  Currants  prepared  in  this 
way  are  one  of  the  most  cooling  and  refreshing 
of  fruits. 

Stewed.  (See  Compotes.) 

Wine  (Currant). — I.  Take  /-Currants ; water ; 
sugar ; brandy ; alum. 

Select  ripe  currants,  stew  them,  mash  thorough- 
ly, and  strain.  To  one  gallon  of  the  juice  add 
two  of  water,  and  to  each  gallon  of  this  mixture 
add  three  and  a quarter  pounds  of  sugar,  a gill 
of  brandy,  and  a quarter  of  an  ounce  of  pow- 
dered alum ; put  the  whole  into  a clean  cask  to 
ferment.  In  March  draw  off,  add  another  gill 
of  brandy  to  each  gallon,  and  bottle.  It  will  be 
fit  for  use  in  six  months,  but  improves  with  age. 

II.  Take  /-Currants  ; sugar ; cream-tartar. 

To  each  gallon  of  juice  of  white  currants,  add 
three  and  a half  pounds  of  sugar ; stir  them 
well  together,  let  the  liquor  stand  twelve  hours, 
and  then  pour  it  into  a clean  wine-cask,  adding 
six  ounces  of  cream-tartar  ( powdered ) to  each 
ten  gallons,  and  mixing  it  well.  Let  it  ferment 
three  months,  covering  the  bung-hole  with  a 
tile  ; then  bung  down  closely,  and  leave  the 
spile-peg  rather  loose,  examining  occasionally 
for  six  months,  when  it  may  be  bottled.  This 
will  make  a clear  white  wine  of  delicious  flavor. 

III.  Take  /-Honey,  8 lbs;  boiling  water,  15 
galls;  currants,  8 lbs;  sugar;  eggs  and  cream- 
tartar. 

Dissolve  eight  pounds  of  honey  in  1 5 gallons 
of  boiling  water ; strain  and  add  the  juice  of 
eight  pounds  of  red  or  white  currants,  fer- 
ment for  twenty-four  hours,  and  then  to  every 
gallon  of  the  liquor  add  a pound  of  sugar. 
Clarify  with  whites  of  eggs  and  cream-tartar 
(an  ounce  of  the  latter  with  the  whites  of  two 
eggs)  and  bottle.  This  is  the  French  way. 

iV.  (Black  Currants). — Take  /-Currants ; 
loaf  sugar ; cream-tartar ; yeast. 


CURRY 


CURTAINS 


135 


To  a gallon  of  water  allow  a gallon  of  pick- 
ed currants  ; squeeze  the  currants  lightly,  and 
then  put  both  into  a boiler,  boil  ten  minutes, 
and  strain  off  the  liquor.  Press  the  currants 
again,  adding  water  to  make  up  for  loss  by  boil- 
ing, and  strain  it  into  the  first  liquor.  Add  to 
each  gallon  of  the  liquor  two  and  a half  pounds 
of  loaf  sugar  and  one  ounce  of  cream-tartar  ; 
bring  the  whole  up  to  a temperature  of  85°,  and 
add  a quarter  of  a pint  of  fresh  yeast  to  every 
five  gallons.  Put  it  in  a cask,  where  the  long- 
er it  is  kept  the  better  it  will  be. 

CURRY. — Almost  any  kind  of  meat  can  be 
made  into  curry,  though  chicken  and  veal  are 
the  best.  Cut  any  fowl,  rabbit,  or  game  into 
joints  suitable  for  serving;  meat  or  fish  into 
pieces.  Put  four  ounces  of  butter  into  a stew- 
pan  ; when  it  is  melted,  put  in  the  meat  or  fish, 
with  a couple  of  sliced  onions,  and  fry  over  a 
brisk  fire  till  the  meat  is  nicely  browned ; then 
stir  in  half  a pint  of  broth,  and  let  all  simmer 
for  twenty  minutes.  Put  into  a tea-cup  one  table- 
spoonful of  curry-powder,  the  same  of  flour,  and 
a teaspoonful  of  salt ; mix  these  together  with 
a little  cold  water,  and  put  them  into  the  stew- 
pan,  shaking  all  well  together  until  the  curry 
boils.  Then  take  it  off  the  fire,  let  it  simmer 
by  the  side  for  twenty  minutes  longer,  add  a 
tablespoonful  of  melted  butter  and  the  juice  of 
half  a lemon,  and  give  a final  stir  up.  Serve  hot, 
accompanied  by  boiled  rice. 

In  all  curries  the  quantity  of  curry-powder 
used  must  depend  first  upon  its  age  and 
strength ; and  secondly,  on  the  degree  of  spici- 
ness desired.  Many  persons  who  are  fond  of 
curry  find  it  disagree  with  them  when  too  much 
of  the  powder  is  used.  ( See  Curry-Powder.) 

Dry  Curry. — Skin  and  cut  down  a fowl  into 
small  joints,  or  two  pounds  of  lean  mutton  into 
small  thick  cutlets ; rub  them  in  a mixture  of 
two  tablepoonfuls  of  curry-powder,  two  of  flour, 
and  one  teaspoonful  of  salt,  till  no  more  will 
adhere  to  them.  Melt  a heaping  tablespoonful 
of  butter  in  a stew-pan,  and  while  it  is  boiling 
hot,  put  in  the  meat  and  brown  it  well  and  equal- 
ly, without  allowing  a morsel  to  be  scorched  ; the 
pan  should  be  shaken  vigorously  every  minute 
or  two,  and  the  meat  in  it  turned  frequently. 
When  the  meat  is  done,  lift  it  out,  and  throw 
into  the  stew-pan  two  or  three  layers  of  onions 
finely  minced,  and  four  or  five  eschalots,  when 
these  last  are  liked  ; add  a morsel  of  butter,  if 
needful,  and  fry  them  until  they  begin  to  soften ; 
then  add  a quarter  of  a pint  of  gravy,  broth,  or 
boiling  water,  and  a large  acid  apple,  or  two 
moderate  sized  ones,  with  the  hearts  of  two  or 
three  lettuces,  or  of  one  hard  cabbage,  cut  very 
fine  ( tomatoes  or  cucumbers,  freed  from  their 
seed \ can  be  substituted  for  these  when  in  sea- 
son). Stew  the  whole  slowly  until  it  resembles 
a thick  pulp,  adding  broth  or  water  should 
it  become  too  dry ; put  in  the  meat  and  simmer 
the  whole  gently  from  three-quarters  of  an  hour 
to  an  hour.  Serve  hot. 

Egg  Curry. — Boil  six  or  eight  fresh  eggs 
quite  hard,  as  for  salad,  and  put  them  aside  un- 
til they  are  cold.  Mix  together  from  two  to 


three  ounces  of  butter  and  three  to  fout*  dessert- 
spoonfuls of  curry-powder ; ( shake  them  in  a 
stew-pan  over  a moderate  fire  for  several  min- 
utes, then  throw  in  a couple  of  onions  finely 
minced,  and  fry  them  until  they  are  tolerably 
soft ; pour  to  them  by  degrees  from  half  to 
three-quarters  of  a pint  of  broth  or  gravy, 
and  stew  them  slowly  until  they  are  reduced  to 
a pulp ; mix  smoothly  a teaspoonful  of  cream 
with  two  teaspoonfuls  of  wheat  or  rice  flour, 
stir  them  into  the  curry,  and  simmer  the  whole 
until  the  raw  taste  of  the  thickening  is  gone. 
Cut  the  eggs  into  half  inch  slices,  heat  them 
quite  through  in  the  curry  without  boiling 
them,  and  serve  as  hot  as  possible. 

CURRY-POWDER. — An  East  Indian  pow- 
der much  used  in  cooking.  The  prepared 
curry-powder  can  be  bought  in  the  shops,  but 
is  extensively  adulterated  with  very  pernicious 
ingredients,  red  lead  being  frequently  detected 
in  it.  The  quantity  taken  in  curry-powder  at  a 
meal  has  been  known  to  produce  a serious  ef- 
fect ; and  for  this  reason  it  is  a safer  as  well 
as  more  economical  plan  to  make  the  powder 
at  home.  Take  four  ounces  each  of  turmeric, 
coriander  seed,  and  black  pepper  ; three  ounces 
of  fenugreek  seed  ; two  ounces  of  ginger ; one 
ounce  each  of  cummin  seed  and  ground  rice  ; 
half  an  ounce  each  of  cardamons  and  cayenne 
pepper.  Pound  them  to  a fine  powder,  put  in 
a bottle,  and  keep  tightly  corked. 

CURTAINS. — Window-curtains  should  be 
selected  in  accordance  with  the  general  prin- 
ciples of  taste  laid  down  in  the  article  on 
Decoration.  According  to  their  several  pur- 
poses, and  the  nature  of  the  apartments,  the 
quality  of  the  materials  and  the  manner  of 
hanging  them  must  be  determined.  In  this 
country  particularly,  window-curtains  are  ne- 
cessary to  exclude  the  cold  air  which  press- 
es in  from  the  windows  in  winter  when  the 
fires  are  burning,  however  closely  the  sashes 
may  be  fitted.  But  there  is  another  cause 
for  this  which  is  not  generally  thought  of. 
The  warm  air  in  a room  which  always  occu- 
pies the  upper  part  near  the  ceiling,  coming 
into  contact  with  the  glass,  is  cooled  by  it,  and, 
descending  immediately  in  consequence,  dif- 
fuses itself  through  the  lower  part  of  the  room 
and  is  felt  as  a cold  current  coming  from  the 
windows  though  no  outside  air  may  actually 
have  entered  them.  Curtains  check  this  partly 
by  preventing  the  warm  air  from  reaching  the 
glass,  and  partly  by  turning  the  current  side- 
ways. 

But  though  curtains  help  to  keep  air  out, 
heavy  ones  may  exclude  it  too  much  and  also 
keep  bad  air  in.  They  should  therefore  be 
hung  on  rings  sliding  on  rods  so  that  they  can 
be  drawn  entirely  away  from  the  window.  For 
the  same  reason,  lambrequins  are  very  objec- 
tionable, more  so  even  than  curtains  as  they 
have  no  opening  in  the  centre,  and  are  fixed 
obstacles  to  ventilating  the  upper  part  of  the 
room  where  the  air  is  most  heated.  As  to 
taste,  too,  this  arrangement  is  certainly  inferior 
to  others.  The  rod  and  rings  are  more  “ con- 


136 


CUSTARDS 


structive  ” than  the  cornice,  and  the  general 
effect  conforms  to  the  purpose  in  view.  It  is 
well  that  curtains  are  now  so  seldom  used  for 
shutting  ventilation  away  from  beds.  In  low- 
priced  materials  curtains  are  apt  to  be  cheaper 
than  lambrequins  because  the  latter  require 
more  fringe. 

CUSTARDS. — The  secret  of  preparing 
good  custards  lies  in  mixing  the  ingredients 
thoroughly  together  and  cooking  them  over  a 
slow  fire  ; without  attention  to  the  latter  point 
especially  it  is  impossible  that  custards  should 
be  delicate  and  smooth.  To  prevent  boiling 
and  scorching  the  milk,  the  sauce-pan  should 
be  placed  over  boiling  water.  A very  small 
pinch  of  salt  may  be  used  to  a quart  of  milk ; 
without  it  custard  is  likely  to  have  a somewhat 
flat  taste. 

Almond  Custard. — Take: — Milk,  I qt; 
eggs,  6 ; white  sugar,  I teacupful ; almonds,  yz 
lb ; rose-water,  4 tablespoonfuls ; powdered 
sugar,  yz  teacupful ; extract  of  bitter  almond, 
teaspoonful. 

Take  a quart  of  milk  {half  cream  is  better ), 
heat  it  to  boiling,  and  add  the  beaten  yolks  of 
six  eggs,  and  whites  of  four ; a teacupful  of 
white  sugar;  and  half  a pound  of  almonds, 
blanched  and  pounded  to  a paste  with  four 
tablespoonfuls  of  rose-water.  Put  it  over  boil- 
ing water  and  stir  constantly  till  it  thickens  ; 
then  remove  and  when  nearly  cold  stir  up  and 
pour  into  cups.  Make  a mdringue  with  the 
whites  of  four  eggs  and  half  a teacupful  of 
powdered  sugar,  flavored  with  one  teaspoonful 
of  extract  of  bitter  almond,  and  heap  upon 
each  cup. 

Apple  Custard. — Take: — Apples,  6 or  7 ; 
eggs,  10;  milk,  yfz  pints. 

Pare  six  or  seven  very  acid  apples,  core  them, 
and  stew  in  about  a teacupful  of  water  until 
they  begin  to  feel  soft ; then  put  them  in  a pud- 
ding-dish and  sugar  them  well.  Beat  up  ten 
eggs  with  eight  ounces  of  sugar,  mix  it  with 
three  and  a half  pints  of  milk,  pour  it  over  the 
apples,  and  bake  about  thirty  minutes. 

Arrowroot  Custard. — Take  : — Arrowroot 
2 tablespoonfuls ; milk,  1 qt ; eggs,  3. 

Mix  two  tablespoonfuls  of  arrowroot  in  a 
teacupful  of  cold  milk,  and  add  three  eggs  well 
beaten  ; boil  a quart  of  milk  and  pour  it  while 
boiling  upon  the  arrowroot  and  eggs,  stirring 
continually ; then  put  it  into  a pitcher,  set  the 
pitcher  into  boiling  water,  and  let  it  boil  until 
it  thickens.  When  done  turn  it  into  custard 
cups  and  set  away  to  cool. 

Baked  Custard.— I.  Take: — Fresh  milk 
1 qt ; eggs,  8 ; sugar,  5 to  8 oz  ; salt ; nutmeg, 
or  lemon  rind. 

Pour  a quart  of  boiling  milk  on  eight  well 
beaten  eggs ; strain  the  mixture  through  a fine 
sieve,  and  sweeten  with  from  five  to  eight  ounces 
of  sugar  according  to  taste,  adding  a pinch  of 
salt;  pour  the  custard  into  a deep  dish,  grate 
nutmeg  or  lemon  rind  over  the  top,  and  bake  it 
in  a very  slow  oven  from  twenty  to  thirty  min- 
utes, or  longer  should  it  not  be  firm  in  the 
centre.  A well  baked  custard  should  be  quite 


smooth  when  cut,  and  there  should  be  no  whey 
in  the  dish. 

II.  (Richer). — Take:- Fresh  milk,  i'/2  pts; 
loaf  sugar,  6 oz ; salt ; lemon,  rind  of  1 ; eggs, 
10;  cream,  yz  pt;  brandy,  3 or  4 teaspoonfuls. 

Boil  together  gently  for  five  minutes  a pint 
and  a half  of  new  milk,  a pinch  of  salt,  six 
ounces  of  loaf  sugar,  and  the  very  thin  rind  of 
a lemon  ; stir  these  while  boiling  hot,  but  very 
gradually,  into  the  well  beaten  yolks  of  ten 
eggs  and  the  whites  of  four;  strain  the  mix- 
ture, and  add  to  it  half  a pint  of  rich  cream. 
Let  it  cool,  and  then  flavor  it  with  three  or  four 
spoonfuls  of  brandy ; pour  into  small  custard- 
cups,  and  bake  in  a slow  oven  from  ten  to 
twelve  minutes. 

Chocolate  Custard. — Take  .--Chocolate,  \'/i 
oz ; milk,  one  pt ; flavored  with  lemon  peel  or 
vanilla ; sugar,  2 oz ; eggs,  5. 

Dissolve  an  ounce  and  a half  of  the  best 
chocolate  in  a wineglassful  of  warm  water,  and 
then  boil  it  until  it  is  perfectly  smooth  ; mix 
with  it  a pint  of  milk  flavored  strongly  with 
lemon  peel  or  vanilla,  add  two  ounces  of  fine 
sugar,  and  when  the  whole  boils,  stir  it  into 
five  well  beaten  eggs  which  have  been  strained. 
Put  the  custard  into  a jar  or  pitcher,  set  it 
into  a pan  of  boiling  water,  and  stir  constantly 
until  it  is  thick.  When  nearly  cold,  turn  it  into 
cups  or  a dish.  This,  as  well  as  other  custards, 
is  very  much  finer  when  made  with  the  yolks 
only  of  the  eggs,  of  which  the  number  must 
then  be  increased.  Two  ounces  of  chocolate,  a 
pint  of  milk,  half  a pint  of  cream,  two  or  three 
ounces  of  sugar,  and  the  yolks  of  eight  eggs, 
will  make  a very  superior  custard  of  this  kind. 

Coffee  Custard. — Take  .--Coffee  (strong),  I 
pt ; cream,  1 pt ; eggs,  8 ; white  sugar,  1 yz 
teacupfuls. 

Make  some  strong  fresh  coffee,  mix  a pint 
of  it  with  a pint  of  cream,  put  it  into  a sauce- 
pan and  let  it  boil  up  once.  Beat  up  eight 
eggs  with  a teacupful  and  a half  of  white 
sugar ; turn  the  coffee  and  cream  boiling  hot 
into  this,  stirring  all  the  while.  Put  the  whole 
into  a jar  or  pitcher,  set  into  boiling  water,  and 
stir  it  constantly  until  it  thickens.  Pour  into 
custard-cups  and  set  aside  to  cool. 

Cold  custard. — 7a£*?.--Almonds,  2 oz;  rose- 
water, orange-water,  or  vanilla,  2 teaspoonfuls ; 
loaf  sugar,  2 oz;  eggs,  8;  milk  and  cream 
(mixed),  1 pt. 

Pound  to  a fine  paste  two  ounces  of  blanched 
almonds,  with  two  teaspoonfuls  of  rose  or 
orange  water,  or  vanilla,  and  two  ounces  of 
loaf  sugar ; moisten  with  a little  milk,  and 
throw  in  a few  grains  of  salt.  When  it  becomes 
of  the  consistency  of  thick  cream,  take  it  out 
and  beat  it  up  with  the  yolks  of  eight  eggs ; 
then  gradually  add  a pint  of  half  milk  and 
cream.  Set  this  over  a very  slow  fire,  stirring 
continually,  until  it  thickens ; then  remove, 
pour  it  into  glasses,  and  set  it  away  to  cool. 
Half  a dozen  bitter  almonds  and  a couple  of 
bay-leaves  may  be  used  for  flavoring  instead  of 
rose-water  or  vanilla. 

Currant  Custard. — Take  /-Currant-juice,  1 


CUSTARDS 

pt;  sugar,  io  oz;  eggs,  8;  cream,  yz  pt;  lem- 
on-juice, 2 tablespoonfuls. 

Mash  the  currants,  strain  off  the  juice,  and 
boil  in  a pint  of  it  ten  ounces  of  sugar  for 
three  minutes ; take  off  the  scum  and  pour 
the  boiling  juice  on  eight  well-beaten  eggs. 
Thicken  the  custard  in  a jar  or  pitcher  set  into 
a pan  of  boiling  water,  pour  it  out,  and  stir 
until  nearly  cold;  then  add  to  it  by  degrees 
half  a pint  of  cream,  and  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
strained  lemon-juice.  When  the  currants  are 
very  ripe  omit  one  ounce  of  the  sugar. 

Strawberries,  cherries,  red  or  white  rasp- 
berries, or  a mixture  of  any  of  these  fruits, 
may  be  used  instead  of  currants  in  this  receipt. 

French  Custard. — Take  .--Fresh  milk,  I qt; 
loaf  sugar ; peach  or  vanilla ; eggs,  8 ; marma- 
lade, or  jelly. 

Take  a quart  of  new  milk,  sweeten  it  to  taste 
with  loaf  sugar,  flavor  it  with  peach  or  vanilla, 
and  put  it  into  a sauce-pan  to  boil ; beat  the 
whites  of  eight  eggs  to  a stiff  froth,  and  when 
the  milk  boils  put  in  the  froth  in  spoonfuls  until 
it  hardens  a little  ; then  dip  them  out  carefully 
and  lay  them  on  a dish.  When  all  the  whites 
have  been  cooked,  beat  up  the  yolks  and  stir 
them  into  the  boiling  milk  till  it  thickens ; turn 
this  over  the  whites,  and  ornament  with  bits  of 
marmalade  or  colored  jelly. 

Fruit  Custard.  — Take:- Juice  of  stewed 
fruit,  i qt ; eggs,  8 ; milk,  3 pts ; vanilla  or  es- 
sence. 

Stew  any  kind  of  fruit  almost  to  a jelly, 
strain  off  the  juice,  and  when  cool  sweeten  it. 
To  a quart  of  this  juice,  add  eight  eggs  well 
beaten  and  stirred  into  three  pints  of  new  milk ; 
flavor  with  spice  or  essences,  and  either  boil  in 
a jar  set  in  boiling  water  till  it  thickens,  or  bake 
in  cups  or  a deep  dish  for  twenty  minutes  or 
half  an  hour.  Eaten  either  hot  or  cold. 

Moulded  Custard. — Take:- Eggs,  4;  flour; 
milk;  loaf  sugar;  essence. 

Mix  the  yolks  of  four  eggs  with  enough  flour 
to  make  a rather  stiff  paste,  then  stir  in  the  milk 
until  it  is  of  the  consistency  of  cream ; sweet- 
en to  taste  with  loaf  sugar,  flavor  with  any  kind 
of  essence,  and  mix  in  the  whites  of  the  four 
eggs  beaten  to  a froth ; butter  a mould  well, 
fill  it  with  the  mixture  till  about  two-thirds  full  ; 
and  bake  in  a slow  oven  twenty  minutes  or  half 
an  hour.  Serve  as  soon  as  done ; if  intended 
to  be  served  cold,  omit  the  whites  of  the  eggs. 

Quince  Custard.— Made  same  as  Apple. 

Rice  Custard. — Take  :-Fresh  milk,  3 pts; 
flavored  with  lemon -peel,  mace,  or  cinnamon; 
rice-flour,  1 tablespoonful ; eggs,  yolks  of  2 ; 
brandy,  2 tablespoonfuls. 

Boil  three  pints  of  new  milk  with  enough 
lemon  peel,  mace,  or  cinnamon  to  flavor  it 
rather  strongly,  and  sweeten  it  to  taste  ; rub  a 
large  tablespoonful  of  rice-flour  into  half  a cup- 
ful of  cold  milk,  and  mix  with  it  the  well-beaten 
yolks  of  tyro  eggs ; dip  out  a cupful  of  the  boil- 
ing  milk,  mix  it  with  the  cold,  and  then  pour 
the  whole  in  the  boiling  milk.  Stir  the  custard 
continually  until  it  thickens ; then  pour  into  a 
dish,  stir  until  nearly  cold,  and  add  two  table- 


CUTS  137 

spoonfuls  of  brandy.  Part  cream  will  make 
this  a nice  custard. 

Tapioca  Custard. — Take  .’-Milk,  1 qt;  tap- 
ioca, 3 tablespoonfuls  ; eggs  3 ; sugar,  1 coffee- 
cupful. 

Boil  a quart  of  milk,  and  while  boiling  add 
three  tablespoonfuls  of  tapioca  in  a pint  of  cold 
water,  in  which  it  should  have  been  soaking 
for  several  hours  previously,  and  a pinch  of 
salt ; stir  until  it  becomes  boiling  hot,  and  then 
pour  it  gradually  upon  the  yolks  of  three  eggs 
that  have  been  beaten  up  with  a coffee-cupful 
of  sugar.  Put  it  in  a jar  or  pitcher,  set  in 
boiling  water,  and  boil,  stirring  all  the  time 
until  it  thickens.  Then  turn  into  a dish  and 
stir  in  gradually  the  whites  of  the  eggs  beaten 
to  a stiff  froth.  Flavor  to  taste,  and  serve  cold. 

Wine  Cream  Custard. — Take  .-Cream,  1 
pt ; powdered  sugar ; wine ; rose-water,  or  es- 
sence. 

Take  a pint  of  rich  cream,  sweeten  it  with 
powdered  sugar,  heat  it  over  the  fire,  and  stir 
in  wine  until  it  curdles ; then  flavor  with  rose- 
water or  other  essence,  and  turn  it  into  cups. 
This  may  be  eaten  either  hot  or  cold ; but  all 
custards  if  served  hot  should  be  very  hot. 

CUTS.— As  this  form  of  accident  is  so  con- 
stantly occurring  in  families,  a supply  of  linen 
and  long  bandages,  about  two  inches  wide, 
some  small  soft  sponges,  needles  and  thread, 
and  a roll  of  adhesive  plaster , should  always 
be  kept  where  they  can  be  got  at  immediately 
in  case  of  emergency.  In  all  cuts,  before  you 
begin  to  dress  them,  notice  the  way  they  bleed. 
If  the  blood  is  dark  and  flows  regularly  it  may 
generally  be  stanched  by  an  application  of 
cold  water  and  pressure;  but  if  it  is  of  a 
bright  scarlet  color,  and  spurts  out  in  jets,  an 
artery  is  cut  (see  Bleeding),  and,  however 
small  the  wound,  send  for  a doctor  at  once. 
If  the  cut  has  smooth  clear  edges,  wash  the 
part  well  with  cold  water,  dry  the  skin,  bring 
the  edges  of  the  wound  together,  and  keep 
them  there  with  strips  of  adhesive  plaster.  The 
plaster  must  be  applied  in  strips  of  length  and 
breadth  proportioned  to  the  size  of  the  wound. 
Having  first  softened  the  plaster  surface,  one 
end  of  the  strip  should  be  closely  applied  to 
the  sound  skin,  at  right  angles  to  the  cut,  and 
at  some  distance  from  its  edge ; then  the 
wound  being  closed  by  pressing  together  with 
the  fingers,  carry  the  strip  along  the  line  of 
contact  and  fix  it  to  the  sound  skin  at  a like 
distance  on  the  other  side  of  the  cut.  Each 
strip  so  applied  should  be  parallel  with  the 
preceding  ones,  and  when  a sufficient  number 
have  been  put  on,  place  raw  lint  over  the  cut, 
and  secure  the  whole  with  a bandage.  In  re- 
moving or  changing  the  plasters,  the  ends 
should  first  be  raised,  and  both  lifted  up  from 
the  outside  towards  the  centre,  so  that  no  drag- 
ging may  take  place  at  the  injured  part.  If  the 
cut  is  ragged  with  loss  of  skin,  it  will  not  in  all 
cases  be  possible  to  unite  its  edges,  and  the 
best  thing  then  to  do  is  to  apply  pieces  of 
folded  linen  dipped  in  cold  water. 

If  an  artery  be  cut,  which  can  be  told  as 


138 


CUTLERY 


CUTTING  AND  FITTING 


above  explained,  by  the  blood  being  scarlet- 
colored  and  coming  out  in  jets,  the  bleeding 
should  be  arrested  as  soon  as  possible.  Bleed- 
ing from  small  arteries  is  usually  best  con- 
trolled by  bringing  the  cut  surfaces  together. 
A vessel  of  larger  size  may  require  tying.  The 
doctor  should  therefore  be  summoned  and 
meantime  an  attempt  made  to  arrest  the  bleed- 
ing by  compressing  the  tissues  in  which  the 
artery  lies  imbedded.  In  this  case,  and  in  all 
cases  of  bad  wounds  that  bleed  much,  tie  a 
tight  bandage  near  and  above  the  wound , in- 
sert a stick  in  the  bandage,  and  twist  as  tight 
as  can  be  borne,  or  until  the  flow  of  blood 
perceptibly  lessens.  Cuts  on  the  head  cannot 
be  dressed  with  plaster  without  shaving  a large 
space,  and  in  small  injuries  this  is  unnecessary. 
Cut  the  hair  very  close  just  around  the  wound ; 
and,  after  washing  with  cold  water,  apply  a 
fold  or  two  of  wet  linen  and  leave  it  there.  If, 
however,  it  becomes  painful,  and  there  is  head- 
ache and  the  face  flushed,  call  in  the  doctor. 

CUTLERY.  (See  Knives,  F orks,  Razors, 
and  Scissors.) 

CUTLET.  (See  Veal.) 

CUTTING  AND  FITTING.— The  object 
of  this  article  is  to  explain  the  general 
principles  on  which  all  garments  are  cut  and 
fitted ; and  to  do  this  will  be  an  easier  matter 
than  might  at  first  be  believed.  Although 
fashion  incessantly  varies  the  forms  and  names 
of  garments,  these  changes  in  reality  are  and 
must  be  but  trivial.  The  general  outlines  will 
always  remain  the  same,  and  these  general  out- 
lines, as  we  shall  now  proceed  to  show,  are  ob- 


tained by  a series  of  measurements,  exact, 
simple,  and  applicable  to  any  garment  and  to 
any  figure. 

These  measurements  might,  indeed,  for  the 
perfect  figure,  be  reduced  to  a single  one, 
whence  the  others  might  be  derived  in  accord- 
ance with  the  following  rules  : The  size  of  the 
wrist  is  one  half  that  of  the  neck ; that  of  the 
neck  is  equal  to  the  length  of  the  front  of  the 
waist,  and  is  half  the  circumference  of  the 
waist ; the  size  of  the  waist  is  equal  to  the  in- 
side length  of  the  arm ; the  length  of  the  arm 
is  equal  to  the  breadth  across  the  breast ; two- 
thirds  of  the  size  of  the  waist.equals  the  length 
and  breadth  of  the  back ; one  third  of  the  size 
of  the  waist  equals  the  height  under  the  arm, 
etc.  But  in  reality  there  exist  very  few  figures 
exactly  conformed  to  these  rules,  and  patterns 
prepared  for  the  ideal  figure  seldom  prove 
satisfactory  till  they  have  undergone  very  con- 
siderable modifications.  In  accordance  with 
the  system  of  measurement  we  shall  now  ex- 


dress-maker. 

In  taking  these  measurements  a tape  measure 
is  required,  and  a large  card,  upon  which 
should  be  copied  the  specifications  given  be- 
low in  small  capitals,  afterwards  filling  out  the 
list  by  writing  down  each  measurement  as  it  is 
[ taken. 


\ CUTTING  AND  FITTING 


CYPRESS  VINE 


139 


I.  — Length  of  skirt,  back  (Fig.  i). 
Measure  from  the  waist  at  the  middle  b,  to  touch 
the  floor,  or  longer  as  desired,  allowing  an  extra 
half  inch  at  top  and  bottom. 

II.  — Length  of  skirt,  front  (Fig.  2). 
Measure  from  the  waist  in  front  b,  to  touch 
the  floor,  making  the  same  allowance  at  top 
and  bottom  as  for  the  back. 

III.  — Length  of  waist  in  front  (Fig. 
2).  Place  one  end  of  the  measure  at  the  base 
of  the  neck  a,  and  carry  it  down  to  the  waist  b. 

IV.  — Breadth  of  the  chest.  Place  one 
end  of  the  measure  at  the  right  side  of  the  chest, 
close  to  the  arm,  at  the  point  d,  and  carry  it, 
not  too  tightly  drawn,  across  to  the  left  arm  e. 

V.  — Length  under  the  arm.  Place  the 
measure  under  the  arm  at  the  point  e (Fig.  1), 
and  carry  it  down  to  the  waist  c. 

VI.  — Size  of  the  waist.  Bring  the  tape 
around  the  waist  evenly,  neither  tight  nor 
loose,  and  reduce  the  measure  by  a scant  half- 
inch, because  the  measurement  is  taken  outside 
the  clothes. 

VII.  — First  height  of  shoulder.  (For 
the  height  of  the  shoulders  two  measurements 
must  be  taken  to  allow  for  the  slope.)  Place 
one  end  of  the  measure  at  the  middle  of  the 
waist  b.  (Fig.  2),  carry  it  to  the  point  f at  the 
neck,  and  thence  down  the  back  to  the  mid- 
dle point  b (Fig.  1). 

VIII.  — Second  height  of  shoulder. 
Place  one  end  of  the  measure  at  the  point  c 
(Fig.  2),  carry  it  straight  up  over  the  shoulder 
at  the  point  g,  and  down  straight  to  the  point 
c on  the  waist  (Fig.  1). 

IX.  — Arm-size.  Slip  the  measure  under  the 
arm,  and  meet  it,  without  drawing  it  tightly,  on 
the  shoulder  at  the  point  h (Fig.  1). 

X. — Length  of  arm.  The  measure  is 
placed  under  the  arm  e (Fig.  2),  and  carried 
to  the  wrist  i.  (The  outside  measure  of  the 
arm  is  useless.) 

XI.  — Size  of  wrist.  This  measure  is 
taken  loosely. 

XII. — Length  of  waist,  back.  This 
measure  is  taken  from  the  nape  of  the  neck  a 
(Fig.  1),  to  the  waist  at  the  point  b. 

XIII.  — Breadth  of  back.  This  measure 
is  taken  across  the  shoulder  blades  from  e to  d 
(Fig.  1),  and  the  tape  should  be  drawn  tightly. 

XIV.  — Length  of  shoulder.  Place  one 
end  of  the  measure  at  the  base  of  the  neck  f 
(F'g-  1),  carry  it  down  the  slope  of  the 
shoulder  to_g,  and  an  inch  further  upon  the  arm. 

XV.  — Size  of  neck.  We  draw  the  measure 

very  loosely  around  the  neck  and  meet  it.  For 
the  neck  we  mark  two  measures  in  the  follow- 
ing manner:  We  fold  the  measure  in  three 

parts  and  mark  the  number  of  inches  in  a 
third,  and  also,  in  a sixth.  The  use  of  these 
two  minor  measurements  will  be  explained 
elsewhere.  {See  Waists.) 

We  have  now  given  the  entire  list  of  meas- 
urements necessary  for  making  the  pattern  of 
a high-necked  plain  waist,  which  is  the  basis 
from  which  all  other  garments  are  designed. 
To  this  list  we  may  add  one  more  measure- 


ment, used  in  capes  and  some  few  other  gar- 
ments: the  BREADTH  OF  SHOULDERS  (XVI.), 
that  is  to  say,  a measure  taken  around  the 
whole  figure  including  the  arms,  just  below  the 
shoulder-joint.* 

CYCLAMEN. — A pretty  little  flower,  much 
cultivated  in  England,  but  too  little  known  in 
this  country.  It  is  especially  adapted  for 
window  culture,  and  will  give  more  flowers 
with  less  trouble,  and  occupying  less  space, 
than  almost  any  other  member  of  the  floral 
kingdom.  It  can  be  grown  easily  from  seed, 
but  the  seedlings  do  not  bloom  until  the  third 
year,  and  it  is  best  to  buy  the  bulbs,  which  can 
be  had  of  any  florist  at  from  fifty  cents  to  one 
dollar  each  for  the  common  varieties.  Plant 
them  about  the  latter  part  of  November  in  a 
pot  filled  with  rich  loam,  with  a sprinkling  of 
white  sand ; a handful  of  charcoal  broken  into 
bits  and  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  soil  will 
increase  the  size  and  brilliancy  of  the  flowers. 
Good  drainage  is  indispensable.  Place  the 
crown  of  the  bulb  just  above  the  surface  of  the 
soil.  Till  the  leaves  are  well  grown,  keep  the 
plants  where  the  sun  will  not  fall  directly  upon 
them ; when  the  buds  begin  to  rise  on  the  foot 
stalks,  remove  to  a sunny  shelf,  and  they  will 
soon  show  bloom.  By  shading,  the  duration 
of  the  flowers  may  be  prolonged.  When  the 
bloom  is  past,  gradually  withhold  water;  the 
leaves  will  turn  yellow,  and  the  plants  should 
be  kept  dry,  in  a state  of  rest,  all  summer. 
Sometimes  it  is  difficult  to  prevent  the  bulbs 
from  shrivelling  up  during  the  summer;  to 
prevent  this,  the  bulbs  may  be  buried  in  the 
open  ground  until  the  middle  of  September, 
when  they  are  found  fresh,  and  in  good  con- 
dition for  a start.  There  is  one  risk,  however, 
in  this  latter  method : mice  are  very  fond  of 
the  bulbs  and  sometimes  commit  great  havoc 
among  them. 

The  best  of  the  common  varieties  are  : C. 
Persicum , white  tipped  with  purple ; C.  Persi 
cum  A Ibum , pure  white ; and  C.  Punctatum. 
resembling  Persicum.  These  flower  from  Janu- 
ary  to  March.  There  are  several  varieties 
which  bloom  from  October  to  January;  the 
best  are : C.  Europceum , pinkish  purple  ; C. 
Europoeum  Album , pure  white ; and  C.  Hede- 
rafolium,  rosy  purple,  and  a very  large  splen- 
did variety. 

CYPRESS  VINE.  — One  of  the  most 
delicate  and  beautiful  of  all  the  creepers.  It 
is  an  annual,  dying  down  each  year ; but  it 
produces  seed  plentifully,  and  these  may  be 
put  away  in  paper  during  the  winter.  In  plant- 
ing, select  some  spot  near  a fence,  arbor,  or 
trellis,  pulverize  the  soil,  and  rake  it  smooth, 
soak  the  seed  for  several  hours  in  warm  water, 
and  then  sow  them  over  the  prepared  ground, 

* In  the  preparation  of  the  series  of  articles  on  the  making 
of  garments  of  various  descriptions,  we  have  depended  princi- 
pally upon  a little  book  recently  published  in  Paris,  entitled 
“ Methode  de  Coupe''  It  is  written  by  a woman,  who  has  tested 
with  her  own  hands  the  accuracy  of  every  pattern  and  every 
direction  she  gives  ; and  it  has  been  so  well  received  in  France, 
that  land  universally  recognized  as  the  arbiter  of  good  taste  in 
dress,  that  it  has  even  been  introduced  as  a text  book  into, 
schools  for  girls  in  Paris,  Strasburg,  and  other  large  cities. 


140 


DACE 


DAIRY 


pressing  them  in  with  the  open  hand.  The 
green  shoots  will  make  their  appearance  in  a 
few  days,  and  from  the  time  they  are  a foot 
high  the  vines  should  be  carefully  trained,  and 
given  plenty  of  water.  No  vine  is  more  orna- 


mental than  the  Cypress  for  training  over  the 
windows  or  porticoes  of  houses  ; for  this  pur- 
pose the  seed  should  be  sown  thickly  and  nu- 
merous shoots  carried  up,  as  the  foliage  is 
rather  slight. 


D 


DACE. — A fish  of  the  carp  genus,  usually 
found  in  clear  running  streams,  and  of  a bright 
silvery  color.  It  is  considered  a light,  nutri- 
tious food,  but  is  full  of  bones,  and  rarely,  ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  the  silver  dace  which  is 
abundant  in  the  great  lakes,  weighs  as  much 
as  a pound.  Dace  are  not  often  offered  in  the 
markets,  being  used  by  the  fishermen  as  bait, 
but  they  are  the  usual  reward  of  amateur  ang- 
ling in  the  interior.  The  only  way  of  preparing 
them  for  the  table,  is  to  roll  them  in  bread- 
crumbs or  Indian  meal  and  fry  them  crisp  in  hot 
fat.  The  smaller  kinds  may  be  eaten  bones  and 
all,  and  have  a very  delicate  and  pleasant  flavor. 

DAFFODIL.  ( See  NARCISSUS.) 

DAHLIA. — Twenty  years  ago  the  growing 
of  Dahlias  amounted  almost  to  a mania  in  Eng- 
land and  the  United  States,  but  of  late  they 
have  been  nearly  superseded  by  the  gladiolus, 
hollyhock,  and  similar  plants.  They  are  rank, 
coarse,  ill  smelling  flowers,  too  stiff  for  grace 
and  unpleasant  to  handle,  whose  only  recom- 
mendation is  the  extreme  ease  with  which  they 
can  be  cultivated.  They  will  grow  in  almost 
any  kind  of  soil  excepting  wet,  heavy  clay ; and 
require  scarcely  more  attention  than  potatoes. 
For  the  finest  blooms  a clear,  open  location,  well 
exposed  to  the  sun  is  best.  Dahlias  may  be 
grown  from  seeds,  or  the  tubers  may  be  bought 
from  florists.  In  the  former  case,  sow  the  seed 
early  in  the  spring,  in  shallow  boxes  in  a win- 
dow or  hot  bed,  in  a rich,  light  soil,  with  a good 
sprinkling  of  sand ; as  soon  as  the  third  and 
fourth  leaves  are  developed,  plant  them  in  two 
inch  pots,  or  in  boxes  three  inches  apart,  and 
when  the  frost  is  entirely  out  of  the  ground 
they  may  be  transferred  to  the  garden.  If  the 
finest  blooms  are  desired,  the  side  branches 
should  all  be  pinched  off  and  only  three  or 
four  of  the  strongest  shoots  allowed  to  grow  ; 
and  on  these  the  buds  must  be  thinned  out, 
leaving  but  three  or  four  to  come  to  perfection. 
Soapsuds  make  an  excellent  fertilizer  for 
dahlias,  and  it  is  well  to  give  the  roots  a 
thorough  drenching  with  it  at  least  once  a week. 

The  dwarf  or  Pompone  Dahlias  are  much 
prettier  than  the  larger  kind,  and  are  very 
lovely  for  bouquets  and  vases.  They  grow 
about  eighteen  inches  to  two  feet  high,  and 
the  flowers  are  of  a globular  shape  with  each 
petal  perfectly  cupped  and  tinted.  In  cultiva- 
tion treat  them  exactly  like  other  dahlias. 

To  keep  dahlias  through  the  winter,  dig  up 
the  tubers  or  bulbs  just  before  the  ground 
freezes,  and  place  them  in  a dry  outhouse  for 
a day  or  two  to  dry  off.  Don’t  break  the 


tubers  apart,  but  cut  the  stem  down  to  within 
a few  inches  of  them  and  use  it  as  a handle  by 
which  to  lift  them ; all  the  flowering  stems  of 
another  season  are  situated  on  or  near  the 
point  of  junction  between  the  tubers  and  the 
stem.  When  the  tubers  are  so  dry  that  the 
soil  will  all  shake  off,  pack  them  in  barrels  or 
boxes  and  fill  up  with  perfectly  dry  sand  ; if 
the  sand  is  at  all  damp  they  will  rot.  After 
they  are  packed,  put  them  in  a dry  frost-proof 
cellar,  and  they  will  come  out  in  March  or 
April  fresh  and  vigorous.  In  planting  them, 
it  is  considered  best  to  set  out  the  cluster  of 
tubers,  and  after  the  shoots  have  sprouted  two 
or  three  inches,  to  separate  them,  leaving  two 
shoots  to  a tuber. 

When  planted  out  in  the  bed,  put  the  root 
at  least  three  inches  under  ground  and  water 
carefully,  shading  from  the  sun  for  two  or  three 
days.  A stake  must  be  inserted  close  by  the 
stem  when  the  tuber  is  planted,  and  as  the 
shoots  advance  tie  them  to  it  with  soft  yarn  ; if 
driven  in  after  the  plant  is  growing  it  may  in- 
jure the  roots. 

There  are  nearly  two  thousand  varieties  of 
the  dahlia.  Among  the  choicest  are  Alba 
Multiflora,  pure  white  ; AH  Baba,  deep  scar- 
let ; A ?nazo7is,  scarlet  margins  with  yellow 
centre;  America,  white  ground  striped  and 
splashed  with  rose  crimson;  Antiope,  buff, 
shaded  with  carmine  ; Colossus,  large  yellow ; 
Carnation,  buff,  striped  with  crimson  and 
lilac  ; Duchess  of  Cambridge,  pink,  edged  with 
crimson ; Gem,  scarlet,  tipped  with  white ; 
Glowing  Coal,  crimson-scarlet ; Hebe,  white, 
edged  with  yellow  and  tipped  with  red  ; Koh-i- 
noor,  canary  yellow ; Murillo,  salmon,  shaded 
with  lilac  and  carmine’;  Striata , lilac,  striped 
with  maroon ; Tiger , maroon-purple. 

Of  Pompone  Dahlias  the  choicest  are  : Alba 
Floribunda  nana,  pure  white  ; A rndt,  magenta, 
with  brown  stripes  and  spots ; Black  Diamond, 
maroon ; Exquisite,  golden  yellow,  tipped 
with  scarlet ; Little  Herman,  cherry  pink, 
tipped  with  white  ; Little  Kate,  dark  crimson  ; 
LittleWillie , deep  pink  ; Rachel,  salmon,  tipped 
with  crimson  ; and  Rose  of  God,  finest  vermilion. 

DAIRY. — The  dairy-house  for  the  sake  of 
convenience  may  be  near  the  cow-house ; 
but  care  should  be  taken  that  it  is  not  exposed 
to  the  effluvia  of  tlje  cow-house  or  stables,  as 
milk  is  a ready  absorbent,  and  any  bad  odor 
will  taint  both  the  milk  and  the  butter  made 
from  it.  The  dairy  should  also  be  so  situated 
that  it  will  be  sheltered  from  the  sun  and  wind 
as  much  as  possible,  an  equable  temperature 


DAIRY 


141 


being  very  important.  In  the  summer  time, 
should  the  temperature  rise  too  high,  it  may 
easily  be  reduced  by  suspending  a piece  of  ice 
at  a considerable  distance  from  the  floor,  or  by 
hanging  up  a wet  sheet  where  the  air  will  strike 
upon  it.  If,  during  the  winter,  the  cold  should 
become  too  great,  and  the  room  is  not  provided 
with  a stove,  a barrel  of  hot  water,  closely 
stopped,  or  a few  hot  bricks  placed  on  the 
floor,  will  prevent  any  bad  effects.  On  no  ac- 
count should  a charcoal  stove  be  used,  as  it  is 
certain  to  impart  a bad  taste  to  the  milk. 
The  setting  of  milk  in  deep  cans  in  cool  water 
obviates  much  of  the  difficulty  connected  with 
the  question  of  temperature,  both  in  summer 
and  in  winter.  Abundance  of  pure  water  is 
essential  to  a dairy ; if  a well  or  spring  can  be 
had  adjoining,  it  is  desirable ; if  not,  there 
should  be  a cistern  conveniently  placed  and 
kept  well  supplied ; likewise  proper  drains 
should  be  made  for  carrying  off  the  water. 
Dampness  does  no  harm,  however,  if  the  dairy 
is  kept  sweet  and  clean. 

The  utensils  of  a Dairy  comprise  pails, 
sieves,  pans,  creaming  dishes,  churns,  cheese- 
vats,  ladders,  and  presses,  with  a thermometer 
which  should  be  suspended  in  a prominent 
place.  These  utensils  are  often  made  of  wood, 
which  is  apt  to  acquire  a musty  smell ; to  pre- 
vent this  the  vessels  should  be  scoured  and 
scalded  every  time  they  are  used,  as  the  small- 
est drop  of  milk  in  them,  or  the  least  taint  of 
acidity  or  mustiness,  may  spoil  the  next  milk- 
ing. Earthen-ware  vessels,  when  properly 
glazed,  or  glass  utensils,  are  least  troublesome ; 
but  the  lead,  brass,  copper,  and  tin  vessels,  al- 
though so  generally  used,  are  objectionable  be- 
cause the  acid  contained  in  the  milk  that  has 
long  been  exposed  to  the  air  combines  with 
these  metals  and  gives  the  milk  a disagreeable 
flavor.  Cast-iron  vessels  are  equally  objec- 
tionable, and  for  a similar  reason.  The  com- 
mon brown  earthen-ware  pan,  glazed  on  the 
inside,  has  been  found  to  preserve  the  milk 
better  and  throw  up  more  cream  than  any 
other ; iron  pans,  enamelled  in  the  interior,  also 
throw  up  cream  very  well ; and  slate  vessels 
would  be  unequalled  but  for  their  liability  to 
come  uncemented  at  the  joints.  Pans  made  of 
zinc  are  sometimes  used,  but  are  open  to  the 
same  objection  as  other  metals.  Earthen-ware 
vessels  are  somewhat  easier  to  keep  clean. 
Or  if  metal  vessels  are  kept  clean  they  will  do 
also. 

Other  utensils  which  it  is  convenient  to  have 
in  a dairy  are  the  creamometer  and  lactometer. 
The  lactometer  is  an  instrument  by  which  the 
specific  gravity  of  milk  or  of  any  other  fluid,  is 
ascertained — that  is  to  say,  the  quantity  of 
water  in  it ; since  the  instrument  really  shows 
the  difference  between  the  milk  and  pure  dis- 
tilled water.  All  milk  is  composed  of  water  in 
which  are  suspended  casein  (or  cheesy  matter), 
butter,  milk  sugar,  and  various  salts ; the  pro- 
portion of  water  in  ioo  parts  being  87,  and  as 
the  specific  gravity  is  increased  in  a ratio  to  the 
quantity  of  these  solid  materials,  so  the  number 


indicating  it  marks  their  amount.  The  instru- 
ment (see  Fig.  1.)  consists  of  a 
glass  tube,  with  a bulb  at  its 
lower  extremity,  in  which  is  a 
little  mercury  so  adjusted  that 
it  will  make  the  mark  o on  the 
scale  float  exactly  level  with  the 
surface  of  distilled  water.  When 
the  jar  accompanying  it  is  nearly 
filled  with  the  milk  to  be  ex- 
amined (taking  care  to  shake  up 
the  cream  just  before  doing  this), 
the  instrument  rises  in  propor- 
tion to  the  density,  and  by 
casting  the  eye  along  the  surface 
of  the  milk,  the  number  on  the 
sr  L scale  on  a level  with  it  will  indi- 
^ cate  the  exact  specific  gravity. 

Fig.  1.  The  ordinary  specific  gravity  of 
new  cow’s  milk,  at  50  Fahren- 
actometer.  js  said  to  be  1.031 ; but  this 

is  no  test  of  the  cream,  which  is  very  variable, 
and  in  many  cases  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
skim-milk  is  greater  after  skimming  than  be- 
fore. As  a test  for  curd,  it  is  of  great  value;  but 
for  measuring  the  cream  the  best  instrument 
for  ordinary  use  is  the  lactometer  of  Sir  Joseph 
Banks,  now  called  creamometer.  Three  or 


Fig.  2.  Lactometer. 

four  glass  tubes,  about  a foot  high,  divided  into 
100  parts,  and  graduated  near  their  upper  ends, 
are  loosely  supported  in  a wooden  stand,  and 
filled  with  the  milk  warm  from  the  cow,  one 
being  devoted  to  each  sample  to  be  examined. 
The  scale  is  generally  extended  down  one-fifth 
of  the  tube,  and  this  will  almost  always  suffice; 
but  in  some  cases  the  amount  of  cream  is  much 
greater  than  this.  After  standing  twelve  hours, 
the  cream  has  all  risen  to  the  surface,  and  the 
figure  opposite  its  lower  edge  marks  the  per- 
centage of  cream  to  milk.  Thus,  supposing  it 
stands  at  the  figure  10,  then  there  is  10  per 
cent,  of  cream ; or,  if  at  5,  then  only  5 per 
cent.,  and  so  on.  The  average  of  cream 
appears  to  be  about  8 or  9 per  cent.,  but  in 
different  breeds  and  pastures  it  will  vary  greatly 
from  that  amount.  Provided  with  these  two 
instruments,  one  of  which  measures  the  amount 
of  curd,  and  the  other  that  of  cream,  the  cow- 


142 


DAMASK 


DAPHNE 


keeper  will  be  able  to  ascertain  whether  the 
cows  which  he  has  arc  worth  keeping,  or 
whether  he  shall  make  an  attempt  to  better 
himself  fiy  getting  rid  of  them,  and  purchasing 
others. 

DAMASK. — A twilled  fabric  invented  and 
originally  manufactured  at  Damascus,  whence 
its  name.  It  was  made  of  silk,  and  was  highly 
ornamented  with  figures  of  animals,  birds, 
fruits,  and  flowers,  woven  into  the  cloth.  It  is 
still  distinguished  by  this  method  of  ornament- 
ation, though  the  material  of  the  modern  dam- 
ask is  generally  linen,  and  sometimes  woollen, 
or  even  cotton,  or  a mixture  of  linen  and  cot- 
ton. Linen  damask  is  very  generally  used  for 
table-cloths  and  napkins,  and  some  of  them  are 
very  rich.  As  regards  fineness  of  fabric  and 
beauty  of  designs,  the  French  damask  is  the 
best,  but  the  Scotch  is  also  excellent.  Cotton 
damasks  are  made  in  imitation  of  the  linen ; 
though  they  answer  very  well  for  many  ordinary 
purposes,  and  are  cheap ; they  are  not  so  durable 
as  linen,  and  they  require  frequent  bleaching 
to  preserve  their  whiteness. 

Diaper  is  a variety  of  Damask,  woven  in  the 
same  way,  but  of  smaller  and  simpler  patterns ; 
it  is  made  for  inferior  table-cloths,  and  for  nap- 
kins, towels,  and  various  other  domestic  pur- 
poses. Those  called  union  are  composed  of 
linen  and  cotton;  and  there  are  also  cotton 
diapers. 

DAMSON. — Damsons  are  small  black  plums, 
which  grow  like  others  of  their  species  on 
small  trees,  and  are  found  in  the  markets  gen- 
erally from  about  the  middle  of  July  to  Decem- 
ber. They  are  soft  to  the  touch  when  ripe. 

Cheese  (Damson). — Boil  the  damsons  in  a 
stone  jar  placed  in  a sauce-pan  of  water.  Pour 
off  some  of  the  juice,  and  to  every  two  pounds 
of  the  fruit,  after  skimming  and  stoning  it, 
weigh  out  half  a pound  of  sugar.  Set  the 
fruit  over  the  fire  in  a sauce-pan  and  boil  quietly 
until  it  begins  to  look  dry ; stir  in  the  sugar 
and  simmer  slowly  for  two  hours ; then  boil  it 
quickly  half  an  hour  or  until  it  candies  on  the 
sides  of  the  pan.  Pour  it  into  buttered  pans 
or  dishes,  about  an  inch  deep,  so  that  it  may 
cut  firm,  and  set  away  to  cool.  By  some  per- 
sons, the  plum-stones  are  cracked  and  the  ker- 
nels boiled  in  the  cheese. 

Preserves.  (Damson.)  {See  Preserves.) 

Wine.  (Damson.)— I.  Take  /-Damsons,  4 
galls ; water,  5 galls ; sugar,  1 5 lbs ; crude 
tartar,  3 oz. 

Take  four  gallons  of  r.pe  damsons,  remove 
and  break  the  stones  of  about  one  gallon  for 
the  flavor  of  the  kernels ; press  the  fruit  thor- 
oughly, pour  upon  it  five  and  a half  gallons  of 
water,  and  strain  the  liquor ; let  it  stand  twenty- 
four  hours,  and  then  add  fifteen  pounds  of  su- 
gar, with  three  ounces  of  crude  tartar,  and  fer- 
ment ; after  which  it  will  be  ready  for  bottling. 

II.  Take  /-Damsons,  8 lbs  ; boiling  water, 
1 gall ; sugar,  3 lbs. 

Pour  upon  every  eight  pounds  of  damsons 
one  gallon  of  boiling  water,  and  let  them  stand 
three  days,  when  strain  off  the  liquor,  and  to 


every  gallon  add  three  pounds  of  raw  sugar ; 
put  it  into  a cask,  and  ferment  with  the  bung 
loose  ; then  bung  it  closely,  and  in  about  four 
months  it  will  be  fine  for  bottling. 

DANDELION  BEER.  ( See  Beer.) 

DANDRUFF. — There  is  no  permanent  rem- 
edy for  dandruff  except  frequent  and  regular 
brushing  of  the  hair  and  keeping  the  head  as 
clean  as  possible.  The  use  of  pomades  or 
grease  of  any  kind  must  be  abandoned  or  kept 
within  the  most  rigid  limits ; and  about  once  a 
week  the  head  should  be  washed  with  clean 
cold  water  with  a few  drops  of  ammonia  in  it, 
rubbing  the  scalp  vigorously  with  the  fingers, 
and  brushing  the  hair  out  dry.  The  hair- 
washes  and  other  preparations  sold  for  this 
purpose  are  generally  worthless,  and  even 
when  they  afford  temporary  relief,  they  always 
aggravate  the  evil  in  the  end.  The  cause  of 
dandruff  is  the  failure  of  the  skin  on  the  scalp 
to  perform  its  functions  properly,  usually  on 
account  of  the  pores  being  stopped  up  with 
grease  ; and  the  only  remedy  is  to  bring  the 
skin  back  to  its  normal  condition,  which  can  be 
done  only  by  cleanliness,  local  friction,  and  at- 
tention to  the  general  health. 

DAPHNE. — There  are  numerous  varieties 
of  this  plant,  of  which  the  best  known  is  the 
Daph)ie  odorata,  one  of  the  few  old-fashioned 
plants  which  the  modern  rage  for  novelties  has 
not  succeeded  in  driving  out.  It  is  an  ever- 
green shrub,  attaining  the  height  of  about  four 
feet,  and  remarkable  for  its  long,  dark,  glossy 
green  leaves,  and  its  branches  of  fragrant 
white  flowers ; as  an  indoor  or  green-house 
plant  it  is  unsurpassed,  flourishing  and  bloom- 
ing in  situations  where  most  other  plants  would 
dwindle  and  die.  The  cultivation  of  the  green- 
house varieties  is  almost  identical  with  that  of 
the  camellia  {sec  Camellia);  the  same  tem- 
perature will  do  for  both.  The  plants  should 
have  plenty  of  room,  and  the  pots  must  be  well 
drained.  Potting  should  generally  be  done  in 
the  fall,  about  the  time  the  plants  are  housed, 
when  as  much  of  the  old  soil  should  be  removed 
as  is  possible  without  disturbing  the  roots. 

The  chief  varieties  are : Daphne  odorata , 
which  may  be  obtained  of  any  florist  at  trifling 
expense,  and  is  propagated  from  cuttings  with 
great  ease.  It  is  the  most  desirable  variety, 
from  its  season  of  blooming,  which  is  from  De- 
cember till  March,  according  to  the  degree  of 
heat  given.  There  is  also  a variety  with  red 
flowers,  known  as  D.  Odorata  rubra. 

Daphne  hybrida  is  a pretty  evergreen  shrub, 
with  purple  flowers,  which  it  produces  very 
freely,  and  which  are  extremely  fragrant.  It 
blooms  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  but  espe- 
cially from  January  to  April ; and  should  be 
taken  indoors  in  winter. 

D.  Mezcreum  is  a hardy  plant,  has  white  or 
purple  flowers  closely  attached  to  the  shoots, 
and  is  the  earliest  blooming  shrub  of  our  gar- 
dens, the  blossoms  appearing  in  the  beginning 
of  April  before  the  leaves  expand.  This 
species,  notwithstanding  its  beauty,  has  a dan- 
gerous reputation,  as  the  berries  which  it  bears 


DATE 

are  highly  poisonous.  Its  juice  is  acid,  and 
produces  inflammation  and  even  blisters  upon 
the  skin. 

DATE. — The  fruit  of  the  date-palm,  which 
grows  on  the  margin  of  the  great  sandy  deserts 
in  the  north  of  Africa,  and  forms  the  principal 
food  of  the  inhabitants.  They  are  brought 
here  in  a preserved  state,  pressed  into  a sort 
of  matting  called  trails , and  when  sold  by  re- 
tail, are  cut  or  broken  into  lumps  and  sold  by 
the  pound.  The  fresh  fruit  arrives  here  in 
January,  February  and  March.  In  buying, 
choose  those  which  are  large,  softest,  not  much 
wrinkled,  and  of  a reddish-yellow  color  on  the 
outside.  Dates  have  a laxative  effect  when 
eaten  in  any  quantity,  and  are  thought  to  give 
tone  to  a weak  stomach.  Soaked  in  water  and 
sweetened,  they  make  a pleasant  and  refresh- 
ing drink. 

DECANTING. — To  insure  the  clearness  of 
wine  for  serving  is  an  important  point.  At 
rest  on  the  shelf  or  in  the  Sin,  it  will  be  clear 
enough ; but  removing  it,  drawing  the  cork, 
and  decanting  it,  very  often  render  it  turbid. 
Be  careful  not  to  shake  or  disturb  the  crust 
when  moving  the  bottles  about  or  drawing  the 
cork,  particularly  in  the  case  of  port  wine. 
Never  decant  wine  without  a wine-strainer, 
with  a bit  of  fine  cambric  in  it  to  prevent  the 
crust  and  fragments  of  cork  from  going  into 
the  decanter.  In  decanting  port  wine  or  any 
other  red  wine,  do  not  drain  it  too  near  the 
bottom ; there  are  generally  half  a wineglass 
of  thick  dregs  in  each  bottle,  which  ought  not 
to  be  drawn  out.  In  white  wines  there  is  not 
much  settling;  pour  it  out,  however,  very 
slowly,  and  raise  the  bottle  up  gradually,  watch- 
ing for  any  indication  of  dregs  or  foreign  mat- 
ter. No  wine  should  be  decanted  in  a hurry. 
DECAY.  (See  Decomposition.) 
DECOCTION. — A decoction  is  the  extrac- 
tion by  water  of  certain  principles  in  vegetable 
substances  by  subjecting  them  to  boiling  for 
some  time  ; the  well-known  beverage,  barley- 
water,  for  instance,  is  a decoction  of  barley. 
Many  parts  of  vegetables  are  not  soluble  in 
water,  as  the  resinous  parts  ; but  others,  such 
as  mucilage,  are  entirely  so.  Decoctions,  from 
the  nature  of  their  constituents,  very  soon  fer- 
ment and  spoil ; for  this  reason  they  should  be 
prepared  in  small  quantities  only  as  they  are 
wanted,  and  never  used,  especially  in  summer, 
over  forty-eight  hours  after  they  are  made. 

DECOMPOSITION. — In  hot  weather  fresh 
meat  is  very  likely  to  become  tainted  if  kept 
any  length  of  time,  no  matter  how  many  pre- 
cautions are  taken.  The  decomposition  may 
be  arrested  and  the  taint  (if  slight)  removed  by 
sprinkling  a little  soda  over  the  meat  before 
cooking.  The  taint  may  also  be  removed  by 
covering  the  meat  with  common  charcoal  for  a 
few  hours  ; or  by  putting  a few  pieces  of  char- 
coal into  the  water  in  which  the  meat  is  boiled. 

DECORATION,  with  special  reference  to 
walls,  floors  and  furniture. 

JgS^This  article  attempts  to  treat  only  the 
aesthetic  side  of  furnishing.  For  the  practical 


DECORATION  143 

side,  see  Carpets,  Furniture,  House, 
Paper  Hangings,  and  Pictures). 

The  man  of  average  cultivation  or  much 
more  than  average  cultivation  cannot  be  ex- 
pected to  have  an  understanding  of  the  rather 
complicated  problems  of  artistic  arrangement 
of  things  in  his  house,  unless  he  has  given 
special  attention,  and  even  some  hard  study  to 
the  subject.  The  knowledge  of  these  things 
he  must  acquire  by  gradual  accumulation.  He 
cannot  expect  to  succeed  entirely  at  once.  If 
he  will  keep  himself  open  to  the  influence  of 
that  which  he  distinctly  recognizes  to  be  good, 
always  preferring  to  err  on  the  side  of  simplicity, 
he  may  be  sure  of  the  eventual  attainment  of  a 
measurable  success. 

It  is  hard  to  point  out  even  the  most  general 
principles  of  this  kind  ; for  the  danger  is  that 
we  shall  be  too  dogmatic,  and  shut  the  door 
on  the  ten  thousand  little  things  that  shall  some 
day  be  waiting-  to  come  in.  A work  of  art 
of  any  kind  cannot  be  entirely  the  product  of 
calculation  ; the  result  of  certain  determinations 
of  the  mind.  The  painter  has  a clear  idea  of 
the  picture  he  is  to  paint ; but  in  putting  it  on 
the  canvas,  he  sees  a thousand  beauties  he  had 
not  thought  of  before.  He  himself  is  long  in 
arriving  at  such  rules  as  he  ever  learns.  After 
going  on  for  years  finding  out  the  uselessness 
of  much  that  he  had  before  esteemed,  he  begins 
to  see  his  way  and  to  do  good  work.  Before 
“ seeing  the  way,”  one  not  only  cannot  do  good 
work,  but  cannot  understand  over  well  if  an- 
other tries  to  tell  him  how;  moreover  the  best 
part  of  what  the  artist  learns  must  always  be 
unspoken,  and  very  often  not  even  arranged  in 
definite  thoughts  in  his  own  mind. 

Within  a very  few  years  increasing  attention 
has  been  given  to  these  things.  England  has 
been  the  stronghold  of  certain  reformers. 
Books  have  been  written  pointing  out  the 
necessity  of  principles  in  art,  and  calling  atten- 
tion to  many  important  truths  long  neglected; 
and  designs  have  been  made,  a few  good,  and 
many  in  the  various  stages  of  badness.  The 
authors  of  these  books  and  designs,  in  their 
intentness  on  general  truths,  have  left  un- 
noticed those  equally  important  truths,  harder 
to  seize  and  name,  which  have  to  do  with  the 
graces  of  art.  Of  course,  this  in  a great 
measure  was  unavoidable. 

Angularity. — One  would  think,  to  see  some 
of  the  books,  that  anything  but  angularity  of 
form  and  figure,  hard  decisiveness  of  line,  and 
crude  “flat”  color, — too  much  beauty,  in  fact, 
— must  be  incompatible  with  truth  and  honesty 
in  artistic  furniture  or  decoration.  The  angular 
is  good,  but  so  are  many  other  things.  Man 
is  not  all  elbows.  Curves  badly  designed, 
curves  out  of  place,  or  an  excessive  propor- 
tion of  curves  are  not  good.  Indulging  in  a 
flourishing  penmanship  of  art,  because  we  wish 
to  do  something  and  do  not  wish  to  take  the 
trouble  to  think,  is  worse  than  the  severest 
angularity.  A box  is  a very  useful  thing,  and 
properly  an  angular  thing.  But  why,  in  the 
modern  English  fashion,  be  so  eager  to  call 


144 


DECORATION 


attention  to  its  straight  lines  and  corners,  as 
if  they  were  the  only  virtues  it  possessed  ? 
Every  one  has  opportunities  to  see  how  the 
Japanese  deal  with  it.  They  give  the  edge  a 
delicate  quarter  bead ; or  simply  soften  it  off 
with  a scarcely  noticeable  rounding.  They 
sometimes  give  a gentle  bending  inward  to 
the  corners  ; and  their  decoration  of  its  surface 
is  entirely  independent  of  its  structural  form. 
They  do  not  allow  it  to  deny  its  construction, 
but  they  make  it  so  modest  that  it  shall  not 
loudly  proclaim  its  accidents  of  being. 

By  much  the  larger  proportion  of  things 
that  we  put  in  our  houses  are  primarily  con- 
structed for  other  purposes  than  to  merely 
please  the  eye.  Flowing  lines  are  beautiful; 
and  the  curve  has  infinite  possibilities,  while 
the  straight  line  is  the  most  limited  of  things  : 
but  the  limited  is  a large  part  of  all  things ; 
and  infinite  possibilities  have  ruined  more 
things  than  shapes  and  forms. 

Honest  construction. — -The  first  point,  as 
has  been  insisted  on  so  much  of  late,  is  honesty 
of  structure  to  begin  with.  If  a chair,  being 
made  of  pieces  of  wood  joined  together,  gives 
way  at  some  of  the  joints  after  a few  months, 
let  one  see  that  it  was  not  perfectly  framed, 
and  reject  the  mode.  If  the  chair  of  his  great 
grandfather’s  day  (probably  despised  for  its 
simple  unpretending  character),  after  years  of 
use  is  still  strong,  let  him  believe  in  the  strength 
which  endures.  Let  him  also  see  that  the  most 
beautifully  designed  chair  is  the  one  with 
nothing  but  its  most  necessary  parts,  beauti- 
fully treated.  (And  his  great-grandfather’s 
chair  is  probably  the  most  beautiful  one  he 
has  in  his  house.)  Let  him  see  that  parts 
shaped  in  violation  of  the  nature  of  the  wood 
they  are  made  from,  are  weaknesses,  and  that 
ornaments  fastened  on  are  only  incumbrances. 
If  to  decorate  is  to  adorn,  it  is  as  well  to  re- 
member that  only  to  the  worthy  thing  belongs 
the  worthy  adornment.  When  we  decorate  a 
sham,  our  decoration  becomes  but  a sham 
added  to  a sham.  The  greatest  beauty  of 
design  in  anything  for  use,  is  always  the  result 
of  the  beautiful  treatment  of  the  proper  struc- 
tural parts,  and  not  the  result  of  added  or 
complicated  parts.  For  a good  thing  to  per- 
fectly and  fully  show  its  nature  and  char- 
acter, is  for  it  to  show  beauty.  And,  for 
it  to  contradict  or  conceal  its  character,  and 
pretend  to  the  character  of  another  thing,  is  for 
it  to  be  unbeautiful.  It  may  have  certain  mis- 
placed external  aids,  beautiful  in  themselves, 
sometimes  so  beautiful  as  to  lead  us  to  over- 
look many  faults.  But  models,  where  beautiful 
parts  conceal  many  faults,  are  not  to  be  deliber- 
ately chosen.  Indifference  to  having  things 
good  and  honest  in  themselves  inevitably 
brings  bad  art.  Always,  in  the  long  run,  ac- 
cording to  the  worth  of  the  thing  treated,  will 
be  the  skill  devoted  to  its  treatment. 

Bad  construction  illustrated. — In  the 
room  where  this  is  written  there  is  an  oak 
chair,  probably  intended  by  the  cabinet-maker 
for  a dining-room  chair.  It  is  better  than  a 


large  proportion  of  tnose  to  be  found  in  the 
shops.  The  front,  back,  and  side-rails  forming 
the  edges  of  the  seat,  are  very  fairly  framed 
into  the  four  uprights ; two  forming  the  front 
legs,  and  two  forming  the  back  legs  and  side 
pieces  of  the  back.  All  this  is  good.  But,  as 
the  back  inclines,  and  the  back  legs  turn  out- 
ward, to  preserve  its  balance,  the  two  long  up- 
rights cannot  be  straight  pieces ; they  are, 
therefore,  sawed  to  a curve,  instead  of  being 
bent,  or  selected  pieces  of  a natural  curve. 
In  consequence  of  this  the  grain  of  the  wood 
crosses  the  back  legs  diagonally,  and  one  of 
them  has  split  near  the  foot,  and  been  clum- 
sily mended.  The  legs  taper  towards  the 
feet,  where  they  are  bored  to  receive  castors, 
instead  of  being  fitted  into  a sheath  or  cup  of 
the  castor  in  the  old-fashioned  way.  The  con- 
sequence is  that  two  of  the  legs  are  split  by 
the  leverage  of  the  shaft  of  the  castor.  To 
prevent  the  chair  from  being  “ common,”  and 
at  the  same  time  to  avoid  the  expenditure  of 
time-consuming  labor,  the  top  and  bottom  rails 
of  the  back  are  sawed  out  in  rather  extraordi- 
nary shapes,  necessarily  thick  and  clumsy,  to 
prevent  the  pattern  from  weakening  them  too 
much.  Then,  in  an  attempt  to  lessen  some  of 
the  clumsiness  of  the  top  of  the  back,  a small 
moulding  has  been  worked  and  glued  on  ; and, 
as  it  was  impossible  that  the  direction  of  grain 
of  wood  in  the  moulding  and  in  the  back  of 
the  chair  should  everywhere  agree,  one  part  of 
the  moulding  has  split  off.  The  uprights  of 
the  back  are  finished  with  ornamental  knobs ; 
but  instead  of  the  knobs  being  simply  the  ends 
of  the  pieces  of  wood  finished — because  a 
finished  end  is  more  agreeable  to  look  at  than 
a squarely-cut  off  butt — they  are  turned  and 
fastened  on  with  dowel  pins  and  glue.  One 
of  them  can  be  taken  out  and  put  in  like  the 
stopper  of  a vinegar  cruet  (perhaps  with  a not 
unsimilar  result).  The  whole  is  covered  with 
a thick  varnish,  which  injures  the  color  of  the 
wood,  looks  extremely  disagreeable  wherever 
there  is  an  edge,  and  renders  every  bruise  and 
scratch  doubly  conspicuous. 

Elaboration  not  necessarily  ornamental. 
— We  are  too  much  in  the  habit  of  supposing 
that  any  way  which  is  something  more  than 
the  most  simple  way  of  treating  a thing,  must 
be  an  ornamental  way.  The  knobs  and  mould- 
ings and  sawed  figures  in  the  chair  just  spoken 
of,  could  only  seem  ornamental  to  the  most 
uncultivated  taste  and  perception.  The  sawed 
work  is  not  bad  because  it  is  sawed,  but  be- 
cause, being  sawed,  it  cannot  be  both  delicate 
and  strong,  firm  enough  for  its  place.  The  help- 
ing the  shape  by  a sort  of  cornice  moulding 
stuck  on,  even  if  it  were  finely  designed  and 
worked,  would  not  be  good.  Nothing,  how- 
ever rich  or  rare,  can  be  ornament  unless 
it  adorns  ; and  it  cannot  adorn  unless  it  has 
some  kind  of  pertinence  to  that  to  which  it 
lends  itself. 

There  is  such  a thing  as  fatiguing  elaboration. 
So  we  sometimes  find  that  simple,  good  tex- 
tures— such  as  are  produced  by  threads  in 


decoration 


145 


stuffs,  or  grain  in  woods — are  better  in  certain 
places  than  ornamental  detail ; that  they  give 
neither  vacancy  nor  sufficient  fulness  to  de- 
prive better  things  of  their  importance. 

The  kind  of  elaboration  which  is  necessary 
for  full  expression,  and  the  kind  of  finish  which 
is  not  finish  for  the  sake  of  finish,  are  good. 
But  that  elaboration  and  finish  which  is  inde- 
pendent of  thought  and  labor,  such  as  the 
smoothness,  evenness,  and  accurate  spacings 
and  markings  given  by  the  help  of  machinery, 
must  always  be  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  art. 
A smooth  texture  and  a feeble  expression,  a 
mathematical  precision  of  form  and  no  life,  a 
perfect  evenness  ot  color  and  no  subtleties  of 
contrast,  often  go  together.  Over-accuracy  in 
small  things,  and  too  perfect  a finish  to  corres- 
pond to  the  worth  of  a thing,  gives  us  the  idea 
of  time  wasted.  The  best  artist  never  grudges 
labor  so  long  as  he  can  add  import ; but  when 
he  can  only  add  polish,  he  stops.  When  he 
has  a fine  curve  to  draw,  he  does  it  with  all  the 
accuracy  required  for  its  subtle  expression ; 
but  when  he  has  to  draw  a circle  or  straight 
line,  which  do  not  have  so  particular  an  expres- 
sion, he  does  not  always  do  it  with  so  great 
accuracy. 

Consult  the  relations  of  things. — In  furnish- 
ing and  decorating  an  ordinary  dwelling- 
house,  we  must  consider  the  occupants’  style 
of  living,  and  the  sizes,  aspects,  and  uses  of  the 
room  ; richness  or  simplicity,  and  scale  and 
number  of  parts,  warmth  or  coolness  of  color- 
ing, and  fitness  of  ideas  of  association  being 
therein  observed.  A leading  idea  should  con- 
trol the  management  of  each  room,  and  of  all 
the  rooms,  as  a whole ; the  different  rooms 
contrasting,  but  the  transition  from  one  to 
another  being  rather  a “ mild  surprise  ” to  the 
senses  than  to  the  mind.  The  absurd  idea  of 
one  style  for  the  drawing-room,  another  style 
for  the  dining-room,  another  for  the  library, 
savors  rather  of  the  curiosity  of  the  museum 
than  of  the  quietness  of  home;  and  shows  a 
disposition  to  regard  art  as  a pretty  plaything, 
rather  than  the  outward  expression  of  a digni- 
fied life. 

The  indiscriminate  mingling  of  variously 
constructed  and  fashioned  pieces  of  furniture, 
of  the  ordinary  patterns  of  Brussels  carpets 
and  Eastern  rugs,  and  of  incongruous  orna- 
mental articles  and  pictures,  is  fatal  to  style 
and  dignity. 

Fashion  no  guide. — Fashion  and  caprice  in 
these  things  cannot  be  a help  but  only  a hin- 
drance. For  beauty  is  of  a nature  unchang- 
ing. Of  course  as  our  perception  of  beauty 
may  be  growing,  the  love  of  newness  is  not 
inconsistent.  Beauty  is  infinite  and  each  new 
phase  that  we  discover  may  well  give  us 
pleasure.  But  the  love  of  novelty  for  its  own 
sake,  change  because  it  is  change,  is  -fatal  to 
the  health  of  art. 

There  is  no  help  to  be  found  in  some  of 
the  new  affectations  in  furniture  and  decora- 
tion— the  decoration  mannered,  prosy,  and 
harsh  in  its  contrasts,  and  the  furniture,  made 
io 


often  in  protest  of  some  former  sham  or  ab- 
surdity, with  a little  common  sense,  and  a vast 
deal  of  bad  taste,  having  for  strong  points 
clumsiness  of  structure,  and  ornamentation  of 
restless  chamfering  and  coarse  mouldings, 
with  badly  painted  tiles  let  into  the  wood- 
work, drawing  the  eye  by  a harsh  spot  of  color 
and  disagreeable  contrast  of  texture  to  a de- 
sign composed  without  thought  or  feeling. 
There  must  be  contrast,  but  it  must  be  har- 
monized contrast.  Good  contrast  is  that  which 
makes  us  recognize  the  qualities  of  things  by 
showing  us  how  they  differ  with  their  neigh- 
bors. Harsh  contrasts,  discords,  may  become 
parts  of  the  finest  harmonies  by  having  that 
which  shall  lead  to  them  and  from  them.  If  the 
discord  is  such  that  it  shall  catch  the  eye  sud- 
denly, and  require  it  to  make  a jump  to  get 
away  again,  it  is,  instead  of  a simple  discord, 
a false  note  ; a fragment  of  another  key.  The 
discord  should  be  the  bringing  together  of 
two  things  so  harshly  opposed,  that  by  them- 
selves no  kind  of  similarity  can  be  discovered; 
but  which  by  their  accompaniments  lead  to  the 
perception  of  a common  ground  of  meeting. 

Flat  decoration. — One  of  the  doctrines  of 
the  advocates  of  this  decoration  and  furniture 
is  “ only  flat  decoration  for  walls.”  They  say, 
“common  sense  points  to  the  fact,  that  as  a 
wall  represents  the  flat  surface  of  a solid  ma- 
terial which  forms  part  of  the  construction  of 
a house,  it  should  be  decorated  after  a manner 
which  will  neither  belie  its  flatness  or  solidity. 
For  this  reason  all  shaded  ornaments  and  pat- 
terns, which  by  their  arrangement  of  color 
give  an  appearance  of  relief,  should  be  strictly 
avoided.  Where  ornamental  forms  are  intro- 
duced they  should  be  treated  in  a conventional 
manner, — i.  e.,  drawn  in  pure  outline,  and  fill- 
ed in  with  flat  color  ; never  rounded.”  But, 
surely,  the  great  painters  did  not  teach  us  so  to 
believe.  A picture  painted  on  a movable  ma- 
hogany panel,  or  on  an  immovable  stone  wall, 
is  painted  on  the  flat  surface  of  a solid  material, 
and  in  no  way  belies  it.  The  truth  is,  that  imi- 
tative painting  on  the  flat  surface  of  a thing, 
of  structural  features  sometimes  belonging  to 
that  thing  (for  instance,  mouldings,  pilasters, 
panels  and  niches  on  a flat  wall),  does  belie  its 
flatness.  But  the  making  use  of  that  flat  sur- 
face for  the  display  of  painted  ornament  or 
story,  in  no  way  belies  flatness  or  solidity  or 
any  other  structural  condition.  The  true  art- 
ist would  prefer  not  to  have  equal  outline  or 
flat  unmodulated  color.  Flatness  is  related  to 
vacancy,  and  art  as  well  as  nature  abhors  a 
void.  We  often  accept  willingly  flatness  of 
pattern.  But  such  patterns  according  to  the 
measure  of  their  goodness,  will  be  varied  with 
passages  of  minutely  broken  parts  and  com- 
paratively solid  masses,  in  a general  way  sug- 
gesting to  the  eye  at  a short  distance,  a play 
of  light  and  shade  and  color. 

Conventionalism  should  not  be  sought  for 
its  own  sake,  as  if  it  were  a thing  excellent  in 
itself ; when  its  only  virtue  is  to  stand  for  some- 
thing better.  If  conventionalism  means,  as 


146 


DECORATION 


it  seems  to  with  many  modern  designers,  that 
where  a natural  form  is  bounded  by  a curved 
line,  it  shall  be  represented  by  a straight; 
where  it  has  a rounded  projection,  it  shall  be 
represented  by  an  angular  one  ; and  where 
color  is  changing,  it  shall  be  crude  and  flat, 
then  it  is  not  good.  Such  a conventionalism  is 
a kind  of  grotesqueness  without  beauty  or 
meaning.  The  grotesque  in  art  is  that  peculiar, 
humorous  conjunction  of  things  which  is  set 
beside  serious  things  for  relaxation,  and  for 
contrast;  it  is  always  significant  of  something, 
and  not  a mere  contradiction  of  the  beautiful. 
It  is  always  humorous,  for  it  is  an  attempt  to 
say  that  for  which  no  accepted  phrases  have 
been  discovered. 

Right  conventionalism  is  a kind  of  short- 
hand, really  used  because  of  the  embarrass- 
ment of  our  riches,  used  because  we  must 
sacrifice  enormously  more  than  we  keep,  giv- 
ing hints  and  suggestions  of  a wealth  that  we 
never  show.  But  it,  at  least  in  its  old  forms, 
is  a thing  that  we  hope  to  use  less  of  to-morrow 
than  to-day. 

A GOOD  WAY  TO  BEGIN  WORK. 

It  is  always  best  to  begin  by  first  consider- 
ing those  things  in  which  we  have  least  room 
for  choice.  On  account  of  the  change  and 
want  of  aim  of  “fashion,”  the  least  variety  is 
to  be  found  in  floor  covering,  and  the  greatest 
in  wall  covering — supposing  we  use  wall  paper, 
which  is  almost  always  the  best  where  econ- 
omy is  a motive. 

The  first  step,  it  is  true,  that  time  dictates 
in  preparing  the  house,  is  to  color  the  wood- 
work and  the  walls.  But  this  being  done  to 
suit  the  taste  as  far  as  it  alone  is  concerned, 
trouble  is  apt  to  come  in  finding  carpets  to  cor- 
respond. As  the  accessible  variety  of  wall  paper 
and  tints  for  painting  is  so  much  greater  than 
that  of  upholstery  and  carpets,  it  is  best  to 
select  the  carpets  at  the  very  outset.  Then  it 
will  be  comparatively  easy  to  find  appropriate 
furniture  and,  that  being  selected,  to  find  appro- 
priate wall  paper  and  to  paint  appropriately, 
if  the  woodwork  is  to  be  painted. 

One  strong  argument  in  favor  of  unpainted 
woodwork,  especially  as  compared  with  that 
painted  white,  is  that  it  will  tone  in  with  a 
variably  greater  variety  of  carpets  and  wall 
decorations.  White  woodwork  is  constant- 
ly bringing  to  grief  the  best  laid  plans  of 
wall  and  floor  decoration.  Pretty  papers  and 
carpets  have  more  than  once  been  sent  home 
and  even  put  in  place  before  it  has  been  real- 
ized that  the  uncompromising  woodwork  must 
kill  them. 

FLOORS,  AND  FLOOR  COVERING. 

For  the  floor  of  the  entrance  or  hall,  encaus- 
tic tiles  are  best  in  durability  as  well  as  in 
appearance.  Combinations  of  these  may  be 
made  good  and  harmonious  in  color  if  we 
will  but  be  simple  and  not  attempt  display. 


Marble  tiling,  to  be  satisfactory,  must  be  ex- 
pensive, and  demands  the  exercise  of  great 
taste  and  judgment.  Next  to  tiling,  hard  wood, 
paint,  or  even  oil  cloth,  if  it  can  be  had  of 
moderately  fair  design  and  color,  should  be 
preferred  to  carpet. 

For  other  floors  in  the  house  a large  rug, 
reaching  to  within  about  a foot  and  a half  or  two 
feet  of  the  walls,  is,  for  many  reasons,  to  be 
preferred  to  a nailed-down  carpet  covering  the 
entire  floor.  This  may  be  made  up  of  carpet- 
ing sold  by  the  yard,  with  a border  ; or  may  be 
an  Eastern  carpet  in  one  piece,  which  of 
course  is  very  greatly  to  be  preferred.  For 
the  floor  itself  hard  wood  is  best.  If  it  have  a 
border,  one  of  simple  design  should  be  chosen, 
avoiding  conspicuous  spots  or  zig-zags,  or 
sharply  contrasted  stripes.  If  it  is  to  be  paint- 
ed, the  carpet,  furniture  and  wall  paper  should 
first  be  chosen,  then  the  floor  color  agreeably 
to  all  of  these,  contrasting  not  too  strongly 
with  the  carpet,  or  the  effect  of  breadth  over 
the  whole  floor  may  be  destroyed. 

In  the  carpet  the  contrasts  and  colors  should 
generally  be  not  too  striking,  because  it  is  the 
thing  most  under  our  eyes  when  they  often  need 
rest.  I f the  texture  be  a deep  velvety  pile,  the 
contrasts  of  lights  and  darks  and  separate 
colors  may  be  greater.  Generally,  it  had  bet- 
ter be  inclined  to  the  dark  and  warm  in  tone. 
Aggravating  lessons  in  geometry,  as  well  as 
roses,  scroll,  and  pictures,  as  subjects  of  design 
in  carpet  are  things  to  be  tabooed.  There  are 
to  be  found  carpets  of  fair  design  copied  from 
Eastern  patterns,  but  their  over  preciseness 
and  painful  small  accuracies,  and  their  inferior- 
ity of  color,  leaves  them  far  behind  a genuine 
Oriental  carpet,  with  its  slight  pleasing  way- 
wardness. 

MOVABLE  FURNITURE. 

In  choosing  furniture,  consider  the  colors  of 
the  woods.  Against  a wall  of  dull  red,  black, 
or  dark  oak,  will  generally  look  well.  And 
with  a wall  of  sage  or  olive-green,  greenish- 
blue,  or  dull  grey-blue  ; mahogany,  oak,  walnut 
or  rosewood.  Yellow  with  black  and  some 
kinds  of  grey  always  looks  well.  Rarely 
choose  any  wood  lighter  than  oak.  If  the 
articles  be  of  somewhat  light  construction-they 
may  contrast  rather  strongly  with  the  floor 
and  walls ; if  large  enough  to  make  important 
masses  in  the  room  the  contrast  should  not  be 
of  a sudden  and  violent  kind.  The  introduc- 
tion of  black  in  furniture  is  often  of  great 
value.  Generally  take  the  plainest  and  most 
reasonably  constructed  furniture  that  you  can 
find.  Avoid  in  it  extravagance  of  shape  ; curv- 
ing fronts  to  drawers,  things  made  to  imitate 
drawers  and  doors,  and  lumps  of  carving  glued 
on.  Do  not  lightly  and  without  consideration 
choose  adjustable  chairs,  extension  tables,  and 
shutting  beds.  Avoid  having  a piece  of  fur- 
niture which  is  not  quite  sufficient  for  its  uses, 
and  so  has  to  be  eked  out  by  other  insufficient 
things  : such  as  two  or  three  inconvenient 
make-shifts  for  book-cases,  cabinets,  etc. 


DECORATION 


Upholstery  of  chairs  and  sofas  may  con- 
trast with  floors  or  walls ; there  can  be  no 
rule ; sometimes  one  plan  will  be  found  the  best 
and  sometimes  the  other ; or  a partial  adoption 
of  both.  The  larger  the  pattern  in  furniture, 
coverings  and  curtains,  the  less  conspicuous 
should  be  their  colors. 

Curtains  may  generally  harmonize  pretty 
closely  with  the  furniture  upholstery.  They 
may  often  be  somewhat  more  lively,  as,  in  the 
day  time  the  light  does  not  fall  on  the  surface 
the  most  in  view,  and  at  night  they  should 
not  break  too  suddenly  the  general  effect  of 
pictures  and  furniture  against  the  walls.  They 
should  always  be  suspended  from  rings  on 
rods.  Lace  curtains,  except  where  mere 
screens  against  the  inside  of  the  window  sash, 
are  not  to  be  commended  on  any  account,  to 
say  the  least. 

WALL-PAPER,  WALLS,  AND  CEILINGS. 

The  carpets  being  selected,  little  difficulty 
need  be  experienced  in  properly  coloring  the 
walls  and  woodwork. 

Woodwork. — (See  above  under  “ A good 
way  to  begin  work.”) 

If  the  doors  and  casings  in  a room  be  of 
hard  wood,  their  color  is  of  importance  in  con- 
nection with  floor  and  walls.  If  they  be  paint- 
ed, the  colors  may  well  be  of  such  tones  as 
will  more  strongly  contrast  with  the  walls  than 
with  the  carpet,  the  doors  themselves  being 
more  nearly  like  the  wall  than  the  casings 
around  them  are. 

Ceilings  cannot  be  left  plain  unbroken  sur- 
faces of  white  plaster  without  sacrificing  the 
harmony  of  the  room,  if  the  least  degree  of 
fulness  of  coloring  be  attempted  in  other 
parts.  They  may  generally  be  made  light- 
er than  the  side  walls,  and  slightly  contrast- 
ing with  them.  With  the  walls  very  light,  they 
may  be  darker.  In  any  case  they  should 
have  as  much  gentle  variation  of  light  and 
dark  and  color  as  may  be.  A fashion  of 
showing  the  construction  of  the  floors  and 
roofs  above,  is  a thing  to  be  wished  by  all  de- 
corators. It  would  add  more  to  the  effect  of 
the  rooms  we  live  in  than  one-half  of  what  we 
now  take  pains  to  do  to  them. 

Papers. — In  choosing  wall  papers  avoid 
over  brightness,  display,  sharpness,  or  angular- 
ity of  pattern.  It  is  not  necessary  that  they 
should  be  precisely  and  accurately  “ made  out.” 
It  is  as  well  that  something  should  be  left  to 
the  imagination.  Prefer  those  of  a general  tone 
of  warm  grey,  and  but  few  detached  broken 
colors;  or  creamy  ochreish  yellows;  or  sage, 
citron,  olive  and  tea  greens  ; or  dusky  reds. 
Blues  are  the  hardest  to  choose  ; they  should 
generally  incline  to  green  or  greenish-grey,  or 
to  the  quality  of  blue  of  some  kinds  of  old 
china.  Rarely  or  never  choose  stripes,  what- 
ever your  friends  may  say  about  their  making 
your  rooms  look  higher.  Sometimes  they  do 
so,  and  sometimes  they  do  exactly  the  reverse 
by  calling  attention  to  the  shortness  of  the 


147 

re^fW&hrii 


space  they  have  to  run.  Til 
not  produce  a bad  effect  on* 

Dado. — It  will  often  be  of 
a plinth  or  dado  around  the  rofc 
height  from  one  and  a half  to 
color  of  about  the  same  degree  of  force 
color  of  the  floor.  It  should  be  plainer  in 
design  than  the  wall  above ; and  may  often 
with  advantage  be  absolutely  plain.  The  line 
is  invaluable  where  there  are  pictures.  Dadoes 
to  passages  and  staircases,  where  there  is  no 
wainscot,  are  good  on  account  of  their  useful- 
ness as  well  as  appearance.  They  had  best 
be  made  of  paper  of  such  a pattern  that 
where  a piece  is  rubbed  off,  another  may  be 
substituted.  It  is  not  always  the  case,  as  is 
constantly  said,  that  a wainscot  or  dado  makes 
a low  room  look  lower  ; for  it  is  interrupted  by 
doors  and  windows  and  large  pieces  of  furni- 
ture. Entire  blankness  and  absence  of  detail 
never  make  a space  look  larger.  Detail  is 
always  good  when  sufficiently  subordinated, 
and  always  bad  when  obtrusive.  Simple  treat- 
ment is  what  is  required,  that  the  space  shall 
not  be  so  cut  up  as  to  leave  no  leading  feature. 

Border. — A border  or  frieze  does  often 
make  a room  look  lower.  It  arrests  the  eye  at 
a lower  point  than  the  top  of  the  wall,  and  by 
its  uninterrupted  line  carries  it  around  the 
room  at  that  level. 

Pictures.— The  walls  may  properly  be 
allowed  to  furnish  the  key  for  the  whole 
scheme  of  color ; and  not  necessarily  namable 
color  as  red,  green  or  blue  ; but  hue,  tone, 
what  might  be  called  atmosphere.  In  pro- 
portion to  the  absence  of  pictures  walls  re- 
quire a strong  and  elaborated  treatment.  If 
slight  water-color  drawings  or  prints  are  to 
be  hung  on  them,  walls  should  be  light  and 
delicate.  If  oil  paintings  are  to  be  hung,  the 
particular  pictures  should  be  consulted,  as  far 
as  possible,  beforehand.  It  is  often  said  that 
water-color,  and  oil-color  pictures,  or  either  of 
them  with  photographs  and  prints,  should 
never  be  hung  together  on  the  same  wall.  But 
it  is  as  well  not  to  make  quite  so  broad  a rule. 
We  haveseenawater-colordrawingwhich  erred 
by  having  too  much  of  one  particular  color 
hung  with  good  effect  by  a cool  brown  Liber 
Studiorum  print,  and  a photograph  of  a paint- 
ing made  to  glow  with  a warm  hue  by  a neigh- 
boring blue. 

ADAPTING  THE  NEW  TO  THE.  OLD. 


If  in  taking  a house  you  fall  heir  to 
modes  of  coloring  in  paper,  wood  work  or 
paint,  which  are  not  good,  but  which  you  never- 
theless must  keep,  modify  your  further  furnish- 
ing so  far  as  you  can  so  as  to  be  in  harmony 
with  them,  even  though  in  itself  it  is  not  what 
you  would  prefer.  But,  if  \hefortns  of  wood 
work,  plaster  ornaments,  etc.,  be  bad,  do  not 
let  that  influence  your  further  choice.  It 
might  lead  to  consistency,  but  it  would  be  a 
consistency  of  ugliness.  Supposing  the  wood 


148 


DECORATION 


work  to  be  painted  white,  after  the  common 
fashion,  any  system  of  full  coloring  for  the 
further  decorating  and  furnishing  should  not  be 
attempted.  With  large  spaces  of  white  paint 
or  smooth  white  plastering  opposed  to  large 
spaces  of  coloring  you  cannot  have  a harmo- 
nious result. 

REMARKS  ON  THE  VARIOUS  ROOMS. 

The  hall  it  is  well  to  have  rather  darker 
than  the  rooms  opening  from  it,  on  account  of 
the  agreeable  contrast.  It  is  also  well  to  have 
the  coloring  quiet  and  grave,  without  strong 
contrasts  and  never  rising  to  positive  color. 
The  ornamental  detail  should  be  very  restrain- 
ed, it  being  rather  out  of  order  in  a place 
which  is  principally  a passage,  and  more  tell- 
ing if  kept  for  other  parts  of  the  house.  Large 
comparatively  blank  spaces  are  in  place  here, 
the  incidents  of  light  and  shade  often  giving 
enough  variation. 

Dining-room. — Probably  the  fashion  of 
having  a dining-room  sober  and  rather  dark 
in  its  coloring,  came  about  because  of  the 
table  and  those  around  it  being  the  chief 
point  of  interest,  and  also  of  the  pleasant  con- 
trast of  the  drawing  room. 

When  the  sideboard  is  simple  in  its  lines 
and  dark  and  subdued  in  color,  whatever  is  put 
on  it  will  show  to  better  advantage. 

The  drawing-room  of  course  should  be 
somewhat  light  and  gay ; fitted  to  be  bright  at 
night  and  should  not  have  any  point  of  con- 
centration, or  be  too  decided  in  any  way. 

The  library,  where  it  is  a library,  should 
contain  nothing  to  distract  the  attention  ; the 
ornament  and  coloring  should  be  of  the  most 
quiet  kind.  Instead  of  things  being  so  arranged 
as  to  appeal  to  the  eye,  the  eye  should  have  to 
search  for  things. 

Bed-rooms  ought  to  be  airy  and  rather  light. 
But  curtains  hung  so  as  to  be  easily  drawn  to 
shutoff  draughts  and  light  are  desirable.  If 
the  furniture  is  to  be  bought  in  the  shops,  the 
plainer  it  is  the  better. 

GENERAL  ADVICE. 

Advice  in  these  things  can  only  be  of 
value  so  long  as  we  remember  that  it  is  but 
advice,  but  the  occasion  would  probably  be 
rare  when  we  could  not  let  the  following  have 
the  force  of  rules. 

North  rooms,  South  rooms,  poorly  or  fully 
lighted  rooms,  whatever  their  uses  may  be, 
should  have  some  attention  given  to  making 
their  coloring  suit  their  respective  quantities 
and  qualities  of  light.  In  doing  this,  that 
kind  of  contrast  between  different  rooms  in  a 
house  which  is  always  pleasant,  is  secured. 

Adhere  as  much  as  possible  to  simplicity  of 
general  arrangement.  Avoid  on  the  one  hand 
meagreness,  and  on  the  other  hand  what  is 
perhaps  worse,  overcrowding. 

Beware  of  “hard-finish”  and  white  paint, 


and  all  large  spaces  of  plain  white  in  carpet, 
curtains,  wails,  or  ceilings  ; of  brilliant  things, 
large  mirrors,  displays  of  gilding  and  marble, 
and  elaborate  cast  metal  gas-fixtures,  long  lace 
curtains,  sentimental  statuettes  and  bronzes, 
and  an  undue  abundance  of  small  “artistic ” 
things. 

It  is  better  not  to  indulge  a fondness  for 
that  useless  order  of  things  which  includes 
“tidies,”  “mats,”  worsted  embroideries,  etc. 
As  we  usually  see  them  they  are  harsh,  spots 
of  white  or  inharmonious  vivid  color,  and  not 
untrying  to  the  nerves  of  those  who  do  not  feel 
at  liberty  to  treat  them  with  disrespect,  and 
who  do  not  like  “ fancy  things,”  although  they 
may  care  for  art. 

Finally,  do  not  be  disturbed  if  your  house  be 
simple,  inexpensive,  and  unpretending;  but  do 
be  disturbed  if  it  be  “cheap;”  that  is,  if  it  be 
evidently  not  a fine  thing,  while  it  makes  a 
shallow  pretence  by  being  dressed  up  in  the 
fashion  of  a fine  thing.  Extreme  simplicity 
and  great  dignity  may  go  together — dignity 
and  cheapness  never.  Remember  that  a quiet 
harmony  of  colors,  and  the  simplest  mode  of 
arranging  simple  things,  are  always  good,  and 
that  brilliance,  abundance,  and  extravagance, 
are  always,  at  least,  near  the  perilous  borders 
of  no-land. 

A FEW  GENERAL  RULES  CONCERNING  THE 
DECORATIVE  ARTS. 

I.  A work  of  art  of  any  kind  is  produced 
only  when  the  desirableness  of  it  is  seen.  It 
is  the  working  out  of  an  idea,  and  not  the 
result  of  an  ambition  of  making  something 
new  to  attract  attention  and  win  applause. 

II.  Any  work  of  the  decorative  arts  should 
possess  fitness,  proportion,  harmony,  and  sug- 
gestiveness. Its  fitness,  proportion,  and  har- 
mony should  not  only  concern  the  relations  of 
the  various  parts  to  each  other,  but  should 
refer  to  the  occasion  of  its  being,  and  also  to 
everything  that  accompanies  it.  Its  sugges- 
tiveness should  be  of  that  kind  which  hints  at 
what  is,  for  the  occasion,  most  agreeable  to  the 
mind  and  eye.  Hence,  in  all  good  periods, 
forms  from  the  vegetable  and  animal  worlds, 
and  the  creations  of  the  ideal  world,  as  accept- 
ed at  the  time,  have  been  favorite  subjects  ; 
while  very  small  portions  of  angular  or  crude 
geometric  forms  have  been  allowed. 

III.  Whatever  quality  or  condition  of  beau- 
ty may  be  agreeable  to  the  eye  in  nature,  will 
be  agreeable  to  the  eye  when  made  use  of  in 
art. 

IV.  The  primary  reason  for  the  decoration 
of  surfaces  in  variously  disposed  masses  or 
lines  or  colors,  is  to  obtain  an  agreeable  modu- 
lation, tending  to  gently  disturb  a sense  of 
entire  smoothness  or  flatness. 

V.  General  arrangements  should  first  be 
cared  for,  divisions  and  subdivisions  being  less 
and  less  marked  and  prominent.  The  treat- 
ment never  leading  the  eye  to  the  study  of 
separate  parts  before  recognition  of  the  whole. 


DECORATION 


DEPILATORIES 


149 


VI.  Lines  should  be  associated  and  have 
relationship  to  each  other,  and  sympathies  of 
tendency,  radiating,  or  converging. 

VII.  Large,  flat  spaces,  unbroken  bylines, 
figures,  forms,  or  colors,  or  by  play  of  light 
and  shade,  should  be  avoided,  especially  where 
there  is  firmness  or  smoothness  of  texture. 

VIII.  Purely  geometric  figures  or  arrange- 
ments of  figures  can  never  be  satisfactory  Un- 
less partially  obscured  by  passages  of  varying 
light  and  shade,  interrupted  by  inferior  figures 
or  forms,  or  dominated  by  superior  figures  or 
forms. 

IX.  Mathematical  precision  in  drawing  geo- 
metric figures,  or  in  patterns  of  regular  or 
formal  design,  should  generally  be  Avoided. 

X.  The  conventionalization  of  forms  of 
objects  should  never  be  sought  for  its  own 
sake.  It  should  be  of  the  kind  made  necessary 
by  the  restrictions  of  place  and  means. 

XI.  Ornamental  figures  and  forms  maybe 
subject  to  geometrical  arrangements.  But  all 
large  styles  depart  more  or  less  widely  from 
any  too  evident  geometric  arrangement  of 
parts.  (In  ornament,  as  in  verse,  a rhythm 
which  is  too  obvious  is  less  agreeable  than 
too  great  irregularity.) 

XII.  Material  should  never  be  so  treated  as 
to  assert  itself  for  what  it  is  not. 

XIII.  Imitations  of  textures,  or  accidents 
of  surfaces,  used  to  give  to  one  thing  the 
character  of  another  thing — such  as  the  imita- 
ting of  the  figured  grain  of  woods  and  the 
veins  of  marble-should  be  strictly  avoided; 
unless  used  as  mere  hints  in  a pictorial  arrange- 
ment. 

XIV.  Decoration  should  be  applied  to  neces- 
sary constructions  ; but  unnecessary  construc- 
tions, or  imitations  of  constructions,  should 
never  be  used  as  decorative  in  themselves,  or 
as  a means  of  introducing  decoration. 

XV.  In  ornamenting  a construction,  its  ex- 
pression of  use  or  purpose  as  shown  by  its 
general  form,  should  not  be  disguised  or  con- 
tradicted. 

XVI.  Positive  color  should  be  avoided  in 
large  uninterrupted  spaces,  and  confined  to 
small  portions.  In  fine  coloring,  the  prevailing 
hue  is  made  up  of  divisions  and  subdivisions 
of  more  decided  colors. 

XVII.  Any  arrangement  or  composition  of 
colors  which  is  to  stand  by  itself,  and  not  de- 
pend upon  association  with  other  compositions, 
cannot  be  good  if  in  it  any  one  of  the  three 
primary  colors  is  wanting. 

XVIII.  Color  may  be  applied  independent- 
ly of  details  of  form ; as  in  the  spots  and  stripes 
of  many  flowers  and  animals. 

XIX.  Gold  should  generally  be  contrasted 
with  dark  color.  In  many  cases  where  bright- 
ness, delicacy  and  breadth  are  desired,  it  may 
be  contrasted  with  light  hues  or  colors. 

XX.  Patterns  on  a ground  of  different  color, 
or  degree  of  intensity  of  the  same  color,  if 
much  broken  or  minute  in  parts,  or  of  extreme 
simplicity,  may  be  used  without  outline  or 
edging. 


XXL  Patterns  on  a ground  of  a different 
color  may  be  treated  with  an  outline  or  bound- 
ary of  color,  contrasting  with  pattern  or  ground 
or  both.  (Examples  in  Eastern  Rugs.) 

XXII.  Patterns  in  gold  on  colored  ground, 
may  generally  be  separated  from  the  ground 
by  an  outline  of  darker  color  or  black. 

XXIII.  Patterns  in  color  on  a gold  ground, 
may  generally  be  separated  from  the  ground 
by  an  outline  of  a darker  color  or  black. 

It  should  also  be  remembered  that  no  coiors 
in  themselves  give  the  appearance  of  nearness 
or  distance  (as  has  been  asserted),  thus  be- 
ing more  fitted  for  the  nearer  or  farther  parts 
of  a form.  We  are  in  the  habit  of  associat- 
ing blueness  with  distance  because  of  the  blue- 
ness of  the  sky  and  distant  mountains ; but 
the  same  mountains  look  no  nearer  when  pur- 
ple ; and  the  sky,  although  much  bluer  at  the 
zenith,  looks  no  farther  off  than  at  the  horizon. 
The  red  and  yellow  in  the  sunset  sky  appear 
farther  off  than  the  blue  shirt  of  the  laborer 
returning  home  from  his  work.  And  in  the 
house  a blue  plum  appears  no  farther  off  than 
a yellow  one  when  with  it  in  a dish.  Any  color 
may  be  made  to  advance  in  the  sense  of  being 
made  to  attract  the  eye,  or  may  be  made  re- 
tiring in  the  sense  of  being  “ quiet.”  Hues 
or  colors  depend  on  their  treatment  or  associa- 
tions, for  their  prominence  or  quietness. 

DEER.  (See  VENISON.) 

DENTIFRICE.  (See  Teeth.) 

DEODORIZERS. — These  might  be  appro- 
priately classed  with  disinfectants,  but  as 
there  are  times  when  unpleasant  smells  may 
require  neutralizing  which  do  not  necessarily 
point  to  impurities  or  infection,  we  will  mention 
here  a few  methods  of  deodorizing  a room.  It 
must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  when  the 
cause  of  a disagreeable  odor  comes  from  im- 
pure or  injurious  matters  the  danger  can  be 
averted  by  simply  masking  the  smell.  Coffee 
is  one  of  the  best  of  deodorizers.  The  best 
mode  of  using  it  is  to  dry  the  raw  coffee,  pound 
it  in  a mortar,  and  then  roast  the  powder  on  a 
moderately  heated  iron  plate  until  it  assumes 
a dark  brown  tint ; then  lay  it  in  a plate  in  the 
room  to  be  sweetened.  Sugar  also  is  excel- 
lent, and  a convenient  way  of  using  it  is  to 
bring  in  a few  coals  on  a shovel  and  sprinkle  the 
sugar  over  them,  renewing  it  as  the  smoke 
ceases  to  rise.  Brown  paper  or  cotton  rags  burnt 
in  a room  are  unsurpassed  as  a deodorizer,  and 
purify  vitiated  air  very  quickly.  For  a sick- 
room nothing  is  more  grateful  and  refreshing 
than  to  sprinkle  cologne  around  the  bed  and 
curtains  and  to  blow  it  through  the  air  of  the 
chamber.  A pail  of  clear  water  set  in  a newly- 
painted  room  will  remove  the  smell  of  paint, 
and  modify  the  danger  of  sleeping  in  newly- 
painted  rooms.  Vinegar  boiled  with  myrrh  or 
camphor  and  sprinkled  in  a sick-room  is  also 
very  pleasant  and  purifying.  (See  Disinfect- 
ants.) 

DEPILATORIES. — Substances  for  remov- 
ing superfluous  hairs.  Many  of  them  are  of- 
fered in  the  drug-stores,  but  they  are  mostly 


150 


DEWBERRY 


DIAPHORETICS 


unsafe  to  use,  as  they  have  either  an  arsenical 
or  caustic  basis  and  are  consequently  highly 
injurious  to  the  skin.  Plucking  out  the  hair 
by  the  roots  is  by  far  the  best  way  of  removing 
it.  In  cases  where  this  will  not  answer,  the 
following  depilatory  is  less  objectionable  than 
any  that  can  be  bought  already  prepared: 
Take  of  best  lime,  slaked,  one  pound  ; orpi- 
ment  in  powder,  one  ounce  ; mix  and  keep  in  a 
well  corked  bottle.  To  apply,  mix  a small 
portion  with  water  to  the  consistence  of  cream, 
spread  it  upon  the  hair  and  let  it  remain  about 
five  minutes,  or  till  it  begins  to  burn  the  skin ; 
then  remove  it  with  an  ivory  or  bone  paper- 
knife,  wash  the  part  with  water,  and  apply  a 
little  cold  cream. 

DEWBERRY. — A variety  of  the  blackberry 
sometimes  called  running  blackberry , because 
of  its  growing  on  a vine  which  creeps  along 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  Dewberries  ripen 
rather  earlier  than  blackberries,  and  in  sunny 
situations  attain  a large  size  and  have  a pecu- 
liarly sweet  and  agreeable  flavor,  approaching 
that  of  the  strawberry  more  nearly  than  any 
other  fruit.  They  are  seldom  found  in  the 
market  in  any  quantity,  as  they  are  not  often 
plentiful  enough  to  pay  for  systematic  picking. 
They  may  be  prepared  for  the  table  in  any  of 
the  ways  that  blackberries  are. 

DIABETES. — A disease  in  which  a very 
large  quantity  of  saccharine  water  is  passed 
daily  by  the  patient,  accompanied  by  great 
thirst  and  general  debility.  It  may  attack 
people  of  any  age,  but  is  far  more  fatal,  and 
runs  a much  more  rapid  course  in  children  and 
young  people  than  adults  or  those  of  advanced 
age ; amongst  the  latter  a small  quantity  of 
sugar  in  the  urine  may  be  present  at  one  time 
and  absent  at  another,  and  these  cases  seldom 
need  cause  much  anxiety.  It  is  at  present  an 
unsettled  question  whether  the  liver  or  the 
blood  is  at  fault  in  this  disease,  nor  is  it  yet 
determined  what  part  the  nervous  system  may 
play  in  it,  but  it  is  an  ascertained  fact  that 
irritation  in  certain  parts  of  the  brain  will  pro- 
duce sugar  in  the  urine.  The  kidneys  are  not 
the  seat  of  mischief : they  merely  allow  the 
sugary  urine* to  pass,  and,  in  doing  so,  suffer 
more  or  less  in  the  process. 

The  most  marked  symptoms  of  diabetes  are 
great  thirst,  dryness  of  skin,  and  passing  an 
immense  quantity  of  urine.  The  thirst  is  so 
great  that  the  patient  is  always  wanting  some 
iiquid,  and  will  drink  as  much  as  four  or  five 
gallons  of  water  a day  in  some  cases  ; two  or 
three  gallons  is  a very  common  amount.  Since 
they  pass  so  much  urine,  the  other  tissues  of 
the  body  are  dryer  than  usual ; the  skin  feels 
dry  and  harsh,  and  an  eruption  is  liable  to 
break  out,  and  sometimes  boils  form  ; the  nails 
are  dry  and  often  chip  in  consequence.  The 
bowels  are  confined,  and  the  motions  arc  gen- 
erally firm  and  dry.  The  urine  is  light  in  color, 
but  much  heavier  than  usual,  from  the  great 
quantity  of  sugar  present  in  it.  Sugar  may  be 
detected  in  the  urine  thus  : Take  equal  quan- 
tities of  urine  and  liquor  potassae  in  a test  tube, 


add  a few  drops  of  a solution  of  sulphate  of 
copper,  and  boil ; the  solution  will  become 
first  yellow,  then  orange,  and  finally  of  a deep 
horse-chestnut  color.  The  test  requires,  how- 
ever, to  be  carefully  performed  by  a person 
possessing  some  experience  in  animal  chemis- 
try— to  produce  a satisfactory  result.  The 
appetite  is  generally  good,  and  even  excessive 
in  some  cases  ; the  tongue  is  often  dry  and  red, 
and  the  temperature  rather  lower  than  usual ; 
the  patient  sleeps  well,  and  the  general  health 
may  go  on  for  a considerable  time  without  be- 
ing seriously  impaired.  In  the  course  of  time 
there  is  more  or  less  wasting  of  the  body,  and 
a liability  to  disease  of  the  lungs.  Cataract  is 
also  a by 'no  means  uncommon  complication. 
In  young  people  and  children,  the  disease  often 
runs  a very  rapid  course,  and  may  result  fatally 
in  six  weeks  after  the  commencement  of  the 
symptoms ; much  more  commonly  it  lasts  for 
two  or  three  years,  and,  in  old  people,  sugar 
may  occasionally  appear  in  the  urine  without 
any  harm  resulting.  Death  often  takes  place 
by  suppression  of  the  urine,  followed  by  stupor, 
coma,  and  perhaps  convulsions;  or  it  may 
occur  through  general  exhaustion,  or  from 
disease  of  the  lungs. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  diabetes 
generally  consists  in  confining  the  patient  to 
a diet  from  which  all  starchy  or  saccharine 
articles  of  food  are,  as  far  as  possible,  exclud- 
ed. Brown  bread,  bran  biscuits,  meat,  green 
vegetables,  milk,  etc.,  may  be  allowed,  but 
ordinary  bread,  sugar,  rice,  potatoes,  etc.,  are 
prohibited.  Peisistence  in  this  plan  is  .often 
followed  by  much  relief  to  the  patient,  causing 
him  to  gain  strength,  lessening  his  thirst  and 
the  quantity  of  urine,  but  it  will  not  cure  him  ; 
nor,  at  present,  is  any  remedy  known  th'at  can 
eradicate  the  disease.  Since  there  is  so  much 
thirst,  a large  amount  of  water  must  be  given 
— as  much,  in  fact  as  the  patient  likes.  Raw 
meat  has  been  found  to  be  beneficial  in  some 
cases.  Various  preparations,  as  diabetic-bread 
and  diabetic-biscuit,  have  been  recommended  ; 
but  few  can  continue  their  use  long,  as  they 
eventually  tire  of  keeping  to  a restricted  diet. 

There  are  certain  cases  in  which  persons 
pass  a very  large  quantity  of  urine  without  hav- 
ing any  sugar  in  it : they  are  then  said  t®  be  suf- 
fering from  polyuria , or  diabetes  insipidus,  a 
disease  of  much  less  importance. 

DIAPER.  (See  Damask.) 

DIAPHORETICS. — Medicines  which  in- 
crease the  insensible  prespiration.  When  they 
act  very  energetically,  they  are  called  sudor- 
ifi.es.  During  the  administration  of  these  reme- 
dies it  is  essential  that  the  surface  of  the  body 
should  be  kept  warm ; and  for  this  purpose 
wool  is  generally  employed,  in  the  shape  of 
flannel  or  blankets.  Exposure  to  cold  air  is 
also  to  be  avoided,  as  well  as  the  drinking  of 
cold  water,  though  this  in  strong  constitutions  is 
often  productive  of  extensive  perspiration,  and 
many  people  take  a glass  of  cold  water  at 
night  before  going  to  bed,  with  the  view  of 
producing  perspiration  when  they  feel  that 


DIARRHOEA 


151 


they  have  taken  cold.  It  is  a bad  plan,  in 
order  to  check  excessive  sweating,  to  expose 
the  body  while  bathed  in  it,  or  while  clothed 
with  wet  garments ; but  these  should  at  onc£ 
be  removed  and  dry  ones  of  a lighter  character 
put  on,  or  else  the  clothing  should  very  gradu- 
ally be  made  lighter,  avoiding  any  sudden 
transition  which  would  be  likely  to  produce  a 
chill. 

(a.)  Antimonial  powder  (compound  powder 
of  antimony),  5 grains  taken  at  night,  with  a 
basin  of  warm  gruel  or  white  wine  whey. 

( b .)  Dover’s  powder  (compound  powder  of 
ipecacuanha),  5 to  10  grains,  taken  at  night. 

(r.)  Liquor  of  acetate  of  ammonia,  1 ounce  ; 
ipecacuanha  wine,  10  minims;  sweet  spirit  of 
nitre,  20  minims.  Mix,  and  give  at  night,  or 
oftener  if  necessary. 

DIARRHCZjA. — Diarrhoea  is  in  many  cases 
a symptom  rather  than  a disease.  It  is  present 
in  typhoid  fever,  is  a frequent  accompaniment  of 
consumption  and  diabetes,  and  is  produced  by 
a number  of  pathological  conditions  which  only 
a physician  can  understand.  In  its  slight  and 
more  common  forms,  it  is  caused  by  indigesti- 
ble food,  or  ordinary  food  eaten  in  too  great 
quantity ; by  change  of  diet ; by  violent  men- 
tal emotions  : and  by  sudden  changes  of  tem- 
perature, wet  feet,  and  exposure  to  cold. 
When  indigestion  of  food  is  the  cause  of 
diarrhoea,  the  purging  itself  soon  removes  the 
disturbing  substance  and  the  diarrhoea  com- 
monly ceases ; if  this  should  not  be  the  case,  a 
moderate  dose  of  laudanum  (fifteen  to  twenty 
drops)  will  generally  prove  effective.  When 
the  diarrhoea  is  produced  by  exposure  to  the 
cold  or  the  like,  a mild  farinaceous  diet,  rest 
in  bed,  mustard  over  the  bowels,  and  the  use 
of  laudanum  or  laudanum  and  brandy  in  small 
doses,  may  be  had  recourse  to ; in  such  cases 
too,  the  patient  is  generally  benefited  by  wear- 
ing a flannel  bandage  around  the  abdomen, 
which  may  be  retained  after  the  attack  to 
prevent  recurrence. 

In  Children. — When  diarrhoea  appears  in 
infants  and  young  children,  as  it  is  very  apt  to 
do  in  the  summer,  it  should  be  attended  to  at 
once ; not  always  stopped  immediately,  since 
it  is  often  an  effort  of  nature  to  throw  off 
something  which  is  better  away,  but  if  allowed 
to  run  on  it  speedily  becomes  dangerous.  The 
question  as  to  when  the  discharges  from  the 
bowels  should  be  stopped  and  when  they 
should  be  assisted  is  a very  difficult  one  to 
decide ; but  the  following  observations  may  be 
useful  to  mothers. 

A diarrhoea  which  consists  simply  of  stools 
rather  loose,  but  otherwise  of  natural  appear- 
ance is  the  least  important ; when  they  become 
quite  watery,  and  their  several  ingredients 
seem  separate  and  unmixed,  it  is  more  grave. 
Very  watery  discharges,  especially  when  ac- 
companied by  vomiting,  are  symptoms  which 
should  cause  a physician  to  be  summoned  at 
once.  When  the  disease  attacks  a nursing 
infant,  the  discharges  should  be  carefully  ex- 
amined, and  if  curds  appear  in  them  the  prob- 


1 ability  is  that  they  are  caused  by  over-feed- 
ing; the  child  nurses  too  long,  or  too  often; 
and  the  stomach  is  only  able  to  curdle  the 
milk  without  digesting  it  completely.  The 
remedy  for  this  condition  is  to  nurse  the  child 
at  longer  intervals,  or  to  give  it  less  at  a time: 
and  it  is  most  probable  that  both  a longer 
interval  and  a smaller  quantity  are  needed. 
The  sleeping  room  should  be  well  ventilated, 
and  at  least  once  every  day  the  child  should  be 
carried  out  to  walk,  or  ride,  so  as  to  be 
thoroughly  refreshed.  If  these  dietary  meas- 
ures do  not  check  the  diarrhoea,  resort  may  be 
had  to  chalk  mixture  (containing  no  paregoric), 
of  which  from  half  to  a whole  teaspoonful  may 
be  given  once  every  two  or  three  hours.  This 
medicine  should  always  be  shaken  up  before  a 
dose  of  it  is  poured  out : and,  as  during  warm 
weather  it  is  apt  to  ferment,  about  half  an  ounce 
of  the  compound  tincture  of  cardamons  should 
be  added  to  every  four  ounces.  With  this, 
the  dose  of  the  mixture  may  be  made  a little 
smaller. 

When  diarrhoea  occurs  in  a child  that  is  nursed 
in  part  and  fed  in  part,  it  should  at  once  be  con- 
fined to  its  mother’s  or  nurse’s  milk,  even  at 
the  expense  of  some  drain  upon  her.  This 
will  by  itself  generally  effect  a cure,  but  the 
chalk  mixture  may  also  be  used  if  necessary. 

If  the  child  is  weaned  a milder  diet  must  be 
tried.  Its  milk  must  be  boiled  and  skimmed, 
and  perhaps  reduced  in  quantity.  If  this  ap- 
pear still  to  irritate  the  bowels,  it  may  be  well 
to  try  changing  to  the  milk  of  another  cow,  and 
when  all  these  fail,  or  sooner  if  convenient,  a 
nurse  should  be  found.  The  child  that  is 
weaned,  however,  very  soon  forgets  how  to 
nurse  and  cannot  be  made  to  take  the  nipple  ; 
in  such  a case  the  nurse’s  milk  should  be 
drawn  and  fed  to  the  patient. 

For  a child  that  is  older  and  that  has 
become  accustomed  to  a solid  diet,  the  same 
general  treatment  must  be  adopted.  All  sub- 
stances which  are  not  easily  digested  should  be 
at  once  abandoned.  The  diet  must  be  limited 
both  as  to  its  elements  and  its  quantity.  Rice 
is  one  of  the  articles  most  frequently  resorted 
to,  and  when  it  is  relished  is  beneficial  ; 
but  it  often  becomes  disagreeable  to  the  child 
if  given  continuously,  and  other  articles  can  be 
selected  which  are  equally  useful.  The  sweet 
potato  is  one  of  these,  but  it  should  be 
thoroughly  ripe  and  perfectly  sound,  and 
should  never  be  given  even  to  a healthy  child 
if  it  has  become  in  part  black  or  has  the  smell 
of  rose-water.  Arrowroot  is  good,  and  so  are 
very  light  wheat  bread,  and  crackers.  Still, 
the  child  will  often  require  something  besides 
this  diet.  Boiled  milk  is  a very  good  addition  to 
it ; and  when  this  does  not  agree  with  the 
stomach,  soups,  broths,  chicken  and  beef-tea, 
may  be  resorted  to,  and  these  may  be  thicken- 
ed with  rice.  When  any  meat  is  used,  the  fat 
should  be  carefully  skimmed  off.  As  to  med- 
icines, a child  that  has  been  accustomed  to  a 
solid  diet  must  be  treated  much  as  younger 
children,  though  somewhat  more  powerful 


152 


DIET 


astringents  may  be  added  to  the  chalk  mix- 
ture. Dr.  Parker  recommends  this  combina- 
tion : Take  of  chalk  mixture  three  ounces  ; of 
tincture  of  kino  (or  catechu),  half  an  ounce  ; of 
compound  tincture  of  cardamoms,  half  an 
ounce.  Of  this,  the  dose  for  a child  two  years 
old  is  one  teaspoonful  every  two  hours,  if  the 
discharges  are  very  frequent,  and  at  longer  in- 
tervals if  not — care  being  taken  to  shake  the 
bottle  before  pouring  out  the  medicine.  It  is 
well,  however,  to  give  first  a teaspoonful  of 
syrup  of  rhubarb,  especially  if  any  undigested 
food  has  been  passed. 

A child  with  diarrhcea  should  be  limited  in 
its  use  of  cold  drinks  and  especially  of  water, 
of  which  it  will  drink  large  quantities  and 
very  frequently  if  allowed  to  do  so.  Its  milk 
should  be  given  as  warm  as  it  will  bear  it,  as 
should  its  broth  and  other  liquids,  except  in 
very  rare  cases  when  vomiting  is  excessive. 
But  it  is  not  necessary  to  compel  the  child  to 
suffer  from  thirst ; little  pieces  of  broken  ice 
may  be  put  in  its  mouth  occasionally.  The 
child  should  be  kept  as  quiet  as  possible,  and 
if  the  diarrhoea  is  very  bad  should  be  compelled 
to  lie  upon  its  back.  If  there  is  any  pain,  the 
bowels  should  be  covered  with  hot  flannels  ; and 
while  a diarrhoea  lasts,  and  longer,  a piece  of 
flannel  should  be  worn  over  the  bowels,  and  if 
the  child  is  delicate  a flannel  shirt  should  be 
put  on.  When  vomiting  and  diarrhoea  com- 
mence at  the  same  time,  there  is  reason  to 
apprehend  that  the  disease  is  cholera  infan- 
tum, and  a physician  should  be  summoned  at 
once.  (See  Cholera  Infantum.) 

DIET. — The  subject  of  food  in  general,  and 
of  the  nature  and  constitution  of  the  different 
substances  used  by  man  for  that  purpose,  is 
discussed  in  the  article  on  Food;  under  the 
present  head,  we  shall  only  treat  of  the  cir- 
cumstances under  which  special  kinds  of  food 
are  most  favorable  to  health,  of  the  relation  of 
food  to  bodily  conditions,  and  of  those  general 
principles  by  which  man  must  be  guided  if  he 
would  provide  himself  with  those  classes  of 
food  most  appropriate  for  his  special  purposes. 
Even  when  thus  divided  off,  the  subject  of 
diet  is  so  comprehensive,  so  complex,  and  so 
constantly  modified  by  circumstances,  that  we 
cannot  even  attempt,  in  a work  like  this,  a 
systematic  survey  of  it,  but  must  confine  our- 
selves to  such  detached  hints  as  appear  to  us 
capable  of  being  turned  at  once  to  practical 
use. 

The  simplest  and  most  powerful  agent  in 
determining  the  character  of  our  food  is 
climate.  In  cold  countries  the  requirements 
of  man  are  very  different  from  those  felt  in 
the  tropics,  and  from  the  Esquimaux,  who, 
according  to  Dr.  Kane,  will  drink  ten  or  twelve 
gallons  of  train-oil  in  a day,  to  the  Peruvians 
and  other  tropical  nations  for  whom  the  ba- 
nana sufficies  for  nearly  all  seasons  of  the  year, 
there  are  various  gradations  in  which  the  con- 
stituents of  the  diet  bear  a very  direct  relation 
to  the  prevailing  temperature.  In  cold  regions, 
man  requires  such  food  as  not  only  sup- 


plies him  with  nutriment,  but  also  with  heat ; 
as  oil,  butter,  fat,  sugar,  and  other  substances 
in  which  carbonaceous  elements  predominate. 
In  warm  countries,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  one 
of  the  most  essential  conditions  of  good 
health,  that  his  food  should  be  as  little  heat- 
ing as  possible.  In  our  own  climate  this  law 
holds  good  as  between  summer  and  winter ; 
in  the  latter  season,  plenty  of  lean  meat,  butter, 
potatoes,  eggs,  sugar,  and  similar  food,  are 
necessary  to  keep  the  animal  machine  in  work- 
ing order,  while  in  summer  the  diet  should 
consist  chiefly  of  those  substances  of  which 
nitrogenous  or  flesh  forming  elements  compose 
the  largest  part.  There  is  probably  no  other 
cause  so  fruitful  in  producing  the  dyspepsia 
and  similar  diseases  of  which  Americans,  as  a 
nation,  are  in  a peculiar  degree  the  victims  as 
the  neglect  to  harmonize  the  food  with  the 
changing  seasons.  (See  Food.) 

The  next  most  important  question  in  deter- 
mining the  character  of  our  food  is  that  of  its 
digestibility;  and  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  nutritive  value  and  the  digestibility  of  food 
have  no  necessary  relation  to  each  other.  A 
food  may  have  a very  high  nutritive  value  and 
yet  be  so  indigestible  as  to  be  practically  use- 
less, and  on  the  other  hand  it  may  be  very 
easily  digested  and  worth  little  or  nothing  for 
nutrition.  No  general  rules  as  to  the  digesti- 
bility of  different  foods  can  be  laid  down,  be- 
cause it  depends  very  largely  upon  individual 
habits  and  conditions.  Persons  who  have  a 
strong  constitution,  and  take  sufficient  exer- 
cise, may  eat  almost  anything  with  apparent 
impunity;  but  young  children  who  are  forming 
their  constitutions,  and  persons  who  are  deli- 
cate, and  who  take  but  little  exercise,  are  very 
dependent  for  health  upon  a proper  selection 
of  food.  As  a general  thing,  when  the  body 
requires  a given  kind  of  diet,  specially  demand- 
ed by  brain,  lungs,  or  muscles,  the  appetite 
will  crave  that  food  until  the  necessary  amount 
is  secured.  If  the  food  in  which  the  needed 
aliment  abounds  be  not  supplied,  other  food 
will  be  taken  in  larger  quantities  than  needed 
until  that  amount  is  gained  ; for  all  kinds  of 
food  have  supplies  for  every  part  of  the  body, 
though  in  different  proportions.  Thus,  for 
example,  if  the  muscles  are  worked  a great 
deal,  food  in  which  nitrogen  abounds  is  re- 
quired, and  the  appetite  will  remain  unap- 
peased until  the  requisite  amount  of  nitrogen  is 
secured.  Should  food  be  taken  which  has 
not  the  requisite  quantity,  the  consequence 
will  be  that  the  vital  powers  will  be  needlessly 
taxed  to  throw  off  the  excess.  There  are 
other  kinds  of  food  which  are  not  only  nour- 
ishing but  stimulating,  so  that  they  quicken 
the  functions  of  the  organs  on  which  they 
operate;  the  condiments  used  in  cookery, 
such  as  pepper,  mustard,  and  spices,  are  of 
this  nature.  There  are  certain  states  of  the 
system  in  which  these  stimulants  may  be  ben- 
eficial and  even  necessary ; but  persons  in  per- 
fect health,,  and  especially  young  children, 
never  receive  any  benefit  from  such  food,  and 


DIET 


153 


just  in  proportion  as  condiments  operate  to 
quicken  the  action  of  the  internal  organs,  they 
tend  to  wear  down  their  powers.  The  same 
observation  applies  to  the  use  of  wines  and 
other  spirituous  and  malt  liquors.  Under  cer- 
tain conditions  where  the  vital  powers  are  low, 
they  are  a highly  important  addition  to  ordi- 
nary food ; but  when  used  habitually,  their 
temporary  stimulation  is  gained  at  the  expense 
of  permanently  weakening  the  digestive  or- 
gans which  finally  refuse  to  perform  their  work 
without  some  such  external  aid.  It  follows 
from  the  above  that  the  requirements  of  food 
in  each  individual  case  may  in  a normal  condi- 
tion of  things  be  left  to  the  individual  taste ; 
and  also  that  much  more  attention  than  the 
subject  usually  obtains  should  be  given  to  the 
selection  and  preparation  of  such  food  as  is 
indicated  by  experience  to  be  most  appropriate. 

With  regard  to  the  quantity  of  food  to  be 
taken,  this  also  depends  upon  individual  con- 
ditions and  cannot  be  formed  into  a general 
rule.  Where  hunger  is  felt  it  may  safely  be 
assumed  that  when  the  hunger  has  been  fully 
appeased  sufficient  food  has  entered  the  stom- 
ach. Such  are  the  circumstances  of  civilized 
life,  however,  that  in  most  cases  hunger  is  a 
very  rare  sensation ; and  food  is  prepared  and 
eaten  more  to  gratify  the  palate  than  because 
nature  demands  it.  On  this  point  each  indi- 
vidual is  and  must  be  a law  unto  himself,  and 
we  can  only  point  out  the  consequences  of 
eating  a larger  quantity  than  is  needed.  When 
too  great  a supply  of  food  is  put  into  the 
stomach,  the  gastric  juice  only  dissolves  that 
portion  of  it  which  the  wants  of  the  system 
demand ; most  of  the  remainder  is  ejected  in 
an  unprepared  state,  the  absorbents  take  por- 
tions of  it  into  the  circulatory  system,  and  all 
the  various  bodily  functions  dependent  on  the 
blood  are  thus  gradually  and  imperceptibly  in- 
jured. Very  often,  indeed,  intemperance  in 
eating  produces  immediate  results,  such  as 
colic,  headache,  indigestion,  and  vertigo ; but 
the  more  common  result  is  the  gradual  under- 
mining of  all  parts  of  the  human  frame,  short- 
ening life  by  thus  weakening  the  constitution. 

As  to  the  hours  of  meals  these  are  of  no 
importance  provided  they  are  regular  and  come 
at  regular  intervals.  This  interval  should 
never  be  less  than  five  hours,  as  the  stomach 
requires  at  least  three  hours  to  digest  its  sup- 
ply of  food,  and  not  less  than  two  hours 
should  be  allowed  it  for  rest  and  recuperation. 

Eating  between  meals  is  a most  injurious 
practice,  the  source  in  children,  especially,  of 
endless  stomachic  disorders.  It  may  be  well 
to  give  children  under  ten  years  of  age  one 
more  meal  during  the  day  than  the  three  which 
adults  in  this  country  usually  allow  them- 
selves ; but  these,  as  we  have  said  above, 
should  be  at  regular  times  and  with  stated  in- 
tervals between  them. 

After  taking  a full  meal,  it  is  very  important 
to  health  that  no  great  bodily  or  mental  exer- 
tion be  made  till  the  labor  of  digestion  is  over. 
Muscular  exertion  draws  the  blood  to  the  mus. 


cles,  and  brain  work  draws  it  to  the  head ; and 
in  consequence  of  this  the  stomach  loses 
the  supply  which  is  necessary  to  it  when  per- 
forming its  office,  the  adequate  supply  of 
gastric  juice  is  not  afforded,  and  indigestion  is 
the  result.  The. heaviness  which  is  felt  after 
a full  meal  is  a sure  indication  of  the  need  of 
quiet ; when  the  meal  is  moderate,  the  process 
of  digestion  will  be  sufficiently  advanced  in  an 
hour,  or  an  hour  and  a half,  to  justify  the  re- 
sumption of  bodily  or  mental  labor.  This 
completes  what  we  have  to  say  on  the  subject 
of  diet  in  general,  but  under  special  circum- 
stances there  are  some  suggestions  which  may 
be  found  useful.  Such  is  the  case  with  those 
who  lead  a sedentary  life,  and  on  this  point  we 
can  not  do  better  than  quote  from  Dr.  Edward 
Smith’s  excellent  treatise  on  Practical  Dietary. 

“ Persons  of  sedentary  habits,”  he  says, 
“are  liable  to  beconje  either  thin,  feeble,  and 
dyspeptic,  or  else  to  grow  stout,  according  as 
the  original  state  of  their  constitution  and  the 
attendant  conditions  of  life  have  led.  A cer- 
tain amount  of  exertion  is  necessary  to  enable 
a person  to  breathe  the  pure  air  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  carry  on  the  function  of  digestion 
and  other  vital  actions  in  activity  and  vigor ; 
and  when  this  is  not  obtained,  the  quantity  of 
food  which  is  supplied  must  be  reduced,  or 
fulness  of  the  system,  or  derangement  of  di- 
gestion and  general  health,  will  follow.  If  the 
reduction  of  the  appetite  for,  and  the  digestion 
of,  food  l;e  greater  than  the  necessary  wants 
of  the  system  can  tolerate,  the  former  result 
occurs ; but  if  they  remain  good,  the  system 
will,  at  least  for  a time,  store  up  fat  within  it, 
and  the  person  will  become  stout.  When 
with  the  sedentary  occupation,  the  person  be- 
comes thin,  feeble,  and  dyspeptic,  it  is  neces- 
sary that  the  same  plan  should  be  adopted 
which  has  been  laid  down  for  persons  of  feeble 
constitution,  viz : the  frequent  supplies  of  small 
quantities  of  hot  food;  and,  as  animal  food 
excites  the  vital  actions  more  than  vegetable 
food,  it  should  be  preferred,  and  the  quantity 
of  it  gradually  increased.  There  are  many  in 
this  state  who  hesitate  to  take  milk  and  eggs, 
from  having  felt  uncomfortable  after  their  use ; 
but  they  should  be  encouraged  to  take  them, 
nevertheless,  in  the  form  which  is  least  disa- 
greeable to  their  taste.  Milk  in  puddings  or 
with  chocolate,  and  eggs  fried  or  made  into 
herb  omelettes,  are  the  best  forms  of  food. 
Meat  is  not  objected  to ; but  care  in  its  cook- 
ing and  flavoring,  and  variety  of  meat  (exclud- 
ing pork,  and  perhaps  veal  and  fish),  are 
necessary.  Meat  should  be  eaten  twice  a day; 
and,  at  the  tea  meal,  potted  meats,  ham  or 
eggs,  should  be  added.  Curries  are  valuable, 
and  all  the  rest  should  be  hot,  fresh,  and 
seasoned.  So  long  as  the  sedentary  habit  is 
continued,  the  total  quantity  of  food  which  is 
supplied  should  be  less  than  would  be  requis- 
ite under  other  conditions ; but  it  should  be 
largely  of  an  animal  nature.” 

The  diet  of  brain-workers,  whether  literary, 
professional,  or  business  men,  should  be  ex- 


154 


DIGESTION 


ceptionally  liberal  and  nutritious,  because  labor 
of  the  brain  exhausts  the  system  to  a greater 
extent  than  labor  of  the  muscles.  Professor 
Houghton  estimates  that  three  hours  of  hard 
study  cause  more  important  changes  of  tissue 
than  a whole  day  of  muscular  labor.  The  ex- 
haustion that  one  feels  after  hard  study,  or 
any  kind  of  strenuous  brain-work,  is  the  result 
of  waste  of  tissue,  and  this  waste  can  only  be 
repaired  by  food.  For  this  reason  brain- 
workers as  a class  require  more  nutriment 
than  any  other  workers ; but  owing  to  their 
sedentary  habits  and  consequent  lack  of  ex- 
ercise their  powers  of  digestion  are  more  lim- 
ited, and  it  is  necessary  to  select  such  articles 
of  food  as  contain  the  requisite  aliment  in  the 
largest  relative  proportions.  It  has  long  been 
one  of  the  pet  theories  of  popular  physiology 
that  fish  and  other  substances  composed  largely 
of  phosphorus  are  the  most  appropriate  diet 
for  brain-workers ; but  it  is  now  conceded 
that  the  best  food  for  the  brain  is  that  which 
best  nourishes  the  whole  body  with  special 
reference  to  the  nervous  system,  viz  : fat  and 
lean  meat,  eggs,  milk,  and  the  cereals.  Dis- 
cussing this  point  in  a recent  treatise,  Dr. 
George  M.  Beard  says  : “ The  diet  of  brain- 
workers should  be  of  a large  variety,  delicately 
served,  abundantly  nutritious,  of  which  fresh 
meat,  lean  and  fat,  should  be  a prominent  con- 
stituent. In  vacations,  or  whenever  it  is  desired 
to  rest  the  brain,  fish  may,  to  a certain  extent, 
take  the  place  of  meat.  We  should  select 
those  articles  that  are  most  agreeable  to  our 
individual  tastes,  and,  so  far  as  possible,  we 
should  take  our  meals  amid  pleasant  social 
surroundings.  In  great  crises  that  call  for 
unusual  exertion,  we  should  rest  the  stomach, 
that  for  the  time  the  brain  may  work  the  hard- 
er; but  the  deficiency  of  nutrition  ought  al- 
ways to  be  supplied  in  the  first  interval  of  re- 
pose.” 

The  diet  of  persons  who  are  either  too  lean 
or  too  fat  should  be  nitrogenous  (flesh-forming), 
or  the  contrary,  according  to  the  object  to  be 
accomplished.  Plenty  of  lean  meat,  bread, 
butter,  starchy  substances,  and  sugar,  will 
make  a lean  person  fat  provided  the  amount 
consumed  (and  digested)  affords  a consider- 
able surplus  of  vital  force  over  the  amount 
required  for  daily  use.  The  approved  method 
of  reducing  corpulence  is  described  in  the 
article  on  Banting’s  System.  On  this  point 
Dr.  Lankester  says  in  Good  Food : “ A whole- 
some receipt  for  a stout  person  is,  eat  no  butter 
at  breakfast,  and  no  bread  at  dinner.” 

The  subject  of  general  diet  for  the  sick  is 
treated  of  under  Sick-room  ; and  where  a 
special  diet  is  desirable  it  is  suggested  under 
the  different  diseases  for  which  it  is  recom- 
mended. 

DIGESTION. — The  alimentary  canal  is  the 
great  channel  whereby  new  material  is  intro- 
duced into  the  blood,  and  it  is  in  this  canal 
that  the  important  function  of  digestion  takes 
place.  A man  swallows  daily  a certain  amount  of 
meat,  bread,  butter,  water,  vegetables,  &c.,  and 


it  has  been  computed  that  the  amount  of  chem- 
ically dry  solid  matter  taken  daily  by  a man  of 
average  size  and  weight  amounts  to  about 
8000  grains ; he  also  absorbs  by  his  lungs 
about  10,000  grains  of  oxygen  every  twenty- 
four  hours,  making  a total  of  18,000  grains  (or 
nearly  two  pounds  and  three-quarters  avoirdu- 
pois) of  daily  gain  of  dry  solid  and  gaseous 
matter.  Of  this  quantity  about  800  grains,  or 
one-tenth  part  of  solid  matter,  leaves  the  body 
daily  as  excreta,  and  as  no  solid  matter  in  any 
quantity  leaves  the  body  in  any  other  way,  it  fol- 
lows that  in  addition  to  the  quantity  of  oxygen 
absorbed  by  the  lungs,  about  7200  grains  of  solid 
matter  must  pass  out  of  the  body  in  gaseous  or 
liquid  secretions,  supposing  the  man  to  keep  the 
same  weight.  The  urine,  perspiration,  and 
the  expired  air  from  the  lungs,  carry  off  nearly 
all  this  quantity  in  their  secretions.  All  the 
substances  used  as  food  may  be  classed  under 
four  heads.  1.  Proteids,  or  Albuminous  com- 
pounds— bodies  which  are  made  of  carbon, 
hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen,  and  some- 
times a little  sulphur  and  phosphorus  ; in  this 
class  must  be  placed  such  substances  as  the 
white  of  an  egg,  the  gluten  of  flour,  the  fibrin 
of  the  blood,  the  lean  of  meat,  the  casein  of 
cheese,  and  other  allied  preparations.  2.  Fats, 
or  fatty  and  grieasy  compounds,  which  contain 
no  nitrogen,  but  are  made  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
and  oxygen ; butter,  lard,  fat,  all  oils,  and 
animal  and  vegetable  fatty  matters  come  under 
this  head.  3.  Amyloids,  or  starchy  com- 
pounds, made  also  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and 
oxygen,  and  like  the  last  group  containing  no 
nitrogen ; starch  is  an  important  member  of 
this  group,  and  it  is  met  with  in  all  cereals  and 
farinaceous  bodies,  as  wheat,  barley,  arrowroot, 
rice,  and  potatoes.  Sugar  also  belongs  to  this 
division,  and  is  intimately  allied  to  starch  in 
chemical  composition ; the  latter  body  is  con- 
verted into  sugar  by  the  process  of  digestion  be- 
fore it  is  absorbed  into  the  blood.  Gum  and  dex- 
trine are  also  members  of  the  group.  These 
three  groups  are  all  derived  at  present  from 
the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms,  and  are 
produced  by  the  agency  of  living  beings.  4. 
Minerals  are  produced  from  the  inorganic  or 
non-living  world  ; the  salts  of  various  minerals 
come  under  this  head ; common  salt  is  the 
chief  member  of  the  group,  and  is  taken  daily 
in  our  food ; nearly  all  the  various  foods  above 
mentioned  contain  more  or  less  salt  of  some 
kind.  Finally,  water  is  taken  in  varying  quan- 
tity so  as  to  dissolve  these  solid  materials,  and 
prepare  them  for  absorption  into  the  system. 
When  these  different  foods  are  swallowed  vari- 
ous changes  take  place.  Starchy  compounds  are 
very  insoluble,  but  the  saliva  converts  these 
during  mastication  into  sugar,  and  this  passing 
down  into  the  stomach  is  easily  soluble  ; hence 
arises  the  necessity  for  well  masticating  bread, 
biscuits,  potatoes,  toast,  rice,  and  arrowroot, 
etc.,  so  that  all  the  starch  may  be  thoroughly 
converted,  or  else  indigestion  may  ensue.  Al- 
buminous compounds,  as  the  lean  of  meat,  etc., 
should  be  well  masticated  so  as  to  tear  up  each 


DIGESTION 


DINNER 


155 


portion  into  minute  pieces  and  enable  it  to  be 
easily  acted  upon  by  the  gastric  juice  when  it 
gets  into  the  stomach ; no  chemical  change 
takes  place  in  the  mouth  with  regard  to  this 
group,  nor  with  the  next  two  groups  either  ; the 
only  change  is  a mechanical  one,  and  by  this 
means  the  food  is  well  mixed  together  and 
divided.  The  oesophagus  is  merely  a tube  to 
convey  the  food  from  the  mouth  to  the  stomach, 
and  takes  no  part  in  digestion.  The  stomach 
is  a dilated  chamber  where  the  food  remains 
for  a time  to  be  digested  and  to  be  acted  upon 
by  the  gastric  juice.  This  important  secretion, 
poured  out  from  the  walls  of  the  stomach  in 
great  quantity  during  digestion,  renders  solu- 
ble all  the  proteids  or  albuminous  compounds, 
and  the  more  finely  divided  these  bodies  are, 
the  easier  does  the  process  go  on  ; when  meat 
is  swallowed  hurriedly,  or  when  tough,  fibrous, 
and  indigestible  food  is  taken,  the  action  of 
the  gastric  juice  is  lessened  ;and  indigestion 
results.  Thus,  in  the  course  of  three  or  four 
hours  after  a meal,  the  stomach  contains  all 
the  proteids,  amyloids,  and  minerals,  in  a state 
of  solution,  for  water  in  some  form  is  always 
taken  with  food  ; only  the  fatty  matters  as  yet 
are  unaffected.  Passing  down  into  the  small 
intestine  the  food  is  now  called  chyme , but  it 
does  not  go  far  when  it  meets  with  the  bile  and 
the  pancreatic  juice,  which,  acting  on  the  fatty 
matters,  form  an  emulsion,  whereby  the  oily 
particles  are  so  minutely  divided  as  to  render 
them  capable  of  being  absorbed  by  the  lacteals 
and  vessels  of  the  small  intestines. 

Thus,  either  in  the  mouth,  stomach,  or  in- 
testinal canal,  the  various  kinds  of  food  are  so 
acted  upon  as  to  render  them  capable  of  ab- 
sorption, and  this  process  goes  on  not  only  in 
the  stomach  but  all  the  way  down  the  intes- 
tines, so  that  the  blood  is  supplied  after  every 
meal  with  a fresh  stock  of  food  to  make  up  for 
the  losses  which  are  continually  going  on  in 
other  parts  of  the  body.  There  is,  however, 
always  a residue  of  indigestible  matters  in  the 
food,  so  that  all  the  chyme  is  not  absorbed, 
but  the  remainder  is  excreted  daily  and  known 
as  faeces.  As  the  coat  of  the  intestines  is  in 
part  made  of  muscle,  it  is  constantly  contract- 
ing in  waves  and  gently  pushing  the  chyme 
forward  so  as  to  bring  it  in  contact  with  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  canal,  and  finally  to  expel  the 
indigestible  remainder.  If  this  process  go  on 
too  rapidly  then  diarrhoea  will  result,  and  if  it 
continue  the  patient  will  lose  flesh  because 
those  substances  escape  which  ought  to  be 
absorbed  by  the  blood ; or  again,  if  there  be 
disease  of  the  mesenteric  glands,  or  walls  of 
the  intestines,  as  in  some  cases  of  wasting 
disease  in  children,  in  cancer  of  the  bowels, 
etc.,  then  absorption  will  not  go  on  properly 
and  emaciation  will  be  the  consequence.  Foods 
vary  very  much  in  their  degree  of  solubility,  and 
hence  arises  the  importance  of  careful  diet  in 
those  who  have  a weak  digestion,  or  who  are 
convalescing  from  sickness.  By  bearing  in 
mind  in  early  life  the  importance  of  mastica- 
tion and  digestion,  much  suffering  may  be 


avoided  in  after  years,  and  many  of  those  who 
are  confirmed  invalids  and  martyrs  to  indiges- 
tion might  have  been  free  from  disease  had 
they  paid  more  attention  to  diet.  Not  only 
should  the  food  be  easily  digestible,  but  it 
should  not  be  swallowed  too  hastily ; it  should 
always  be  taken  at  regular  intervals,  and  rest 
after  a meal  for  a short  time  is  advisable  ; also 
too  much  should  not  be  taken  at  once,  so  as  to 
make  the  individual  feel  distended  and  uncom- 
fortable. ( See  Diet  and  Food.) 

DIMITY. — A kind  of  cotton  cloth  of  a thick 
texture,  and  generally  striped  or  otherwise 
ornamented  in  the  loom.  It  is  chiefly  used 
for  articles  of  female  dress,  and  for  bed-furni- 
ture and  window-curtains,  and  is  very  rarely 
dyed.  There  are  two  qualities  of  it,  one  being 
twilled  and  the  other  plain. 

DINNER. — This  article  is  about  good  din- 
ners. But  everybody’s  dinner  ought  to  be  as 
good  as  it  can,  and  nobody  who  cannot  take  all 
the  hints  here  given  need  for  that  reason  de- 
cline to  take  any  that  he  can,  if  he  likes  them. 
On  ordinary  occasions,  where  incomes  are  not 
above  the  average,  circumstances  generally  de- 
termine what  folks  shall  have  for  dinner.  A 
very  modest  meal,  however,  may  be  tastefully 
spread  and  served,  and  there  is  no  reason  why, 
so  far  as  they  are  available,  it  should  not  have 
the  benefit  of  the  principles  that  apply  to  the 
most  elegant  banquets. 

On  the  other  hand,  where  people  spend  no 
end  of  money,  they  are  apt  to  have  tastes  of 
their  own  regarding  the  elaborations  of  a din- 
ner, and  not  to  care  any  more  for  hints  open 
to  everybody  else  than  for  pictures  of  which 
everybody  has  a copy.  But  even  on  the  points 
essential  to  a good  dinner,  as  distinct  from 
either  a plain  or  an  extravagant  one,  there  is 
much  difference  of  taste.  It  is  not  best, 
though,  to  confuse  our  suggestions  by  much  dis- 
cussion of  disputed  points,  but  to  confine  our- 
selves as  far  as  possible  to  the  particulars  re- 
garding which  most  people  agree,  and  not  to 
attempt  to  advise  those  who  are  beyond  the 
need  of  advice. 

In  the  first  place,  a good  dinner  need  not  be 
expensive,  though  (as  is  not  always  the  case 
where  much  rftoney  is  spent)  there  is  no  end  to 
the  expense  that  may  be  indulged  in  without 
preventing  the  result  being  good. 

To  one  philosophizing  much  on  the  subject, 
the  order  of  the  fundamental  courses  of  a good 
dinner  is  apt  to  suggest  the  old  saw  of  “ fish, 
flesh,  fowl,  and  good  salt  herring.”  Expand 
flesh  to  mean  all  edible  flesh  but  game-birds, 
restrict  fowl  to  mean  only  game-birds,  interpret 
good  salt  herring  as  meaning  something  pun- 
gent— the  whole  range  of  salads  (herring 
salad  if  you  like  it),  keep  in  mind  what 
everybody  knows — that  before  dinner  comes 
soup  and  after  it  dessert,  and  you  have  the 
key  to  the  whole  subject — fish,  flesh,  fowl,  and 
good  salt  herring.  All  beyond  this  is  mere 
elaboration,  and  all  that  requires  variation 
from  it  is  exceptional.  Give  a man  more,  and 
he  should  feel  honored  ; give  him  this,  and  he 


156 


DINNER 


should  feel  contented,  for  he  cannot  say  that 
he  has  not  had  a good  dinner. 

Now  for  the  elaborations. 

I.  Five  small  raw  oysters,  opened  (on  the 
deep  shell,  so  as  to  retain  the  liquor)  just  before 
dinner,  and  put  at  each  plate  before  the  dining- 
room is  opened.  A colored  doiley  may  be  put 
under  them  on  each  plate.  If  oysters  are  not 
in  season,  substitute  small  round  clams.  If 
weather  is  quite  warm,  let  them  rest  on  each 
plate  in  a bed  of  cracked  ice.  In  either  case, 
quarter  of  a lemon  on  each  plate.  With  clams, 
red  pepper  within  reach. 

II.  After  fish,  either  patties,  bits  of  toast, 
each  supporting  a single  selected  mushroom 
and  saturated  with  brown  sauce,  or  some  sim- 
ilar trifle.  Whatever  is  used,  let  but  one  be 
put  on  each  plate,  and  before  the  plates  are 
handed. 

III.  If  you  have  more  than  one  meat,  let  the 
first  be  relatively  substantial,  and  the  second 
of  a lighter  character.  For  instance — a filet 
of  beef  might  be  followed  by  chicken  cro- 
quettes, or  a boiled  turkey  (which  is  never 
really  good  without  oyster  sauce)  by  mutton 
chops  with  almond  paste.  Other  things  even, 
let  a roast  precede  a boil,  but  put  the  heavier 
thing  first. 

IV.  After  meats,  Entrees , such  as  cro- 
quettes, calves’  brains,  devilled  kidneys,  oys- 
ters fried  or  broiled,  etc. 

V.  Before  game,  a small  glass  of  sorbet  to 
each  to  be  brought  in  in  the  glasses. 

VI.  After  sorbet,  where  there  are  no  ladies 
present  to  whom  they  are  apt  to  be  disagreea- 
ble, cigarettes. 

VII.  With  game,  jelly;  though  true  epi- 
cures don’t  take  it.  The  salad  is  frequently 
served  with  the  game,  though  for  those  who 
wish  both  jelly  and  salad,  this  is  awkward,  if 
jelly  be  served. 

VIII.  After  salad,  cheese,  either  one  of  me- 
dium strength,  or  two  kinds — one  pungent,  one 
mild.  The  waiter  had  best  hand  both  kinds  to- 
gether (previously  cut  up)  for  the  company  to 
choose.  With  this,  hard  crackers. 

IX.  If  you  elaborate  your  dessert,  let  the 
order  be  ; pastry  or  pudding,  icqs,  fruits,  nuts, 
and  raisins,  bon-bons. 

X.  Black  coffee  in  small*  cups.  Sugar  (in 
lumps)  to  be  passed  separately.  This  is  quite 
frequently  reserved  till  the  ladies  have  left  the 
table  and  served  to  them  in  the  parlor,  and  to 
the  gentlemen  in  the  dining-room. 

WINES. 

The  temperature  at  which  they  should  be 
drunk  is  treated  elsewhere,  under  the  titles  of 
the  wines  themselves.  Their  order  is  given 
below. 

The  fundamentals  (both  of  food  and  wine) 
are  printed  in  capitals.  Of  course  no  list 
could  include  everything.  This  one  merely 
attempts  to  give  what  can  frequently  be  re- 
alized. If  you  care  for  anything  more,  you 
have  probably  already  so  far  studied  the  sub- 
ject as  to  be  beyond  the  need  of  any  aid. 


BILL  OF  FARE. 

Raw  Oysters  or  clams. 

WINES. 

Sauteme,  or  any  light  white 
wines. 

SOUP. 

SHERRY. 

Olives. 

FISH. 

Olives,  Dressed  cucumbers, 
etc. 

Latour,  Blanche,  Chablis, 
Chateau,  Yquem,  or  other 
white  wine  with  a body.  Some 
like  a substantial  white  wine 
with  oysters. 

Either  Bouchees  h la  Reinet 
Mushrooms  on  toast,  or  some- 
thing similar. 

CHAMPAGNE. 

MEAT. 

If  more  than  one,  roast 
first,  or  the  heavier  first. 

CHAMPAGNE. 

Entrees  ( any  light  made- 
dishes  not  sweet.) 

Sorbet* 

Cigarettes. 

GAME. 

RED  WINE  NOT 
SWEET, 

i e.,  Claret  or  Burgundy,  etc. 

SALAD. 

Olives,  Pickles,  etc. 

Port. 

Cheese,  Crackers. 

Still  white  wine,  any  named 
above. 

DESSERT. 

Pastry. 

Ices. 

Fruit. 

Nuts  and  Raisins. 

Bon-bons. 

Black  Coffee. 

Liqueur s,  Brandy,  cordials, 
etc. 

If  you  omit  any  of  the  courses  indicated  by 
capitals,  let  them  be  game  first,  then  fish,  then 
salad,  last  soup. 

SETTING  THE  TABLE. 

To  raise  feeding  from  the  grade  of  an  ani- 
mal function  into  that  of  a fine  art  is  worth 
anybody’s  while,  and  almost  anybody  can  do 
it — certainly  anybody  apt  to  read  this  book. 
It  need  cost  but  a little  polishing  of  glass  and 
metal,  and  a handful  of  flowers,  to  make  a very 
plain  table  pleasing  to  even  the  critical  eye. 

Have  a thick,  soft  blanket  under  the  table- 
cloth. It  prevents  noise  from  laying  things 
down,  and  gives  a pleasant  feeling  to  the  hand 
resting  on  the  table. 

Decoration. — The  first  rule  for  setting  a 
table  well,  is  not  to  put  on  it  anything  to  eat. 
Exception  may  be  made  in  favor  of  a few  or- 
namental plates  containing  bright  colored 
pickles,  olives,  fruits,  and  confectionary.  These 
are  admissible  only  in  so  far  as  they  are  dec- 
orative. Let  each  course  be  brought  on  and 
removed  separately  after  the  guests  are  seated. 

Now  here  is  a very  important  matter, 
which  even  good  dinner-givers  sometimes  negj 
lect.  Do  not  let  the  ornament  in  the  centre 
be  so  high  as  to  prevent  people  naturally 
seeing  each  other  across  the  table.  If  you 
do,  it  will  confine  the  talk  to  people  sitting 
next  each  other,  and  seriously  impede  general 
and  lively  conversation.  There  is  no  denying 
that  a high  centre-ornament  is  decorative,  and 


DINNER 


excellent  for  a supper  where  people  stand. 
But  a little  taste  and  ingenuity  will  devise  low 
ones  suitable  for  dinners  that  will  not  inter- 
fere with  the  distinctively  human  enjoyment — 
conversation.  Flowers,  of  course,  are  gener- 
ally the  most  available  material.  They  should 
not  be  gathered,  however,  into  a single  flat 
mass,  but  should  be  placed  at  a height  of 
two  or  three  inches  on  small  plates  or  the 
narrow  troughs  now  to  be  found  at  the  crock- 
ery stores,  and  grouped  around  some  object 
not  much  over  a foot  high  in  the  centre. 
This  central  object  can  be  a bouquet,  a stand 
of  fruit,  or  any  other  tasteful  thing  that  ingen- 
uity may  suggest.  In  warm  weather,  ice,  either 
in  a large  clear  block,  or  several  pieces  too 
large  to  melt  out  of  proportion  during  the 
meal,  combined  with  ferns  or  flowers,  is  sug- 
gestive, and  may  be  made  very  beautiful.  The 
writer  wishes  to  state,  most  emphatically,  that 
generally,  on  noticing  that  dinner  is  passing  off 
with  peculiar  spirit,  he  has  also  noticed  that 
the  ornaments  are  so  disposed  as  not  to  im- 
pede intercourse. 

A small  bouquet  de  oorsage  at  each  lady’s 
place,  and  a flower  with  a leaf  tied  to  it  at  each 
gentleman’s,  for  his  button-hole,  are  very  agree- 
able. 

Chairs. — Avoid  cane  seats  in  a dining-room. 
Where  fine  fabrics  and  laces  are  kept  on  them 
so  long  a time  continuously  (longer  than  any- 
where else)  they  play  havoc. 

Plates. — One  should  be  at  each  seat.  The 
raw  oysters  or  clams,  on  a separate  plate,  are 
placed  on  the  first  plate.  So  with  the  soup. 
The  first  plate  is  exchanged  for  the  plate  with 
the  fish.  Always  have  a stock  of  plates  in 
reserve  sufficient  for  all  the  courses  and  prop- 
erly heated.  The  most  decorated  plates  are 
best  enjoyed  about  the  time  of  salad  or  cheese 
and  at  dessert. 

Knives  and  Forks. — It  saves  the  waiter’s 
time  to  start  with  at  least  two  forks,  and  two 
knives  by  each  plate.  It  is  not  bad  to  have 
three.  One  knife  should  be  of  silver,  for  the 
fish.  Silver  knives  are,  of  course,  essential 
for  fruit. 

Napkins  are  never  supposed  to  appear  a 
second  time  before  washing.  Hence  napkin 
rings  are  domestic  secrets,  and  not  for  com- 
pany. 

Wines  that  can  be  drunk  at  the  temperature 
of  the  room  may  be  on  the  table  from  the  start 
and  they  add  to  the  decoration. 

Wineglasses. — Three  or  four  with  the  water 
glass,  are  enough  to  start  with.  If  you  have 
more  wines,  bring  the  glasses  on  with  them, 
and  substitute  them  for  the  sherry-glass,  sau- 
terne-glass  & c.  Provide  colored  glasses  for  still 
white  wines.  Americans  pretty  generally  set 
their  glasses  in  a row  at  the  right  of  the  plate, 
in  a direction  across  the  table.  The  French 
quite  generally  set  theirs  in  front  of  the  plate, 
parallel  with  the  edge  of  the  table.  Liqueur 
glasses  come  on  with  the  liqueurs. 

Clams  (Dont  forget  the  ice  in  warm 
weather)  should  always  be  on  the  table  before 


157 

| the  company  comes  in.  The  plates  with  ice 
are  too  ticklish  for  the  waiter  to  pass  over 
shoulders.  Taking  up  the  plates  is  easier. 

Ice  Pitchers  are  not  articles  of  dinner- 
table  furniture,  except  that  in  very  hot  weather 
one  may  be  used  from  a side  table. 

Caraffes  and  cracked  ice  should  be  within 
everybody’s  reach. 

Cards  on  Plates,  bearing  the  names  of  the 
company,  so  as  to  seat  them  with  reference 
to  congeniality,  are  very  important.  For  host 
or  hostess  to  marshal  them  after  they  are  jn 
the  dining-room  is  not  nearly  so  easy  as  for 
them  to  marshal  themselves  by  the  cards,  and 
the  host  and  hostess  are  sure,  in  the  confusion 
of  the  moment,  to  get  people  placed  exactly  as 
they  did  not  intend  to  have  them. 

Bread. — Cut  pieces  about  four  inches  long, 
two  wide,  and  two  thick,  and  always  place  a 
piece  beside  each  plate  in  setting  the  table. 

Finger  Bowls  are  to  be  passed  after  pastry 
on  plates  with  doileys  between  the  plates  and 
the  bowls.  The  plates  are  to  be  used  for 
fruit  and  nuts,  if  there  are  any.  If  none  are 
handed,  the  finger-bowl  will  not  be  taken  from 
the  plate.  The  finger-bowl  should  be  filled 
about  one-third,  contain  a slice  of  lemon,  and 
in  very  warm  weather,  a bit  of  ice. 

Fruit. — It  is  well  to  have  a dish,  atone  side, 
independent  of  any  that  may  be  on  the  table, 
with  grapes  cut  into  small  bunches,  and  oranges 
and  large  fruits  halved.  If  fruit  decorating  the 
table  is  to  be  used,  let  it  be  removed  and  so 
prepared  before  it  is  passed. 

GENERAL  HINTS. 

Never  let  two  kinds  of  animal  food  or  two 
kinds  of  pastry  be  eaten  from  the  same  plate  ; 
make  a fresh  course  of  each. 

Always  change  knives  and  forks,  or  spoons 
with  plates.  As  before  stated,  it  is  well  to 
start  with  two  or  three  relays  of  implements  by 
the  plates. 

Don’t  have  over  two  vegetables  with  a 
course.  Let  them  be  offered  together  on  the 
same  waiter.  At  a large  dinner,  you  can  have 
two  varieties  in  the  same  course , z.  <?.,  two 
soups,  two  fish,  two  meats,  etc.,  letting  the 
waiter  offer  the  guest  a plate  of  each  at  the 
same  time,  the  guest  choosing  between  them. 

Everybody  is  always  out  of  bread  ; prevent 
it  if  you  can. 

One  good  waiter  is  worth  much  more  than 
two  poor  ones. 

Don’t  let  a wineglass  stand  empty.  If  one 
is  empty,  it  proves  that  the  guest  likes  that 
wine. 

Champagne  is  always  too  warm,  but  ice  in 
the  glasses  is  a poor  remedy,  so  use  the  small- 
est glasses  that  are  proper.  They  will  not  let 
it  lose  sparkle  and  coolness  as  readily  as  the 
large  ones. 

Pour  out  the  wine  for  each  course  before  the 
course  is  served,  unless  you  have  waiters 
enough  to  do  it  simultaneously. 

Two  hours  and  a half  is  long  enough  to 
serve  any  dinner  that  Christians  ought  to  eat, 
three  hours  and  a half  is  too  long. 


158 


DINNER 


The  host  goes  in  first  with  the  lady  whom 
he  seats  at  his  right.  The  hostess  goes  in 
last  with  the  gentleman  whom  she  places  at 
her  right. 

The  worst  torture  that  survives  the  inquisi- 
tion is  a bad  formal  dinner.  A worse  torture 
than  any  known  to  the  inquisition  is  any  for- 
mal dinner  (the  better  the  dinner,  the  worse 
the  torture)  inefficiently  served. 

Fish  at  dinner  must  never  be  fried  or  broil- 
ed, let  it  be  baked  or  boiled.  An  exception 
may  be  made  in  favor  of  a delicacy,  such  as 
smelts  or  trout. 

If  anybody  says  champagne  ought  not  to 
come  in  early,  don’t  believe  it. 

Fresh  pork  and  veal  are  seldom  seen  at 
the  tables  of  those  who  know  how  to  dine 
or  to  digest.  But  a ham  baked  with  sugar, 
or  champagne,  is  an  honorable  companion 
after  fish,  all  the  way  down  to  game.  It 
is  only  an  accessory,  though,  never  the 
basis  of  a decent  dinner.  It  should  be  handed 
around  sliced,  after  the  regular  course  is  served. 

In  place  of  salad,  some  specially  nice  vege- 
table, such  as  asparagus,  green  corn,  or  a well- 
cooked  cauliflower  may  tastefully  be  served  as 
a separate  course.  In  fact  there  is  much  to 
be  said  in  favor  of  always  serving  separately  a 
vegetable  which  does  not,  like  potatoes,  stewed 
tomatoes,  beans,  peas,  etc.,  seem  the  natural 
accessory  of  some  meat. 

Many  an  appreciative  soul  will  be  grateful 
if  he  finds  his  sherry  cold  ; and  probably  none 
of  those  who  usually  take  it  tepid,  will  feel 
hurt. 

Chesterfield’s  idea  that  a dinner  party 
should  not  include  fewer  than  the  graces  or 
more  than  the  muses,  has  the  approval  of 
later  generations.  Especially  commendable 
is  the  rule  where  waiters  are  scant.  A super- 
latively good  waiter  in  a well-ordered  house 
can  manipulate  eight  people,  if  he  has  an  as- 
sistant in  the  pantry  to  prepare  everything 
for  him.  If  you  ask  one  person  more,  you’ll 
spoil  the  fun  of  nine,  unless  you  get  another 
waiter. 

Last  and  not  least,  dining  rooms  are  always 
too  hot  9 

We  append  bills  of  fare — six  for  entertain- 
ments and  twelve  for  family  dinners.  Although 
they  are  scattered  through  the  seasons,  they 
are  almost  all  available  at  any  season,  and, 
with  the  help  of  the  separate  article  on  Bills 
OF  Fare,  will  probably  aid  the  housekeeper  in 
answering  the  constantly  recurring  question, 
“ What  shall  we  have  for  dinner  ? ” 

MENU  FOR  l6TH  JANUARY. 

Soup.  (Sherry.) 

Bouchees  of  lobsters.  (Sauterne.) 

Boiled  cod,  with  anchovy  sauce. 

Potatoes  4 la  maitre  d’hotel. 

1 Braised  turkey,  with  chestnuts. ) 

■ r i r Champagne. 

Canned  asparagus.  ) r & 

J Chicken  livers  stewed. 

(Cauliflowers. 


j Quails,  broiled  with  a slice  of  fat  pork. ) Chateau 
/ Celery  salad.  ) Lafitte. 

j Rice  souflee. 

( Chocolate  pudding. 

Neapolitan  cream,  cakes. 

Coffee,  fruits,  nuts,  etc.  (Port. ) 

MENU  FOR  24TH  FEBRUARY. 

Mock  turtle,  vermicelli,  clear.  (Sherry.) 

Pates  4 la  Reine  (chicken). 

Lobster  farcie. 

Striped  bass,  with  shrimp  sauce. 

Fillet  of  beef,  with  stuffed  potatoes.  (Champagne.) 
Roast  chickens,  with  beans. 

Sweetbreads,  larded  and  served  on  a thick  puree 
of  spinach. 

' Sorbet. 

Prairie  fowls,  with  brown  sauce.  (Chablis.) 

Endive  salad. 

Lemon  ice-cream. 

Whipped  cream,  with  preserved  strawberries. 
Coffee,  nuts,  fruits.  (Chartreuse.) 

MENU  FOR  I5TH  MAY. 

Green  turtle.  (Madeira.) 

Fried  perch,  with  olives. 

Boiled  leg  mutton,  oyster  sauce.  (Champagne.) 
Cutlets  of  chicken,  a la  Bechamel. 

Hare,  red  currant  jelly.  (Claret.) 

Potatoes  a la  creme. 

Plum-pudding,  brandy  sauce. 

Salade. 

Coffee,  with  whipped  cream. 

MENU  FOR  tgTH  JULY. — (A  “ Fish  Dinner.”) 
Oysters  on  the  half-shell.  Select  carefully  at  this 
Cream  of  fish.  [season.  (Rhine  wine.) 

Trout,  with  clam  sauce.  (Champagne.) 

( Baked  black-fish,  with  claret.  ) Chateau 
( Fried  potatoes.  f Margeaux. 

Fillets  of  halibut,  bread-crumbed  and  broiled,  with 
stewed  peas. 

(Clams in  their  shells.  ) Re(j  Hermitage. 

( Lettuce  and  endive  mixed.  ) 

Roman  punch. 

Strawberry  cream. 

Almond  cakes. 

Fruits,  nuts,  and  coffee. 

menu  for  1ST  September. — (A  “ Game  Dinner.”) 
Oysters  en  fricassee. 

Puree  of  grouse. 

Salmon  au  court  bouillon. 

{Roast  pea-fowl.  ) 

Braised  wild  duck.  V Heidsick. 

Artichokes.  ) 

Pates  of  field-larks  in  fillets.  ) c:iiPrv 
Lobster  salad.  ) ‘ 

Roast  pigeons. 

Lettuce.  . 

Biscuits  glaces,  vanilla  ice-cream,  coffee,  fruit, 
Noyeau. 

MENU  FOR  DECEMBER. 

Oysters  on  half-shell.  Hungarian  wine. 

Chicken.  Madeira. 

Sardines,  olives,  cheese,  and  pickles. 

Mackerel  a la  maitre  d’hotel.)  Missouri  Catawba. 
Mashed  potatoes.  ) . 

( Roast  turkey,  cranberry  sauce.  I Steinberg 
( Braised  ribs  beef,  with  vegetables.  ) Cabinet. 
Breast  of  pigeon,  larded,  brown  mushroom  sauce. 
Sorbet. 


DIPHTHERIA 


159 


j Ortolans,  with  fried  oysters. 
| Celery,  with  mayonnaise. 

[Montebello. 

Plum-pudding,  rum  sauce. 


Pumpkin  pies. 
Mince  pies. 

Fruits,  nuts,  coffee. 
Vanilla  ice-cream. 


FAMILY  DINNERS. 


JANUARY  4TH. 

Beef  soup,  with  vegetables. 
Bream,  with  oyster  sauce. 
Boiled  potatoes. 

Corned  beef,  with  carrots. 
Stewed  kidneys. 

Spanish  puffs. 


JULY  IOTH. 

Consomme  aux  Nouilles. 

Rock  bass,  with  fried  pota- 
toes. 

Tomatoes, withslices  of  chicken 
dressed  in  mayonnaise. 
Peaches  and  cream. 


FEBRUARY  l8TH. 

Bouillabaisse. 

Boiled  chicken. 

Fried  parsnips,  caper  sauce. 
Fillets  of  bass,  with  pickles. 
Mince  patties. 


MARCH  2IST. 

Oysters,  with  lettuce. 

Roast  sirloin  of  beef. 

Potato  croquettes. 

Cabbage  boiled  with  cream. 
Baked  lemon  pudding. 


AUGUST  14TH. 

Clams  on  the  half-shell,  pickles. 
Broiled  porterhouse  steak. 
Green  peas  and  asparagus. 
Strawberry  shortcake,  coffee. 


SEPTEMBER  24TH. 
Oyster  soup. 

Broiled  eels,  with  cucumbers. 
Braised  fowl. 

String  beans. 

Celery,  with  capers,  [cream. 
Currant  tart,  with  whipped 


APRIL  3D. 

Fried  oysters,  sliced  cucum- 
[bers. 

Smelts  fried  with  fat  salt  pork. 
Baked  potatoes. 

Lamb  chops,  with  baked  mac- 
[caron  i. 

Pumpkin  pie  and  coffee. 


Clam  soup. 

Boiled  leg  of  mutton,  tomato 
[sauce. 

Mashed  potatoes. 

Oyster  plant  in  batter. 

Lettuce  and  green  onions. 

Raisin  pudding,  sherry  sauce. 

JUNE  I2TH. 

Salmon. 

Chicken  soup,  with  barley. 

Cold  roast  mutton,  with  boiled 

cauliflower.  [mixed. |Boiled  potatoes. 

Lettuce,  with  cives  and  olives  Stewed  tomatoes. 
Charlotte  Russe.  jPumpkin  pie. 


OCTOBER  25TH. 
Pot-au-feu. 

Halibut,  with  parsley  sauce. 
The  beef,  with  the  vegetables. 
Potato  salad. 

Tapioca  pudding,  sauce  au 
quatre  fruits. 

Cream-cakes. 

NOVEMBER  30TH. 

Mock  turtle. 

Turkey,  cranberry  sauce. 

Rice  croquettes. 

Egg-plant  stuffed. 

Snipe,  fried  oysters,  [ed  eggs. 
Water-cresses,  with  hard-boil- 
German  puffs. 

DECEMBER  14TH. 


Puree  of  beans. 

Broiled  herring,  Dutch  sauce. 
Ribs  of  beef. 


DIPHTHERIA. — A disease,  occurring  gen- 
erally in  epidemic  form,  and  characterized  by 
a peculiar  inflammation  of  the  mucotis  or  lining 
membrane  of  the  fauces,  pharynx,  and  upper 
part  of  the  air-passages  ; sometimes  the  dis- 
ease spreads  to  other  parts  of  the  mucous  mem- 
branes. Diphtheria  is  often  confounded  with 
croup  and  scarlet  fever,  and  it  was  not  until 
recent  epidemics  that  its  distinctive  character 
had  been  clearly  and  generally  recognized. 
Children  and  young  people  are  more  liable  to 
it  than  adults,  and  more  girls  suffer  from  it 
than  boys ; women  also,  are  more  liable  to  it 
than  men,  and  the  weakly  of  either  sex  more 
than  the  strong  and  healthy.  Climate  and 
season  do  not  seem  to  have  any  influence  on 
the  disorder ; it  is  equally  severe  in  the  sum- 
mer as  in  the  winter  months,  and  in  its  symp- 
toms and  mortality  it  is  the  same  in  hot  as  in 


cold  countries ; yet  various  epidemics  differ  in 
severity  and  in  extent.  It  is  quite  clear  that 
the  disease  is  contagious,  but  in  what  way  is 
not  so  manifest ; at  one  time  an  isolated  case 
will  appear  in  a village  and  not  spread  widely, 
while  on  another  occasion  a whole  district  will 
suffer  severely ; if  one  inmate  of  a house  be 
attacked  most  of  the  others  will  suffer  too,  if 
they  come  in  contact  with  the  patient.  The 
infectious  matter  is  capable  of  diffusion  into 
the  air,  and  may  be  carried  to  distant  parts,  but 
it  is  more  common  for  those  to  be  infected  who 
inhale  the  patient’s  breath,  or  who  are  in  close 
contact  with  him.  It  is  very  doubtful  if  the 
disease  can  be  taken  from  one  house  to  an- 
other by  an  unaffected  person,  but  the  pres- 
ence of  one  sick  person  in  a house  is  suffi- 
cient for  its  communication  to  another,  though 
the  two  be  kept  as  separate  as  possible.  Al- 
though every  care  be  taken  to  purify  an  apart- 
ment in  which  a patient  has  suffered  from  this 
disorder,  yet  the  infection  will  sometimes  cling 
to  it  with  remarkable  tenacity.  A case  is  re- 
ported in  which  a visitor  to  a country-house  in 
Scotland,  caught  the  disease  while  occupying 
a chamber  in  which  a case  of  diphtheria  had 
occurred  eleven  months  before.  The  infection 
may  be  disseminated  for  some  time  after  con- 
valescence has  been  established.  There 
seems  to  be  a predisposition  on  the  part  of 
some  people  to  take  this  disease ; those  who 
are  highly  nervous  or  who  have  undergone 
much  mental  activity,  and  those  who  have 
suffered  from  exhaustion  or  bodily  fatigue  are 
more  liable  than  others.  The  disease  seems 
to  attack  indifferently  all  classes  of  society. 
The  time  between  the  first  exposure  to  the 
disease  and  the  appearance  of  the  disorder, 
varies  from  thirty  hours  to  several  days. 

Symptoms. — The  onset  of  an  attack  is 
marked  by  lassitude  and  prostration,  aching 
in  the  back  and  legs,  pallor  of  the  skin,  and 
pain  in  the  throat ; in  children,  there  may  be 
diarrhoea,  headache,  giddiness,  and  a stupid 
condition.  The  pulse  becomes  quick  and  may 
beat  120  or  140  times  a minute,  but  the  respira- 
tions are  not  particularly  increased.  The 
tongue  is  moist  and  slightly  coated,  the  appe- 
tite is  impaired,  and  there  is  more  or  less 
thirst.  The  throat  is  sore,  and  it  is  difficult 
and  even  painful  to  swallow,  and  this  pain  ex- 
tends often  to  the  ears,  and  there  is  a feeling 
of  stiffness  in  the  muscles  of  the  neck.  On 
looking  inside  the  mouth  there  will  be  found 
some  swelling  and  redness  of  the  soft  palate 
and  tonsils,  and  the  back  part  of  the  throat. 
If  the  inflammation  extends  upward  into  the 
nasal  passage  there  may  be  a glairy  discharge 
from  the  nose,  or,  if  it  spreads  downward  into 
the  larynx,  symptoms  similar  to  those  met  with 
in  croup  will  appear.  There  will  then  be 
hoarseness  and  weakness  of  voice,  with  cough 
and  crowing  inspiration,  and  if  the  obstruction 
be  very  great  there  will  be  imperfect  expan- 
sion of  the  chest,  pallor  of  the  face,  and  lividity 
of  the  lips.  When  the  inflammation  extends  to 
the  larynx,  the  mortality,  especially  in  children, 


1G0 


DIPHTHERIA 


DISINFECTANTS 


is  very  great;  in  adults,  this  extension  of  the 
disease  is  less  dangerous,  and  they  are  often 
able  to  expectorate  large  pieces  of  the  false 
membrane.  The  most  characteristic  appear- 
ance in  diphtheria  is  the  presence  of  a mem- 
brane which  covers  more  or  less  of  the  sur- 
face about  the  upper  or  back  part  of  the 
mouth ; this  membrane  is  soft  and  of  ashy- 
grey  color,  and  when  removed  leaves  behind  a 
red  and  raw  surface,  and  then  it  rapidly  forms 
again.  The  swelling  of  the  mucous  membrane 
and  the  amount  of  false  membrane  may  be  so 
great  as  to  prevent  swallowing,  and  to  endan- 
ger life  by  preventing  enough  air  from  enter- 
ing the  lungs.  The  inability  to  swallow  is 
often  very  great,  and  when  fluids  are  taken  in 
this  condition  they  are  apt  to  come  back 
through  the  nose  ; complete  inability  to  swal- 
low seldom  comes  on  before  the  third  or  fourth 
week  of  the  disease,  and  it  arises  from  a par- 
alysis of  the  muscles  of  deglutition.  ■ This 
condition  is  a very  serious  one  and  adds  much 
to  the  danger  of  the  case  ; the  pulse  may  be- 
come weak  and  slow,  and  death  may  occur 
suddenly  from  fainting  or  any  undue  exertion. 
Loss  of  power  and  irregular  action  of  the 
muscles  of  the  pharynx  is  the  earliest  and 
most  common  form  of  nervous  affection  in  this 
disease,  and  it  may  disappear  rapidly  and  leave 
no  mischief  behind,  but  sometimes  it  lasts  for 
weeks  or  months  and  retards  convalescence. 
Every  case  of  diphtheria  must  be  regarded 
with  anxiety,  as  it  is  attended  with  considera- 
ble danger ; and  any  extension  of  the  deposit 
in  the  fauces,  the  onset  of  a hoarse  voice,  or 
croupy  breathing,  or  the  occurrence  of  hem- 
orrhages, are  serious  symptoms. 

Treatment. — There  is  no  drug  which  can 
be  looked  upon  as  a specific  for  diphtheria,  nor 
are  there  any  means  of  eliminating  the  disease 
when  once  it  has  attacked  an  individual ; yet,  a 
great  deal  may  be  done  at  the  outset  if  the 
disease  is  recognized  sufficiently  early.  As  a 
local  remedy  a solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  should 
be  thoroughly  applied  to  the  diseased  surface  of 
the  throat,  but  not  so  forcibly  as  to  rub  off  the 
membrane  and  cause  bleeding  to  follow.  Hy- 
drochloric acid  and  honey  have  been  used  for  a 
similar  purpose,  but  in  all  cases  medical  advice 
must  at  once  be  sought,  as  it  is  dangerous  to 
depend  on  merely  domestic  treatment.  The 
patient  should  be  placed  in  a well-ventilated 
room,  and  the  air  should  be  between  6o°  and 
65°  Fahrenheit,  and  kept  constantly  moist  by 
letting  steam  escape  from  a kettle  of  boiling 
water.  Complete  rest  must  be  obtained  as 
there  is  always  great  prostration,  and  any  ex- 
ercise or  movement  on  the  part  of  the  patient 
should  be  avoided  so  as  to  store  up  all  his 
strength.  Milk  may  be  given  to  the  extent  of 
three  or  four  pints  a day,  and  brandy  can  be 
mixed  with  it,  if  it  is  necessary.  Beef-tea, 
chicken-broth,  and  eggs  may  also  be  given  ; it 
is  of  no  use  giving  solid  food,  as  the  patient  will 
not  care  for  it,  and  it  will  create  pain  in  swal- 
lowing. Great  care  must  be  taken  that  the 
food  fs  given  in  small  quantities  at  a time,  and 


slowly,  because  in  consequence  of  the  paraly- 
sis of  the  muscles  of  deglutition  which  often 
ensues,  the  act  of  swallowing  is  rendered 
dangerefhs.  Where  there  is  much  obstruction 
in  the  larynx  the  operation  of  tracheotomy  may 
be  resorted  to,  but  this  proceeding  is  attended 
with  a very  small  amount  of  success,  and  is 
nearly  always  followed  by  a fatal  result  in  very 
young  children.  When  convalescence  begins, 
the  return  to  solid  diet  must  be  slow  and  grad- 
ual ; for  many  weeks  the  nutriment  should  be 
light  and  wholesome,  and  not  too  much  should 
be  taken  at  a time.  As  soon  as  the  patient 
can  be  removed  with  safety,  and  without  carry- 
ing infection  to  others,  removal  to  country  air  or 
the  sea-side  is  most  beneficial,  and  it  is  the 
more  needful  in  these  cases  as  there  is  so 
much  prostration  and  anaemia  for  many  weeks 
afterwards  ; yet,  even  in  bad  cases,  the  health 
will  in  time  be  thoroughly  restored.  Cold 
bathing,  tonic  medicines,  moderate  exercise, 
or  even  a sea  voyage,  are  very  valuable  aids  in 
restoring  the  health.  In  cold  weather  a bath 
is  not  advisable  unless  the  chill  is  taken  off 
the  water,  but  in  summer  time  it  is  most  re- 
freshing and  strengthening ; carriage  exercise 
may  at  first  be  taken,  or  a short  walk  during 
the  fine  part  of  a day,  but  no  great  exertion 
should  be  made,  and  the  patient  should  rest  as 
soon  as  a tired  feeling  comes  on.  Although 
this  disease  is  not  so  communicable  by  the 
clothes  as  scarlet  fever  and  some  other  disor- 
ders, yet  it  is  always  advisable  that  any  articles 
of  clothing  should  be  thoroughly  disinfected 
before  being  worn  again,  and  for  this  purpose 
they  may  be  placed  in  an  oven  and  exposed  to 
a high  temperature ; a similar  remark  will 
apply  to  the  bedding,  curtains,  sheets,  etc.,  of 
the  room  in  which  the  patient  has  lain.  When 
possible,  the  house  in  which  the  disease  has 
broken  out  should  be  well  cleansed  and  fumi- 
gated ; it  may  be  kept  empty  for  this  purpose 
for  a week  or  ten  days,  and  chloride  of  lime 
may  be  sprinkled  about  the  rooms  on  the 
floors. 

DISHES.  (See  Earthenware.) 

DISINFECTANTS.  This  term  is  confined 
here  to  substances  used  for  destroying  noxious 
odors  or  vapors  or  whatever  may  produce  in- 
fection. A large  variety  of  disinfectants  are 
sold  in  the  drug  stores,  and  in  summer  time, 
especially,  some  one  of  them  should  be  in 
frequent  use  in  every  house.  The  best  disin- 
fectants are,  of  course,  fresh  air  (abundant  ven- 
tilation) and  an  abundance  of  water  (thorough 
cleansing) ; but  with  our  defective  drainage 
something  more  is  frequently  necessary.  The 
following  suggestions  are  from  a circular  of  the 
Board  of  Health  of  New  York: — 

I.  To  disinfect  diarrhoeal  discharges,  and 
to  purify  water-closets,  privies,  drains,  and 
cesspools,  dissolve  ten  pounds  of  sulphate  of 
iron  (copperas)  in  five  gallons  of  water,  and  add 
half  a pint  of  common  carbolic  acid.  Keep  a 
small  cpiantity  of  this  solution  in  the  vessel 
which  is  to  receive  the  discharges.  Pour  a 
pint  of  the  solution  into  the  pan  of  the  water- 


DISLOCATIONS 


1G1 


closet  three  or  four  times  a day,  or  add  half 
the  entire  quantity  to  the  contents  of  an  or- 
dinary privy-vault.  If  this  practice  is  made 
general  in  all  private  dwellings,  not  only  will 
the  house-drains  of  such  dwellings  be  disin- 
fected, but  the  benefit  will  extend  even  to  the 
public  sewers 

II.  During  the  prevalence  of  cholera,  all 
diarrhceal  discharges  should  be  received  in 
vessels  containing  some  of  the  disinfecting 
fluid,  before  being  thrown  into  the  privy- 
vault  or  pan  of  the  water-closet. 

III.  Clothing,  sheets,  towels,  etc.,  from  pa- 
tients with  infectious  diseases,  should  be  im- 
mediately boiled  ; but,  when  this  is  impractica- 
ble, they  may  be  thrown  into  a tub  of  water,  in 
which  have  been  dissolved  eight  ounces  of 
sulphate  of  zinc,  with  one  or  two  ounces  of 
carbolic  acid  to  every  three  or  four  gallons  of 
water,  or  in  water  containing  sufficient  per- 
manganate of  potash  to  maintain  a light-pur- 
ple color,  until  the  articles  can  be  boiled. 

IV.  To  absorb  moisture  from  damp  cellars, 
closets,  courts,  and  sunken  areas,  use  fresh 
stone  lime  finely  broken,  and  suitably  distrib- 
uted, or  placed  on  plates  in  the  places  to  be 
dried.  Whitewashing  should  be  done  with 
pure  fresh  lime.  Putrid  and  offensive  gases 
may  be  destroyed  by  chloride  of  lime.  (See 
Fumigation.) 

DISLOCATIONS. — In  most  cases  of  dis- 
location it  will  be  best  to  wait  for  medical  aid, 
which  should  be  immediately  summoned ; but 
when  this  cannot  be  obtained  at  once,  of  course 
some  effort  must  be  made  to  relieve  the  sufferer. 
Before  anything  is  done,  however,  make  yourself 
very  sure  that  it  is  a dislocation  and  not  a fracture, 
for  any  mistake  may  result  in  serious  injury. 

Elbow  (Dislocation  of). — This  is  caused  by 


Dislocation  of  the  Elbow. 


i a fall  on  the  hand,  one  or  both  bones  of  the 
arm  being  driven  backward.  Seat  the  patient  on 
a low  seat,  or  on  the  ground  ; place  your  knee 
i inside  the  bend  of  the  elbow,  then  grasp  the  arm 
firmly  just  below  the  elbow  witli  one  hand, 
and  the  wrist  with  the  other  (if  another  person 
is  present  let  him  take  the  wrist)  ; pull  firmly, 
and  at  the  same  time  bend  the  arm  gently  in- 
wards, and  the  bone  will  in  most  cases  return 
to  the  socket  without  difficulty. 

Hip  (Dislocation  of). — When  this  happens, 
the  leg  is  shortened,  and  the  foot  turned  in- 
wards so  as  to  rest  upon  the  other  one  ; but  be 
sure  it  is  out  before  attempting  anything.  In 
case  of  need,  lay  the  patient  on  his  back,  and 
seat  yourself  beside  him  on  the  injured  side ; 
take  off  your  boot  and  place  your  foot  between 
the  legs,  protecting  the  parts  with  a folded 
towel ; catch  hold  of  the  ankle  or  knee  and  pull 
hard  until  the  bone  slips  into  its  place.  This 
plan,  however,  will  seldom  succeed  unless  the 
operator  is  taller  and  stronger  than  his  patient. 
If  the  accident  happen  to  a muscular  man,  pass 
a towel  round  the  upper  part  of  the  thigh  (catch 
hold  of  it  on  the  inside  of  the  leg),  let  one  or  two 
assistants  grasp  the  leg  itself,  and  all  pull  firm- 
ly but  gently  downwards  for  some  time  until 
the  muscles  of  the  limb  relax. 

Jaw  (Dislocation  of.)  — Wide  yawning, 
laughing,  etc.,  may  cause  this.  The  mouth  is 
wide  open,  and  cannot  be  closed ; the  chin  is 
thrown  forward,  speech  and  swallowing  are  very 
difficult,  if  not  impossible  ; and  in  front  of  the 
ear  is  an  unnatural  hollow.  Place  your  hand 
on  each  cheek,  and  insert  your  thumbs,  pro- 
tected with  a napkin,  into  the  mouth  as  far 
back  as  possible  ; then  press  the  thumbs  down- 
wards and  backwards,  and  at  the  same  time 
raise  the  chin  with  the  outer  fingers  of  the 
hands.  If  these  movements  are  made  with 
sufficient  force,  and  at  the  same  moment,  the 
jaw  will  slip  into  its  place.  A small  walking 
stick,  used  like  a bit  in  a horse’s  mouth,  may 
be  tried  instead  of  the  thumbs. 

Neck  (Dislocation  of). — This  is  caused  by 
a heavy  fall  on  the  side  of  the  head.  The  heacl 
is  turned  to  one  side  and  fixed,  and  of  course 
immediate  action  is  necessary.  Lay  the  person 
gently  upon  his  back,  plant  one  knee  against 
each  shoulder ; grasp  the  head  firmly ; pull 
gently  upwards  from  the  shoulder,  and  at  the 
same  time  turn  the  head  into  its  proper  place. 

Shoulder  (Dislocation  of). — In  this  form  of 
injury  the  arm-bone  is  displaced  from  its  con- 
tact with  the  blade-bone.  The  arm  cannot  be 
moved  without  pain ; the  shoulder  seems  flat- 
tened ; the  elbow  stands  out  from  the  side,  can- 
not be  made  to  touch  the  ribs,  nor  can  it  be 
brought  up  easily  to  a level  with  the  shoulder ; 
and  the  head  of  the  bone,  rounded  in  shape, 
may  be  felt  in  the  arm-pit  if  the  fingers  are 
pushed  well  up  while  the  arm  is  slightly  moved 
outwards.  Lay  the  patient  flat  on  his  back  and 
sit  down  beside  him  on  the  injured  side  ; pull 
off  your  boot,  place  your  heel  in  the  arm-pit, 
take  hold  of  the  arm  with  your  hands,  or  a long 
towel  fastened  to  it  and  passed  round  your  neck. 


I 


1G2 


DISLOCATIONS 


and  pull  steadily.  After  pulling  some  time, 
tell  the  patient  to  turn  round  ; while  he  is  try- 
ing to  do  this,  give  a sudden  strong  pull,  jerk 
your  heel  against  the  head  of  the  bone  in  the 
arm-pit,  and  it  will  probably  return  to  its  socket 
with  a snap. 

Hamilton  recommends,  in  his  Surgery , the 
method  of  treating  dislocation  of  the  shoulder 
shown  in  the  above  cut.  Push  the  shoulder 
gently  but  firmly  forward,  and  at  the  same  time 
raise  the  arm  upwards  and  backwards. 

Thumb  or  Finger  (Dislocation  of). — A sur- 
geon’s assistance  should  be  sought  for  this,  as 
it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  manage.  If  such  as- 
sistance cannot  be  had,  get  a strong  person  to 


hold  the  wrist,  or  if  alone,  lay  the  patient  on 
his  back.  Rub  some  powdered  resin  on  the 
hand  to  prevent  slipping ; pull  steadily  at  the 
thumbs  or  finger  for  a minute  or  two ; then 
turn  it  backwards,  and  at  the  same  time  push  it 
into  its  place  with  the  other  hand. 

Wrist,  Knee,  or  Ankle  (Dislocation  of). — 
When  such  dislocations  occur  they  are  gen- 
erally so  severe  that  they  should  be  at  once 
placed  under  a surgeon’s  treatment.  When 
this  is  not  practicable,  however,  the  method  of 
action  is  the  same  in  all  cases.  By  pulling  and 
stretching  the  limb  for  some  time,  the  muscles 
will  become  so  relaxed  that  the  joint  can  be 
pushed  back  into  its  proper  place. 


DOGS 

DIURETICS. — Medicines  which  augment 
the  secretion  and  promote  the  flow  of  urine. 
In  slight  stoppages  of  this  secretion  there  is  no 
harm  in  trying  mild  diuretics,  such  as  the  follow- 
ing: (i)  Nitrate  of  potass,  ten  grains;  sweet 
spirits  of  nitre,  one  drachm : spearmint  water, 
one  ounce  ; mix,  and  give  a tablespoonful  twice  a 
day.  Or  (2)  a strong  infusion  of  the  peel  of  the 
young  branches  of  the  elder-tree  may  be  made, 
with  the  addition  of  half  an  ounce  of  cream  of 
tartar  to  each  pint ; and  of  this  infusion  two  or 
three  ounces  may  be  given  three  times  a day. 
Where  the  disturbance  is  great,  however,  it  is 
best  to  consult  a physician,  as  much  mischief 
may  be  done  by  stimulating  diuretic  in  case  of 
inflammation  of  the  kidneys. 

DIZZINESS, — (See  Vertigo.) 

DOESKIN.— A compact  kind  of  heavy  twilled 
broadcloth,  three-quarters  of  a yard  wide,  much 
used  for  men’s  pantaloons  and  vests.  The  best 
is  the  French,  though  the  English  is  very  good 
in  the  finer  qualities  and  has  the  reputation  of 
being  most  durable.  Doeskin  is  generally  black 
in  color,  and  should  be  well  shrunk  before  cut- 
ting into  clothing. 

DOG. — The  dog  shows  the  most  valuable  and 
complete  conquest  ever  made  by  man  over  the 
brute  creation.  Even  in  civilized  countries  he 
is  only  less  useful  than  the  horse,  though  in  the 
cities  his  position  is  chiefly  that  of  a household 
pet.  The  Newfoundland  is  the  choicest  and 
noblest  of  all  breeds  of  the  dog,  and  of  this  the 
St.  Bernard  variety  is  the  best ; they  are  very 
large  and  powerful,  extremely  docile,  and  their 
intelligence  is  in  some  respects  almost  human. 
Next  to  these  the  English  Spaniel  is  perhaps 
the  finest  species  of  dogs ; but  for  a watch  or 
yard  dog  none  is  equal  to  the  bull-dog,  whose 
ferocity  is  at  times  more  like  that  of  a wild 
animal  than  anything  else,  and  whose  strength 
makes  him  a terrible  foe  even  to  man.  The 
choice,  however,  is  almost  unlimited,  and  the 
satisfaction  which  a dog  will  afford  depends 
always  more  on  the  individual  than  on  the  breed. 
The  small  pet  dogs,  such  as  pugs,  poodles, 
Italian  greyhounds,  King  Charles’  breed,  etc., 
are  perhaps  the  most  degenerate  productions  of 
the  genus,  and  striking  instances  of  that  modify- 
ing influence  to  which  man  subjects  all  nature. 
Dogs  should  always  be  kept  out  of  doors  as  much 
as  possible  ; and  in  the  cities,  where  the  limits 
within  which  they  are  confined  are  necessarily 
very  narrow,  they  should  be  taken  out  for  a daily 
romp  or  walk.  I f kept  indoors  too  constantly 

they  lose  all  that  vigor  and  high  spirit  which 
distinguishes  them  from  all  Other  domestic 
animals. 

Distemper  in  Dogs. — This  is  almost  the 
only  disease  to  which  dogs  are  liable  which  the)' 
cannot  cure  themselves  if  allowed  to  run  at 
large.  It  is  contagious,  and  seems  to  be  nearl\ 
always  imparted  by  contact.  The  symptoms  of 
it  are  readily  recognized.  The  eyes  become 
red,  weak,  and  watery ; the  nose  hot  and  dry ; 
any  movement  in  the  air  excites  a cough  or  a 
sneeze ; and  there  is  a general  fever  and  loss  ol 
appetite.  The  running  from  the  nose,  as  the 


DOILY 


DOVER’S  rOWDER 


1G3 


disease  proceeds,  becomes  after  some  days 
mucous  or  purulent,  loading  the  eyes  and  ob- 
structing the  nostrils.  It  then  lodges  in  the 
bronchial  tubes,  preventing  the  free  access  of 
air  to  the  lungs  ; and  if  it  reaches  this  stage  is 
very  likely  to  prove  fatal.  A good  remedy  for 
distemper  in  its  earlier  stages  is  to  force  the 
dog  to  inhale  the  fumes  of  burning  sulphur  for 
five  or  ten  minutes  every  day  until  distinctly 
relieved.  The  following,  however,  is  the  sur- 
est medicine  : Take  three  grains  of  antimonial 
powder,  ten  grains  of  nitre,  and  three  grains 
of  powdered  ipecacuanha:  make  into  a ball 
and  force  down  the  throat  two  or  three  times 
a day.  If  there  is  much  cough,  add  from  half 
a grain  to  a grain  of  digitalis,  and  every  three 
or  four  days  give  an  emetic.  Two  to  four 
grains  of  tartar  emetic  in  a meat  ball  forms  an 
emetic. 

Hydrophobia. — When  a dog  is  suffering 
from  this  disease  he  becomes  solitary,  morose, 
and  sullen  ; and  after  a day  or  two  begins  to 
run  about  wildly,  biting  at  whatever  comes  in 
his  way.  As  the  disease  advances,  he  becomes 
more  furious,  he  breathes  quickly  and  heavily, 
his  mouth  is  continually  open,  the  tongue  hangs 
out,  and  the  lips  and  jaws  are  covered  with 
froth.  As  soon  as  any  of  these  symptoms 
appear  the  dog  must  be  killed.  There  is  no 
truth  in  the  prevalent  idea  that  hot  weather  is 
the  cause  of  hydrophobia.  (For  the  disease 
in  man,  see  Hydrophobia.) 

DOILY. — A small  napkin,  generally  figured 
and  fringed,  usually  placed  on  a plate  under 
the  finger-bowl  with  the  dessert  at  dinner.  It 
is  manufactured  in  pieces,  containing  a fixed 
number  of  doilies,  and  is  generally  so  bought. 

DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  {See  Cat,  Cow, 
Dog,  Horse,  Pig,  and  Poultry.) 

DORY. — A species  of  fish  much  prized  in 
England  as  food,  but  extremely  rare  in  our 
markets.  One  variety  known  as  “ bristly  dory” 


or  “ blunt-nose  shiner”  is  occasionally  offered 
for  sale  in  the  fall  and  winter  months.  Its  flesh 
is  delicate  and  sweet,  though  the  quantity  is 
small  compared  to  the  amount  of  bones.  Large 
dories  are  best  boiled  ; smaller  ones  fried. 

DOSES.  {See  at  end  of  article  on  DRUGS.) 

DOUCHE  BATH.  {See  Bath.) 

DOUGHNUTS.  — Take Eggs,  4;  sugar, 
K lb  ; butter,  2 oz  ; flour,  1 lb  ; boiled  milk ; nut- 
meg, cinnamon,  and  a few  drops  of  some  es- 
sence. Beat  together  four  eggs  with  half  a 
pound  of  sugar;  stir  in  two  ounces  of  melted 


butter,  and  then  add  a pound  of  flour  and 
enough  boiled  milk  to  make  a rather  stiff 
dough;  flavor  to  taste  with  nutmeg,  cinnamon, 
and  a few  drops  of  some  essence ; cut  into 
shapes  with  tumbler  or  knife,  and  fry  brown, 
in  hot  lard.  When  done,  sift  sugar  over  the 
top  and  serve  hot. 

Isle  of  Wight.  — Take : — Flour,  4 lbs : 
lard,  4 oz;  brown  sugar,  yz  lb;  allspice,  2 
tablespoonfuls  ; cinnamon,  1 drachm  ; cloves, 
]/z  drachm ; mace,  2 large  blades ; brewer’s 
yeast,  2 tablespoonfuls  ; milk ; currants. 

Work  smoothly  together,  with  the  hand  four 
pounds  of  flour  and  four  ounces  of  good  lard  ; 
add  half  a pound  of  fine  brown  sugar,  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  allspice,  one  drachm  of 
pounded  cinnamon,  half  a drachm  of  cloves, 
two  large  blades  of  mace  beaten  to  powder, 
two  tablespoonfuls  of  fresh  yeast,  and  as  much 
new  milk  as  will  make  the  whole  into  a rather 
firm  dough  ; let  this  stand  till  tender  (a  little 
over  an  hour)  near  the  fire,  then  knead  it  well 
and  make  it  into  balls  the  size  of  a very  small 
apple  ; hollow  them  with  the  thumb,  and  en- 
close a few  currants  in  the  middle  ; gather  the 
paste  well  over  them  and  when  light,  drop  the 
doughnuts  into  a sauce-pan  half  filled  with  boil- 
ing lard.  When  they  are  equally  colored  to  a 
fine  brown,  lift  them  out  and  dry  them  before 
the  fire  on  the  back  of  a sieve.  The  lard  should 
boil  only  just  before  they  are  dropped  into  it, 
or  the  outside  will  be  scorched  before  the  inside 
is  sufficiently  done. 

Raised. — Take  .--Sugar,  1 lb;  milk,  1 qt ; 
home-made  yeast,  1 teacupful ; flour,  3 pts ; 
eggs,  4;  salt,  1 teaspoonful;  cinnamon,  2 tea- 
spoonfuls ; mace  or  nutmeg,  1 teaspoonful ; 
butter,  y lb. 

Beat  together  a pound  of  sugar,  and  three 
quarters  of  a pound  of  butter ; add  a quart  of 
new  milk,  a teacupful  of  yeast,  and  three  pints. 
of  flour;  set  to  rise  over  night.  In  the  morn- 
ing beat  four  eggs  to  a light  froth,  and  stir 
them  into  the  batter  with  a teaspoonful  of  salt, 
two  teaspoonfuls  of  cinnamon,  and  one  tea- 
spoonful of  mace  or  nutmeg ; add  enough  flour 
to  make  a stiff  dough  ; set  to  rise  three  hours 
or  until  light ; then  roll  out,  cut  into  shapes, 
and  fry  in  hot  lard  till  brown.  Sift  sugar  on 
the  top  while  they  are  hot. 

DOVE. — The  turtle-dove  is  smaller,  but  in 
general  appearance  very  similar  to  the  wild; 
pigeon,  of  which  it  is  probably  the  original 
stock,  and  in  point  of  flavor  is  one  of  the  best 
game-birds  known  ; but  in  the  eastern  markets 
it  is  seldom  found  for  sale,  except  as  a pet. 
Doves  are  at  their  best  in  August  and  Sep- 
tember, but  may  be  had  occasionally  through- 
out the  winter.  Cook  like  wild  pigeon. 

DOVER'S  POWDER.— Compound  Ipecac- 
uanha Powder.  It  contains  ipecacuanha  and 
opium,  agrain  of  each,  rubbed  up  with  ten  grs. 
of  sulphate  of  potash,  and  so  it  must  be  pre- 
scribed with  a due  regard  to  the  quantity  of 
opium  it  contains.  Ten  grains  of  the  powder  is 
the  usual  full  dose.  It  is  a powerful  diaphoretic 
— that  is  to  say,  it  promotes  free  perspiration.. 


1G4 


DOWN 


DRAINAGE 


and  is  consequently  of  great  service  in  many 
maladies.  It  does  not  agree  with  everybody, 
and  at  all  times  it  is  advisable  to  take  precau- 
tions against  cold  after  its  use.  In  the  feverish 
stage  of  a common  cold,  Dover’s  Powder  is 
remarkably  effective,  and  frequently  cuts  short 
the  malady.  When  the  patient  is  cold  and 
shivering,  but  the  skin  hot  and  the  nose  stuffed, 
ten  grains  of  the  powder  at  bedtime,  putting 
the  feet  into  hot  water  at  the  same  time,  and 
promptly  getting  covered  over  with  the  bed- 
clothes, will  generally  cause  a profuse  sweat, 
and  will  probably  benefit  the  patient  greatly. 
A cold  sponge  bath  is  advisable  next  morning, 
and  the  bowels  must  be  seen  to  if  confined. 

DOWN. — There  are  several  kinds  of  down  ; 
that  called  gray  down  or  white  down  is  ob- 
tained from  the  common  goose,  and  eider  down 
from  the  eider  duck.  This  last  is  taken  partly 
from  the  bird  itself,  and  partly  from  the  nest 
in  which  it  broods,  and  is  brought  to  this 
country  from  Greenland,  Iceland,  Northern 
Russia  and  the  circum-polar  regions.  It  is 
very  expensive  and  should  be  used  only  for 
bed-coverings  ; to  sleep  on  it  destroys  its  elas- 
ticity, without  which  it  is  valueless. 

DRAFT.  (See  Bill  of  Exchange.) 

DRAINAGE. — Every  house  should  have  a 
suitable  drain  for  the  removal  of  its  liquid 
wastes, — such  as  the  outflow  from  the  kitchen 
sink,  and  all  manner  of  foul  waters.  The  charac- 
ter of  the  interior  drainage  must,  of  course,  de- 
pend on  the  circumstances, conditions  and  means 
of  the  owner ; but  no  house  is  a safe  or  fit- 
habitation  which  has  not  some  well  devised  and 
soundly  constructed  exit-drain. 

It  may  almost  be  said  that  the  less  complete 
the  interior  arrangements  and  the  smaller  the 
amount  of  liquid  to  be  drained  away,  the  more 
care  must  be  given  to  the  exit-drain.  If  in  ad- 
dition to  the  kitchen  waste,  it  carries  a plentiful 
supply  from  water-closets,  bath-rooms,  wash- 
bowls, etc.,  it  is  much  more  likely  to  keep  itself 
clean  than  if  the  only  liquid  reaching  it  is  that 
flowing  from  the  kitchen  sink  containing  a con- 
siderable amount  of  hot  and  melted  fat,  which, 
as  soon  as  it  loses  its  heat,  congeals  and 
attaches  itself  to  the  sides  of  the  drain,  arrest- 
ing the  organic  refuse  that  floats  in  the  water, 
and,  sooner  or  later,  inevitably  choking  the 
passage. 

One  common  mistake  with  regard  to  house 
drains  is  that  they  are  made  too  large.  It  is 
incorrect  to  suppose  that  a very  large  drain  is 
safer  than  one  of  moderate  (but  sufficient)  size, 
because  the  smaller  the  drain  the  more  con- 
centrated the  flow,  and  the  more  thorough  the 
flushing  when  larger  amounts  of  water  are 
passed  through  it,  (as  on  washing  day).  If  the 
liquid  is  received  direct  from  the  kitchen  with- 
out any  provision  for  stopping  the  grease,  a 
twelve  inch  drain  will  soon  be  filled  to  a certain 
depth  and  the  water-way  will  assume  a broad 
flat  form,  over  which  the  flow  will  spread  itself 
and  become  too  thin  and  too  slow  to  produce 
the  proper  scouring  effect. 

A much  smaller  pipe  would  have  this  ac- 


cumulation of  grease  confined  within  a narrow- 
er channel  and  the  whole  of  a copious  flow, 
being  concentrated  upon  it,  would  have  a much 
better  chance  to  cut  it  away  and  remove  it.  It 
may  be  taken  as  a fixed  rule  that  no  private 
house,  no  matter  how  large,  can  possibly  need 
for  its  drainage  a pipe  larger  than  four  inches  in 
diameter.  Neither  would  it  ordinarily  be  pru- 
dent to  use  a pipe  smaller  than  this  for  any 
house,  and  this  size  may,  therefore,  under  ordi- 
nary circumstances,  be  taken  as  an  invariable 
one  for  private  houses. 

The  drain  should  be  as  straight  as  possible. 
Every  turn  increases  friction,  and  increases  the 
danger  of  obstruction.  Also,  it  is  easy,  with  a 
straight  drain,  to  pass  through  a stiff  wire, 
from  the  outer  end,  and  thus  remove  any  ac- 
cumulation. 

The  drain  should  have  always  as  much  fall 
as  possible.  Even  an  angle  of  forty-five  de- 
grees would  not  be  too  steep;  but  if  the  pipes 
are  laid  with  care,  if  an  absolutely  uniform 
inclination  is  secured,  even  so  little  descent  as 
one  foot  in  one  hundred  feet  will  suffice. 

The  question  of  material  is  a very  impor- 
tant one,  especially  with  drains  intended  for 
the  carrying  off,  other  matter  than  pure  water. 
These  should  be  not  only  straight  and  uniform 
in  bore,  but  they  should  be  made  of  a smooth, 
impervious  material.  The  common  stone  drain 
(“  blind  drain  ”)  is  in  every  way  bad.  Its  chan- 
nel is  irregular  and  rough  ; its  inequalities  ac- 
cumulate deposits  of  fermenting  solid  matter; 
it  gives  easy  access  to  rats  and  mice,  which  are 
tempted  into  it  by  the  waste  food  it  contains  ; 
and,  worst  of  all,  instead  of  carrying  its  liquids 
safely  and  rapidly  to  the  point  of  outlet,  it  al- 
lows these  to  ooze  and  dribble  away  into  the 
soil,  often  leaching  down  under  the  foundation 
of  the  house,  or  finding  their  way  into  the  well 
from  which  drinking  water  is  taken. 

It  is  quite  customary  with  those  who  wish  to 
do  thorough  work  to  make  the  house-drain  of 
brick,  and  this  is  certainly  an  improvement  upon 
stone,  but  more  cannot  be  said  for  it.  It  is 
necessary  to  make  a brick  drain  unduly  large,  and 
it  is  impossible  to  make  it  so  entirely  true  and 
smooth  as  is  necessary  for  the  best  efficiency. 
In  addition  to  this,  its  material  is  so  porous  that 
it  can  never  be  long  relied  upon  to  afford  a 
perfectly  impervious  conductor  of  the  foul 
and  dangerous  material  that  it  is  its  office  to 
remove. 

The  much  lauded  cement  pipe  is  of  good 
form,  makes  a true  joint,  anil  seems  at  first 
sight  to  be  all  that  can  be  asked.  It  has  been 
found,  however,  that  there  is  a want  of  uniform- 
ity in  the  quality  of  these  pipes  which  renders 
them  somewhat  unreliable,  and  they  have  the 
very  important  objection  for  such  uses  as  this, 
that  the  slight  roughness  of  their  interior  sur- 
face tends  to  catch  particles  of  hair  or  fibre,  or 
other  material  which  become  a nucleus  for  fur- 
ther accumulations,  which  form  a firm  and  close 
attachment  with  the  material  of  the  pipe. 

Experience  has  pretty  well  established  a be- 
lief that  the  only  entirely  safe  and  reliable  ma- 


DRAINAGE 


I Go 


terial  for  this  use  is  either  iron,  which  is  incon- 
venient to  repair,  or  the  vitrified  stone-ware 
pipe,  now  universally  used  where  the  best  work' 
is  done. 

Not  only  must  the  drain  be  laid  in  a straight 
line,  and  on  a true  fall,  but  the  greatest  care 
must  be  taken  that  in  fitting  the  ends  into  the 
sockets  the  bore  is  brought  to  a true  line,  and 
that  in  closing  the  joints,  (while  they  are  tight- 
ly and  securely  cemented  so  that  there  can  be 
no  possible  leaking,)  no  cement  is  forced  through 
to  the  interior  of  the  pipe  to  create  roughness 
in  the  water-way.  Too  much  care  cannot  be 
given  to  the  foundation  upon  which  these  pipes 
are  laid,  and  it  is  never  safe  (unless  they  are 
laid  in  a heavy  bed  of  concrete)  to  put  them  on 
land  that  has  for  any  purpose,  even  within  so 
long  as  a year,  been  dug  and  refilled  below  the 
level  to  which  they  are  to  lie,  for  the  reason 
that  the  slightest  settling  of  the  ground,  coup- 
led with  the  heavy  pressure  of  the  earth  above, 
is  quite  sure  to  deflect  the  pipes  sufficiently 
to  crack  open  their  joints,  and  cause  a leakage. 


Where  there  is  plumbing  work  in  the  house, 
which  will  furnish  a considerable  flow  of  water, 
it  is  best,  where  practicable,  unless  a flush  tank 
is  used  at  the  kitchen  inlet,  to  admit  the  kitchen 
outlet,  at  a point  between  the  outlet  of  the  drain 
anti  its  connection  with  the  soil  pipe,  for  the  rea- 
son that  the  soil  pipe  is  more  often  flushed,  and 
carries  a larger  proportion  of  pure  water  which 
will,  by  its  cleansing  action,  have  a tendency 
to  remove  any  deposit  from  the  kitchen  outflow. 

At  the  same  time,  whatever  precaution  is 
taken  in  the  way  of  flushing  the  drain,  it  is  al- 
ways wise  to  adopt  some  form  of  grease  trap, 
that  is  to  say,  to  receive  the  kitchen  outflow  im- 
mediately on  its  delivery  from  the  sink  into  a 
vessel  that  has  its  outlet  through  a bent  pipe, 
the  mouth  turning  down  below  the  surface  of 
its  water.  This  trap  need  not  be  more  than 
eighteen  inches  in  diameter,  and  a foot  deep, 
and  should  be  covered  and  have  a ventilating 
pipe,  for  its  odors  will  not  be  pleasant.  This 
mass  of  water  will  be  cold  enough  to  congeal 
the  grease  at  o.nce,  and  this  will  float  about  the 


level  of  the  outlet,  which  will  deliver  only  water 
fit  to  be  admitted  to  the  drain.  In  addition  to 
this  grease  trap,  (or  in  lieu  of  it,  where  the 
proportion  of  fatty  matters  is  small),  it  is  a 
capital  plan  to  use  a modern  invention  known 
as  Field’s  flush-tank,  shown  in  Fig.  A,  which  is 
simply  a vessel  having  its  outlet  by  a siphon  so 
arranged  as  to  come  into  action  whenever  the 
tank  is  sufficiently  filled,  flowing  copiously  until 
it  is  emptied,  and  then  accumulating  the  drib- 
bling waters  until  it  is  filled  again  for  another 
discharge.  This  arrangement  secures  the  drain 
against  the  slowly  trickling  stream  that  has  so 
great  a tendency  to  deposit  silt  in  its  course, 
and  secures  the  important  condition  that  when 
any  foul  water  is  flowing  through  the  drain  it 
shall  move  forward  in  a rapid  rush  that  will 
prevent  the  halting  of  solid  matter  by  the  way. 

The  final  disposal  of  house  drainage  is  in 
every  way  a serious  matter,  and  it  practically 
makes  less  difference  than  is  generally  suppos- 
ed whether  the  water  to  be  got  rid  of  is  only 


the  kitchen  waste,  or  the  whole  offscourings  of 
a house  with  complete  plumbing  appliances. 
What  we  have  to  deal  with  in  both  cases  is  the 
organic  matter  that  has  been  brought  into  the 
house,  as  food,  etc.,  and  whether  this  matter 
has  passed  through  the  additional  process  of 
digestion  or  not  does  not  materially  affect  the 
results  of  its  final  decomposition  after  its  re- 
moval. The  only  added  danger  when  water- 
closets  are  discharged  through  the  drain,  arises 
in  the  case  of  excreta  from  patients  ill  with 
such  diseases  as  typhoid  fever,  cholera,  diar- 
rhoea, etc.  Practically,  it  is  no  more  safe  to 
make  a careless  disposition  of  the  waste  from 
a small  kitchen  than  that  from  the  whole  of  a 
large  house  with  complete  water  works. 

if  the  house  can  be  brought  into  connection 
with  a public  sewer,  this  course  will  naturally 
be  followed,  and  the  sanitary  questions  arising 
are  dependent  very  much  on  the  condition  of 
the  sewers, — the  discussion  of  which  would  be 
out  of  place  here.  In  those  cases  where  there 


DRAINAGE 


166 

is  no  public  outlet  the  question  of  the  disposal 
of  liquid  wastes  becomes  extremely  serious. 

1 1 may  be  set  down  as  an  invariable  rule,  ap- 
plicable to  almost  all  conditions,  that  it  is  never 
safe  to  allow  household  wastes  to  accumulate 
in  leaching  cess-pools  from  which  their  liquid 
is  constantly  oozing  into  the  soil,  with  the  dan- 
ger that  it  will  reach  wells,  or  cellars,  or  that  it 
will  accumulate  in  the  earth  beyond  the  capaci- 
ty of  this  to  disinfect  and  decompose  its  filth. 

If  there  is  no  land  about  the  house  and  no 
sewer  for  discharge,  the  only  safe  plan  is  the 
very  inconvenient  and  costly  one  of  accumulat- 
ing the  whole  liquid  in  an  absolutely  tight  and 
thoroughly  ventilated  cistern, — to  be  pumped 
out  as  occasion  requires. 

Where  there  is  land,  even  of  small  amount 


the  best  system  is  that  by  Mr.  Moule,  (See  Fig. 
B)  the  inventor  of  the  earth  closet,  to  “divide 
and  Conquer.”  This  system,  which  is  called 
sub-soil  irrigation  has  now  been  used  sufficient- 
ly long  and  is  sufficiently  introduced  and  rec- 
ommended by  the  highest  sanitary  authorities 
to  make  it  entirely  safe  to  recommend  its  adop- 
tion. Its  simplicity  and  cheapness,  and  the 
small  amount  of  care  that  it  requires,  commend 
it  to  general  attention.  The  amount  of  land 
needed  for  its  application  is  by  no  means  large. 
Two  hundred  square  feet  will  be  quite  sufficient 
for  an  ordinary  household,  though  there  are 
certain  advantages  in  extending  the  area  where 
circumstances  allow.  Indeed  by  the  use  of  a 
rigorous  vegetation  especially  the  sunflower, 
the  Jerusalem  artichoke,  or  the  common  grape. 


B/ 


House.  I 

Fig. 

it  will  be  possible  to  get  on  with  much  less  than 
the  area  specified. 

Only  sufficient  inclination  of  the  surface  is 
required  to  secure  a flow  in  the  drains  and  one 
foot  in  one  hundred  feet  will  be  fall  enough  to 
accomplish  this,  especially  where  the  flush-tank 
is  used.  The  application  of  the  system  is  as 
follows : 

Let  the  tight  drain  deliver  into  a tightly 
cemented  small  cistern,  say  four  feet  by  four 
feet,  discharging  through  a bent  overflow  pipe 
of  which  the  inlet  is  twelve  inches  below  the 
point  at  which  it  leaves  the  wall  of  the  cistern 
(near  its  top)  Fig  C.  This  will  secure  room 
for  the  deposit  of  solid  matters  at  the  bottom 
and  for  the  floating  of  scum  at  the  top.  Once 
or  twice  a year  it  may  be  necessary  to  clean  out 
the  solid  accumulation  at  the  bottom,  which  is 
always  worth  the  cost  of  removal  as  manure.  The 
outlet  should  be  not  more  than  twelve  inches 


. R 

below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  should  be 
continued  through  open  jointed  land-drain  tiles 
say  two  inches  in  diameter,  laid  on  a foundation 
of  narrow  boards  or  of  inverted  horse  shoe 
tiles,  also  open  jointed,  and  nowhere  more  than 
about  twelve  inches  below  the  surface.  This 
drain  may  be  continuous,  or  it  may  be  the  main 
for  any  number  of  longer,  or  shorter  branches, 
— the  whole  system  acting  as  a means  for  con- 
veying the  foul  liquid  to  all  parts  of  the  area 
used  for  irrigation,  and  delivering  it  at  a point 
within  the  reach  of  the  roots  of  plants.  It 
would  probably  be  best,  when  a single  long  line 
is  not  sufficient,  to  lay  the  lateral  drains  about 
four  feet  apart. 

It  will  depend  on  the  degree  to  which  the 
grease  trap,  and  the  tight  cistern  withhold  solid 
matters  whether  the  drain  will  require  cleaning 
at  long  or  short  intervals.  The  writer  found 
his  own  irrigation  drains  arranged  as  shown  in 


DRAINAGE 


Fig.  B to  work  perfectly  for  five  years.  They 
were  then  cleansed  and  repaired  at  a cost  of  less 


than  five  dollars.  A chief  advantage  of  the 
boards  or  horse-shoe  tiles  is  to  afford  a true 
bed  that  will  facilitate  the  taking  up  and  relay- 
ing when  the  cleansing  is  done.  In  cleansing 
it  is  only  necessary  to  open  from  the  upper  end 
to  a point  where  the  drain  has  functions  that 
are  found  to  be  quite  clear. 

By  this  simple  process  liquid  matter  of  the 
foulest  and  most  dangerous  character  is  distrib- 
uted thinly,  and  evenly  through  earth  that  is 
occupied  by  the  roots  of  plants,  and  that  is  con- 
stantly permeated  by  the  atmospheric  air  on 
which  it  depends  for  its  oxydizing  and  disin- 
fecting properties. 

Means  having  been  secured  for  the  cleans- 
ing of  the  drain  by  regular  flushing  or  by  the 
use  of  a wire,  or  in  whatever  way  may  seem 
best,  and  all  danger  of  the  leaching  away  into  the 
soil  near  the  house  or  well,  of  the  contents  of 
this  drain  being  avoided,  our  next  attention 
should  be  given  to  the  disinfecting  of  the  air  of 
the  drain  itself,  and  to  preventing  the  ingress 
of  this  air  into  the  house.  The  great  disin- 
fectant under  all  such  circumstances  is  com- 
mon air,  and  there  is  no  way  in  which  we  can 
nearly  so  well  secure  ourselves  against  the 
production  of  dangerous  gases  in  a drain  as  . 
by  the  establishment  of  a free  current  of  air  u 
within  it.  ' 

In  this  work,  as  in  almost  everything  else, 
the  simplest  way  is  the  best.  When  the  drain 
runs  only  from  the  kitchen  sink,  then  a separ- 
ate air  pipe  should  be  carried  from  its  house 
end  well  above  the  top  of  the  house,  (not  near 
to  the  top  of  a chimney  nor  to  a window),  and 
be  furnished  at  its  upper  end  with  a ventilating 
cowl  that  will  tend  to  keep  up  a good  current. 
There  should  be  some  means  for  admitting 


ir>7 . 

fresh  air  at  the  outer,  or  cistern  end  of  the 
drain,  to  supply  the  current.  Where  there  are 
plumbing  works  within  the  house,  the  drain 
may  be  connected  directly  with  the  soil  pipe, 


Fig.  D. 

and  no  trap  of  any  sort  should  be  used  in  its 
course,  but  the  soil  pipe  should  be  continued 
of  its  full  size  out  through  the  top  of  the  house 
(See  Fig.  D)  and  be  furnished  with  a ventilat- 
ing cowl.  There  will  then  be  no  trap  in  the 
course  of  the  pipe  to  arrest  solid  matters  and 


.108 


DRAINAGE 


DREDGING 


hold  them  for  decomposition,  and  there  will  he 
a steady  current  of  fresh  air  sufficient  to  prevent 
th t poisonous  decomposition  of  the  refuse  matter 
contained  in  the  pipe  or  drain, — which  if  de- 
prived of  sufficient  air  would  enter  into  a putre- 
faction that  would  be  likely  to  evolve  dangerous 
gases.  The  supply  of  air  to  the  lower  end  of 
the  drain  may  come  from  the  sewer  or  from  the 
cistern,  if  these  are  well  ventilated.  If  there  is  no 
sufficient  ventilation  of  these,  then  there  should 
be  a trap  near  the  lower  end  of  the  drain,  and 
an  inlet  for  fresh  air  into  the  drain  above  it. 
In  cold  climates,  this  inlet  should  be  by  a small 
pipe  (say  i 1-2  inches  diameter),  and  it  should 
run  under  ground  for  a sufficient  distance  to 
become  somewhat  warmed-. 

To  sum  up,  the  leading  principles  to  be  fol- 
lowed are  these  : — to  carry  the  refuse  matter 
from  the  house  through  an  absolutely  tight 
drain  to  a tight  cistern  where  their  organic 
parts  will  rise  to  the  surface,  and  where  any 
heavy  matter  contained  will  settle  at  the  bot- 
tom. To  make  the  outlet  from  this  cistern 
from  a point  between  the  scum  and  the  sedi- 
ment,— where  only  liquid  will  be  supplied  ; to 
discharge  this  matter  into  open  jointed  drains 
extending  through  such  an  area  of  soil  as  will 
prevent  the  concentration  at  any  point  of 
enough  liquid  to  filter  away  into  the  ‘sub-soil, 
and  at  a point  so  near  the  surface  that  it  will  be 
subjected  to  the  disinfecting  action  of  the  soil 
and  of  vegetation  ; to  furnish,  in  all  cases,  a di- 
rect current  of  fresh  air  through  the  drain  ; and 
where  a soil  pipe  is  used  to  continue  the  direct 
current  through  this  latter  also. 

Drain  Traps. — What  are  commonly  known 
as  drain  traps  would  be  better  named  “ man- 
traps.” 


Fig.  E. 


If  the  necessary  other  means  are  adopted  to 
prevent  the  ingress  of  foul  air  into  houses,  then 
it  is  very  well  to  use  immediately  under  the  out- 
lets of  wash-basins,  sinks,  etc.,  some  form  of 
water-seal  trap,  which  shall  be  to  a certain  ex- 
tent a barrier  against  bad  smells  generated  im- 
mediately within  the  waste  pipe  ; but,  as  a main 
dependence  these  traps  are  a delusion  and  a 
snare. 

The  usual  form  given  to  them  is  that  shown 
in  the  accompanying  figures,  E F G.  Figure  G 
represents  the  common  bell  trap  so  often  used 
over  the  outlet  pipe  of  the  kitchen  sink,  &c. 
Its  movable  part  is  very  easily  taken  off,  and  is 
very  apt  to  be  left  off,  and  even  when  it  is  in 
place  it  offers  such  a very  slight  resistance  to 
the  pressure  of  foul  air  as  to  be  at  all  times  in- 
efficient and  quite  generally  to  be,  as  a trap, 
simply  nothing  at  all. 

The  great  objections  to  all  water-seal  traps  | 
are,  first,  that  the  resistance  they  offer  to  the  I 


pressure  of  sewer  gas  is  so  slight  that  a trifling 
change  in  the  temperature  of  a sewer  or  cess- 


Fig.  F. 


pool,  the  sudden  filling  of  the  sewer  with  water 
during  heavy  storms,  or  even  the  influence  of  a 
strong  wind  blowing  against  its  outlet,  or  suck- 
ing strongly  at  a chimney  flue,  will  suffice  to 
open  them;  and,  second,  that  water  is  a very 
imperfect  disinfecting  barrier.  Fresh  water  in 
a trap  may  for  a few  moments  absorb  all  the 
foul  gases  presented  to  it,  but  accompanying 
the  absorption  at  the  sewer  end,  there  is,  too 
often, — almost  always, — a giving  off  at  the 
house  end.  As  soon  as  the  water  is  saturated 
with  the  gas,  and  sometimes  even  before  this, 
there  is  a rapid  delivery  of  gas  at  the  house  end 
of  the  trap ; careful  experiments  have  shown 
that  carbonate  of  ammonia  exposed  at  the  sew- 
er end  of  a trap  will  produce  its  chemical  reac- 
tion on  colored  liimus  paper  exposed  at  the 


Fig.  G 


house  end  within  fifteen  minutes,  and  that  even 
the  heavier  and  more  poisonous  gases  so  com- 
monly produced  in  foul  drains  are  all  transmit- 
ted in  their  full  force  within  a very  short  time, 
— even  sufficiently  to  produce  the  corrosion  of 
metals  exposed  at  the  house  end. 

The  real  and  effective  drain  trap  is  the  same 
as  the  real  and  most  effective  disinfectant ; — a 
free  circulation  of  common  air.  Safety  is  to  be 
sought,  not  through  a shutting  out  of  the  foul 
gases  formed  in  the  sewer,  and  drain,  but  in  the 
prevention  of  this  formation,  by  the  free  admis- 
sion and  circulation  of  air.  This  being  secured 
there  is  little  to  be  apprehended,  if  the  ordinary 
bent  tube  filled  with  water  is  used  as  a trap  in 
branch  pipes  in  such  a way  as  to  prevent  the 
too  rapid  transmission  of  such  odors  as  mav 
still  be  formed  in  the  pipe.  If  there  is  no  suf- 
ficient ventilation  of  pipes  and  sewers  it  is  mad- 
ness to  suppose  that  we  can  live  safely  in  rooms 
which  are  protected  from  the  invasion  of  pois- 
onous gases  only  by  water-seal  traps. 

DRAWERS.  (Sec  UNDERGARMENTS.) 

DREDGING. — This  is  an  important  item 
connected  with  roasting,  and  requires  a tin  box 
with  a perforated  lid,  called  a “dredger.” 
This  usually  contains  wheat  flour  onlv,  but  for 


DRESS 


DROWNED 


1G9 


some'  joints  the  flour  is  mixed  with  grated 
bread , dried  herbs,  or  grated  lemon  or  orange 
peel.  The  dredger  is  shaken  over  the  roast  at 
short  intervals,  so  that  its  contents  remain  on 
the  surface  and  form, with  the  fat  oozing  out,  a 
kind  of  coating,  which  is  sometimes  inten- 
tionally made  very  thick,  as  for  hare.  But 
these  coatings  are  not  so  common  now,  or  so 
fashionable,  as  they  were  a few  years  ago. 

DRESS. — ( See  Clothing,  Waist,  Skirt, 
Princess  Dress,  Cutting  atid  Fitting  and  un- 
der the  other  respective  names  of  garments.) 

DRILLING. — A kind  of  coarse,  heavy, 
twilled  linen  cloth,  much  used  for  men’s  outer 
clothing  in  summer.  It  is  a yard  wide,  and 
nearly,  always  white  or  buff-colored.  There  is 
also  a cheaper  variety  of  drilling  made  of  cotton. 

DRINKS.  (See  Beverages.) 

DROPS  (Lemon.) — Mix  together  a quarter 
of  a pound  of  loaf  sugar,  a quarter  of  a pound 
of  butter,  six  ounces  of  flour,  the  yolk  of  one 
egg,  a teasponful  of  cold  water,  and  a little 
lemon  peel  minced  fine.  Drop  lumps  of  this 
mixture,  the  size  of  a walnut,  on  a buttered 
tin  plate,  and  bake  it  in  a quick  oven. 

Ratafia  Drops. — Beat  the  whites  of  three 
eggs  to  a stiff  froth,  add  ten  ounces  of  powder- 
ed sugar,  two  ounces  of  bitter  and  six  ounces 
of  sweet  almonds,  blanched  and  pounded  ; mix 
well,  drop  in  small  spoonfuls  on  white  paper  ; 
sift  powdered  sugar  over  each  cake  and  bake 
in  a quick  oven. 

DROPSY. — A symptom  of  numerous  dis- 
eases characterized  by  the  collection  of  water 
or  serous  fluid  in  one  or  more  of  the  closed 
cavities  of  the  body,  independent  of  inflam- 
mation. Dropsy  is  caused  either  by  pressure 
upon  some  part  or  the  whole  of  the  venous 
system,  or  by  an  altered  condition  of  the 
blood.  In  the  vast  majority  of  cases  it 
depends  upon  diseases  of  the  liver,  the  heart, 
or  the  kidneys,  and  in  these  the  original 
disease  must  be  reached  before  a cure  can  be 
obtained.  There  is  no  treatment  for  dropsy 
that  can  be  ventured  upon  without  skilful 
medical  advice. 

DROWNED.  — (To  restore  the  appar- 
ently.)— -The  Royal  National  Life-boat  Institu- 
tion, after  extensive  inquiries  amongst  medical 
men,  medical  bodies,  and  coroners,  throughout 
Great  Britain,  published  (in  1864)  the  following 
directions  for  restoring  the  apparently  drowned. 
They  are  founded  on  those  of  Dr.  Marshall 
Hall,  combined  with  those  of  Dr.  H.  R.  Syl- 
vester. 

I.  Send  immediately  for  medical  assistance, 
blankets,  and  dry  clothing,  but  proceed  to  treat 
the  patient  instantly  on  the  spot,  in  the  open 
air,  with  the  face  downward,  whether  on  shore 
or  afloat;  exposing  the  face,  neck,  and  chest 
to  the  wind,  except  in  severe  weather,  and  re- 
moving all  tight  clothing  from  the  neck  and 
chest,  especially  the  braces. 

The  points  to  be  aimed  at  are — first  and  im- 
mediately, the  restoration  of  breathing ; and 
secondly,  after  breathing  is  restored,  the  pro- 
motion of  warmth  and  circulation. 


The  efforts  to  restore  breathing  must  be 
commenced  invnediately  and  energetically,  and 
persevered  in  for  one  or  two  hours,  or  until  a 
medical  man  has  pronounced  that  life  is  ex- 
tinct. Efforts  to  promote  warmth  and  circu- 
lation, beyond  removing  the  wet  clothes  and 
drying  the  skin,  must  not  be  made  until  the 
first  appearance  of  natural  breathing;  for  if 
circulation  of  the  blood  be  induced  before 
breathing  has  recommenced,  the  restoration  to 
life  will  be  endangered. 

II.  To  Restore  Breathing.  — To  Clear 
the  Throat. — Place  the  patient  on  the  floor  or 
ground,  with  the  face  downward,  and  one  of 
the  arms  under  the  forehead,  in  which  position 
all  fluids  will  more  readily  escape  by  the  mouth, 
and  the  tongue  itself  will  fall  forward,  leaving 
the  entrance  into  the  windpipe  free.  Assist 
this  operation  by  wiping  and  cleansing  the 
mouth.  If  satisfactory  breathing  commence, 
use  the  treatment  described  below  to  promote 
warmth.  If  there  be  only  slight  breathing,  or 
no  breathing,  or  if  the  breathing  fail,  then — 

To  Excite  Breathitig. — Turn  the  patient  well 
and  instantly  on  the  side,  supporting  the  head, 
and  excite  the  nostrils  with  snuff,  hartshorn, 
and  smelling  salts,  or  tickle  the  throat  with  a 
feather,  etc.,  if  they  are  at  hand.  Rub  the  chest 
and  face  warm,  and  dash  cold  water,  or  cold 
and  hot  water  alternately,  on  them.  If  there 
be  no  success,  lose  not  a moment,  but  in- 
stantly— 

To  Imitate  Breathing — Replace  the  patient 
on  the  face,  raising  and  supporting  the  chest 
well  on  a folded  coat  or  other  article  of  dress. 
Turn  the  body  very  gently  on  the  side,  and  a 
little  beyond,  and  then  briskly  on  the  face,  and 
back  again,  repeating  these  measures  cautiously, 
efficiently,  and  perseveringly,  about  fifteen  times 
in  the  minute,  occasionally  varying  the  side. 
By  placing  the  patient  on  his  chest,  the  weight 
of  his  body  forces  the  air  out ; when  turned  on 
the  side,  this  pressure  is  removed,  and  air 
enters  the  chest.  This  process  is  shown  in 
Figs.  1 and  2.  (See  next  page.) 

On  each  occasion  that  the  body  is  replaced 
on  the  face,  make  uniform  but  efficient  pres- 
sure, with  brisk  movement,  on  the  back,  be- 
tween and  below  the  shoulder-blades  or  bones 
on  each  side,  removing  the  pressure  imme- 
diately before  turning  the  body  on  the  side. 
The  first  measure  increases  the  expiration,  the 
second  commences  inspiration.  The  result  is 
respiration  or  natural  breathmg,  and,  if  not 
too  late,  life.  Whilst  the  above  operations  are 
being  proceeded  with,  dry  the  hands  and  feet, 
and  as  soon  as  dry  clothing  or  blankets  can  be 
procured,  strip  the  body,  and  cover  or  gradually 
re-clothe  it,  but  take  care  not  to  interfere  with 
the  efforts  to  restore  breathing. 

Should  these  efforts  not  prove  successful  in 
the  course  of  from  two  to  five  minutes,  proceed 
to  imitate  breathing  by  Dr.  Sylvester’s  method, 
as  follows : — 

Place  the  patient  on  the  back  on  a flat  sur- 
face, inclined  a little  upwards  from  the  feet ; 
raise  and  support  the  head  and  shoulders  on  a 


170 


DROWNED 


Fig.  x.  Treatment  of  the  Apparently  Drowned. 


small  firm  cushion  or  folded  articles  of  dress 
placed  under  the  shoulder  blades.  Draw  for- 
ward the  patient’s  tongue,  and  keep  it  project- 
ing beyond  the  lips  ; an  elastic  band  over  the 
tongue  and  under  the  chin  will  answer  this  pur- 


pose, or  a piece  of  string  or  tape  may  be  tied 
round  them,  or  by  raising  the  lower  jaw,  the 
teeth  may  be  made  to  retain  the  tongue  in  that 
position.  Remove  all  tight  clothing  from  about 
the  neck  and  chest,  especially  the  braces. 


Fig  .2.  Treatment  of  the  Apparently  Drowned. 


To  Imitate  the  Movements  of  Breathing. — 
Standing  at  the  patient’s  head,  grasp  the  arms 
just  above  the  elbows,  and  draw  the  arms  gently 
and  steadily  upwards  above  the  head,  and  keep 
them  stretched  upwards  for  two  seconds.  {Bv 
this  means  air  is  drawn  into  the  lungs.') 
Then  turn  down  the  patient’s  arms,  and  press 
them  gently  and  firmly  for  two  seconds  against 
the  sides  of  the  chest.  (By  this  means  air  is 
pressed  out  of  the  lungs.)  This  process  is 
shown  in  Figs.  3 and  4.  (See  next  page) 

Repeat  these  measures  alternately,  deliber- 
ately, and  perseveringly,  about  fifteen  times  in 
a minute,  until  a spontaneous  effort  to  respire 
is  perceived,  immediately  upon  which  cease  to 
imitate  the  movements  of  breathing,  and  pro- 
ceed to  induce  circulation  and  warmth. 

3.  Treatment  after  Natural  Breathing 
has  been  Restored. — To  Promote  Warmth 
and  Circulatio?i. — Commence  rubbing  the 


| limbs  upwards,  with  firm  grasping  pressure  and 
| energy,  using  handkerchiefs,  flannels,  etc.  (By 
this  measure  the  blood  is  propelled  along  the 
veins  towards  the  heart.)  The  friction  must 
be  continued  under  the  blanket  or  over  the  dry 
clothing. 

Promote  the  warmth  of  the  body  by  the  ap- 
plication of  hot  flannels,  bottles,  or  bladders  of 
hot  water,  heated  bricks,  etc.,  to  the  pit  of  the 
stomach,  the  arm-pits,  between  the  thighs,  and 
to  the  soles  of  the  feet. 

On  the  restoration  of  life,  a teaspoonful  of 
warm  water  should  be  given ; and  then,  if  the 
power  of  swallowing  has  returned,  small 
quantities  of  wine,  warm  brandy  and  water,  or 
coffee,  should  be  administered.  The  patient 
should  be  kept  in  bed,  and  a disposition  to 
sleep  encouraged. 

General  Observations. — The  above  treat- 
ment should  be  persevered  in  for  some  hours  ; 


DROWNING 


DRUGGET 


171 


Fig.  3.  Treatment  of  the  Apparently  Drowned. 


it  is  an  erroneous  opinion  that  persons  are  irre- 1 Avoid  rough  usage,  and  do  not  allow  the 
coverable  because  life  does  not  soon  make  its  body  to  remain  on  the  back  unless  the  tongue 
appearance,  persons  having  been  restored  after  is  secured. 

many  hours  of  continued  effort.  The  struggle  I Under  no  circumstances  hold  the  body  up 
should  not  be  given  over  until  a physician  pro-  by  the  feet,  or  roll  it  over  a barrel, 
nounees  death  to  have  unmistakably  occurred.  I On  no  account  place  the  body  in  a warm 
Cautions. — Prevent  all  unnecessary  crowd- 1 bath  unless  under  medical  direction,  and  even 
ing  of  persons  round  the  body,  especially  if  in  then  it  should  only  be  employed  as  a momen- 
an  apartment.  | tary  excitant. 


Fig.  4.  Treatment  of  the  Apparently  Drowned. 


DROWNING. — (To  save  a person  from).— 

Never  approach  a drowning  person  from  the 
front,  but  take  him  from  behind,  by  the  hair  ; 
and  never  allow  him  to  grasp  any  part  of  your 
body  if  you  can  possibly  prevent  it.  Should 
you  find  yourself  so  seized,  sink  at  once 
to  the  bottom,  when  the  hold  upon  you  will 
probably  be  released.  Only  a good  swimmer 
should  attempt  to  rescue  a drowning  man  in 
deep  water ; for  a novice  to  try  it  is  simply  to 
imperil  a second  life  without  reasonable  chance 


of  saving  the  first.  Better  hasten  to  secure  a 
rope  or  pole,  which,  thrown  quickly  to  the  per- 
son in  danger,  will  give  him  a much  surer 
chance  of  escape.  If  possible  let  one  going 
to  the  rescue  have  a rope  tied  under  his  own 
arms  and  held  by  those  on  shore.  Young 
swimmers  should  use  especial  caution. 

DRUGGET. — A coarse  woollen  cloth  of  a 
rather  flimsy  texture,  sometimes  made  wholly 
I of  wool,  and  sometimes  with  woof  of  wool  and 
Jthe  warp  of  flax  thread.  Drugget  is  stronger 


172 


DRUGS 


and  has  less  nap  than  baize,  and,  among  other 
uses,  is  employed  instead  of  carpets  for  cover- 
ing floors,  or  to  spread  on  carpets  to  preserve 
them  from  being  damaged ; for  this  purpose  it  is 
woven  from  a yard  and  a half  to  two  yards 
and  a half  wide. 

Milled  Drugget  is  printed  in  bright  showy 
colors,  and  being  very  thick  and  strong  serves 
very  well  as  a substitute  for  carpets  in  small 
apartments.  It  is  manufactured  in  pieces  from 
a yard  to  two  yards  wide. 

DRUGS. — In  purchasing  drugs,  whether  in 
the  raw  state  or  in  the  form  of  extracts,  tinc- 
tures, etc.,  it  is  very  important  to  obtain  them 
from  a reputable  chemist,  who  will  take  care 
that  the  article  is  genuine  and  properly  labelled. 
The  adulteration  of  drugs  is  carried  on  to  an 
enormous  extent,  and,  as  commonly  sold  by 
irresponsible  parties,  the  strength  is  seldom 
above  one  half  of  what  it  ought  be.  Besides 
this  there  is  the  danger  of  substituting  a 
cheap  drug  for  a dear  one.  Drugs  are  most  of 
them  soon  spoiled  by  keeping,  and  in  all  cases 
they  should  be  preserved  in  well-stoppered 
bottles — with  the  exception  of  Epsom  salts, 
nitre,  soda,  and  some  few  others,  which  will 
keep  without  injury  for  an  indefinite  time.  All 
vegetable  medicines  lose  their  virtues  in  the 
course  of  a few  months,  if  not  carefully  closed 
from  the  air  ; and  even  in  bottles  they  seldom 
keep  good  for  a year.  It  is  desirable,  there- 
fore, to  purchase  them  in  small  quantities  at  a 
time,  and  to  renew  them  at  intervals  of  twelve 
months.  Most  drugs  simply  lose  their  strength 
with  time ; but  laudanum  on  the  contrary  be- 
comes stronger,  especially  if  it  be  left  uncork- 
ed ; the  spirit  evaporates,  leaving  almost  pure 
opium.  This  must  be  guarded  against,  as  the 
most  fatal  results  might  occur  from  giving  a 
dose  much  greater  (in  point  of  strength)  than 
was  intended. 

Some  drugs  requiring  extended  notice  are 
given  under  separate  titles  in  this  work. 

The  additional  ones  given  below  are  least 
liable  to  abuse,  in  family  use.  Each  is  intro- 
duced in  alphabetical  order  with  its  properties 
and  effects  given  under  the  respective  heads — 

(a)  Physical  properties ; (b)  Therapeutical 
effects ; (c)  Use  ; and  (d)  Dose,  and  mode  of 
administration.  Extracts,  tinctures,  ancj  all 
such  compounds  as  will  bear  keeping,  and  are 
likely  to  be  useful  in  a family,  are  better  when 
bought  of  a good  druggist  than  as  made  at 
home.  They  are  therefore  given  without  direc- 
tion to  manufacture.  It  should  be  borne  in 
mind,  however,  that  drugs  of  any  kind  should 
be  used  very  sparingly  except  by  direction  of  a 
physician.  See  Weights  and  Measures. 

Acid,  Acetic. — Vinegar  distilled  from  wood, 
and  purified. 

(a)  Physical  properties.— Limpid,  colorless, 
volatile  ; odor,  pungent  and  fragrant ; taste,  acid. 

( b ) Therapeutical  effects. — Stimulant,  escha- 
rotic,  but  when  diluted  with  water,  cooling. 

(c)  Used  in  lotions  for  cooling  purposes 
diluted  with  water,  also  in  ringworm  and  re- 
moving warts. 


(d)  Dose. — It  is  not  given  internally,  except 
in  combination  with  other  medicines. 

Acid,  Acetic  (diluted}. — Diluted  acetic 
acid,  prepared  from  the  acid  just  described. 

(a)  Physical  proper  ties. — A clear  acid  fluid. 

(b)  i herapeutical  effects. — Astringent,  dia- 
phoretic, cooling,  and  antiseptic.  It  is  useful 
in  making  the  acetate  of  lead  more  soluble. 
Externally,  it  is  stimulant  in  its  full  strength,  or 
when  mixed  with  water,  cooling. 

(c)  Used  in  fevers  internally ; or  as  a gargle 
with  capsicum  ; or  as  an  inhalation  in  sore 
throat.  A useful  lotion  when  mixed  with  spirit 
and  water,  in  bruises,  sprains,  and  burns. 

((/)  Dose. — Half  a drachm  to  one  drachm. 

Acid,  Benzoic. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — White  and  shin- 
ing crystals,  with  flakes  of  a fragrant  aromatic 
odor,  and  acid  taste.  Sparingly  soluble  in 
water,  but  is  easily  dissolved  in  alcohol.  When 
heated,  is  completely  evaporated,  with  an  agree- 
able and  peculiar  odor ; but  if  the  tempera- 
ture is  raised  too  high,  it  takes  fire,  and  burns 
with  a yellow  flame. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Stimulant  and  ex- 
pectorant. 

(c)  Used  in  chronic  bronchitis. 

(d)  Dose. — Five  grains  to  half  a drachm  twice 
a day. 

Acid.  Carbolic  (pure  and  impure). — A pow- 
erful antiseptic  substance,  obtained  from  coal- 
tar  oil. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — The  pure  anhy- 
drous acid  is  in  long,  colorless,  prismatic  crys- 
tals, turning  a pale  pink  on  keeping.  It  rapidly 
deliquesces  in  moist  air.  The  impure  is  a 
more  or  less  brown  liquid.  Both  strongly  re- 
semble tar  in  smell. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects . — Strongly  antisep- 
tic, antifermentative,  and  caustic. 

(c)  The  pure  acid  is  applied  on  cotton  for 
allaying  tenderness  and  pain  in  decayed  teeth. 
Being  a caustic,  it  should  be  carefully  kept 
from  touching  anything  but  the  tooth ; when 
properly  used,  it  is  the  best  application  for 
toothache  arising  from  this  cause,  and  is  indeed 
a specific. 

Dose. — About  a grain  of  the  acid  is  enough 
for  toothache.  One  drachm  of  carbolic  acid  to 
a pint  of  water  is  strong  enough  for  disinfectant 
purposes. 

Acid,  Citric,  prepared  from  the  juice  of 
lemons. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — Sharp  acid  taste, 
white  semi-transparent  crystals  of  a rhomboidal 
shape.  Decomposed  by  heat ; soluble  in  twice 
their  weight  of  cold,  and  half  their  weight  of 
boiling  water. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Refrigerant. 

(c)  Used  in  febrile  and  inflammatory  com- 
plaints ; dissolved  in  water  as  a substitute  for 
lemon-juice,  and  added  to  soda  to  form  the 
common  effervescing  draught. 

(d)  Dose. — io  grains  to  i scruple  ; 15  grains 
of  the  acid  neutralize  20  grains  of  bicarbonate 
of  soda,  to  form  the  effervescing  draught. 

Acid,  Gallic,  prepared  from  galls. 


DRUGS 


173 


(a)  Physical  properties. — A powder  of  near- 
ly colorless  semi-crystalline  appearance  ; dissi- 
pated by  heat ; dissolves  in  water  and  spirit. 

(c)  Used  in  discharges  of  blood  and  in  diar- 
rhoea, and  in  other  mucous  discharges.  Also 
in  hemorrhoids. 

(d)  Dose. — 2 to  5 grains.  As  an  injection 
half  a drachm  dissolved  in  one  ounce  of  water  ; 
an  ointment,  20  grains  are  mixed  with  an  ounce 
of  lard,  with  the  addition  of  30  or  40  grains  of 
powdered  opium. 

Acid.  Hydrochloric  (diluted). — Hydro- 
chloric acid,  mixed  with  three  times  its  bulk 
of  water. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — Taste,  intensely 
acrid  and  caustic  ; smell  acrid  and  suffocating  ; 
the  acid  is  colorless  when  pure,  but  usually  is 
of  a straw  color,  with  the  presence  of  peroxide 
of  iron,  or  nitrous  acid. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Tonic,  antiseptic, 
and  partially  diuretic,  by  promoting  all  the 
secretions. 

(c)  Used,  when  combined  with  diluted  nitric 
acid,  in  affections  of  the  liver : also  with  bit- 
ters, to  prevent  the  generation  of  worms  ; in 
gargles  for  sore  throat. 

(d)  Dose. — 20  minims  to  40. 

Acid,  Sulphuric  (diluted). — Sulphuric  acid 
mixed-  with  about  eleven  times  its  bulk  of 
water. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — Strong  acid  taste, 
inodorous,  colorless,  and  transparent.  Specific 
gravity,  1.103. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Tonic,  astringent, 
and  antiseptic. 

(c)  Used  in  dyspepsia,  also  to  check  sweat- 
ings, salivation,  and  diarrhoea ; likewise  as  a 
gargle. 

(d)  Dose. — 10  minims  to  30,  diluted  largely 
(2  drachms  to  8 ounces)  as  a gargle,  with  honey, 
sage,  etc. 

Acid,  Tartaric. 

(c)  Physical  properties. — Colorless  imper- 
fect crystals,  inodorous,  very  acid,  soluble, 
largely  in  water. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Refrigerant,  an- 
tiseptic, diuretic,  and  slightly  aperient. 

(c)  Used  in  fevers,  etc.,  with  some  soda  or 
potass,  as  an  effervescing  draught,  instead  of 
citric  acid ; the  proportions  being  the  same. 

.ZEther,  Sulphuric. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — A limpid,  volatile, 
inflammable  fluid,  without  color,  produces  great 
cold  by  evaporation ; taste,  peculiar,  but  hot 
and  pungent ; sparingly  soluble  in  water,  readily 
so  in  alcohol. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — A diffusible  stim- 
ulant, afterwards  narcotic  and  antispasmodic ; 
externally  cooling;  when  inhaled  producing 
anesthesia. 

(c)  Used  in  hysteria,  faintings,  asthma,  and 
other  spasmodic  complaints. 

(d)  Dose. — 20  minims  to  60,  in  water. 

Aloes,  Rarbadoes. — The  inspissated  juice 

of  the  cut  leaf  of  the  Aloe  spicata,  imported 
from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  West  In- 
dies. 


(a)  Physical  properties. — Of  a dark  brown 
color,  and  shining  resinous  surface,  with  a 
strong  disagreeable  odor,  and  very  bitter  taste  ; 
very  difficult  to  powder,  and  soluble  in  diluted 
alcohol. 

(b)  7'herapcutical effects. — A stimulating  pur- 
gative, producing  its  chief  effects  on  the  lower 
bowels.  Apt  to  produce  and  aggravate  hemor- 
rhoids. 

(c)  Used  in  dyspepsia  and  in  head-affections  : 
also  as  a common  purgative. 

(d)  Dose. — One-fourth  of  a grain  to  5 grains, 
well  powdered,  or  dissolved  in  hot  water. 

Alum. 

(a)  Physical  properties  . — A semi-trans- 
parent, rough,  irregular  mass  of  saline  matter. 
Taste,  acid-astringent.  Soluble  in  18  parts  of 
water  at  60  degrees,  and  in  a little  more  than 
an  equal  weight  of  water  at  212  degrees. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Astringent  and 
styptic. 

(c)  Used  internally  in  haemorrhages  ; exter- 
nally in  opthalmia,  or  as  a gargle. 

(d)  Dose. — 10  grains  to  20.  As  gargle — one 
drachm  to  a pint  of  water. 

Ammonia,  Liquor  of. — Ammonia  condensed 
in  water. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — A stimulating  so- 
lution. Blisters  the  skin. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Stimulating,  dia- 
phoretic, anti-acid,  when  given  internally.  Ex- 
ternally, irritant  and  escharotic. 

(c)  Used  when  largely  diluted,  in  faintings,  as- 
phyxia, hysteria,  spasms,  acidities  of  the  stom- 
ach ; and  externally,  as  an  irritant  of  the  skin. 

(d)  Dose. — The  aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia 
is  the  usual  form  for  internal  use.  Dose  from 
1 5 to  40  minims. 

Ammonia,  Sesqui-Carbonate  of. — Am- 

monia united  with  carbonic  acid. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — A mass  of  irreg- 
ular crystals,  somewhat  resembling  white  sugar, 
but  more  transparent  and  striated.  Smell, 
pungent ; taste,  sharp  and  alkaline  ; soluble  in 
four  times  its  weight  of  cold  water  ; becomes 
opaque  and  friable  on  exposure  to  the  air. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Stimulating,  an- 
tispasmodic, diaphoretic,  and  anti-acid. 

(c)  Used  in  dyspepsia,  hysteria,  and  all  dis- 
eases requiring  a rapidly  acting  diffusible 
stimulant.  Externally,  to  the  nostrils  in  syn- 
cope. 

(d)  Dose. — 2 grains  to  5,  in  pills  or  dissolved 
in  any  fluid. 

Antimony,  Potassio-Tartrate  of. — Tartar 
emetic. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — A colorless,  tran- 
sparent, inodorous,  crystallized  salt,  with  a 
slightly  metallic  taste.  Soluble  in  fifteen  times 
its  weight  of  cold  water,  and  twice  its  weight  of 
boiling  water;  insoluble  in  pure  alcohol,  but 
soluble  in  proof  spirit  or  wine.  The  aqueous 
solution  becomes  decomposed  by  keeping. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Emetic  in  large 
doses  ; diaphoretic  in  small  ones  ; expectorant, 
slightly  aperient  and  alterative  ; externally  ap 
plied,  produces  a crop  of  pustules. 


174 


DRUGS 


( c ) Used  to  evacuate  the  stomach  to  slow  the 
circulation,  and  to  produce  profuse  perspira- 
tion. Externally  applied  in  the  form  of  an  oint- 
ment, to  produce  counter-irritation. 

(d)  Dose.— As  an  emetic,  i grain  to  4 grains 
in  solution ; in  pneumonia,  y a grain  to  3 
grains,  often  repeated  ; as  an  expectorant,  or 
diaphoretic,  y%  of  a grain  to  y2  a grain. 

Assafoetida,  Gam. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — A mass  of  irreg- 
ular pieces*  varying  in  color  from  red  or  red- 
dish-brown to  white;  odor  resembling  garlic, 
but  more  fetid  ; taste,  bitter  and  slightly  acrid  ; 
difficult  to  powder,  unless  rubbed  with  carbon- 
ate of  ammonia.  Forms  a milky  mixture  with 
water. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Antispasmodic,  ex- 
pectorant, anthelmintic. 

(c)  Used  in  hysteria,  flatulence,  colic,  etc. 

(d)  Dose. — 5 to  10  grains. 

Bismuth,  Trisnitrate  of.—The  metal  bismuth 
united  with  nitric  acid. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — A white,  tasteless, 
inodorous  powder,  very  slightly  soluble  in 
water. 

(1 b)  Therapeutical  effects.  — Antispasmodic, 
stomachic  and  tonic. 

(c)  Used  much  in  dyspepsia,  attended  with 
pain  of  the  stomach,  and  water-brash,  and  diar- 
rhoea. 

(<■/)  Dose. — 5 to  10  grains. 

Borax. — Biborate  of  soda. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — Sweetish,  shining, 
efflorescent  crystals,  soluble  in  twelve  parts  of 
cold,  and  two  parts  of  boiling  water. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Absorbent,  cooling, 
and  alterative. 

(c)  Used  in  intestinal  irritation  of  infants. 
Externally  applied  to  thrush,  and  to  cutaneous 
diseases. 

(d)  Dose. — s grains  to  30.  Externally  ap- 
plied, dissolved  in  eight  times  its  weight  of 
honey  or  mucilage,  or  better,  in  pure  water. 

Calomel.  See  Mercury. 

Camphor.  A peculiar  substance,  obtained 
by  distillation  from  the  wood  of  the  Lauries 
camphor. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — In  large  white 
semi-transparent  cakes,  with  a strong  peculiar- 
ly fragrant  and  aromatic  odor ; taste,  bitter 
and  acrid ; insoluble  in  water  ; soluble  in  alcohol, 
ether,  acetic  acid,  and  the  fixed  oils. 

(/>)  Therapeutical  Stimulant,  dia- 

phoretic, sedative ; externally,  soothing. 

(c)  Used  in  hysteria,  asthma,  chorea,  and 
generally  in  spasmodic  diseases.  Externally, 
in  muscular  pains,  bruises,  etc. 

(d)  Dose. — 3 grains  to  5,  in  pills.  When 
dissolved  in  water  as  camphor  mixture,  the 
quantity  is  scarcely  appreciable. 

Cantharides,  Plaster  of. — Blistering  plas- 
ter. Sometimes  prepared  in  the  form  of  a 
tissue  paper,  imbued  with  the  active  principle. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — The  plaster  is  a 
firm  preparation  requiring  the  warmth  of  the 
hand  to  enable  it  to  be  spread  upon  leather  or 
calico.  It  soon  spoils  by  keeping;  and  if 


more  than  a month  old  should,  after  spreading, 
be  dusted  over  with  powdered  cantharides. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — To  raise  the  cuti- 
cle from  the  cutis,  producing  at  the  same  time 
a large  secretion  of  serous  fluid.  The  time 
varies  from  3 hours  to  12,  or  even  more.  In 
babies  the  blister  should  always  be  carefully 
watched  after  3 hours,  as  it  often  rises  rapidly 
and  would  be  liable  to  produce  severe  ulcera- 
tion of  the  skin.  Blistering  may  be  promoted 
by  applying  a poultice  after  the  removal  of  the 
cantharides. 

Capsicum. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — Berries  of  a red 
color,  and  an  extremely  pungent  odor  and 
taste,  which  is  yielded  to  alcohol,  ether,  vin- 
egar and  water. 

( b ) Therapeutical  effects. — Stimulant,  stom- 
achic, and  rubefacient. 

(c)  Used  in  dyspepsia,  flatulence  : externally, 
as  an  ingredient  in  gargles  for  relaxed  sore 
throat. 

(d)  Dose. — 3 grains  to  5 grains,  in  pills ; 2 
drachms  to  8 ounces  form  the  strength  for  using 
as  a gargle  diluted  largely  with  water. 

Castor  Oil,  obtained  from  Ricinus  com- 
munis. 

{a)  Physical  properties. — A pale  yellow- 
colored,  transparent  and  viscid  oil,  with  a faint 
odor  and  nauseous  taste. 

( b ) Therapeutical  effects. — Mildly  aperient. 

(1 c ) Used  in  colic  and  in  those  cases  of  con- 
stipation which  will  not  bear  drastic  purga- 
tives ; also  for  mixing  with  gruel  for  the  ordin- 
ary enema. 

(d)  Dose. — A teaspoonful  to  one  or  two 
tablespoonfuls  ; an  ounce  is  the  proper  quan- 
tity for  mixing  with  gruel  to  make  an  enema. 

Cerate. — A species  of  ointment  made  rather 
hard  with  wax. 

(a)  Simple  Cerate. — Add' 20  ounces  of  melt- 
ed wax  to  a pint  of  olive  oil,  and  mix  while 
warm,  stirring  till  cold. 

(b)  Cerate  or  Spermaceti.— Melt  together 
eight  ounces  of  white  wax  and  ten  of  sper- 
maceti ; then  add  a pint  of  olive  oil,  and  stir 
together  till  they  cool. 

(c)  Cerate  of  Acetate  of  Lead. — Melt  four 
j ounces  of  white  wax  in  eight  fluid  ounces  cf 

olive  oil ; then  gradually  add  four  drachms  of 
powdered  acetate  of  lead,  previously  rubbed 
with  two  fluid  ounces  of  olive  oil.  and  stir  with 
a spatula  till  they  unite. 

(d)  Cerate  of  Resin.— Mix  together  15 
ounces  each  of  resin  and  wax,  and  melt  them 
over  a slow  fire  ; then  add  a pint  of  olive  oil, 
and  press  the  cerate,  while  hot,  through  a linen 
cloth. 

Chalk,  prepared. — Friable  carbonate  of 
lime,  rubbed  into  a fine  powder  and  washed. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — An  inodorous,  in- 
sipid, white,  friable  powder,  heavy,  and  insolu- 
ble in  water. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Anti-acid,  astring- 
ent, and  absorbent. 

(c)  Used  in  acidities  of  the  stomach  and 
| bowels,  and  to  correct  the  irritation  which  is 


DRUGS 


175 


Wn 

K ' 


established  in  diarrhoea.  Externally,  as  a mild 
application  of  sores  and  burns. 

(d)  Dose. — io  to  15  grains. 

Camomile  Flowers. 

(a)  Physical  properties. 

The  flowers  are  small,  with  a strong,  fragrant 
odor,  and  bitter  aromatic  taste,  and  some  slight 
degree  of  warmth.  Water  and  alcohol  both 
absorb  the  virtues  of  this  plant. 

(/>)  Therapeutical  effects. — Tonic,  stomachic 
and  carminative.  The  warm  ihfusion,  when 
weak,  is  emetic.  Externally  soothing. 

0 c ) Used  in  dyspepsia,  hysteria,  flatulence, 
and  also  to  work  off  emetics. 

( d ) Dose  of  the  powder. — 30  to  40  grains 
twice  a day-  The  infusion — a half  ounce  to  a 
pint  of  water — is  usually  preferred. 

Chloride  of  Zinc. — A combination  of  zinc 
with  chlorine. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — In  solid  piece, 
snow-white,  inodorous,  having  a strongly  styptic 
and  metallic  taste. 

{b)  Powerfully  caustic,  destroying  the  vitality 
of  the  part  with  which  it  is  in  contact,  and 
causing  very  severe  pain.  In  solution  it  is  used 
as  a disinfectant,  appearing  to  act  more  ener- 
getically than  chlorinated  soda  or  lime,  with 
a less  disagreeable  odor  of  chlorine. 

(1 c ) Used  as  a caustic  in  cancer  and  fungoid 
disease.  In  solution,  it  is  applied  to  cutaneous 
diseases,  and  to  mucous  membranes,  but  re- 
quires great  caution  in  its  use.  As  a disin- 
fectant, it  must  be  largely  diluted,  {See  Dis- 
infectants.) 

Chinchona  Bark  {yellow). 

{a)  Physical  properties. — -Larger,  thicker, 
and  less  rolled  than  the  pale  bark.  Externally 
of  a brownish  yellow,  and  internally  of  a 
cinnamon  brown.  The  fracture  is  fibrous  ; taste 
bitter,  and  less  aromatic  than  the  pale,  with 
scarcely  any  degree  of  astringency. 

{b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Astringent,  tonic, 
antiseptic,  and  febrifuge. 

{c)  Used  in  typhoid  fevers,  and  in  all  low 
states  of  the  system,  being  in  such  cases  su- 
perior to  quinine. 

{d)  Dose. — 10  grains  to  50,  in  wine  or  wine 
and  water. 

Cinnamon — Bark,  oil,  and  water,  used  as  a 
warm  and  cordial  spice  to  prevent  the  griping 
of  purgatives,  etc. 

Cod-Liver  Oil.— Prepared  from  the  liver  of 
the  cod-fish. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — An  oil  of  three 
different  colors  ; pale  yellow,  pale  brown,  and 
dark  brown.  The  pale  brown  appears  to  pos- 
sess the  highest  virtues. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects . — Nutritive  and  act- 
ing also  on  the  general  system. 

{c)  Used  largely  in  consumption  and  chronic 
bronchitis  to  diminish  the  secretion  from  the 
lungs,  and  arrest,  to  some  extent,  the  waste  in- 
cident to  these  diseases ; in  nervous  affections 
as  a nerve-food,  and  in  some  skin  diseases ; also 
in  other  exhausting  diseases. 

0 d ) Dose. — 1 drachm  carried  up  to  4 in  any 
convenient  vehicle,  as  infusion  of  cloves. 


peeled  wuit  of  lj&tei  [y  yr 


Colocynth. — The 

cucumber. 

( a)  Physical  properties. — X white,  soft,  po- 
rous, medullary  substance,  invesKng/he  seeds 

with  an  intensely  bitter,  acrid,  art^-ijaus^o^/s^  ) | 3, 

taste.  - ~ 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  — Powerfully  ape- 
rient. 

{c)  Used, , with  warm  cordial  spices,  as  an  or- 
dinary aperient.  {See  Extracts.) 

{d)  Dose. — 5 to  10  grains. 

Conium  (Hemlock). — The  leaves  of  Conium 
maculatum , an  indigenous  plant. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — Has  a heavy  nar- 
cotic smell,  with  a bitter,  nauseous,  and  herba- 
ceous taste ; color,  dull  green  ; powers  soon 
destroyed  by  light.  Should  be  gathered  just 
as  the  plant  comes  into  flower,  and  dried  in  the 
sun,  or  in  a stove. 

{b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Sedative,  narcotic 
— in  some  cases  alterative,  and  even  tonic. 

(r)  Used  in  scirrhous  and  cancerous  affec- 
tions externally,  and  internally  for  neuralgia 
and  pulmonary  complaints  ; also  in  scrofulous 
complaints  of  children,  especially  in  ophthal- 
mia— in  all  cases  requiring  great  caution ; ex- 
ternally as  a poultice,  made  by  scalding  the 
fresh  leaves. 

{d)  Dose. — 2 to  3 or  4 grains. 

Copaiba  Balsam. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — A liquid  of  a 
transparent  yellowish  color,  and  peculiar  smell 
and  taste,  which  is  pungent,  acrid,  and  nause- 
ous ; when  fresh,  of  the  consistency  of  linseed 
oil,  gradually  becoming  thicker  by  exposure  to 
the  air,  till  at  last  it  is  as  solid  as  resin  ; soluble 
in  ether  and  alcohol. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.— Stimulant,  diuretic, 
purgative  in  large  doses ; allays  irritation  of 
the  mucous  membranes,  and  especially  those 
of  the  urinary  passages. 

(c)  Used  in  chronic  bronchitis,  spasmodic 
asthma,  whooping-cough,  and  in  chronic  in- 
flammation of  the  bladder,  etc. 

{d)  Dose. — 10  minims  to  30  in  emulsion,  or 
in  the  gelatine  capsules  in  which  it  is  sold. 

Creasote. — A peculiar  liquid  prepared  from 
pyroxilic  oil. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — An  oily,  colorless, 
transparent  fluid,  with  a disagreeable  smell,  re- 
sembling somewhat  the  odor  of  badly-smoked 
meat. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Tonic,  stomachic, 
diaphoretic,  antiseptic,  and  styptic. 

(r)  Used  internally  in  phthisis ; also  in 
troublesome  vomiting,  from  any  cause  not 
readily  understood,  as  seasickness. 

Decoction  of  Chinchona. 

{a)  Boil  10  drachms  of  bruised  yellow 
chinchona  in  a pint  of  water  for  ten  minutes,  in 
a closed  vessel,  then  strain. 

{b)  Therapeutical  effects.  — Antiseptic,  as- 
tringent, tonic,  febrifuge. 

{c)  Used  in  fever,  malignant  sore  throat,  dys- 
pepsia. 

yd)  Dose. — to  3 ounces  twice  or  thrice 
a day. 


176 


DRUGS 


Decoction  of  Dandelion, 

(a)  Boil  4 ounces  of  bruised  dandelion  in  i y2 
pints  of  distilled  water  to  a pint,  and  strain. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Diuretic,  slightly 
aperient,  and  specially  acting  on  the  liver. 

(V)  Used  in  torpid  conditions  of  the  liver, 
jaundice,  habitual  constipation,  etc. 

(d)  Dose. — 2 or  3 ounces  twice  or  thrice  a 
day. 

Decoction  of  Iceland  Moss. 

(a)  Boil  5 drachms  of  Iceland  moss  in  a pint 
and  a half  of  water  down  to  a pint,  and  strain. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effect. — Tonic,  emollient, 
slightly  astringent. 

(r)  Used  in  consumption  and  dysentery. 

Id)  Dose. — 1 to  2 ounces. 

Decoction  of  Logwood. 

( a ) Boil  10  drachms  of  sliced  logwood  in 
ip2  pints  of  water  to  a pint,  and  strain. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Astringent  and 
tonic. 

( c ) Used  in  diarrhoea  and  dysentery. 

(d)  Dose. — 1 ounce  to  2 ounces  after  each 
action  of  the  bowels. 

Decoction  of  Poppyheads. 

( a ) Boil  5 ounces  of  bruised  poppyheads  in 
3 pints  of  water  for  a quarter  of  an  hour,  and 
strain. 

( b ) Therapeutical  effects. — Anodyne  and 
soothing. 

(V)  Used  as  a fomentation  in  painful  swell- 
ings and  inflammation. 

Decoction  of  Sarsaparilla  (simple.) 

(a)  Boil  4 ounces  of  sarsaparilla  in  4 pints 
of  water  to  2 pints,  and  strain. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Alterative,  dia- 
phoretic, and  tonic. 

(r)  Used  in  cutaneous  diseases,  chronic 
rheumatism,  and  scrofula. 

(d)  Dose.— 2 ounces,  twice  or  thrice  a day. 

Decoction  of  Sarsaparilla  (compound). 

(a)  Mix  4 pints  of  boiling  decoction  of  sar- 
saparilla, 10  drachms  of  sliced  sassafras,  10 
drachms  of  guaiacumwood  shavings,  1 o drachms 
of  bruised  stick-liquorice,  and  3 drachms  of 
mezereon  bark ; boil  for  a quarter  of  an  hour, 
and  strain. 

(b)  if)  id)  Therapeutical  effects. — The  same 
as  the  last,  but  warmer,  and  therefore  better 
suited  to  weak  stomachs. 

Dill  Water. — Prepared  from  Dili  seeds  by 
distillation. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — An  aromatic  odor, 
with  a pungent  agreeable  taste. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Carminative  and 
stimulative. 

(c)  Used  in  the  flatulence  and  gripings  of 
children. 

(-/)  Dose. — y2  drachm  to  1 y2  ounce. 

1 Jxtract  of  Gentian. 

(a)  Made  from  the  gentian  root. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Tonic  and  stom- 
achic. 

(c)  Used  in  dyspepsia. 

(d)  Dose. — 5 to  20  grains. 

Extract  of  Henbane. — Prepared  from  the 
leaves  of  Hvoscyamus  niger. 


(a)  Physical  properties. — An  extract  of  a 
dingy  olive  color,  and  a peculiar,  disagreeable 
smell ; taste,  bitterish  and  saline. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Narcotic,  ano- 
dine,  and  antispasmodic. 

(r)  Used  instead  of  opium,  in  irritability  of 
the  nervous  system,  or  mucous  surfaces,  or  in 
combination  with  purgatives  to  prevent  their 
griping,  as  it  does  not  cause  constipation. 

(d)  Dose. — 5 to  8 grains. 

Extract  of  Hop. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — A dark-colored 
bitter  extract,  without  much  smell. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Tonic  and  se- 
dative. 

(c)  Used  in  chronic  dyspepsia  and  loss  of  sleep. 

(d)  Dose. — 10  to  15  grains. 

Extract  of  Sarsaparilla  (liquid).  Pre- 
pared from  sarsaparilla,  and  used  for  the  same 
purposes  as  the  decoction.  It  is  sold  both  as  a 
simple  and  compound  extract. 

(a)  Dose. — 30  drops  to  1 drachm  two  or 
three  times  a day  in  water. 

Gamboge. — A gum  resin,  of  a purgative  na- 
ture, but  too  powerful  for  domestic  use. 

Horseradish  (the  fresh  root). 

(a)  Physical  properties. — Pungent  odor,  bit- 
ing, acrid  taste  ; communicates  its  active 
principles  partially  to  water,  but  completely  to 
alcohol. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Stimulant,  diuretic, 
sudorific,  emetic. 

(c)  Used  in  paralytic  affections  and  chronic 
rheumatism. 

(d)  Dose.  — 1 to  2 drachms,  cut  into  small 
pieces,  or  made  into  an  infusion. 

Infusion  of  Chamomile. 

Chamomile  tea. 

(a)  Macerate  5 drachms  of  chamomile -flow- 
ers in  a pint  of  boiling  distilled  water  for  ten 
minutes,  in  a closed  vessel,  and  strain. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Tonic,  stomachic ; 
emetic,  when  warm.  Externally  soothing. 

(c)  Used  in  dyspepsia,  and  to  assist  the  opera- 
tion of  emetics. 

(d)  Dose. — 1 to  2 ounces.  For  emetic  pur- 
poses, a weaker  infusion  is  used  in  large 
quantities. 

Infusion  of  Cloves. 

(a)  Macerate  3 drachms  of  bruised  cloves  in  a 
pint  of  boiling  water,  in  a covered  vessel,  and 
strain. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Stimulant,  stom- 
achic, slightly  tonic. 

(c)  Used  as  a vehicle  for  more  active  tonics, 
especially  cod-liver  oil. 

(d)  Dose.  — 1 ounce  to  2 or  3. 

Infusion  of  Gentian  (compound). 

(a)  Macerate  2 drachms  of  sliced  gentian,  2 
drachms  of  dried  orange-peel,  and  4 drachms 
of  lemon-peel  in  a pint  of  boiling  water  for  an 
hour,  in  a covered  vessel,  and  strain. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  — Stomachic  and 
tonic. 

(c)  Used  in  dyspepsia  and  general  debility. 

(d)  Dose. — 1 y2  to  2 ounces  two  or  three 
times  a day. 


DRUGS 


177 


Infusion  of  Linseed  (compound). 

Linseed  tea. 

(a)  Macerate  6 drachms  of  bruised  linseed 
and  io  drachms  of  sliced  fresh  liquorice  in  a 
pint  of  boiling-  water,  for  four  hours,  near  the 
fire,  in  a covered  vessel,  and  strain. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Soothing,  especial- 
ly to  the  mucous  passages. 

(c)  Used  in  chronic  bronchitis  and  strangury. 

(d)  Dose , ad  libitum. 

Infusion  of  Orange-peel  ( 'compound ). 

(a)  Macerate  half  an  ounce  of  dried  orange- 
peel,  two  drachms  of  lemon-peel,  one  drachm  of 
cloves  bruised,  in  a pint  of  boiling  water,  for  a 
quarter  of  an  hour,  in  a covered  vessel,  and 
strain. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Stimulant,  stom- 
achic, and  tonic. 

(c)  Used  in  dyspepsia,  and  as  a vehicle  for 
other  remedies. 

( d ) Dose. — i ounce  to  2 or  3,  at  short  inter- 
vals. 

Infusion  of  Quassia . 

( a ) Macerate  10  scruples  of  quassia  sliced, 
in  a pint  of  boiling  water  for  two  hours,  in  a 
covered  vessel. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Tonic  and  stom- 
achic. 

(c)  Used  in  dyspepsia. 

. (d)  Dose.  — 1 y2  to  2 ounces. 

Infusion  of  Rhubarb. 

(a)  Macerate  3 drachms  of  sliced  rhubarb 
root  in  a pint  of  boiling  water  for  two  hours,  in 
a covered  vessel,  and  strain. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  — Stomachic,  tonic, 
and  aperient. 

(c)  Used  in  dyspepsia  accompanied  with  con- 
sipation,  especially  in  combination  with  gentian. 

( d ) Dose. — yz  ounce  to  ounce. 

Infusion  of  Roses  (compound). 

(a)  Put  three  drachms  of  the  dried  red  rose 
leaves  into  a pint  of  boiling  water,  then  add  a 
fluid  drachm  and  a half  of  diluted  sulphuric 
acid.  Macerate  for  two  hours,  and  strain  the 
liquor ; lastly,  add  6 drachms  of  sugar. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.— Astringent,  refrige- 
rant, and  antiseptic. 

(c)  Used  as  a drink  in  fevers ; also  as  a vehicle 
for  sulphate  of  magnesia,  quinine,  etc. 

(d)  Dose. — 1 yz  to  2 ounces. 

Infusion  of  Senna  (compound). 

Senna  tea. 

(a)  Macerate  15  drachms  of  senna  leaves, 
and  4 scruples  of  bruised  ginger  in  a pint  of 
boiling  water  for  an  hour  in  a closed  vessel, 
and  strain. 

b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Aperient. 

c)  Used  as  a vehicle  for  more  active  purga- 
tives, which  it  assists ; or  by  itself  as  a mild 
purgative. 

(d)  Dose. — x to  3 ounces. 

Ipecacuanha,  the  root. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — In  pieces  of  three 
or  four  inches  in  length,  with  a resinous  frac- 
ture ; an  acrid  aromatic  somewhat  bitter  taste, 
slightly  nauseous ; peculiar  odor  ; yields  its 
active  principle  to  water,  spirit,  and  wine. 

12 


(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Emetic,  diaphor- 
etic, expectorant,  and  acting  peculiarly  on  the 
liver. 

(c)  Used  as  an  emetic ; also  as  an  expectorant 
in  bronchitis,  asthma,  etc.,  as  a nauseate  in 
pneumonia,  diarrhoea,  dysentery  ; as  a diaphor- 
etic in  various  diseases,  and  in  torpid  liver,  to 
promote  its  proper  secretions. 

(d)  Dose. — As  an  emetic,  1 5 to  30  grains ; as 
a nauseate,  2 to  4 grains ; as  a diaphoretic,  1 
grain,  with  a small  dose  of  opium  ; as  an  expec- 
torant or  for  torpid  liver,  Y*  to  1 grain. 

Jalap,  the  root. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — Thin,  transverse 
slices,  or  round  masses  ; solid,  hard,  and  heavy ; 
dark-gray  color,  striated  appearance ; sickly 
smell ; taste  sweetish,  but  nauseous. 

(o)  Therapeutical  effects. — Actively  aperient. 

(c)  Used  in  obstinate  constipation,  worms, 
dropsy ; requires  a carminative  to  prevent  grip- 
ing and  nausea. 

(d)  Dose. — 10  grains  to  30. 

Laudanum. — See  Opium. 

Liniment  of  Ammonia. 

(a)  To  1 fluid  ounce  of  the  solution  of  am- 
monia add  2 fluid  ounces  of  olive  oil,  and  shake 
together. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Stimulant  and  ru- 
befacient. 

(c)  Used  in  sore  throat  externally,  also  to 
chronic  rheumatism,  with  friction. 

Liniment  of  Camphor. 

(a)  Dissolve  1 ounce  of  camphor  in  4 fluid 
ounces  of  olive  oil. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  — Stimulant. 

(c)  Used'vn  chronic  rheumatism,  with  friction. 

Liniment  of  Camphor  (compound). 

(a)  Dissolve  2 Yz  ounces  of  camphor  and  1 
drachm  of  oil  of  lavender  in  17  fluid  ounces  of 
rectified  spirits  of  wine  ; then  add  3 fluid  ounces 
of  the  strong  solution  of  ammonia,  and  shake 
well  together. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Stimulant. 

(c)  Used  with  friction  in  the  same  way  as  the 
simple  liniment,  but  it  is  more  powerful. 

Liniment  of  Turperitine. 

(a)  Shake  well  together  2 ounces  of  soft  soap, 
and  an  ounce  of  camphor,  with  16  fluid  ounces 
of  the  spirit  of  turpentine,  until  mixed. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Stimulant. 

(c)  Used  in  paralytic  affections  and  chronic 
rheumatism  ; also  to  burns  and  scalds. 

Liquor  of  Acetate  of  Lead. — Sold  by  the 
druggists. 

(a)  Therapeutical  effects.  — Sedative  and 
astringent  when  applied  externally. 

(b)  Used  as  a lotion  to  inflamed  surfaces  when 
largely  diluted  with  water.  Goulard  water  is 
prepared  from  it,  by  adding  a fluid  drachm  and 
a half  of  it  and  2 fluid  drachms  of  proof  spirit 
to  a pint  of  distilled  water. 

Magnesia,  Carbonate  of. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — A solid,  white, 
tasteless,  inodorous  powder,  insoluble  in  water. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.— Anti-acid  and  pur- 
gative. 

(c)  Used  in  dyspepsia  with  costiveness,  in  the 


178 


DRUGS 


constipation  of  children  and  delicate  grown  per- 
sons. 

(d)  Dose. — y2  drachm  to  i drachm  or  2. 

Magnesia,  Sulphate  of. — Epsom  salts. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — Small  pointed  crys- 
tals of  a transparent,  colorless  appearance  ; in- 
odorous, with  a disagreeable  bitter  taste ; dis- 
solves readily  in  water. 

(р)  Therapeutical  effects. — Purgative. 

(r)  Used  as  a cooling  laxative,  washing  the 
bowels  out,  but  not  searching  them. 

(d)  Dose. — - 1 drachm  to  i ounce. 

Marsh  Mallows. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  A root ; long  cylin- 
drical ; grayish  without,  white  within ; inodor- 
ous ; taste  sweetish. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Soothing. 

(с)  Used  to  make  a soothing  drink  in  irritation 
of  the  mucous  membranes,  or  as  a fomenta- 
tion ; boiling  the  leaves  and  roots  to  form  it. 

Mercury,  Ammonia-chloride  of.— White 
precipitate. 

(a  ) Physical  Properties. — A white  inodorous 
powder;  insipid,  insoluble  in  water  and  alcohol. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Used  externally, 
only ; it  is  detergent. 

( c ) Used  for  cutaneous  diseases,  and  for  de- 
stroying lice,  etc.,  in  its  powdered  condition. 

Mercury,  Mild  Chloride  of. — Calomel. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  — A white  semi- 
transparent crystalline  mass,  inodorous,  insipid, 
and  insoluble.  Usually  sold  as  a heavy  white 
powder. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Alterative,  purga- 
tive, and  producing  absorption. 

(c)  Used  in  chronic  diseases  of  the  liver  and 
general  torpidity  of  the  stomach  and  bowels  ; in 
dropsy,  in  combination  with  other  medicines. 
A most  dangerous  medicine  when  employed  by 
those  who  are  not  aware  of  its  powerful  ef- 
fects. 

(d)  Dose. — I grain  twice  a day  as  an  altera- 
tive, 4 to  5 grains  as  an  aperient,  combined 
with,  or  followed  by,  some  mild  vegetable  pur- 
gative. 

Mercury,  Nitric  Cxide  of. — Red  precipi- 
tate. 

(a)  Physical  properties.—  A.  powder  of  a 
brilliant  red  color  insoluble  in  water. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Stimulant,  exter- 
nally. 

(c)  Used  to  old  ulcers,  and  to  heal  inciolent 
■sores  of  all  kinds,  when  made  into  an  ointment 
with  lard.  (See  Ointments.) 

Mint-water. — Prepared  from  peppermint  or 
spearmint.  These  are  sold  in  the  shops. 

(a)  Therapeutical  effects. — Both  are  carmi- 
native and  slightly  stimulating.  Spearmint- 
water  is  also  diuretic. 

(b)  Used  as  a vehicle  for  other  remedies. 

Mixture  of  Chalk. 

(a)  Rub  yz  ounce  of  prepared  chalk  and  3 
drachms  of  sugar  with  a fluid  ounce  and  a half 
of  mixture  of  acacia,  and  8 fluid  ounces  of  cin- 
namon water. 

(1 b ) Therapeutical  effects. — Anti-acid,  absorb- 
ent, and  astringent  when  given  in  diarrhoea. 


(c)  Used  in  diarrhoea. 

(a)  Dose. — A tablespoonful  every  two  hours. 

Mixture  of  Iron  (Compound.) 

(a)  Rub  2 drachms  of  powdered  myrrh  and  1 
drachm  of  carbonate  of  potass  with  a fluid  ounce 
of  spirit  of  nutmeg  ; to  these,  while  rubbing, 
add  18  fluid  ounces  of  rose-water,  2 drachms  of 
sugar,  and  z'f2  scruples  of  powdered  sulphate 
of  iron.  Put  the  mixture  in  a well-stoppered 
bottled. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  — Stomachic,  as- 
tringent, tonic,  emmenagogue. 

(i c ) Used  in  chlorotic  girls,  and  in  all  the  de- 
fective secretions  of  young  females. 

(d)  Dose. — 1 to  1 y2  ounce 

Ointment  of  Creasote. 

(a)  Rub  half  a fluid  drachm  of  creasote  with 
an  ounce  of  lard,  until  they  are  incorporated. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Stimulant. 

(c)  Used  in  scald  head,  etc. 

Ointment  of  Galls  (Compound). 

(a)  Mix  6 drachms  of  finely  powdered  galls,  6 
ounces  of  lard,  and  I'/i  drachm  of  powdered 
opium. 

(b)  Astringent  and  anodyne. 

( c ) Used  for  hemorrhoids;  but  one-quarter 
of  the  quantity  of  gallic  acid  answers  much  bet- 
ter. 

Ointment  of  Green  Iodide  of  Mercury. 

(a)  Mix  from  30  grains  to  1 drachm  of  green 
iodide  of  mercury  with  1 ounce  of  lard. 

(b)  Used  in  scald  head,  for  which  it  is  very 
efficacious. 

Ointment  of  Nitric  Oxide  of  Mercury. 

(a)  Rub  1 ounce  of  finely  powdered  nitric 
oxide  of  mercury  with  10  ounces  of  wax,  and  6 
ounces  of  lard. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Stimulant. 

(c)  Used  to  indolent  ulcers. 

Ointment  of  Zinc. 

(a)  Mix  1 drachm  of  oxide  of  zinc  with  6 
drachms  of  lard. 

(b)  Used  as  a cooling,  astringent,  and  drying 
ointment. 

Olive  Oil. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — A transparent  fixed 
oil,  of  a yellowish  color  ; inodorous  and  without 
much  taste. 

(b)  ’Therapeutical  effects.  — Soothing,  and 
slightly  aperient. 

(c)  Used  in  bronchial  irritation  ; also  as  a ve- 
hicle for  other  medicines  in  the  form  of  lini- 
ment. 

(d)  Dose. — 1 to  2 drachms. 

Peruvian  Balsam. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — Of  the  consistence 
of  honey ; color,  brown ; agreeable  smell,  and 
hot,  acrid  taste. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Stimulant,  expec- 
torant ; externally  applied  to  indolent  ulcers. 

(c)  Used  in  catarrh  and  chronic  rheumatism. 

(d)  Dose. — 1 5 minims  to  half  a drachm. 

Pill  of  Mercury. — Blue  pill. 

(a)  The  metal  partially  oxydated,  and  mixed 
with  confection  of  roses. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  — Alterative  and 
I purgative,  acting  especially  on  the  liver. 


DRUGS  179 


( c ) Used  in  dyspepsia,  torpidity  of  the  liver, 
and  constipation. 

( d)  Dose. — i to  5 or  6 grains. 

Pill  of  Rhubarb  (Compound). 

(a)  Made  up  of  rhubarb,  aloes,  and  myrrh. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Laxative. 

(c)  Used  in  dyspepsia  and  constipation. 

(d)  Dose. — Two  at  bed  time. 

Pitch,  Burgundy. — The  impure  resin  of  the 
Norway  spruce  fir. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — A tenacious  mass, 
of  fragrant  odor, semi-transparent, and  unctuous. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  — Stimulant  and 
rubefacient. 

(c)  Used  externally  in  the  form  of  plaster  in 
bronchitis,  hooping-cough,  etc. 

Poultice  of  Charcoal. 

(a)  Macerate  for  a short  time  before  the  fire 
2 ounces  of  bread  in  2 fluid  ounces  of  boiling 
water;  then  mix,  and  gradually  stir  in  io 
drachms  of  linseed  meal ; with  these  mix  2 
drachms  of  powdered  charcoal,  and  sprinkle  a 
drachm  on  the  surface. 

(i b ) Antiseptic  and  digestive. 

( c ) Used  in  gangrene. 

Poultice  of  Hemlock. 

(a)  Make  a poultice  of  linseed  meal ; then 
add  I ounce  of  extract  of  hemlock  previously 
softened  with  water,  or  4 ounces  of  the  fresh 
leaves  scalded  and  bruised. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Anodyne  and  dis- 
cutient. 

(c)  Used  in  glandular  swellings  and  cancerous 
sores. 

Poultice  of  Linseed. 

(a)  Put  into  a basin  enough  meal  to  form  a 
poultice,  making  a hole  in  its  centre  ; then  pour 
upon  it  boiling  water  to  fill  that  hole,  and  stir 
rapidly  with  a kitchen  knife.  This  will  gener- 
ally be  sufficient  to  make  the  poultice  of  the 
proper  consistency.  It  is  always  better  to  add 
enough  water  at  first,  as  it  is  not  so  smooth  if 
added  piecemeal. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Stimulant,  and  yet 
soothing. 

(c)  Used  for  abscesses  and  ulcers  when  in- 
flamed. 

Poultice  of  Mustard. 

(a)  Make  either  a bread  or  a linseed-meal 
poultice,  then  sprinkle  over  it  enough  flour  of 
mustard  to  conceal  its  surface,  and  wet  it  with 
a little  boiling  water.  Some  people  add  hot 
vinegar  to  wet  it  with. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  — Stimulant,  and 
often  inclined  to  blister  the  skin. 

(c)  Used  as  a rapid  counter-irritant. 

Poultice  of  Yeast. 

(a)  Mix  5 ounces  of  yeast  with  an  equal  quan- 
tity of  water,  at  100  degrees;  with  these  stir  up 
a pound  of  flour,  so  as  to  make  a poultice  ; place 
it  by  the  fire  till  it  swells,  and  use. 

(b)  Stimulant,  emollient. 

(c)  Used  to  indolent  abscesses  and  sores. 

Powder  of  Ipecacuanha  (compound). — Do- 
ver’s powder. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  — Compound  of 
opium,  ipecacuanha,  and  sulphate  of  potass. 


(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Diaphoretic,  ano- 
dyne, and  narcotic. 

(<r)  Used  to  produce  perspiration  in  rheuma- 
tism and  dysentery,  etc. 

(a)  Dose. — 5 to  1 o grains. 

Quinine,  Sulphate  of. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — Colorless,  inodor- 
ous, lustrous,  bitter  efflorescent  crystals,  totally 
soluble  in  water  previously  acidulated  with 
sulphuric  acid. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Stomachic,  stimu- 
lant, febrifuge,  and  tonic. 

(c)  Used  in  general  debility,  neuralgia,  and 
after  fever. 

(d)  Dose. — I to  3 grains. 

Rhubarb. — The  root,  whole  and  powdered. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — The  root  is  infirm, 
flattish,  irregular  pieces,  occasionally  pierced 
with  large  holes ; color,  bright  yellow,  external- 
ly; odor,  peculiar  and  aromatic;  taste,  bitter, 
astringent,  and  somewhat  nauseous ; imparts 
its  virtue  to  water  and  alcohol.  The  powder  is 
of  a reddish  yellow. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  — Purgative  and 
stomachic  ; acting  on  the  small  bowels. 

(c)  Used  as  a mild  purgative  in  the  constipa- 
tion of  children  and  adults. 

(d)  Dose. — 10  to  30  grains. 

Saffron. — (a)  A coloring  matter  obtained 
from  the  Crocus  sativus. 

Senna. — The  leaves. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — Leaves  of  a pale 
green  color ; leaflets  broad,  lanceolate ; the 
two  sides  unequal ; odor  faint,  somewhat  like 
green  tea;  taste,  nauseous  and  bitter.  Yields 
its  properties  to  spirit  and  water. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Cathartic. 

(c)  Used  in  constipation,  and  to  lower  the 
system.  Made  into  the  infusion. 

(d)  Dose. — 5 grains  to  25,  rubbed  down  with 
ginger  and  sugar. 

Soda,  Bicarbonate  of. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — A heavy  white 
powder,  without  smell,  and  tasting  slightly 
soapy.  Entirely  soluble  in  water. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Anti-acid. 

(c)  Used  in  the  manufacture  of  effervescing 
draughts,  and  for  acidities  of  the  stomach. 

(d)  Dose. — 5 to  30  grains. 

Soda,  Sulphate  of. — Glauber’s  salts. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — Crystals,  of  an  ex- 
ceedingly bitter  taste,  and  without  smell.  Solu- 
ble in  water. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  — Purgative  and 
diuretic. 

(c)  Used  in  costiveness. 

(d)  Dose. — yz  to  1 ounce. 

Spirit  of  Ammonia  (aromatic). 

(a)  Physical  properties. — A compound,  con- 
taining carbonate  of  ammonia  and  aromatics, 
with  spirit ; and  possessing  an  aromatic,  warm, 
and  alkaline  taste.  Miscible  with  water,  which 
it  renders  milky. 

(b)  Therapeutical ^rfj.-Stimulant  and  cordial. 
yc)  Used  as  the  ordinary  diffusible  stimulus 
in  faintings  and  hysteria;  also  added  to  senna 
to  prevent  griping. 


180 


DRUGS 


(d)  Dose. — 30  to  60  drops. 

Spirit  of  Ammonia  {fetid ). 

{a)  Physical  properties. — The  same  as  the 
above,  with  the  addition  of  asafoetida. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Stimulant  and  an- 
tispasmodic. 

(c)  Used  in  hysterical  fits. 

\d)  Dose. — 30  to  60  drops. 

Spirit  of  Horseradish  {compound). 

{a)  Mix  20  ounces  of  sliced  horseradish, 
20  ounces  of  dried  orange-peel,  5 drachms  of 
bruised  nutmegs,  and  a gallon  of  rectified  spirit 
with  10  pints  of  water;  then  distil  to  a gallon, 
with  a slow  fire. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Stimulant,  diapho- 
retic and  diuretic. 

(c)  Used  internally  in  dyspepsia,  and  in  par- 
alysis, externally  rubbed  into  the  skin. 

( d ) Dose. — 1 to  2 drachms. 

Spirit  of  Nitric  Ether. — Sweet  spirits  of 
nitre. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — A colorless,  trans- 
parent, volatile,  inflammable  fluid,  of  an  ethereal 
odor. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Cooling,  diuretic, 
and  diaphoretic ; also  slightly  antispasmodic. 

{c)  Used  in  febrile  diseases,  dropsy,  and 
spasm. 

{d)  Dose. — 20  to  60  minims,  largely  diluted. 

Squill. — The  sea  onion. 

( a ) A root  of  a pear  shape,  covered  with 
several  thin  dry  tissues,  under  which  are  oval, 
flaky,  red  or  white  scales  ; odor,  pungent  ; 
taste,  acrid  and  bitter.  Imparts  its  virtue  to 
vinegar,  spirits  and  water. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Expectorant,  emet- 
ic, diuretic. 

(c)  Used  in  chronic  bronchitis  and  asthma. 

\d)  Dose. — 2 to  6 grains.  Syrup  of  squills, 

dose,  1 to  i'/2  drachms. 

Syrup  of  Iodide  of  Iron  is  used  in  order 
to  preserve  the  iodide  of  iron  from  injury. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  — Alterative,  and 
affording  the  effects  of  iron  and  iodine. 

(1 c ) Used  in  scrofulous  diseases,  and  in  cachec- 
tic states  of  the  system. 

(d)  Dose. — 20  to  40  minims. 

Turpentine,  Spirit  of. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — A limpid,  colorless 
fluid,  of  a strong  odor  and  hot  taste,  exceeding- 
ly inflammable. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Stimulant,  diuret- 
ic, cathartic,  and  destructive  to  worms. 

(c)  Used  in  hemorrhages,  lumbago,  etc.,  and 
to  destroy  worms  ; also  externally  as  a rubefa- 
cient. 

{d)  Dose. — 10  drops  to  30  internally,  or  2 to 
4 drachms  mixed  with  castor  oil  as  a vermi- 
fuge ; but  it  should  not  be  given  internally 
without  the  sanction  of  a physician. 

Tincture  of  Camphor  ( compound. .)  — Pare- 
goric elixir. 

( a ) A tincture  containing  camphor,  opium, 
anise,  and  benzoic  acid. 

(b)  Used  in  coughs. 

( c ) Dose. — 1 drachm. 

Tincture  of  Ginger. 


Dose. — r drachm. 

Tincture  of  Iodine.  {See  Iodine). 

Dose. — 5 to  15  minims. 

Tincture  of  Myrrh. 

Dose. — 30  to  60  minims.  Useful  as  a wash 
for  the  teeth,  rarely  used  internally. 

Tincture  of  Opium. — Laudanum. 

Dose. — 6 to  20  minims. 

Tincture  of  Quinine. 

Dose. — teaspoonful. 

Tincture  of  Rhubarb  {compound). — A very 
warm,  useful  preparation. 

Dose. — 2 to  4 drachms. 

Tincture  of  Valerian  {compound). 

Dose. — 30  to  60  minims,  in  dyspepsia  and 
hysteria. 

Tolu,  Balsam  of. 

{a)  Physical  properties.  — Of  considerable 
consistence ; reddish-brown  in  color ; odor, 
very  pungent ; taste,  warm  and  sweetish. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — A stimulant  ex- 
pectorant. 

{c)  Used  in  chronic  coughs,  and  also  to 
wounds  and  ulcers. 

{d)  Dose. —10  grains. 

Valerian. 

{a)  Physical  properties. — Several  long,  slen- 
der, dusky-brown  fibres,  issuing  from  one  head  ; 
strong  fetid  odor;  warm,  bitterish,  subacid 
taste. 

{b)  Therapeutical  effects.  — Antispasmodic, 
tonic. 

{c)  Used  in  hysteria. 

{d)  Dose. — 1 drachm. 

Wine  of  Iron. 

{a)  Digest  for  30  days  2 ounces  of  Tartar- 
ated  Iron  in  a pint  of  sherry. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Stomachic  and 
tonic. 

(r)  Used  the  same  as  other  steel  medicines. 

(d)  Dose. — two  tablespoonfuls. 

Wine  of  Opium. 

( a ) Prepared  with  opium  and  spices. 

{b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Stimulant,  after- 
wards anodyne. 

(c)  Used  chiefly  as  an  application  to  the  eyes. 

( d ) Dose. — 10  to  20  minims. 

Wine  of  Potassio-tartrate  of  Antimony. — 

— Antimonial  wine. 

{a)  Dissolve  two  scruples  of  potassio-tartrate 
of  antimony  in  a pint  of  sherry. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Emetic  and  dia- 
phoretic. 

(r)  Used  in  inflammatory  diseases. 

(d)  Dose. — 15  to  60  minims. 

Zinc,  Chloride  of. — A powerful  drug,  but 
scarcely  adapted  to  domestic  use,  except  as  a 
disinfectant,  for  which  it  is  sold  in  solution. 
{See  Disinfectants.) 

Zinc,  Sulphate  of. — White  vitriol. 

(a)  Physical  properties. — Transparent  crys- 
tals. 

{b)  Therapeutical  effects. — Tonic,  astringent, 
and  emetic. 

{c)  Used  as  a wash  or  as  an  emetic. 

(d)  Dose. — As  an  emetic,  10  to  30  grains; 
tonic,  2 grains. 


DUCK 


DUMPLINGS 


181 


Proportionate  Doses  for  different  Ages. 


Under 

j a 

year 

I-1 5th  of  a 

full 

U 

i 

a 

1-1 2th 

a 

U 

2 

a 

1 -8th 

a 

a 

3 

a 

1 -6th 

a 

a 

4 

a 

i-5th 

a 

a 

7 

a 

1 -3d 

a 

a 

>4 

a 

1 -half 

a 

a 

20 

a 

2-3ds 

a 

Above 

21 

a 

the  full  dose 

At 

63 

a 

II-I2tllS 

a 

U 

77 

a 

5-6ths 

a 

a 

100 

a 

2-3ds 

a 

DUCK.  — For  suggestions  about  raising 
ducks,  see  Poultry.  There  are  many  breeds 
of  ducks  which  are  very  fine  for  the  table,  among 
which  are  the  Muscovy,  top-knot,  Cayuga  black ; 
a cross  between  the  common  and  the  Muscovy 
produces  a very  large  bird  at  an  early  age, 
and  is  considered  the  choicest  duck.  Tame 
Ducks  are  always  in  season  but  are  thought  to 
be  in  perfection  in  June  and  July.  Ducklings 
are  in  much  demand  in  the  Spring  when  other 
poultry  is  scarce.  In  choosing,  select  those 
with  supple  feet,  and  hard,  plump  breasts. 
Tame  ducks  have  yellow  feet,  wild  ones  red. 

Wild  Duck  can  be  had  at  all  seasons.  The 
choicest  is  the  Canvas-back  (see  Canvas-Back), 
Red-head  or  Pochard , Mallard, , and  Teal. 

There  is  a tvitle  difference  of 
taste  regarding  the  eoctent  to 
which  ducks  should  be  cooked. 
Epicures  prefer  them  very  rare. 
The  times  given  in  the  recipes 
are  those  required  for  thorough 
cooking.  Less  time  can  of  course 
be  given  as  taste  requires. 

Pie  (Duck). — Cut  off  the  wings  and  neck  of 
a duck ; boil  it  a quarter  of  an  hour ; cut  it  up 
while  hot,  preserving  the  gravy  that  runs  from 
it ; then  take  the  giblets,  add  a tablespoonful  of 
butter,  a blade  of  mace,  six  black  pepper-corns, 
two  onions,  a bit  of  toasted  bread,  and  a pinch 
of  cayenne  pepper  ; stew  these  until  the  butter 
is  melted,  then  add  half  a pint  of  boiling  water 
and  let  them  stew  until  the  giblets  are  tender  ; 
then  strain  it,  and  put  the  giblets  into  the  pie. 
Let  the  gravy  stand  till  cold,  skim  off  the  fat, 
and  put  it  with  what  runs  from  the  duck  at  the 
bottom  of  the  pie-dish ; then  put  in  the  duck 
well  seasoned  with  pepper  and  salt,  add  a table- 
spoonful of  butter  in  lumps,  and  cover  the 
whole  with  a tolerably  thick  pie-crust.  Bake 
in  a moderately  quick  oven.  Cold  duck  will 
do  as  well,  if  the  skin  is  taken  off. 

Roast  Duck. — In  preparing  ducks  for  the 
spit,  be  careful  to  clear  the  skin  entirely  of  the 
stumps  of  the  feathers  ; take  off  the  head  and 
neck  but  leave  the  feet  on,  and  hold  them  for  a 
few  minutes  in  boiling  water  to  loosen  the  skin 
which  should  be  peeled  off.  Wash  the  inside  of 
the  birds  by  pouring  water  through  them,  but 
merely  wipe  the  outsides  with  a dry  cloth.  Put 
into  the  bodies  a stuffing  made  like  that  for 
turkeys,  or  simply  a seasoning  of  parboiled 
onions  mixed  with  minced  sage,  salt,  pepper, 
and  a slice  of  butter.  Cut  off  the  wings  at  the 


first  joint  from  the  body,  truss  the  feet  behind 
the  back,  spit  the  birds  firmly,  and  roast  them 


Ducks  Trussed  for  Roasting. 

at  a brisk  fire  without  placing  them  sufficiently 
near  to  be  scorched  ; baste  them  constantly, 
and  when  the  breasts  are  well  plumped,  and 
the  steam  from  them  draws  towards  the  fire, 
dish,  and  serve  quickly  with  a little  good,  brown 
gravy  poured  round  them,  and  some  also  in  a 
tureen.  Tender  ducks  will  take  from  thirty 
minutes  to  a hour  to  roast. 

Roast  Wild  Duck. — As  wild  ducks  are  lia- 
ble to  have  a fishy  flavor,  it  is  well  to  parboil 
them  with  a carrot  or  an  onion  before  roasting. 
Stuff  with  bread-crumbs,  seasoned  with  salt, 
pepper,  onion  and  sage  ; roast  as  above  before  a 
brisk  fire,  until  brown  and  tender.  When  the 
ducks  are  taken  up,  thicken  the  gravy  with 
browned  flour,  and  serve  it  in  a tureen.  Serve 
currant  jelly  or  some  other  sweetmeat  with  the 
ducks. 

Stewed  Duck. — I.  A duck  too  tough  for  roast- 
ing may  be  used  for  this  dish,  though  a tender 
one  is  of  course  best.  Cut  it  up  neatly  into 
joints,  and  arrange  these  in  a wide  stew-pan 
in  a single  layer  if  possible ; pour  in  about  a 
quarter  of  a pint  of  strong  cold  beef  stock  or 
gravy ; skim  off  the  scum  when  it  begins  to  boil, 
then  throw  in  a little  salt,  onion,  and  sage, 
and  a few  thin  slices  of  lemon  rind.  Simmer 
the  joints  gently  for  three-quarters  of  an  hour, 
or  longer  if  they  are  large ; then  stir  into  the 
gravy  a tablespoonful  of  rice-flour  (mixed  if 
desired  with  a wineglassful  of  port  wine);  in 
ten  minutes  after,  dish  the  stew  and  send  it  to 
table  at  once. 

II.  Stewed  with  Green  Peas. — Half  roast 
the  duck ; skin  it,  and  put  it  into  a stew-pan 
with  a pint  of  beef  gravy,  a few  leaves  of  mint 
and  sage  cut  small,  pepper  and  salt,  and  half 
an  onion  shred  as  fine  as  possible.  Simmer  a 
quarter  of  an  hour,  and  skim  clean ; then  add 
about  a quart  of  green  peas.  Cover  tightly 
and  simmer  about  half  an  hour  longer.  Add 
a tablespoonful  of  butter  and  as  much  flour, 
give  it  one  boil  and  remove  from  fire ; serve 
with  the  peas  around  it  on  the  dish. 

Stewed  Wild  Duck. — Parboil  with  a car- 
rot or  onion  for  about  ten  minutes ; then  cut 
into  joints,  put  them  into  a sauce-pan  and  cover 
with  gravy  made  of  the  giblets,  neck,  etc.; 
season  with  salt  and  pepper,  a bunch  of  sweet 
herbs,  and  minced  onions,  and  stew  gently  for 
half  an  hour;  or  until  done.  Take  up  the 
duck,  thicken  the  gravy  with  browned  flour,  and 
add  a wineglassful  of  wine  and  a tablespoonful 
of  lemon-juice ; boil  up  once  and  pour  over 
the  duck,  and  then  serve  at  once. 

DUMPLINGS.  (Apple.)— L Pare  large  ap- 


182 


DUMPLINGS 


DYES 


pies;  scoop  out  the  core;  cover  with  a thin 
suet  or  butter  crust,  made  as  for  puddings ; 
tie  up  in  a cloth  and  boil  from  twenty  minutes 
to  half  an  hour.  Or  they  may  be  baked.  A 
nice  sauce  to  eat  with  them,  or  any  dumplings, 
is  made  by  stirring  butter  and  white  sugar  to  a 
light  paste;  the  addition  of  a little  wine  to  this 
sauce  is  a great  improvement. 

II.  Take  flour,  r qt. ; baking  powder,  5 even 
teaspoonfuls  ; lard,  2 oz.  ; salt,  ]/z  teaspoonful ; 
milk,  3 gills. 

Mix  and  roll  the  crust  an  inch  thick ; pile  the 
centre  with  sour  apples  pared,  quartered  and 
cored ; draw  the  crust  over  them  and  pinch  it  to- 
gether ; turn  upside  down  on  a plate,  and  steam 
it  from  three  quarters  of  an  hour  to  an  hour. 

Currant  Dumplings. — For  each  dumpling 
take  three  tablespoonfuls  of  flourj  two  of  finely 
minced  suet,  and  three  of  currants ; add  a 
pinch  of  salt,  and  as  much  milk  or  water  as 
will  make  a very  thick  batter  of  the  ingredients. 
Tie  the  dumplings  separately  in  well-floured 
cloths,  and  boil  them  for  a full  hour.  They 
may  be  served  with  wine  same  as  above.  (See 
Apple  Dumpling  i.) 

Indian  Dumplings. — Scald  a quart  of  In- 
dian meal  with  boiling  hot  water;  let  it  stand 
until  cold  ; then  wet  your  hands  in  cold  water, 
stir  a tablespoonful  of  salt  into  the  meal,  and 
make  up  balls,  quite  hard,  the  size  of  a common 
potato ; drop  these  into  boiling  water,  cover 
them  up,  and  boil  half  an  hour.  They  are  very 
nice  to  eat  with  gravy  of  pork  or  goose. 

Lemon  Dumplings.—  Take  .--Bread-crumbs, 
10  oz.  ; beef  suet,  y2  lb.  ; flour,  1 heaping  table- 
spoonful ; lemons,  1 or  2 ; sugar,  4 oz. ; eggs,  3 
or  4. 

Mix  together  ten  ounces  of  fine  bread- 
crumbs, half  a pound  of  beef  suet  chopped 
very  small,  a heaping  tablespoonful  of  flour, 
the  grated  rinds  of  two  small  lemons  or  one 
large  one,  four  ounces  of  pounded  sugar,  three 
large,  or  four  small  eggs  beaten  and  strained, 
and  finally  the  juice  of  the  lemons  also  strained. 
Divide  these  into  four  equal  portions,  tie  them 
into  well-floured  cloths,  and  boil  them  an  hour. 
These  dumplings  are  extremely  light  and  del- 
icate ; if  desired  very  sweet,  more  sugar  must 
be  added. 

Norfolk  Dumplings. — This  is  an  English 
dish.  Take  a pound  of  dough  from  a baking 
of  very  light  bread,  and  divide  it  into  six  equal 
parts  ; mould  these  into  dumplings,  drop  them 
into  a pan  of  fast  boiling  water,  and  boil  them 
quickly  from  twelve  to  fifteen  minutes.  When 
done  tear  them  apart  on  the  top  with  two  forks, 
and  serve  immediately.  This  may  be  eaten  as 
a pudding,  with  a rich  sauce,  or  served  as  an 
accompaniment  to  meat.  In  helping,  they 
must  be  torn  apart,  never  cut. 

Rice  Dumplings. — Take  .--Rice  ; apples; 
marmalade,  or  jelly. 

Cleanse  half  a pound  of  rice  by  rubbing  it 
in  a towel ; pare  and  core  some  sour  apples, 
leaving  them  whole  ; put  a bit  of  marmalade  or 
jelly,  a clove  or  bit  of  lemon  peel  in  the  centre  ; 
dip  each  one  in  water,  then  roll  it  in  the  rice 


until  thickly  coated ; tie  each  one  in  a separate 
cloth,  drop  them  in  boiling  water,  cover,  and 
boil  three  quarters  of  an  hour.  Serve  hot 
with  rich  sauce  or  with  sugar  and  cream.  These 
dumplings  are  well  adapted  to  those  who  can- 
not eat  pastry. 

Suet  Dumplings. — I.  Take  .--Bread-crumbs, 

2 cupfuls  ; beef-suet,  1 cupful ; sugar,  1 table- 
spoonful ; eggs,  4 ; soda,  teaspoonful ; salt, 

1 teaspoonful. 

Mix  together  two  cupfuls  of  bread-crumbs 
wet  with  milk,  one  cupful  of  beef-suet  minced 
very  fine,  one  teacupful  of  sugar,  four  eggs, 
white  and  yolks  beaten  separately,  one-third 
of  a teaspoonful  of  soda  dissolved  in  boiling 
water,  and  one  teaspoonful  of  salt ; add  milk 
enough  to  make  a thick  paste.  Mould  into 
balls  ; tie  up  in  dumpling  cloths  well  floured, 
and  boil  from  forty  to  fifty  minutes.  Serve 
hot  with  wine  sauce. 

II.  (With  Bread.) — Take  .--Grated  bread, 
]/z  lb  ; suet,  y2  lb  ; lemon,  1;  moist  sugar,  y lb. ; 
eggs,  2. 

Take  half  a pound  of  grated  bread,  half  a 
pound  of  suet  cut  small,  the  juice  and  grated 
rind  of  a lemon,  a quarter  of  a pound  of 
moist  sugar,  and  two  eggs.  Mix  all  together, 
and  make  into  five  dumplings ; boil  them  in 
floured  cloths  half  an  hour,  and  serve  with 
sweet  sauce  in  the  dish. 

Yacht  Dumplings. — Take  .--Bread-crumbs 
yz  lb. ; cold  milk,  3 gills  ; butter,  2 oz. ; brown 
sugar,  4 oz;  cinnamon,  1 teaspoonful ; cloves,  y2 
teaspoonful ; lemon  (grated  rind),  1 ; eggs,  3 ; 
currants,  y lb;  raisins  (stoned)  y lb. ; citron, 

2 oz. ; 

Pour  two-thirds  of  the  milk  over  the  bread, 
cover  and  let  it  soak  fifteen  minutes,  melt  the 
butter  in  the  rest,  and  add  it  with  the  spice, 
fruit,  sugar  and  yolks  of  the  eggs  ; add  the 
whites,  beaten  to  a stiff  froth ; bake  in  butter- 
ed cups  ; serve  upside  down  with  a thick  rich 
sauce  poured  over  them. 

DUTCH  SAUCE.  (See  SAUCE.) 

DUTCHMAN’S  PIPE.— A fine  climbing 
plant  with  large  leaves  and  peculiar  flowers.  It 
is  hardy,  and  very  easy  to  cultivate.  Plant  in 
the  spring  by  digging  a hole  two  feet  in  diam- 
eter, filling  it  with  rich  loam,  and  setting  the 
roots  in  the  centre.  It  requires  to  be  watered 
during  hot  weather,  but  will  take  care  of  itself 
in  winter. 

DYES. — Colors  are  simple  and  compound. 
The  simple  colors  are  blue,  red  and  yellow,  and 
cannot  be  produced  by  the  mixing  together  of 
different  colors.  Compound  colors  may  be 
produced  by  mixing  together  two  or  more  col- 
ors in  different  proportions.  Thus,  purple  is 
formed  by  mixing  red  and  blue  ; green,  by  mix- 
ing blue  and  yellow ; orange,  by  mixing  red  and 
yellow  ; and  the  various  shades  of  these  depend 
upon  the  proportions  of  the  colors  so  mixed. 
What  is  called  “ giving  a ground  ” in  dyeing  is 
communicating  one  color  to  a fabric  with  the 
intention  of  applying  another  upon  it,  and  thus 
producing  a compound  color.  It  is  highly 
I important  that  the  water  used  in  dyeing  should 


DYES 


183 


be  pure  ; if  it  be  muddy,  or  if  it  contain  putrid  I 
substances,  it  will  be  impossible  to  procure 
pure  colors  by  it. 

Re-dyeing,  even  in  the  practised  hands  of  the 
dyer  by  trade,  is  an  uncertain  process,  and  the 
colors  of  re-dyed  articles  are  generally  very 
fleeting.  Every  color  will  dye  black,  whether 
blue,  yellow,  red,  or  brown ; and  black  will 
always  dye  black  again.  All  colors  will  take 
their  own  colors  again  ; and  blue  can  be  made 
green  or  black  ; green  may  be  made  brown, 
and  brown  green  ; and  any  color  on  re-dying 
will  take  a darker  shade  than  its  own. 

Directions  for  dyeing  leather,  including  kid 
gloves,  are  given  at  the  end  of  this  article.  For 
dyeing  feathers,  see  Feathers;  for  staining 
wood,  metals,  ivory,  bone,  horn,  and  grasses,  see 
Staining. 

In  dyeing,  depth  of  color  and  uniformity  of 
tint,  with  fastness  of  color  are  the  points  princi- 
pally, aimed  at.  Fastness  is  determined  by  the 
nature  of  the  dye  and  mordants.  A dye  is  con- 
sidered fast  when  it  resists  the  action  of  soap 
water,  of  weak  acids,  or  alkalies,  and  of  light 
and  air.  Colors  remaining  unchanged  under  all 
these  tests  are  not  common,  but  all  gradations 
are  known.  The  aniline  (or,  more  correctly 
coal  tar)  colors  are  the  most  brilliant,  but  as 
a general  rule  are  more  liable  to  fade  than  most 
of  the  colors  obtained  in  the  old  way,  by  more 
elaborate  processes  with  weld,  fustic,  madder, 
&c.  The  depth  of  color  usually  depends  upon 
the  amount  of  coloring  matter  used  in  the  dye 
bath,  which  must  be  graduated  according  to 
the  effects  desired  to  be  produced.  To  attain 
uniformity  of  tint  practice  is  necessary.  It  is 
usually  advisable  to  cleanse  the  goods  thor- 
oughly before  attempting  to  dye  them,  and  to 
wet  them  thoroughly  before  putting  them  in 
the  bath.  This  is  best  effected  by  boiling  with 
clean  water  for  a short  time,  and  then  wringing 
them  out  until  they  just  do  not  drip.  To  cleanse 
goods,  boiling  in  soap  suds  and  rinsing  several 
times  in  clear  water  is  the  best  mode.  In 
attempting  to  dye  goods  which  have  already 
some  color,  the  general  rule  may  be  laid  down, 
that  the  color  already  on  the  goods  has  a ten- 
dency to  modify  whatever  color  may  be  after- 
wards applied,  and  that  some  darker  color  than 
that  already  on  the  goods  should  be  aimed  at. 

Bleaching  may  be  resorted  to  in  most  cases. 
This  may  be  effected  by  making  a solution,  in 
water  (5  oz.  to  a gallon,)  of  bleaching  powder, 
to  be  had  at  the  druggists,  in  which  the  goods 
may  be  worked  for  a time,  and  then  putting 
them  in  weak  muriatic  (hydrochloric)  or  sulphu- 
ric acid  (one  fluid  oz.  commercial  strength  to  1 
gallon  water).  If  the  first  treatment  is  not 
efficient,  it  may  be  repeated,  though  too  frequent 
an  application  of  these  solutions  may  weaken 
the  fibre.  Exposure  when  moist  to  the  fumes 
of  burning  sulphur  is  another  mode  of  bleach- 
ing, though  often  less  efficient.  After  appli- 
cation of  either  of  these  methods,  the  goods 
should  be  rinsed  and  then  boiled  for  a short 
time  in  a weak  solution  of  soda,  1 oz.  to  10  gal- 
lons of  water. 


Mordants. — In  fixing  colors  certain  substan- 
ces are  used  which  have  an  affinity  for  both 
the  fibre  and  the  dye.  These  are  of  various 
kinds,  according  to  the  dye  used,  or  the  nature 
of  the  fibre  to  be  dyed.  For  instance  wool  and 
silk  take  most  of  the  coal  tar  colors  without 
mordant,  but  cotton  goods  usually  need  tannin, 
or  a decoction  of  the  leaves  and  twigs  of  the 
staghorn  sumach,  to  be  present  in  the  dye  bath  ; 
one  part  of  tannin  is  equivalent  to  about  eight 
parts  of  sumach.  Cotton  goods  may  be  “ ani- 
malized  ” as  it  is  termed,  by  saturating  thorough- 
ly with  a cold  solution  of  milk  curd  in  ammonia 
(letting  the  ammonia  absorb  all  the  curd  it  can), 
or  an  albumen  solution  (white  of  egg  stirred 
into  water,  2 eggs  to  a gallon),  drying  and  then 
dyeing  hot.  After  this  treatment  they  will 
take  colors  in  the  same  manner  as  woollen 
articles. 

Oil  mordants  may  be  used  with  silk  and  cot- 
ton goods  for  fixing  madder  and  coal  tar  colors. 
A good  oil  mordant  may  be  made  with  4 parts 
olive  oil,  15  parts  alcohol,  2 parts  oil  of  vitriol, 
and  1 5 parts  hot  water.  After  thoroughly  mix- 
ing, the  goods  are  immersed  and  worked  in  this 
for  15  minutes,  then  wrung  out  and  placed  in  the 
dye  bath. 

Copperas  (protosulphate  of  iron),  and  acetate 
of  iron,  made  by  mixing  solutions  of  “ strong  ” 
perchloride  of  iron,  and  acetate  of  soda,  in  the 
ratio  of  7 to  5 by  weight,  are  also  used  as  mor- 
dants. The  effect  of  iron  mordants  is  usually 
to  give  a lower  (sadder)  tone  to  the  colors. 

Linen  has  less  affinity  for  colors  than  cotton. 
The  treatment  should  be  about  the  same,  but 
the  strength  of  the  mordant  and  the  length  of 
time  the  goods  are  subjected  to  its  influence 
should  be  increased. 

Water.— The  amount  used  in  the  dye  bath 
should  be  sufficient  to  allow  of  working  them 
about  with  (preferably ) a wooden  rod,  that  every 
part  may  be  uniformly  exposed  to  the  action  of 
the  solutions.  Two  quarts  of  water  suffice  for 
one  pound  of  goods , and  less  water  in  propor- 
tion for  larger  amounts. 

Proportions  of  the  materials  to  be  used  are 
given  in  most  cases  below,  t/ie  amounts  indicat- 
ed being  what  should  be  used  for  ie?i  pounds  of 
goods,  in  about  5 gallons  of  water.  Generally 
in  working  “hot”  the  temperature  should  be 
just  under  boiling,  and  the  time  of  steeping 
should  be  from  twenty  to  thirty  minutes.  The 
stirring  should  be  at  least  once  every  four  initi- 
ates, and  would  be  better  if  it  were  constant. 

Coal  Tar  Colors. — The  amount  to  be  used 
cannot  well  be  indicated,  as  it  depends  very  much 
upon  the  intensity  of  color  desired.  Of  most  of 
them  an  ounce  will  give  a fair  medium  shade  to 
100  lbs.  of  goods,  or  would  be  enough  for  50 
gallons  of  water,  hence,  as  will  be  seen,  it  is 
easier  to  get  too  much  than  too  little,  as  those 
dyes  are  very  strong.  Particles  of  undissolved 
dye,  or  dyewood  chips,  <S~v.,  should  not  be  al- 
lowed to  remain  in  the  dye  bath  while  the  goods 
are  in  it.  The  following  are  a few  processes 
for  dyeing  the  different  colors,  which  may  be 
readily  applied. 


184 


DYES. 


Black. — The  application  of  aniline  black  I 
which  is  the  best  for  cotton,  is  too  elaborate 
for  convenience  in  domestic  use.  A process 
which  succeeds  best  with  woollen  goods,  though 
it  may  also  be  applied  to  silk,  is  as  follows  : 
Logwood  extract  (i  lb.)  is  dissolved  in  water, 
heat  being  applied.  When  entirely  dissolved 
cream  of  tartar  (5  oz.)  is  added,  and  as  soon  as 
it  is  dissolved  the  goods  are  introduced  and 
worked  once  every  3 or  4 minutes,  being  kept 
at  a temperature  just  short  of  boiling  for  three 
or  four  hours  or  more.  They  are  then  taken 
out,  allowed  to  drain,  rinsed  once  in  clean 
water,  and  then  placed  in  a bath  containing 
bichromate  of  potash  (5  oz.)  where  they  are 
worked  hot  as  above  for  half  to  three  quarters 
of  an  hour.  Rinsing  in  clean  water,  and  drying 
completes  the  operation. 

Blue  (Aniline). — For  silk  no  mordant  is  re- 
quired. The  addition  of  enough  sulphuric  acid 
to  the  dye  bath  to  make  it  turn  blue  litmus 
paper  red,  is  beneficial,  and  gives  rather  brighter 
shades.  For  wool  sulphuric  acid,  or  sulphuric 
acid  with  half  as  much  by  weight  of  white  vitriol, 
may  be  added  to  the  bath.  For  cotton,  as  with 
silk,  sulphuric  acid  (40Z.)  or  alum  should  be 
added  to  the  bath.  Work  hot  an  hour  and  let 
stand  till  cool. 

Blue  (Prussian). — Applicable  to  silk,  wool, 
or  cotton.  Mix  powdered  Prussian  blue  (1  lb.), 
with  a solution  of  (9  oz.)  tartaric  acid,  (in  3 or 
4 gallons  of  water) ; then  add  ( 1 4 fluid  oz.)  strong 
hartshorn  (ammonia,)  and  work  the  goods  in  the 
mixture  hot  for  about  half-an-hour.  Hang  up 
the  goods  to  drip  and  leave  them  until  dry,  when 
they  will  have  assumed  a dirty  purplish  color. 
Dipping  into  weak  sulphuric  acid  (1  fluid  oz. 
oil  of  vitriol  to  1 gallon  water),  will  then  devel- 
op a fine  blue  color. 

Blue  (Saxony)  for  wool.  One-half  lb.  of  the 
best  indigo  is  dissolved  in  concentrated  oil  of 
vitriol,  and  the  solution  is  then  poured  into  12 
to  20  times  its  bulk  of  water.  To  this  bath 
the  goods  are  immediately  introduced,  and  al- 
lowed to  remain  for  twenty-four  hours.  The 
excess  of  indigo  separates,  settling  to  the  bot- 
tom, and  maybe  collected  and  used  over  again. 
Boiling  the  goods  for  half-an-hour  in  a weak  so- 
lution of  sal-soda  will  then  neutralize  the  acid 
present  and  set  the  color. 

Brown. — Silk  and  wool  take  aniline,  naphtha- 
lene and  phenyl  for  Bismarck  brown,  and 
also  isopurpurate  of  potash  (soluble  garnet)  in 
the  proportion  of  the  anilines,  without  mor- 
dant. Cotton  requires  mordanting  with  tannin 
before  it  will  take  the  first  two.  A brown  may 
be  produced  on  all  three  kinds  of  goods  by 
simply  boiling  with  4 oz.  permanganate  of  potash 
(chameleon  salt). 

Green. — Silk  and  wool  may  be  dyed  with 
iodine  green  (called  also  aniline  and  methyl 
green),  which  may  be  toned  with  picric  (carba- 
zotic)  acid,  or  else  they  are  mordanted  with 
alum  (2  oz.),  and  then  dyed  with  fustic  (£  lb. 
chips),  and  then  with  prussian  blue  as  given 
above.  Cotton  will  take  a green  dye  if  treated 
with  a hot  solution  of  tannin  ({  lb.  tannin, 


I or  2 lbs.  sumach,  and  iodine  green,  with  a 
mixture  of  picric  (carbazotic)  acid  and  iodine 
green,  or  by  dyeing  first  with  fustic  {'/2  lb. 
chips),  and  then  prussian  blue,  according  to  the 
method  given  under  bhie. 

Orange.  — For  silk  and  wool  use  Man- 
chester ( or  aniline)  orange  without  a mordant, 
or  (coralline)  aniline  scarlet  with  (2  to  4 oz.) 
tannin,  or  1 to  2 lbs.  sumach  and  sulphuric  acid. 
Cotton,  silk  and  wool  also  take  an  orange  color  by 
working  for  half-an-hour  in  a hot  solution  con- 
taining (2  oz.)  litharge,  with  sugar  of  lead  (1% 
oz.),  and  then  for  15  or  20  minutes  in  a bath 
containing  bichromate  of  potash  (1^  oz.)  and  sal- 
soda  (i)4  oz.) 

Red. — Wool  and  silk  take  aniline  red  (magen- 
ta), or  the  so-called  New  Rose  (Saffranine), 
which  gives  a scarlet  without  mordants.  Ma- 
genta with  Manchester  yellow  also  gives  a 
scarlet.  Cotton  requires  tannin  (2  oz.),  or  the 
liquid  derived  from  boiling  1 lb.  sumach  with 
1 gallon  water,  to  be  added  to  the  bath  to  fix 
these  colors.  Wool,  silk,  or  cotton  may  be 
dyed  with  madder  by  mordanting  first  by  boil- 
ing j to  f hour  in  a bath  containing  alum  (2 
lbs.),  and  cream  of  tartar  (1  lb.),  and  then  keep- 
ing at  a simmer  for  2 hours  in  a decoction  ob- 
tained from  5 lbs.  ground  madder  root.  Cop- 
peras may  be  used  in  mordanting  instead  of 
the  alum,  when  the  color  will  be  more  of  the 
violet  or  purple  order.  With  the  alum  instead 
of  the  cream  of  tartar,  sugar  of  lead  (2  lbs.)  may 
be  used. 

Aniline  scarlet  (coralline,  aurine)  is  applied 
by  first  boiling  the  goods  ten  minutes  with 
white  vitriol  (sulphate  of  zinc,  1^  lbs.),  and  then 
adding  asolution  containing  ^ lb.  of  the  scarlet, 
it  being  weaker  than  the  other  anilines,  with 
from  lb.  to  £ lb.  (depending  on  depth  of  shade 
desired),  of  sal-ammoniac  (chloride  of  am- 
monium), keeping  in  enough  ammonia  to  make 
its  odor  perceptible,  and  boiling  from  £ hour  to 
1^  hours,  depending  on  depth  of  shade  desired. 
\Yhen  but  little  of  the  dyeing  solution  is  used, 
or  the  last  boiling  is  not  sufficiently  prolonged, 
a salmon  color  is  obtained.  The  shade  may  be 
toned  with  magenta  afterwards  if  desired. 

Violet. — Aniline  violets  may  be  applied  di- 
rect to  silk  and  wool,  without  mordant,  or  with 
the  addition  of  enough  sulphuric  acid  to  turn 
blue  litmus  paper  red,  to  the  bath.  Cotton  re- 
quires a preliminary  mordanting  with  acetate  of 
iron  (obtained  by  soaking  the  goods  in  a mix- 
ture of  solutions  of  7 fluid  oz.  “strong”  per- 
chloride  of  iron,  with  5 oz.  crystallized  acetate 
of  soda,  in  3 to  4 gallons  of  water,  or  with  tan- 
nin ]/2  lb.  (2  lb.  sumach.)  Work  as  for  blue. 
See  Red. 

Yellow. — Silk  and  wool  take  picric  acid  and 
naphthalene  (Manchester  or  Victoria),  yellow 
without  any  mordant.  Cotton  may  be  dyed  yel- 
low with  fustic  (£  lb.  chips).  Silk,  wool  and 
cotton  may  also  be  dyed  yellow  by  first  work- 
ing the  goods  for  about  half-an-hour  in  water 
containing  sugar  of  lead  (t  oz.),  and  then  for  15 
minutes  in  a hot  solution  of  bichromate  of  pot- 
ash (|  oz.)  the  addition  of  sal-soda  J oz.  to  i£ 


DYSENTERY 


DYSPEPSIA 


185 


ozs.),  to  the  bichromate  solution  gives  a tone 
approaching  to  orange. 

Yellow  (Nankeen),  may  be  produced  by 
soaking  in  cold  solution  of  acetate  of  iron,  pre- 
pared as  described  under  violet.  The  tone 
is  brownish  if  the  goods  are  placed  in  the 
acetate  solution,  and  then  gradually  brought 
to  a boil,  and  yellowish  if  after  working  in 
the  cold  solution  they  are  first  dried  and 
then  placed  in  boiling  water,  and  boiled  for  15 
minutes. 


LEATHER  AND  SKINS 

(including  gloves)  usually  contain  tannin,  which 
at  once  fixes  aniline  colors,  and  hence  All 
Aniline  Colors,  soluble  in  water,  may  usually 
be  easily  applied.  Some  skins,  however,  it  may 
be  necessary  to  soak  in  a decoction  of  sumach 
for  twenty-four  hours  before  attempting  to  apply 
the  colors. 

Brown.  ( See  SCARLET.) 

Blue. — In  applying  the  soluble  blue,  weak 
sulphuric  acid  may  follow  the  application  of  the 
color  to  set  it,  but  the  use  of  even  moderately 
strong  acids  or  alkalies  has  a very  deleterious 
effect  upon  the  strength  of  the  leather  or  skin, 
and  should  therefore  be  avoided.  ( See  Stain- 
ing.) 

Scarlet  (Corallin)  may  be  applied  to 
leather  if  desired.  The  addition  of  one 
tenth  as  much  borax  as  corallin  to  the  dye 
bath  brightens  the  shade.  All  the  colors 
may  be  made  more  brownish  by  following 
the  dye  bath  with  a solution  of  bichro- 
mate of  potash,  or  still  more  darkened  by  a 
weak  nitrate  of  iron  bath.  Tawed  skins 
may  be  immersed  in  a solution  of  alum  to 
mordant  them,  and  if  it  is  desired  to  apply  the 
color  to  but  one  side,  the  color  thickened  with 
a little  starch,  or  with  borax,  may  be  laid  on  with 
a brush.  The  temperature  of  a bath  for  dyeing 
skins  should  not  be  above  90°  Fahr. 

DYSENTERY.— A disease,  most  frequent 
in  children,  characterized  by  a constant  de- 
sire to  go  to  stool,  and  by  small  discharges  of 
bloody  mucus.  There  is  also  considerable 
fever,  griping  pain  usually  near  the  lower 
portion  of  the  intestines,  causing  the  child  to 
scream  at  times  as  if  in  fright,  and  more 
or  less  of  delirium  or  cold  shivers.  The 
causes  of  dysentery  are  indigestible  food, 
unripe  or  decayed  vegetables  or  fruit,  the 
breathing  of  impure  air,  exposure  to  cold, 
strong  cathartics  or  purges,  and  the  use 
of  bad  or  impure  water.  As  soon  as  symp- 
toms of  dysentery  are  observed  in  a child,  med- 
ical aid  should  be  sought  at  once  ; but  if  this  is 
not  to  be  had,  proceed  thus  : If  there  has  been 
any  constipation  during  the  previous  day  or 
two,  give  a moderate  dose  of  castor  oil  ; when 
the  bowels  have  moved  as  a result  of  this,  dis- 
solve a teaspoonful  of  gum  arabic  in  an  ounce 
of  peppermint  water,  and  give  a teaspoonful 
every  half  hour.  If  this  does  not  succeed, 
make  the  following  cordial : Take  equal  parts, 


by  weight,  of  rhubarb,  bi-carbonate  of  soda 
(or  baking  soda  will  do),  and  pulverized  cinna- 
mon, and  mix  thoroughly ; of  this  put  a tea- 
spoonful into  a cup,  add  about  a gill  of  boiling 
water,  cover,  arid  let  it  stand  till  cold ; then 
pour  off  from  the  dregs,  add  an  equal  quantity 
of  peppermint  water  containing  the  gum  arabic, 
sweeten  with  a little  loaf-sugar,  and  give  a ta- 
blespoonful (if  the  child  is  ten  years  old,  half 
as  much  if  less  than  five),  every  twenty  min- 
utes until  the  character  of  the  discharges  is 
changed.  But  the  treatment  most  to  be  relied 
on  is  this : Make  a little  thin  starch,  and  to  one 
tablespoonful  of  this  add  one  drop  of  lauda- 
num, inject  it  into  the  child’s  bowels  with  a 
small  syringe,  and  keep  it  there  as  long  as  pos- 
sible ; this  should  be  repeated  every  four  hours 
until  the  disease  is  arrested.  Increase  the 
quantity  of  laudanum  by  one  drop  for  each 
year  of  the  child’s  age  up  to  five.  From  the 
first  the  child  should  be  kept  as  quiet  as  possi- 
ble, as  rest  and  warmth  and  a recumbent  pos- 
ture are  essential  to  comfort  and  recovery. 

Often  great  relief  for  the  patient  is  obtained 
by  employing,  twice  in  twenty-four  hours,  in- 
jections containing  one  half  a grain  of  nitrate 
of  silver  to  the  ounce  of  water. 

Dysentery  is  infectious  by  evacuations,  and 
therefore  all  bed-pans  or  other  vessels  used 
by  the  patient  should  be  scalded  each  time 
with  boiling  water.  The  privy-vaults  and 
water-closets  should  also  be  disinfected  with 
sulphate  of  iron  or  carbolic  acid.  ( See  Disin- 
fectants.) 

In  adults,  when  dysentery  makes  its  appear- 
ance, if  any  constipation  has  previously  exist- 
ed, a dose  of  castor  oil,  to  which  a few  drops 
of  laudanum  have  been  added,  may  be  given  ; 
opiates  and  astringents  may  afterwards  be  ad- 
ministered. During  the  treatment  the  patient 
should  be  confined  to  his  bed  ; and  his  diet 
should  be  of  the  mildest  and  most  unirritating 
character.  When  dysentery  passes  into  the 
chronic  stage,  the  stools  become  more  copious 
and  loose,  and  are  found  to  contain  pus  ; the 
complaint  is  apt  to  be  tedious  and  intractable, 
and  even  after  recovery  the  digestive  organs 
remain  for  a long  time  feeble  and  irritable. 

DYSPEPSIA. — This  disease,  as  its  name 
indicates,  signifies  difficult  digestion,  and 
of  course  can  only  be  cured  by  attention 
to  whatever  promotes,  and  avoidance  of 
whatever  hinders,  the  proper  digestion  of 
food.  The  rules  which  we  have  laid  down  in 
the  articles  on  Diet  and  Digestion  apply 
here  ; and  as  timely  observance  of  them  would 
render  dyspepsia  impossible,  so  also  it  is  in 
that  direction  that  relief  must  be  sought,  for  in 
most  instances  medicines  can  only  work  harm. 
In  a common  class  of  cases,  when  dyspepsia  has 
been  long  continued,  a certain  degree  of  inflam- 
mation of  the  gastric  mucous  membrane  seems 
to  be  produced;  the  presence  of  food  excites 
pain, which  continues  so  long  as  the  food  remains 
in  the  stomach,  and  carminatives  or  stimulants, 
so  far  from  affording  relief,  aggravate  the  dis- 
tress. In  such  cases  the  diet  must  be  of  the 


186 


EAR 


EARTH-CLOSET 


blandest  and  most  unstimulating  kind,  and  the 
amount  of  food  rigidly  limited ; restricting  the  pa- 
tient to  milk,  diluted  with  an  equal  part  of  lime- 
water,  is  sometimes  attended  by  great  benefit, 
and  farinaceous  articles  are  preferable  to  meat. 
In  another  and  the  larger  class  of  cases,  there  is 
neither  inflammation  nor  irritation  present,  but 
the  powers  of  the  stomach  seem  enfeebled; 
here  stimulants  relieve  the  distress,  and  cause 


at  least  temporary  improvement.  In  such  cases 
it  agrees  better  than  an  exclusively  farinaceous 
one,  and  the  patient  is  benefited  by  the  use 
of  bitter  tonics,  such  as  gentian,  quassia, 
etc.  No  niedicine , however , should  be  taken 
for  dyspepsia  without  a physician's  advice. 
Change  of  air,  change  of  scene,  change  of 
society,  and  change  of  diet,  are  particularly 
beneficial  in  this  disease. 


E 


EAR. — This  is  a very  delicate  organ,  and 
should  be  treated  with  great  caution.  Almost 
the  only  thing  that  is  safe  is  to  wash  it  daily, 
internally  and  externally,  with  water  only,  as 
far  as  a towel  wrapped  around  the  finger  can 
reach.  The  practice  of  using  ear-picks  is  al- 
ways dangerous  and  often  causes  deafness ; 
and  fails,  moreover,  to  accomplish  its  object. 
The  wax  is  nature’s  medium  for  protecting  the 
ear,  and  when  left  to  itself  dries  up  into  thin 
scales  which  peel  off  one  by  one  from  the  sur- 
face of  the  passage,  and  fall  out  imperceptibly, 
leaving  a perfectly  smooth,  clean  surface.  In 
health  the  passage  of  the  ear  is  never  dirty; 
but  in  attempting  to  clean  it  we  infallibly  make 
it  so.  The  insertion  of  a pick,  or  screwed  up 
towel-end,  or  any  solid  thing,  beside  the  immi- 
nent risk  of  rupturing  the  membrane,  only 
drives  the  wax  down  upon  the  membrane  and 
by  irritation  increases  the  secretion.  Often  it 
is  not  only  deafness  which  ensues,  but  pain  and 
inflammation,  and  then  matter  is  formed  which 
the  hard  mass  prevents  from  escaping,  and  the 
membrane  becomes  diseased,  and  worse  may 
follow.  Another  source  of  injury  to  the  ear 
arises  from  the  very  precautions  taken  against 
injury.  Nothing  is  more  natural  than  to  pro- 
tect the  ear  from  cold  by  putting  a piece  of  cot- 
ton wool  in  it ; and  this  is  most  useful  if  done 
only  on  occasions  of  exceptional  exposure,  as 
when  a driving  storm  has  to  be  encountered, 
or  when  one  side  of  the  head  is  exposed  to  the 
force  of  a cutting  wind.  But  it  is  astonishing 
in  how  many  cases  the  cotton  thus  used,  instead 
of  being  removed  when  the  need  for  it  has  pass- 
ed, is  allowed  to  remain,  and  gets  pushed  down 
into  the  passage,  causing  much  mischief.  The 
way  to  avoid  this  accident,  besides  being  care- 
ful not  to  forget,  is  to  use  a large  piece  of  the 
wool  and  to  place  it  over,  rather  than  in,  the 
passage.  It  should  be  remembered,  however, 
that  such  things  should  be  resorted  to  only  on 
special  occasions,  and  that  constantly  covering 
up  the  ear  is  certain  to  prove  injurious  ; it  is  bet- 
ter that  air  should  always  have  free  access  to  it. 

All  sorts  of  substances  are  sometimes  put 
into  the  ear  by  children,  who  do  it  to  themselves 
or  each  other,  in  ignorant  play.  In  such  cases 
the  chief  danger  lies  in  undue  haste  and  violence 
in  applying  a remedy.  The  foreign  bodies 
should  be  removed  by  syringing  the  ear  with 
warm  water  alone.  No  attempt  should  be 
made  to  lay  hold  of  them  or  move  them  in  any 


other  way,  or  the  membrane  may  be  injured. 
It  is  important  that  the  substance  should  be 
removed  as  speedily  as  is  quite  safe,  but  there 
need  never  be  impatience,  nor  should  discour- 
agement be  felt  if  the  syringing  has  to  be  re- 
peated several  days  before  it  effects  its  end. 
It  will  almost  invariably  succeed  if  persisted  in, 
and  is  most  effective  if  the  ear  is  turned  down- 
wards and  syringed  from  below.  When  there  is 
much  pain,  medical  assistance  should  be  called. 

It  is  very  rare  that  earwigs  or  other  insects 
get  into  the  ear,  but  when  they  do  they  cause 
great  pain.  The  best  way  to  get  rid  of  them 
is  to  pour  a little  olive  or  sweet  oil  into  the  ear. 
and  let  it  remain  till  the  insect  is  smothered. 

EAR-ACHE. — No  pain  is  much  more  severe 
than  this,  it  being  frequently  remembered  as 
the  great  suffering  of  childhood.  Sometimes 
it  is  apparently  caused  by  some  exposure  to 
cold  air  ; and  a sufficient  remedy  in  such  case 
is  often  found  in  merely  warming  a bit  of  cot- 
ton and  placing  it  gently  in  the  passage,  thus 
shutting  out  the  cold  air.  If  this  does  not  af- 
ford relief,  a little  sweet  oil  may  be  warmed  in 
a spoon  and  half  as  much  paregoric  then  be 
mixed  with  it ; of  this  a drop  or  two  may  be 
allowed  to  run  down  into  the  ear  and  the  pain 
will  in  many  cases  cease.  When  the  pain  is 
very  acute  and  obstinate,  fill  the  ear  on  the 
painful  side  with  laudanum  that  has  been  warmed 
by  standing  the  bottle  for  a few  minutes  in 
warm  water,  and  then  plug  it  with  a little  wool 
or  lint.  To  do  this  properly  the  patient  should 
lay  the  head  on  a table,  with  the  aching  side 
upwards  ; no  fear  need  be  entertained  of  putting 
too  much  laudanum  in,  as  it  will  do  no  harm. 
Warm  water,  as  warm  as  the  patient  will  bear  it, 
used  in  the  same  way,  and  frequently  repeated, 
is  the  favorite  remedy  with  professional  aurists. 

EARTH-CLOSET. — In  many  cases  it  hap- 
pens either  that  water  cannot  be  obtained  in 
sufficient  quantities  for  cleaning  the  drain,  or 
that  it  cannot  be  carried  away  with  the  deposit 
of  the  closet  to  a situation  where  it  will  not 
be  injurious  to  health.  The  latter  is  especially 
the  case  in  small  towns  and  villages  where 
there  are  no  efficient  sewage  arrangements, 
and  where  the  sewage  is  either  carried  into 
open  ditches  or  cesspools,  or  into  covered  pits. 
All  these  are  objectionable  as  being  injurious 
to  the  health  either  of  the  inmates  of  the  house 
to  which  the  cesspool  or  pit  belongs,  or  to  the 
neighboring  inhabitants.  The  injury  is  done 


EARTHEN-WARE 


either  by  noxious  vapors  thrown  off  from  the 
open  pits,  or  by  soakage  of  their  liquid  contents 
into  adjacent  wells  or  water-courses.  To  avoid 
these  defects  a dry  earth  closet,  invented  by 
the  Rev.  Henry  Moule,  of  Dorsetshire,  Eng- 
land, has  been  introduced,  which  forms  one  of 
the  most  useful  and  valuable  of  recent  additions 
to  the  convenience  of  the  household.  It  is 
based  on  the  principle  that  by  covering  the 
foecal  deposit  immediately  with  dry  earth  con- 
taining a certain  proportion  of  clay,  not  only  is 
the  smell  otherwise  arising  from  it  destroyed, 
but  all  noxious  vapors  whatever  cease  to  be 
given  off,  being  absorbed  and  neutralized  by 
the  clay,  which  it  is  well  known  has  that  pecu- 
liar property. 

The  closet  consists  essentially  of  a me- 
chanical contrivance,  attached  to  the  ordinary 
seat,  for  measuring  out  and  discharging 
into  the  vault  or  pan  below  a sufficient  quan- 
tity of  the  sifted  dry  earth  to  entirely  cover 
the  solid  ordure , and  to  absorb  the  urine. 
The  discharge  of  earth  is  effected  by  an  or- 
dinary pull-up,  similar  to  that  used  in  water- 
closets,  or,  in  the  self-acting  apparatus,  by  the 
rising  of  the  seat  when  the  weight  of  the  per- 
son is  removed. 

The  vault  or  pan  under  the  seat  is  so  ar- 
ranged that  the  accumulation  may  be  removed 
at  pleasure.  From  the  moment  when  the  earth 
is  discharged  and  the  evacuation  covered,  all 
offensive  exhalations  entirely  cease.  Under 
certain  circumstances  there  may  be,  at  times,  a 
slight  odor  as  of  guano  mixed  with  earth ; but 
this  is  so  trifling  and  local  that  a commode  ar- 
ranged on  this  plan  may,  without  the  least  an- 
noyance, be  kept  in  use  in  any  room. 

If  possible,  there  should  be  a small  pipe, 
from  three  to  six  inches  in  diameter,  leading 
from  the  space  under  the  seat  to  a flue  ad- 
joining the  kitchen  fire  flue.  This  secures  the 
best  kind  of  ventilation. 

In  using  the  earth-closet  the  following  in- 
structions should  be  carefully  attended  to : — 

See  that  the  reservoir  is  supplied  with  earth 
of  a suitable  nature. 

Let  one  fall  of  earth  be  in  the  pail  before 
using. 

The  earth  must  be  dry  and  sifted.  Sand 
must  not  be  used. 

No  “slops”  must  be  thrown  down. 

The  handle  must  be  pulled  up  with  a jerk, 
and  let  fall  sharply. 

EARTHEN-WARE. — The  various  wares 
known  as  earthen-ware,  china,  or  porcelain,  are 
all  compounds  of  clay  with  bone-earth,  flint, 
and  other  similar  materials,  ground  together 
and  baked.  According  to  the  proportion  of 
clay  will  be  the  toughness  of  the  china,  and 
the  capability  of  being  moulded,  while  the  flint 
and  bone-earth  gives  hardness,  whiteness,  and 
transparency. 

There  are  two  main  divisions  of  table-ware — 
glazed  earthen-ware  and  china  or  porcelain. 
Nearly  all  are  originally  white,  and  sorted 
after  baking.  The  finer  only  are  then  deco- 
rated and  re-baked.  When  glazed  earthen- 


EEL  187 

ware  chips,  the  exposed  surface  becomes 
dark;  in  porcelain  it  remains  white. 

The  finer  Oriental  china  and  that  of  Sdvres 
and  Dresden  costs  from  $300  up,  for  a set  for 
twelve  persons.  The  sets  generally  are  for 
eighteen.  The  ordinary  decorated  French 
china  costs  from  $45  to  $500  per  set.  The 
white  French  china  costs  from  $35  to  $500, 
depending  on  quality.  The  decorated  Eng- 
lish china  costs  from  $350  up.  Broken  pieces 
cannot  be  duplicated  here,  as  the  decoration 
is  printed  on,  from  designs  more  elaborate 
than  the  hand-work  of  the  average  French 
sets.  The  French  can  be  duplicated  here  at  a 
few  weeks  notice.  The  English  is  heavier  and 
much  more  durable.  Both  the  French  and  the 
English  make  a decorated  glazed  earthen-ware 
that  is  very  durable — more  so  than  French 
china,  and  possibly  than  English  china.  It 
costs  from  $70  to  $125  per  set;  the  various 
pieces  can  generally  be  bought  separately, 
which  is  not  the  case  with  decorated  china. 
For  economy,  plates  and  cups  of  this  ware 
with  tureen,  vegetable  dishes,  etc.,  of  plated 
silver  is  probably  the  best  possible  arrange- 
ment. Still  further  variety  in  this  or  any  ser- 
vice is  desirable,  and  may  be  had  through 
pickle  dishes,  compotiers,  etc.,  of  other  kinds 
of  ware. 

The  so-called  Ironstone  and  Stone  China 
are  merely  glazed  earthen-ware  undecorated. 
Sets  cost  from  $20  to  $40.  As  regards  the 
finer  porcelain,  the  following  remarks  may  be 
of  service : — 

Oriental  China  is  remarkable  for  its  close 
texture,  its  flinty  hardness,  fine  surface,  and 
capacity  for  bearing  heat.  It  is  supposed  to 
take  from  ten  to  twenty  years  to  get  some 
of  these  wares  into  a state  fit  for  baking.  They 
are  generally  very  expensive,  but  extremely 
durable. 

Dresden  China  is  finer  in  outline  than  the 
Oriental,  and  the  best  kinds  are  fully  as  dura- 
ble. 

Sevres  China  is  of  French  manufacture  and 
is  not  so  close  or  fine  in  the  grain  as  those 
above  alluded  to ; but  it  has  a superior  glaze, 
and  is  generally  of  elegant  shape,  with  beauti- 
ful colors  and  magnificent  gilding. 

The  common  Red  Earthenware  is  that  used 
most  extensively  for  cooking,  dairy,  and  other 
purposes.  It  does  not  stand  the  heat  well, 
and  is  very  easily  broken.  Acids  should  never 
be  put  into  any  vessels  made  of  this  ware,  as 
there  is  a poisonous  ingredient  in  the  glazing 
which  the  acid  takes  off.  The  common  stone- 
ware is  stronger,  and  cleaner,  and  better  every 
way  than  any  other  kind. 

For  instructions  about  mending  broken 
earthenware,  see  Cements. 

EAU  DE  COLOGNE.  ( See  Cologne.) 

EEL. — There  are  several  varieties  of  eels, 
some  being  taken  in  salt  water  and  some  in 
fresh.  The  common  eel  is  a very  sweet  and 
savory  fish,  and  is  plentiful  in  the  markets 
throughout  the  year;  those  taken  from  the 
seashore  are  preferred,  as  they  are  generally 


188 


EEL 


EGGS 


in  the  best  condition.  The  silver  eel  is  consid- 
ered the  finest  of  the  eel  species,  and  the  color, 
even  when  skinned,  has  somewhat  the  appear- 


Sand-Eel. 

ance  of  silver.  They  are  in  season  from 
April  to  November.  As  an  article  of  food, 
eels  are  extremely  rich  and  nutritious  ; but  on 
account  of  the  large  quantity  of  oil  which  they 
contain,  they  are  apt  to  cause  derangement  of 
the  digestive  functions  if  eaten  too  liberally 
without  using  some  condiment  as  a corrective. 
In  cooking  eels,  reject  the  large  ones  and  take 
those  weighing  about  one  pound  each.  Before 
skinning  them,  cut  off  the  head,  or  divide  the 
spinal  column  just  behind  the  head ; this  ren- 
ders suffering  on  their  part  impossible. 

Boiled  Eels. — Pare  a lemon,  and  strip  from 
it  entirely  the  white  inner  rind  ; slice  it  and  re- 
move the  seed  with  care  ; put  it,  with  a blade  of 
mace,  a small  half-teaspoonful  of  white  pepper- 
corns, nearly  a teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  a mode- 
rate sized  bunch  of  parsley,  into  three  pints  of 
cold  water  ; bring  them  gently  to  a boil,  and  sim- 
mer them  for  twenty  minutes  ; let  them  become 
quite  cold ; then  put  in  three  pounds  of  eels, 
skinned  and  cleaned,  and  cut  into  lengths  of 
three  or  four  inches ; simmer  them  very  slowly 
from  ten  to  fifteen  minutes,  lift  them  into  a 
very  hot'  dish,  and  serve  with  good  Dutch 
sauce,  or  with  parsley  and  butter  acidulated 
with  lemon-juice. 

Fried  Eels. — Skin,  empty,  and  wash  them  as 
clean  as  possible ; cut  them  into  four-inch 
lengths,  and  dry  them  on  a soft  cloth.  Season 
them  with  fine  salt,  and  white  pepper  or  cay- 
enne, flour  them  thickly,  and  fry  them  to  a fine 
brown  in  boiling  lard  ; drain  them  well  before 


placing  in  the  dish,  and  send  to  the  table  with 
plain  melted  butter,  or  anchovy  sauce.  Eels 
may  also  be  dipped  into  batter  and  then  fried  ; 
or  into  egg  and  fine  bread-crumbs  (mixed  with 
minced  parsley  or  not,  at  pleasure). 

It  is  an  improvement  on  these  modes  of  dress- 
ing eels  to  open  them  entirely,  and  remove 
the  bones  ; the  smaller  parts  should  be  thrown 
into  the  pan  a minute  or  two  later  than  the 
thicker  portions  of  the  bodies,  or  all  will  not  be 
equally  done. 

Broiled  Eels — Skin  the  eels  and  cut  them 
open  down  the  back,  and  then  remove 
the  bone.  Steep  them  in  oil,  pepper,  salt, 
and  vinegar  for  about  two  hours  ; then 
dip  them  in  bread-crumbs,  and  afterward 
into  melted  butter.  Broil  them  over  a clear 
fire,  and  send  them  to  the  table  with  tartar 
sauce. 

Stewed  Eels. — Skin  and  clean,  and  cut  out 
all  the  fat  from  the  inside ; cut  into  lengths 
of  about  two  inches;  put  them  into  a sauce- 
pan with  enough  cold  water  to  cover  them ; 
cover  closely,  and  stew  for  an  hour.  Then  add 
a tablespoonful  of  butter,  and  a tablespoonful 
of  flour  stirred  into  half  a teacupful  of  cold 
water  ; season  with  pepper,  and  serve  in  a deep 
dish. 

Tartar  Eels. — Skin  the  eels,  cut  them  into 
two-inch  lengths,  and  boil  them  in  savory  gravy 
or  broth  that  has  wine  in  it,  with  a little  salt. 
When  cold,  take  them  out,  drain  them,  and  dip 
them  in  a mixture  (half  and  half)  of  melted 
butter  and  uncooked  egg-yolk ; then  roll  them 
in  bread-crumbs  till  they  are  well  and  equally 
covered  ; lay  them  on  a gridiron  till  they  are 
well  heated  throughout  and  nicely  browned  on 
the  outside.  Serve  on  a layer  of  tartar  sauce 
at  the  bottom  of  the  dish. 

EGGS. — According  to  Baron  Liebig  there  is 
more  nutriment  in  an  egg  than  in  anything  of 
equal  bulk  that  exists  in  nature  or  that  chem- 
istry can  produce ; and  among  all  nations  they 


are  a favorite  article  of  food.  In  this  country 
they  may  be  considered  as  being  in  season  the 
year  round,  though  in  the  spring  months  they  are 


more  plentiful  and  cheap;  during  the  winter, 
and  especially  at  the  holiday  season,  they  are 
usually  quite  scarce  and  high. 


EGGS 


189 


The  freshness  of  an  egg  may  be  tested  by 
putting  the  large  end  to  the  tongue,  when,  if  it 
feels  warmer  than  the  other  end,  the  egg  is 
considered  fresh.  Another  test  is  to  hold  the 
egg  up  against  the  sun;  if  the  outline  of  the 
yolk  can  be  distinctly  traced,  and  the  white 
looks  clear  around  it,  the  chances  are  that  the 
egg  is  good.  The  surest  test,  however,  is  to 
place  the  eggs  in  a pan  of  cold  water.  The 
fresh  egg  will  sink  quickly  to  the  bottom,  those 
that  sink  very  slowly  are  suspicious,  and  those 
that  float  are  very  likely  to  be  bad. 

To  preserve  eggs  for  a few  weeks,  pack  them  in 
bran  or  salt,  with  the  small  end  downward ; their 
chances  will  be  improved  by  previously  greasing 
them  well  with  linseed  oil  or  dipping  them  in  a 
weak  varnish.  When  it  is  desired  to  keep 
them  longer,  pour  a gallon  of  water  upon  a 
pound  of  quicklime  in  a jar ; let  it  remain  about 
24  hours  to  cool  after  the  effervescence  ; pro- 
cure eggs  as  fresh  as  possible  and  drop  them 
into  the  jar  gently.  Place  the  jar  where  the 
eggs  can  be  taken  out  without  moving  it,  and 
they  will  keep  good  for  a twelvemonth.  A 
popular  French  method  is  as  follows  : Dissolve 
four  ounces  of  beeswax  in  eight  ounces  of  olive 
oil ; dip  the  tip  of  the  finger  in  this  and  anoint 
the  egg  all  around.  The  oil  will  be  immediate- 
ly absorbed  by  the  shell  and  the  pores  filled  up 
with  the  wax.  It  is  claimed  that  by  this  meth- 
od the  eggs,  if  kept  in  a cool  (but  not  cold) 
place,  may  be  preserved  fresh  for  two  years. 

Baked  Eggs. — Break  the  desired  number  of 
eggs  into  a buttered  dish,  taking  care  to  keep 
each  whole  and  the  yolks  separate  from  each 
other;  dust  with  pepper  and  salt,  and  place 
half  a teaspoonful  of  butter  upon  each  ; put 
into  a moderate  oven  and  bake  until  the  whites 
are  solid.  Serve  hot,  with  buttered  toast. 

Balls  (Egg)  for  Soups. — Boil  four  or  five 
eggs  for  ten  or  twelve  minutes,  and  lay  them 
in  fresh  water  until  they  are  cold.  Take  out 
the  yolks,  and  pound  them  smoothly  with  the 
beaten  yolk  of  one  raw  egg,  or  more  if  required  ; 
add  a little  salt  and  cayenne,  roll  the  mixture 
into  balls  the  size  of  marbles,  and  boil  them 
for  two  minutes.  Half  a teaspoonful  of  flour 
is  sometimes  worked  up  with  the  eggs. 

Boiled  Eggs. — Be  sure  that  the  water  is 
actually  boiling ; put  the  eggs  in  gently  one  by 
one.  with  a spoon  so  as  to  avoid  cracking  them ; 
boil  steadily  three  minutes  if  they  are  wanted 
soft — ten  minutes  if  wanted  hard.  A favorite 
method  with  gourmands  is  to  put  the  eggs  on 
in  cold  water  and  let  it  gradually  come  to  a 
boil,  which  will  be  in  about  ten  minutes.  The 
inside,  white  and  yolk,  will  then  be  of  the  con- 
sistency of  custard. 

Cooked  (Eggs)  without  boiling. — First  put 
some  boiling  water  into  a large  bowl  or  basin 
and  let  it  remain  for  a few  seconds  ; then  turn 
it  out,  lay  in  a couple  of  eggs,  and  roll  them 
over  to  take  the  chill  off  the  shell  that  they  may 
not  crack  from  the  sudden  application  of  heat ; 
pour  in  upon  the  eggs  boiling  water  from  the 
kettle,  until  they  are  completely  covered ; put  a 
plate  over  them  instantly,  and  let  them  remain  | 


upon  the  table  for  twelve  minutes,  when  they 
will  be  found  perfectly  cooked,  entirely  free 
from  all  flavor  and  appearance  of  rawness,  and 
yet  so  light  and  delicate  as  to  suit  even  persons 
who  cannot  eat  eggs  at  all  when  cooked  in  the 
usual  way.  The  eggs  should  be  turned  when 
rather  more  than  half  done,  but  the  plate  must 
be  replaced  as  quickly  as  possible.  More  than 
two  eggs  will  require  from  1 5 to  20  minutes  in- 
stead of  12. 

Fricasseed  Eggs. — Take  half  a pound  of 
stale  bread  and  a pint  of  milk ; place  them  in  a 
sauce-pan  on  the  fire  and  boil  for  three  minutes, 
mash  well  and  mix  the  two  together,  then  boil 
them,  stirring  continually,  until  they  make  a 
rather  thin  paste ; remove  this,  mix  with  it  six 
or  eight  boiled  eggs,  season  with  salt  and  pep- 
per, put  back  on  the  fire,  stir  constantly  for  five 
minutes  or  so,  and  serve  hot. 

Fried  Eggs. — I.  Put  plenty  of  butter  or  lard 
into  a frying-pan,  and  when  it  is  boiling  hot, 
break  the  eggs  in  gently  one  by  one  (being  care- 
ful not  to  break  the  yolks) ; fry  them  three  min- 
utes, or  until  the  white  part  becomes  hard,  and 
take  up  with  a skimmer ; dust  over  with  salt 
and  pepper,  and  serve  hot. 

n.  (I?i  batter). — Poach  the  eggs  (not  hard); 
set  them  aside  to  drain  and  cool  on  a clean 
napkin.  Make  ready  a deep  frying-pan,  and 
when  the  fat  is  hot,  fry  enough  parsley  to  cover 
the  bottom  of  your  dish.  Dip  the  eggs  in  bat- 
ter with  a spoon,  sprinkle  them  slightly  with 
fine-chopped  parsley,  and  fry ; when  a light 
brown,  they  are  done.  Arrange  them  on  the 
bed  of  fried  parsley,  and  sprinkle  with  lemon- 
juice. 

Ham  and  Eggs. — F ry  the  eggs  as  above  ; 
drain  them  thoroughly,  and  lay  each  separately 
on  a piece  of  fried  ham.  The  ham  should  be 
cut  in  appropriate  slices  before  dishing.  Gar- 
nish with  sprigs  of  parsley. 

Mashed  Eggs. — Put  a little  good  gravy  or 
dripping  from  roast  beef,  veal,  or  pork,  or  a lit- 
tle good  soup,  or  a large  lump  of  butter,  into  a 
stew-pan.  When  hot,  break  in  the  required 
number  of  eggs,  stirring  constantly.  Season 
slightly  with  pepper  and  salt,  and  cook  quite 
gently  until  the  eggs  become  stiff. 

Omelette.  ( See  Omelette.) 

Poached  Eggs. — Have  a large  frying-pan 
two-thirds  full  of  boiling  water  into  which  about 
a tablespoonful  of  salt  has  been  thrown.  Place 
it  where  the  boiling  will  cease,  then  break  the 
shells  of  the  eggs  one  by  one  on  the  edge  of 
the  pan ; hold  them  over  the  boiling  water, 
close  to  the  surface;  open  the  shell  adroitly 
with  your  two  thumbs,  and  let  its  contents  slide 
into  the  water  in  as  entire  a mass  as  possible; 
keep  each  egg  separate  in  the  water,  to  prevent 
their  sticking  together ; if  the  yolk  of  an  egg  is 
broken  it  is  spoiled  for  serving.  Let  the  water 
simmer  gently  until  the  white  of  the  egg  sets, 
then  take  out  with  a perforated  skimmer,  and 
place  each  egg  on  a piece  of  buttered  toast. 

Poached  eggs  on  toast,  served  with  Worces- 
tershire sauce,  make  one  of  the  most  delicious 
I of  breakfast  dishes. 


190 


EGG-FLIP 


ELDERBERRY 


Sauce  (Egg.) — I.  Boil  four  eggs  for  quite  1 5 
minutes ; then  lay  them  into  cold  water  and  let 
them  remain  until  perfectly  cold.  Break  the 
shells  by  rolling  them  on  a table,  and  pick  off 
the  pieces  ; separate  the  whites  from  the  yolks, 
and  divide  all  of  the  latter  into  quarter-inch 
dice ; mince  two  of  the  whites  tolerably  small, 
mix  them  lightly  with  the  yolks,  and  stir  the 
whole  into  a third  of  a pint  of  melted  butter  or 
white  sauce.  Serve  as  hot  as  possible. 

II.  Boil  two  eggs  hard,  and  when  quite  cold, 
cut  the  whites  and  yolks  up  separately ; mix 
them  together,  put  them  into  a very  hot  tureen, 
and  pour  over  them  a quarter  of  a pint  of  drawn 
butter  (while  it  is  boiling).  Stir,  and  serve  im- 
mediately. 

Scrambled  Eggs.  — Put  in  a frying-pan 
enough  butter  to  grease  the  bottom  of  the  pan  ; 
break  in  the  eggs  carefully,  without  breaking 
the  yolks  ; for  each  dozen  eggs,  add  a table- 
spoonful of  butter ; season  with  a very  little 
pepper  and  salt ; when  the  whites  harden 
slightly,  stir  the  eggs  from  the  bottom  of  the 
pan,  and  continue  to  do  so  until  they  are  suffi- 
ciently cooked.  When  done,  the  yolks  and 
whites  should  be  separate,  though  stirred  to- 
gether— marbled , in  fact,  and  not  mixed  like 
mashed  eggs. 

Stuffed  Eggs.— Cut  six  hard-boiled  eggs 
in  two  lengthwise  ; lift  out  the  yolks  and  mince 
them  up  fine  with  six  or  eight  sprigs  of  parsley ; 
add  three  ounces  of  butter  and  a slice  (the  size 
of  a saucer)  of  the  soft  part  of  bread,  soaked  in 
milk  and  squeezed ; season  with  salt,  pepper, 
and  a little  grated  nutmeg ; mix  the  whole  to- 
gether thoroughly.  With  this  mixture  fill  the 
cavity  in  the  whites  whence  the  yolks  were 
taken  ; set  these  in  a pan  with  a layer  of  pars- 
ley, or  spinach,  on  the  bottom ; place  for  ten 
minutes  in  an  oven,  and  serve  warm. 

EGG-FLIP. — Take  .'-Eggs,  2;  ale,  ^ pt ; 
white  sugar,  1 '/>  oz ; nutmeg  and  cloves. 

For  each  ]/2  pt  of  the  flip  desired  to  be  made, 
take  two  eggs,  and  beat  them  up  thoroughly  with 
an  ounce  and  a half  of  white  sugar  and  a little 
powdered  nutmeg  and  cloves.  While  doing 
this,  heat  half  a pint  of  ale  (a  little  brandy  may 
be  added  if  the  ale  is  not  strong  enough) ; and 
when  boiling  hot  stir  it  into  the  eggs,  after 
which  pour  the  whole  backwards  and  forwards 
from  the  sauce-pan  into  a bowl  and  vice  versa 
until  it  thickens.  If,  from  the  coldness  of  the 
atmosphere,  this  does  not  take  place,  it  must  be 
put  on  the  fire  again  and  constantly  stirred  un- 
til it  does,  which  never  fails  in  a few  minutes. 

EGG-NOGG.—  Take  .--Eggs,  5 ; sugar,  5 table- 
spoonfuls ; milk,  I qt ; best  brandy,  '/z  pt ; 
nutmeg. 

Stir  the  sugar  and  the  yolks  of  the  eggs  to- 
gether ; add  the  milk ; then  the  brandy ; and 
lastly  stir  in  the  whites  of  three  eggs,  which 
should  previously  have  been  whipped  up  stiff. 
Flavor  to  taste  with  grated  nutmeg. 

EGG  PLANT. — This  vegetable  is  called 
“guinea-squash  ” at  the  South.  It  is  cultivated 
exactly  like  the  tomato,  to  which  it  is  related 
(which  see),  or  like  the  squash.  There  are 


several  varieties  of  the  egg  plant,  of  which  the 
large,  purple,  oval-shaped  kind  is  best  for  the 
table.  When  fried,  they  have  a taste  resem- 
bling that  of  the  oyster,  and  they  are  much  used 
in  soups,  stews,  etc.  The  white  variety  is  much 
smaller,  about  the  size  and  shape  of  a goose- 
egg,  and  but  seldom  used,  being  grown  rather 
for  ornament  than  utility.  The  eggplant  is  in 
season  from  June  to  October. 

Fried  Egg  Plant. — Select  the  large  purple 
kind,  and  one  which  feels  firm  when  pressed  ; 
cut  it  crosswise  into  rather  thick  slices,  pare 
the  skin  off,  and  place  them  to  soak  for  half  an 
hour  in  strong  salt  and  water ; wipe  each  slice 
dry  with  a napkin,  dip  it  in  egg,  and  then  in 
cracker-crumbs,  and  fry  in  hot  lard  until  of  a 
nice  crisp  brown. 

Stewed  Egg  Plant. — Put  in  a pot  and  stew 
till  soft;  after  removing  the  skin,  mash  it  with 
butter  and  sweetherbs ; put  it  in  a pan,  grate 
bread  over  the  top,  and  bake  in  a moderate 
oven  till  brown. 

Stuffed  Egg-Plant. — Soak  a piece  of  the  soft 
part  of  bread  in  cold  water,  and  then  squeeze 
the  water  out  of  it.  Parboil  the  egg  plants  ten 
minutes,  split  them  in  two  lengthwise,  and 
scrape  out  the  seeds.  Put  a piece  of  butter  in 
a sauce-pan,  and  when  melted  fry  in  it  a bit  of 
chopped  onion  ; when  the  onion  is  fried,  stir  in 
the  soaked  bread  ; add  salt,  pepper,  and  grated 
nutmeg  to  taste,  and  a little  gravy ; stir  to- 
gether for  about  one  minute,  and  then  remove 
from  the  fire.  Fill  both  halves  of  the  egg 
plants  with  this  mixture,  and  put  them  in  a pan 
with  the  mixture  upwards ; dust  with  bread- 
crumbs, put  a teaspoonful  of  butter  on  the  top 
of  each,  and  bake  till  brown.  Serve  hot. 

EGLANTINE. — A name  for  the  sweet  brier, 
a well-known  and  delightfully  flagrant-leaved 
rose.  It  grows  wild  in  rich  pastures  and  neg- 
lected fields  throughout  the  United  States,  and 
in  favorable  soil  sometimes  sends  up  shoots  ten 
or  twelve  feet  high,  covered  with  harsh,  crooked 
prickles.  It  succeeds  well  in  the  garden  if 
ample  room  and  a deep  rich  soil  are  allowed  it, 
and  in  such  cases  it  sometimes  produces  double 
flowers.  Eglantine  grows  readily  from  the 
seeds,  and  sown  in  rows,  the  plants  can  be 
clipped  into  shape  to  form  low  and  ornamental 
hedges.  Plant  in  early  spring.  The  flowers, 
which  are  borne  most  profusely  on  the  lower 
branches,  are  of  a beautiful  rosy  color,  and  full 
of  fragrance;  but  the  chief  perfume  of  the 
plant  is  in  the  foliage,  its  leaves  being  covered 
with  russet-colored  glands,  which,  when  slightly 
bruised,  emit  a peculiar  scent. 

EIDER-DOWN.  (See  Down.) 

ELDERBERRY.— This  is  the  fruit  of  the 
elder-tree  which  is  found  generally  in  damp 
places,  near  streams  of  water  and  along  the 
shady  side  of  old  walls  and  fences.  The  ber- 
ries are  small,  black,  and  of  a pleasant  flavor 
when  ripe,  and  are  used  for  making  pies,  etc., 
the  well-known  Elderberry  wine , which  is  a 
wholesome  and  agreeable  beverage,  and  for 
feeding  birds.  Infusions  of  the  flowers  make 
the  Elder  flower  tea , which  is  a powerful  pro- 


ELDERBERRY 


EMETICS 


191 


moter  of  perspiration  and  of  cuticular  secre- 
tions. The  berries  are  in  season  in  August 
and  September,  and  can  generally  be  procured 
in  the  markets. 

Elderberry  Wine.  — Take  .--Elderberries 
(ripe) ; water ; sugar ; cloves  ; ginger ; yeast. 

Select  ripe  and  fresh  berries,  strip  them 
clean  from  the  stalks,  and  measure  them  into  a 
tub  or  large  earthen  jar;  pour  boiling  water 
upon  them  in  the  proportion  of  two  gallons  to 
three  of  berries,  press  them  down  into  the 
liquor,  cover  them  closely,  and  let  them  stand 
until  the  following  day;  then  strain  the  juice 
from  the  fruit  through  a sieve  or  cloth,  and 
when  this  is  done  squeeze  from  the  berries  the 
greater  part  of  the  remaining  juice  ; mix  it  with 
that  which  was  first  poured  off,  measure  the 
whole,  and  for  every  gallon  add  three  pounds 
of  sugar,  three-quarters  of  an  ounce  of  cloves, 
and  one  ounce  of  ginger;  boil  twenty  minutes, 
keeping  it  thoroughly  skimmed,  and  remove 
from  the  fire.  When  about  milk-warm,  put  it 
into  a perfectly  dry  and  sweet  cask,  fill  this 
entirely,  and  pour  very  gently  into  the  bung- 
hole  a tablespoonful  of  new  yeast  mixed  with 
half  a teacupful  of  the  wine.  When  fermen- 
tation ceases,  paste  a stiff  brown  paper  over 
the  bunghole  ; after  that  it  will  be  fit  for  use  in 
about  eight  weeks,  but  will  keep  for  years. 

II.  Take  .--Elderberries  ; water  ; sugar  ; rai- 
sins ; brandy  (if  wanted). 

Take  elderberries  that  are  quite  ripe,  put 
them  into  a pan  and  bake  them  in  an  oven  along 
with  the  bread;  then  strain  the  juice  from 
them.  To  six  gallons  of  water  put  three  pounds 
of  moist  sugar,  boil  it  one  hour  and  strain  it ; 
when  it  is  cool,  add  one  quart  of  the  elder-juice, 
to  every  gallon  of  liquor  ; spread  a toast  thickly 
with  yeast,  put  it  in,  and  let  it  stand  for  a 
week ; then  put  the  wine  into  a cask,  and  for 
every  gallon  add  one  pound  of  raisins.  A pint 
of  brandy  to  every  three  gallons  of  wine  will 
be  an  improvement. 

III.  (White  Berries.) — Take  .--White  elderber- 
ries ; lump  sugar ; yeast ; Malaga  raisins  ; lemons. 

To  a quart  of  white  berries  add  a quart  of 
water,  boil  it  half  an  hour,  press  it  through  a 
sieve,  but  do  not  press  the  berries ; to  each  gal- 
lon of  this  liquor  put  three  pounds  of  lump 
sugar;  let  it  boil,  skim  it,  and  when  milk- 
warm  work  it  with  a tablespoonful  of  yeast  for 
five  days,  stirring  it  two  or  three  times  a day ; 
to  five  gallons  of  the  liquor  put  three  pounds 
of  Malaga  raisins,  chopped ; put  the  whole  into 
a cask  which  has  been  previously  washed  with 
brandy ; stop  up  the  bunghole  when  the  wine 
has  done  working,  and  to  each  gallon  add  the 
rind  and  juice  of  a lemon. 

Elder-Flower  Wine 7h&?.--Elder-flowers ; 

water ; sugar ; yeast. 

To  every  gallon  of  water  put  four  pounds  of 
sugar,  half  a pint  of  elder-flowers,  not  pressed 
down,  and  one  tablespoonful  of  yeast.  Mix 
these  together,  and  put  them  in  a cask;  stir 
them  every  morning  for  a week  and  then  stop 
the  bung  up  close  ; it  will  be  ready  to  bottle  in 
six  weeks.  This  is  a delicious  wine. 


EMBROCATIONS. — Applications  intended 
to  relieve  local  pains,  either  by  counter-irrita- 
tion or  by  the  anodyne  effects  of  their  ingre- 
dients, or  by  aiding  the  friction  which  cannot 
long  be  maintained  without  some  such  applica- 
tion. 

(a)  Liquor  of  ammonia,  tincture  of  opium, 
spirits  of  turpentine,  and  olive  oil,  of  each  equal 
parts.  Useful  for  rheumatism  or  any  local  pains. 

(h)  flour  of  mustard,  yi  ounce;  vinegar, 
boiling,  3 ounces.  Mix,  and  rub  into  the  parts 
to  produce  counter-irritation. 

(c)  Laudanum,  chloroform  and  soap  liniment, 
in  equal  proportions,  will  often  relieve  local 
pains. 

{d)  Chloroform  alone  may  be  applied,  sprink- 
led on  a piece  of  spongio-piline  (to  be  had  at 
the  drug  stores),  and  applied  to  the  parts  affect- 
ed with  neuralgia.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to 
inhale  the  vapor  too  long. 

(e)  All  embrocations  may  be  applied  with 
good  effect  by  wetting  with  them  the  inner 
surface  of  spongio-piline,  and  keeping  it  to  the 
part.  In  this  way,  as  the  ammonia  cannot 
evaporate,  embrocations  made  with  it  are  much 
more  active. 

EMERY. — A variety  of  corundum,  the  hard- 
est known  substance  except  diamond.  It  is 
bruised  and  ground  to  powder  in  a powerful 
stamping  mill,  and  is  then  sifted  into  various 
degrees  of  fineness.  It  is  very  useful  in  the 
household  for  scouring  and  polishing  furniture 
and  the  like,  and  for  rubbing  the  rust  out  of 
metals.  Emery  paper  is  made  of  various  de- 
grees of  fineness,  in  the  same  way  as  sand- 
paper, and  is  more  convenient  than  the  powder 
of  emery.  Emery  cloth  is  much  superior  to 
the  paper  for  cleaning  utensils  of  iron  and  steel. 
The  paper  is  so  brittle  that  it  will  not  hold 
together  after  having  been  used  a little  while, 
and,  unfortunately,  this  happens  just  when  its 
quality  as  a polisher  is  best,  from  the  coarse 
grains  having  been  rubbed  off ; by  substituting 
the  cheapest  kind  of  calico  for  paper,  an  article 
has  been  produced,  the  durability  of  which 
more  than  compensates  for  the  additional  cost. 
The  most  common  use  of  the  emery  powder  is 
for  cleaning  and  sharpening  needles  in  sewing; 
for  this  purpose,  the  finest  powder  is  best. 

EMETICS. — Medicines  used  to  produce 
vomiting ; but  they  should  be  used  rarely,  ex- 
cept under  medical  advice.  When,  however,  a 
person  is  known  to  have  swallowed  any  foreign 
substance,  or  to  have  evidently  disordered  the 
stomach  by  improper  food  recently  taken,  a 
simple  emetic  is  quite  justifiable,  or  in  case  of 
croup,  when  no  time  is  to  be  lost,  it  may  be  had 
recourse  to.  The  only  safe  drug  for  this  pur- 
pose is  powdered  ipecacuanha  and  syrup  of  ipe- 
cacuanha, which  may  be  given  in  doses  pro- 
portionate to  age,  and  mustard. 

(a)  Powdered  ipecacuanha,  1 5 to  30  grains. 

(b)  Syrup  of  ipecacuanha,  10  drops  to  a tea- 
spoonful. 

(c)  A teaspoonful  of  mustard  mixed  in  a 
pint  of  water,  and  taken  in  four  portions,  at  in- 
tervals of  a few  minutes. 


102 


EMOLLIENTS 


ENTREES 


(d)  The  above  doses  may  be  repeated  every  i 
fifteen  minutes  till  vomiting  is  produced. 

(e)  Tickling  the  throat  with  a feather  is  some- 
times efficacious,  especially  when,  as  in  poison- 
ing, haste  is  desirable. 

EMOLLIENTS. — Those  remedies  which  re- 
lax the  tone  of  the  blood  vessels  of  parts. 
Poultices  and  warm  water  fomentations  are 
chiefly  those  which  may  be  adopted  in  domestic 
practice,  and  they  will  be  found  serviceable  in 
many  slight  cases  of  inflammation  from  various 
causes.  Bread  or  linseed  meal  poultice  is  an 
excellent  emollient,  as  also  is  the  fomentation 
made  with  poppyheads,  and  applied  by  means 
of  flannel  wrung  out  in  it. 

EMULSIONS. — An  emulsion  is  an  oily 
substance  suspended  in  some  fluid  capable  of 
holding  in  a state  of  minute  subdivision.  Thus, 
castor  oil  may  be  rubbed  down  with  yolk  of  egg, 
or  milk,  or  mucilage  and  syrup.  A pleasant 
cough  emulsion  is  made  from  almonds,  gum 
arabic,  sugar,  water,  and  a little  tolu,  paregoric, 
and  sweet  spirits  of  nitre. 

ENDIVE,  or  Chicory,  or  Succory. — There 
are  several  varieties  of  this  plant,  of  which  the 
curled  are  found  the  most  numerous.  The 
green  curled  is  crisp  and  tender ; but  the  white 
curled  is  more  so,  but  less  hardy,  and  usually 
quite  scarce.  The  broad-leaved  Batavian — call- 
ed by  the  French  scaroll — is  much  cultivated, 
but  used  principally  by  the  F rench  and  Germans. 
The  leaves  only  are  used  in  soups,  stews, 
roasts,  salads,  etc.  In  season  from  September 
to  March.  For  the  Wild  Endive , see  Chic- 
ory. 

Salad  (Endive) — In  its  unbleached  state,  en- 
dive is  highly  bitter  to  the  taste,  and  it  must  be 
bleached  by  covering  up  with  an  earthen  pot, 
or  storing  it  in  a dark  cellar,  before  it  is  fit  for 
a salad.  Prepare  and  dress  same  as  lettuce. 

Stewed  Endive. — Wash  and  drain  ; put  it 
in  boiling  water  for  about  one  minute,  and 
drain  it  again.  Put  it  into  a stew-pan  with  a 
little  broth,  and  simmer  till  tender ; then  add  a 
little  gravy,  season  to  taste  with  salt  and  pep- 
per and  serve.  The  wild  chicory  may  be  pre- 
pared in  the  same  way. 

ENTREES. — A technical  term  in  French 
cookery  applied  to  what  are  commonly  called 
“made  dishes.”  They  are  used  to  supplement 
the  regular  dishes  of  meat,  etc-,  and  in  a regu- 
lar dinner  are  usually  brought  in  with  the  third 
or  fourth  course,  or  between  them.  They  are 
also  valuable  as  a means  of  enabling  cooked 
food  to  reappear  in  a novel  and  economical 
form;  they  will  often  serve  as  the  basis  of  a 
quiet  dinner,  and  above  all  for  invalids,  seden- 
tary people,  and  convalescents,  for  whom  some- 
thing light  and  tasty  is  desirable,  which  will  ex- 
cite them  to  eat  a little  without  making  them  feel 
afterwards  as  if  they  had  overtasked  their  diges- 
tive powers.  We  shall  not  give  here  a long  list 
of  entree r,  because  they  will  be  found  throughout 
the  work  under  the  ingredients  of  which  they 
are  chiefly  composed.  A few,  however,  will  be 
brought  together,  if  only  to  show  what  we 
mean  and  what  may  be  done  in  this  line — for 


[every  one  seems  to  like  “made  dishes,” 
properly  prepared. 

Beef  Cakes. — For  a side  dish.  — Pound 
some  beef  that  is  underdone  with  fat  bacon 
or  ham ; season  with  salt,  pepper,  and  a 
little  onion  or  garlic:  mix  them  well,  and  make 
into  small  cakes  three  inches  long,  and  half  as 
wide  and  thick  ; fry  them  a light  brown,  and 
serve  them  in  a good  thick  gravy. 

Beef  Olives. — Cut  slices  of  beef  (either 
raw  or  cooked),  an  inch  thick  and  four  inches 
square ; lay  them  on  a forcemeat  of  bread- 
crumbs, a little  suet  or  fat,  shalot,  pepper  and 
salt.  Roll  them,  and  fasten  with  a small 
skewer ; put  them  into  a stew  pan  with  some 
gravy  made  of  the  beef  bones,  or  the  gravy  of 
the  meat  and  a spoonful  or  two  of  water,  and 
stew  them  till  tender. 

Bubble  and  Squeak. — Boil  and  drain : 
then  chop  and  fry,  some  cabbage,  with  a little 
butter  or  drippings,  pepper  and  salt ; lay  on  it 
slices  of  underdone  beef,  lightly  fried,  and  sea- 
soned with  pepper  and  salt. 

Bird’s  Nest. — Eggs  boiled  hard,  the  shells 
removed,  and  each  surrounded  with  forcemeat ; 
after  which  they  are  fried  or  baked  brown, 
and  cut  in  half  and  laid  in  the  dish  with  gravy. 

Calf’s  Head,  Hashed. — Boil  the  head  in 
soft  water,  or  as  directed  under  Calf’s  Head. 
Take  the  meat  from  the  bones,  and  cut  it  into 
thin  bits  ; then  take,  of  the  water  it  was  boiled 
in,  enough  to  stew  it  till  the  meat  is  thoroughly 
hot.  Work  half  a pound  of  butter  well  with  half 
a gill  of  flour,  and  mix  with  it  a tablespoonful  of 
the  essence  of  anchovies,  three  blades  of 
mace,  a little  nutmeg,  and  pepper  and  salt. 
Add  this  to  the  meat,  and  mix  well  together. 
Take  the  yoke  of  an  egg,  well  beaten,  stir  it 
up  with  half  a pint  of  cream,  and  add  it  to 
the  hash.  Stew  till  the  meat  is  quite  tender; 
then  remove,  squeeze  in  the  juice  of  a lemon, 
and  garnish  with  egg-balls  and  balls  of  force- 
meat. 

Chicken  or  Rabbit  Curry. — i.  Cut  up  a 

chicken  or  young  rabbit — if  chicken,  take  off 
the  skin.  Roll  each  piece  in  a mixture  of  half 
an  ounce  of  curry-powder  and  a tablespoonful 
of  flour.  Slice  two  or  three  onions  and  fry 
them  in  butter  to  a light  brown  ; then  add  the 
meat,  and  fry  all  together  till  the  meat  begins 
to  brown.  Put  all  into  a stew-pan,  and  pour  in 
just  enough  boiling  water  to  cover  it ; simmer 
gently  two  or  three  hours  ; if  too  thick,  add 
more  water  half  an  hour  before  serving.  If 
the  meat  has  been  dressed  before,  a little 
broth  will  be  better  than  water;  but  the  curry 
is  richer  when  made  of  fresh  meat. 

Boiled  rice  is  usually  served  with  curry.  A 
common  practice  is  to  pile  the  rice  round  the 
dish,  and  put  the  curry  in  the  middle  ; the  bet- 
ter way  is  to  serve  them  on  separate  dishes  so 
that  one  may  be  eaten  without  the  other. 

2.  Take  two  tablespoonfuls  of  curry-powder, 
and  mix  with  it  a teacupful  of  water,  half  a 
teacupful  of  vinegar,  and  a dessertspoonful  of 
salt.  Stew  slowly  for  an  hour,  and  when  it  be- 
comes too  thick,  add  a little  more  vinegar  and 


ENTREES  193 


water.  About  three-quarters  of  an  hour  before 
dinner  put  in  the  fowl,  veal,  mutton,  or  fish,  cut 
into  square  pieces,  and  previously  fried  to  a 
pale  brown,  with  six  large  onions  sliced  thin. 
Then  stew  the  whole  together  till  the  meat  be- 
comes quite  tender. 

Meat  Balls. — Chop  up  the  meat  (any  kind 
will  do)  as  fine  as  for  sausages  ; mix  it  with  a 
small  quantity  of  bread-crumbs,  mace,  cloves, 
pepper  and  salt,  all  pounded  well ; stir  them  to- 
gether with  one  egg,  and  make  into  balls  about 
the  size  of  a goose’s  egg.  Roll  in  a mixture 
of  bread-crumbs  and  egg,  and  fry  to  a light 
brown  ; dish  them  into  gravy  flavored  with  wal- 
nut catsup. 

Billaw. — Put  one  measure  of  well-washed 
rice  to  three  measures  of  water,  with  a pinch 
of  salt,  and  boil  till  done.  Drain  the  rice,  and 
spread  it  on  the  dish ; on  this  put  a layer  of 
mixed  vegetables  (whatever  is  in  season),  made 
into  a ragout,  thickened  with  egg-yolk  and  sea- 
soned with  pepper,  salt,  and  cayenne ; cover 
with  another  layer  of  the  rice,  into  which  thrust 
five  bits  of  butter  as  big  as  a filbert.  Glaze 
the  top  with  white  of  eggs ; set  the  dish  in  a 
brisk  oven  for  five  minutes,  and  serve. 

Pillaw  (Turkish,  with  meat). — Take  one 
measure  of  well-washed  rice  and  three  meas- 
ures of  good  broth ; set  them  over  a brisk  fire, 
in  a stew-pan  with  a close-fitting  lid.  When  it 
begins  to  boil,  steep  two  or  three  threads  of 
saffron  in  a teacupful  of  warm  broth ; when 
well-infused,  pour  it  into  the  stew-pan  and  let 
all  boil,  closely  covered.  When  the  rice  is 
cooked,  spread  it  on  a dish  ; on  this  put  a layer 
of  ragout  and  any  meat,  fowl,  or  game ; cover 
with  another  layer  of  the  rice,  and  pour  over 
the  whole  a tablespoonful  of  melted  butter. 

Salmagundy. — This  is  a very  pretty  dish,  if 
in  nice  shape,  and  if  the  colors  of  the  ingredi- 
ents are  varied.  For  this  purpose  chop  sepa- 
rately the  white  parts  of  cold  chicken  or  veal, 
eggs  boiled  hard  and  whites  and  yolks  chopped 
separately,  parsley,  half  a dozen  anchovies, 
beet-root,  red  pickled  cabbage,  ham  and  grated 
tongue,  or  anything  well  flavored  and  of  a good 
color.  Some  people  like  a small  proportion  of 
onion,  but  it  had  better  be  left  out.  A saucer, 
large  teacup,  or  any  other  base  must  be  put  into 
a small  dish ; then  make  rows  around  it  wide 
at  the  bottom,  and  growing  smaller  towards  the 
top,  choosing  such  of  the  ingredients  for  each 
row  as  will  most  vary  the  colors.  At  the  top  a 
little  sprig  of  curled  parsley  may  be  stuck  in. 
Or,  without  anything  in  the  dish,  the  salma- 
gundy may  be  laid  in  rows,  or  put  into  the  half- 
whites of  eggs,  which  may  be  made  to  stand 
upright  by  cutting  off  a bit  at  the  round  end. 
In  the  latter  case,  each  half  egg  should  have 
but  one  ingredient.  Garnish  between  with 
curled  parsley.  Pour  a salad  dressing  over  all. 

Sausage  Side  Dish. — Potatoes  nicely  mash- 
ed, and  shaped  in  a basin  or  deep  pie-dish, 
turned  out  and  covered  with  sausages,  all  the 
ties  crossing  at  the  top.  Help  a sausage  and  a 
spoonful  of  potatoes  to  each  plate. 

Sweetbreads. — Several  excellent  entrees  are  I 
13 


made  of  sweetbreads.  For  them,  see  Sweet- 
bread. 

Veal  Balls. — Take  two  ounces  of  beef  suet ; 
two  ounces  of  veal,  minced  fine  ; the  yolks  of 
one  raw  and  one  boiled  egg ; one  small  onion  ; 
salt,  pepper,  mace,  nutmeg,  and  lemon-peel  to 
taste.  Beat  them  all  well  together  ; make  into 
balls  ; fry  to  a light  brown,  and  serve  in  gravy. 

Veal  Cake. — I*  Take  the  best  end  of  a 
breast  of  veal,  bone  it  and  cut  it  into  small 
pieces ; boil  two  or  three  eggs  hard,  divide  the 
yolks,  and  cut  the  whites  into  pieces  ; take  two 
anchovies  ; some  parsley  chopped  fine,  ham, 
rather  lean,  cut  into  thin  slices,  season  these 
well  with  cayenne,  black  pepper,  salt,  and  nut- 
meg ; put  in  a layer  of  veal,  parsley,  ham,  etc., 
till  the  deep  dish  is  full ; pour  a cup  of  water 
over  it  and  the  bones  at  the  top ; cover  it  close 
down,  and  bake  it  in  a slow  oven  for  four 
hours  ; take  the  bones  off  when  it  comes  out, 
and  turn  it  out  when  cold. 

II.  Take  the  thick  part  of  a leg  of  veal,  free 
from  skin  and  sinews,  and  some  good  fresh  suet 
or  marrow,  with  a little  bit  of  clear  fat  bacon. 
Beat  it  in  a marble  mortar  till  it  comes  to  a 
paste.  Season  with  white  pepper,  cayenne, 
salt,  nutmeg,  and  mace,  and,  if  it  is  liked,  with 
a little  lemon  peel.  Make  it  up  in  cakes  about 
the  size  of  a biscuit ; fry  them  in  clear  dripping 
till  they  become  of  a nice  light  brown.  Serve 
them  up  with  white  sauce,  which  must  not  be 
put  over  them.  This  makes  a pretty  corner 
dish,  or  will  serve  for  first  or  second  course  for 
a small  dinner-party. 

Veal  Olives. — Take  eight  or  ten  cutlets  ; 
dip  them  in  yolks  of  egg  beaten  up ; season 
with  pepper  and  salt,  and  lay  over  them  a little 
forcemeat;  roll  them  up  and  tie  them  with  a 
thread  (which  is  to  be  removed  before  serving), 
and  fry  them  in  lard  or  fat ; then  put  them  in  a 
stew-pan  with  some  good  gravy,  an  anchovy, 
pepper,  and  mace  ; make  some  balls  of  flour  or 
Indian  meal,  boil  them  a little,  and  put  them 
in;  thicken  with  flour  and  butter. 

Vol-au-Vent. — As  a vol-au-vent  may  be 
made  of  anything,  and  must  contain  a variety 
of  ingredients,  it  is  an  economical  way  of  using 
up  in  an  acceptable  way  many  little  remnants 
which  would  otherwise  be  wasted.  The  house- 
keeper, on  looking  over  the  contents  of  her 
larder,  can  often  out  of  them  compose  an 
original  vol-au-vent.  Bits  of  cold  fowl,  pigeon, 
meat,  game,  livers  of  ducks,  chickens  or  geese, 
kidneys,  portions  of  sausage,  stuffing,  and 
forcemeat ; unused  oyster,  caper,  shrimp,  or 
anchovy  sauce,  etc.,  etc.,  will,  with  judicious 
additions,  costing  little,  constitute  a dish  pleas- 
ing to  the  eye  as  well  as  to  the  palate. 
After  selecting  the  ingredients,  mix  well  to- 
gether ; season  to  taste  with  salt,  pepper,  and 
spices  ; put  into  a stew-pan  with  a little  gravy 
or  broth,  and  stew  until  done.  Meat  vols-au- 
vent  may  have  their  character  varied  by 
flavoring  with  Worcestershire  or  other  sauce, 
truffles,  lemon  peel,  or  even  a dish  of  curry- 
powder.  When  done  it  is  ready  to  go  into 
the  crust. 


194 


EPILEPSY 


ERMINE 


Making  the  crust  of  the  vol-au  vent  is  one  of 
the  things  which  require  to  be  seen  done.  It 
is  thus  performed  : — Roll  out  the  lightest  possi- 
ble puff-paste  to  three-quarters,  or  one  inch 
in  thickess.  Lay  it  on  an  iron  oven-plate.  A 
sauce-pan  lid  will  serve  to  cut  out  the  required 
circle.  Trim  away  the  rest  of  the  paste,  which 
will  serve  for  patties  or  garnishing.  Trace, 
with  a knife  heated  in  hot  water  (to  prevent  the 
paste  from  sticking  to  it),  a smaller  inner  circle 
within  it,  to  form  the  lid  of  the  vol-au-vent, 
leaving  an  edge  about  an  inch  broad,  and  mak- 
ing your  knife  penetrate  to  nearly  half  the 
thickness  of  the  paste.  The  surface  of  the 
whole  may  be  glazed  with  egg,  or  otherwise 


A Vol-au-vent. 


decorated.  Put  into  a brisk  oven ; when,  if 
the  puff-paste  has  been  well-made,  the  whole 
ought  to  rise  to  the  height  of  three  or  four 
inches.  When  well  risen,  and  of  a nice  light 
brown,  take  out,  lift  the  cover  immediately,  and 
with  your  knife  remove  the  underdone  paste  or 
crumb  within,  leaving  the  hollow  which  is  to 
receive  your  stew,  and  taking  care  not  to  make 
any  leaks  in  it.  But  to  accomplish  this  well 
is  one  of  the  nicest  operations  in  pastry-cook- 
ing. An  ornamental  vol-au-vent  may  be  made 
in  a mould,  as  shown  in  above  cut.  See  Cro- 
quettes, Lamb  Chops,  Sweet  Breads  and 

VOLS  AU  VENT. 

ENTREMETS. — A French  term  applied  to  all 
dishes  of  vegetables  ; all  salads  of  greens  ; all 
omelettes,  except  those  of  ham,  bacon,  salt  pork, 
and  kidneys  ; macaroni,  rice,  eggs,  etc.  Also 
to  all  sweet  dishes,  such  as  cakes,  pies,  com- 
potes, puddings,  and  cheese. 

EPILEPSY. — A disease,  the  exact  cause 
■of  which  is  not  known,  but  of  which  the  main 
features  are  sudden  loss  of  consciousness,  and 
■convulsions,  lasting  a longer  or  shorter  period. 
The  attack  begins  with  a sudden  pallor  of 
countenance,  and  a fixed  expression  of  face. 
Sometimes  there  is  simply  a shriek  and  the 
patient  falls  to  the  ground  violently  convulsed. 
There  is  usually  foaming  at  the  mouth  ; the 
tongue  is  thrust  forward,  and  sometimes  badly 
lacerated  by  the  teeth.  The  eyes  are  generally 
fixed,  but  sometimes  roll  continuously  and  are 
quite  insensible.  The  face  becomes  purple, 
and  breathing  is  frequently  suspended  for  a 
time.  The  bowels  and  bladder  may  discharge 
their  contents.  The  convulsions  may  affect 
any  or  all  parts  of  the  body ; usually  one  side 
is  worst.  Gradually  they  pass  off,  and  the 
patient  remains  quiet  and  apparently  insensi- 
ble ; this  may  pass  into  sound  sleep,  from  which 
he  may  recover,  knowing  nothing  of  what  has 


occurred,  except  by  the  pain  from  straining  his 
muscles  and  from  the  lacerated  tongue.  Gen- 
erally, too,  there  is  headache.  The  fit  may 
last  from  a few  minutes  to  half  an  hour,  and 
may  recur  as  often  as  twice  in  one  day,  though 
ordinarily  not  for  very  long  intervals.  The 
attacks,  however,  have  a tendency  to  recur  and 
ultimately  affect  the  mental  powers.  The  ap- 
pearance of  confirmed  epileptics  is  very  strik- 
ing: they  have  a stolid,  immobile  look,  are 
usually  very  stupid,  and  very  likely  also  their 
moral  perceptions  are  obtuse.  Epileptic  maniacs 
are  an  extremely  dangerous  set.  Often  in  them  a 
fit  of  violence  will  take  the  place  of  a true  epilep- 
tic paroxysm,  and  they  are  always  dangerous 
before  and  after  the  onset  of  a paroxysm  ; it  is 
at  these  times  that  the  homicidal  impulse  is 
strongest.  Epilepsy  is  often  hereditary,  but  it 
may  be  induced  by  a variety  of  causes.  Epilep- 
tiform convulsions  are  not,  however,  to  be  con- 
founded with  true  epilepsy.  Such  often  occur 
as  the  result  of  mental  over-work,  indigestion, 
etc.,  but  when  the  cause  is  removed  they  have 
no  tendency  to  recur  as  in  the  case  of  true 
epilepsy. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  epilepsy  re- 
solves itself  practically  into  what  is  best  to  be 
done  in  the  intervals  between  the  fits.  During 
the  paroxysm,  great  care  should  be  taken  that 
the  patient  does  not  hurt  himself,  but  otherwise 
he  should  be  let  alone.  The  great  remedy  for 
epilepsy  at  present  is  bromide  of  potassium  in 
full  doses.  To  begin,  the  patient  ought  to 
have  at  least  io  or  15  grains  three  times  a day, 
going  up  to  30  or  40,  or  even  60  for  a dose,  if 
necessary.  This  does  good  in  a great  majority 
of  cases,  but  in  some  it  does  not.  In  these, 
strychnine  or  nux-vomica  is  sometimes  given 
with  advantage,  but  must  be  used  cautiously, 
and  ought  never  to  be  given  at  all  without  a 
physician’s  prescription.  At  the  same  time 
every  effort  must  be  made  to  improve  the  gen- 
eral health. 

EPSOM  SALTS.— This  is  a simple  but 
most*  useful  remedy.  In  ordinary  doses,  the 
Epsom  salts  act  as  a saline  purgative,  giving 
rise  to  a speedy  and  free  watery  evacuation  of 
the  bowels.  Two  drachms  or  half  an  ounce  in 
a teacupful  of  water  is  the  dose  commonly 
required ; but  as  constipation  sometimes  fol- 
lows its  use  in  this  way,  it  is  perhaps  better  to 
take  smaller  doses,  daily  repeated  for  a time. 
The  addition  of  a few  drops  of  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid  renders  the  salt  more  palatable. 
In  this  way  it  is  best  given  in  the  mornings, 
and  is  an  exceedingly  valuable  remedy  for  those 
whose  livers  are  habitually  what  is  called 
torpid — that  is,  where  there  is  a tendency  to 
biliousness,  with  irregular  bowels  and  high- 
colored  urine,  such  as  occurs  in  men  who  live 
too  highly. 

ERMINE. — The  fur  of  the  ermine,  an  ani- 
mal of  the  weasel  family;  native  of  all  the 
northern  parts  of  the  world.  It  is  a deli- 
cate white  in  color,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
expensive  of  furs.  The  pale  cream-colored 
|are  considered  choicest,  but  those  of  a de- 


ERYSIPELAS 


ESSENCES 


195 


cided  yellowish  tinge  are  the  least  desir- 
able. 

To  Clean. — Dust  the  furs  well  with  a soft 
flannel ; then  rub  into  them  with  the  flannel 
fine  wheat  flour ; shake  out  the  flour,  and  rub 
with  a clean  flannel  till  all  is  removed.  Rub 
the  fur  always  against  the  grain. 

ERUPTIONS.  (See  Rash.) 

ERYSIPELAS.  — This  is  often  classed 
among  the  skin  diseases,  but  it  is  too  clearly  a 
constitutional  attack  of  a feverish  nature  to  be 
omitted  from  the  list  of  fevers — though  one  of 
its  essential  characteristics  is  an  inflammation 
of  the  skin.  It  is  of  two  kinds : I.  Occurring 
in  consequence  of  injuries,  called  traumatic.  II. 
Independant  of  any  recognizable  injury,  called 
idiopathic.  Erysipelas  usually  attacks  the 
head  and  face ; but  it  also  occurs'  in  other  parts 
of  the  body.  The  local  inflammation  is  pre- 
ceded and  accompanied  by  fever,  and  there  are 
generally  certain  premonitory  symptoms  that 
precede  the  outbreak  of  the  disease ; the 
patient  feels  sick — shivery,  feeble,  languid,  and 
drowsy.  After  these  symptoms  have  continued 
for  some  time,  a red  spot  appears  on  some  part 
of  the  body,  accompanied  with  burning  heat 
and  tingling.  The  skin  is  red,  and  this  redness 
spreads  rapidly ; it  is  accompanied  with  swel- 
ling, variable  in  amount,  but  often  very  con- 
siderable. When  it  attacks  the  face,  the 
appearance  of  the  face  is  completely  altered 
by  the  swelling ; all  the  features  are  confused, 
the  eyes  are  concealed,  the  expression  dis- 
torted ; the  sufferer  would  not  be  recognized 
by  his  nearest  friends.  With  all  this  there  is  a 
high  fever,  with  quick  full  pulse,  thirst,  vomit- 
ing, violent  shivering,  constipation,  and,  at  a 
later  stage,  sinking  and  exhaustion.  Many 
mistakes  are  made  relative  to  this  disease  even 
by  professional  men,  who  confound  it  with 
chronic  eruptions  of  a different  character, 
though  presenting  a somewhat  similar  ap- 
pearance. True  erysipelas,  as  we  have  said, 
is  always  attended  with  more  or  less  fever ; and 
its  attack  is  sudden,  running  a comparatively 
rapid  course,  and  requiring  immediate  atten- 
tion. The  peculiarity  of  the  eruption  is  that  it 
has  always  a defined  and  raised  edge, — so  that 
by  the  touch  alone  a practised  hand  can  dis- 
tinguish a case  of  erysipelas  in  a moment. 
There  is  a great  tendency  to  spread,  and  some- 
times the  course  is  very  rapid  from  one  part  to 
the  other.  Erysipelas  of  the  scalp  is  attended 
with  risk  to  the  brain,  and  should  always  be 
treated  with  promptness  by  the  best  attainable 
medical  skill.  In  most  cases,  vescicles  of  a 
considerable  size  make  their  appearance,  and  as 
the  inflammation  subsides  the  cuticle  peels  off 
in  large  thick  scales. 

Treatment. — There  are  various  modes  of 
treating  erysipelas,  but  the  disease  is  of  such 
an  urgent  nature  that  no  one  ought,  after  a 
knowledge  of  its  presence,  to  delay  a moment 
in  calling  in  medical  aid.  In  general  moderate 
purgatives,  diaphoretics,  and  strict  confinement 
to  bed,  are  to  be  adopted.  The  muriated  tinc- 
ture of  iron,  given  20  drops  in  a wineglass  of 


sweetened  water  every  3 to  4 hours,  is  regarded 
as  a specific  by  many  physicians.  In  order  to 
allay  the  local  irritation,  it  is  recommended  to 
wash  the  part  from  time  to  time  in  warm  milk 
and  water.  One  of  the  topical  applications 
which  has  been  recommended  is  an  acidulated 
solution  of  nitrate  of  silver.  The  solution  is 
made  with  one  drachm  of  nitrate  of  silver,  ten 
drops  of  nitric  acid,  and  an  ounce  of  distilled 
water.  This  is  pencilled  over  the  inflamed 
parts,  extending  to  a little  beyond  them,  and 
left  to  dry ; it  blackens  the  skin  at  the  time, 
but  the  cuticle  peels  off  in  a few  days,  and 
leaves  the  surface  healthy.  Collodion  is  like- 
wise a good  local  remedy.  Erysipelas  is  con- 
tagious, and  its  spread  must  be  provided  against 
by  ventilation  and  scrupulous  cleanliness. 

ESCHALOT.  ( See  Shallot). 

ESSENCES. — Essences  and  essential  oils 
have  now  become  one  of  the  essentials  of  good 
cookery,  and  enter  into  a large  proportion  of 
cooking  receipts.  Most  of  them  may  be  had 
at  the  druggists  and  grocers,  but  they  are  much 
better  made  at  home,  and  require  little  trouble 
in  the  preparation.  Some  of  them,  however, 
require  a still;  and  if  such  a thing  is  not  at 
hand,  it  is  necessary  to  buy  them.  We  give  a 
list  of  those  that  can  easily  be  made.  They 
must  all  be  bottled  and  kept  tightly  corked. 

Allspice  (Essence  of). — Oil  of  allspice, 
twenty  drops;  proof  spirit,  one  ounce.  Mix. 

Almonds  (Essence  of  Bitter). — Essential 
oil  of  bitter  almonds,  one  drachm  ; proof  spirit, 
seven  drachms.  Mix.  This  must  be  used 
•with  great  caution  as  it  is  poisonous  in  doses 
above  ten  or  twelve  drops. 

Caraway  (Essence  of). — Oil  of  caraway, 
one  drachm  ; proof  spirit,  four  drachms.  Mix. 

Celery  (Tincture  of). — Celery  seed,  bruised, 
half  an  ounce ; spirits  of  wine,  two  ounces. 
Put  it  into  a bottle,  cork  it,  and  stand  it  near 
the  fire  for  three  or  four  days.  A few  drops 
will  flavor  a bowl  of  broth,  and  greatly  improve 
soups,  etc.  The  seeds  ought  to  be  kept  for  boil- 
ing in  soups  if  the  tincture  is  not  approved  of. 

Cinnamon  (Essence  of). — Oil  of  cinna- 
mon, twenty  drops ; proof  spirit,  one  ounce. 
Mix. 

Citron  (Essence  of). — Oil  of  citron,  thirty 
drops  ; proof  spirit,  one  ounce.  Mix.  This  is 
an  excellent  addition  to  punch. 

Cloves  (Essence  of).— Oil  of  cloves,  twenty 
drops;  proof  spirit,  one  ounce.  Mix. 

Or,  infuse  a quarter  of  an  ounce  of  the  cloves 
themselves  in  two  ounces  of  proof  spirits  for  a 
fortnight ; then  strain. 

Cochineal  (Tincture  of). — Cochineal,  ten 
grains ; proof  spirit,  one  ounce.  Mix  in  a 
glass  bottle,  and  steep.  The  cochineal,  unless 
powdered,  takes  a long  time  to  dissolve,  and 
the  bottle  must  be  frequently  shaken. 

Ginger  (Essence  of). — Bruised  ginger,  one 
ounce ; proof  spirit,  one  pint.  Digest,  and 
strain. 

Mace  (Essence  of). — Oil  of  mace,  twenty 
drops  ; proof  spirit,  one  ounce.  Mix.  Useful 
for  flavoring  sweets  and  white  sauces,  etc. 


196 


ESSENCES 


EXERCISE 


Or,  proceed  as  for  essence  of  cloves. 

Marjoram  (Essence  of). — Oil  of  marjoram, 
twenty  drops  ; proof  spirit,  one  ounce.  Mix. 
Useful  for  flavoring  gravy. 

Nutmeg  (Essence  of).  — Oil  of  nutmeg, 
twenty  drops;  proof  spirit,  one  ounce.  Mix. 

Orange  or  Lemon  Peel  (Essence  of).— Rub 
the  yellow  side  of  the  peel  of  fresh  lemons  or 
oranges  with  lumps  of  white  sugar,  and  when 
saturated,  press  into  a wide-mouthed  bottle  and 
cork.  This  is  much  superior  in  flavor  to  the 
dried  peel. 

Orange  or  Lemon  Peel  (Tincture  of). — 

Orange  or  lemon  peel,  sliced  thin,  four  ounces  ; 
proof  spirit,  four  ounces ; water,  six  ounces. 
Soak  for  48  hours,  and  strain. 

Savory  Spices  (Essence  of). — Black  pep- 
per, one  ounce;  powdered  allspice,  half  an 
ounce  ; grated  nutmeg,  quarter  of  an  ounce  ; 
proof  spirit,  one  pint.  Mix  and  steep  ten 
days,  then  decant. 

Sweet  Marjoram  (Essence  of). — Tops  of 
sweet  marjoram,  one  pound  ; proof  spirit,  one 
gallon;  water,  half  a gallon.  Steep  a couple 
of  days,  and  then  boil  off  one  gallon.  Useful 
to  flavor  stews  and  sauces. 

ETHER.— Sulphuric  ether,  the  form  in  which 
ether  is  generally  used,  is  employed  in  medical 
practice  as  a narcotic,  antispasmodic,  and  stimu- 
lant ; a teaspoonful  in  a glass  of  white  wine  is 
recommended  by  Dr.  Brand  as  a remedy  for  sea- 
sickness. It  is  a specific  in  nervous  headaches  ; 
in  burns  and  scalds  it  is  applied  as  a refrigerant. 
Its  most  important  use,  however,  is  as  an  anaes- 
thetic ; and  experiment  has  proved  that  it  is  the 
safest  yet  discovered.  Like  chloroform,  and  for 
like  reasons,  either  should  be  used  with  great 
caution — rarely  except  under  medical  advice. 

EVERTON  TAFFY.  ( See  Candy.) 

EXERCISE. — Bodily  exercise  is  absolutely 
essential  to  the  maintenance  of  good  health. 
The  human  body  may  be  regarded  as  a complex 
machine,  the  various  parts  of  which  are  so 
beautifully  adapted  to  each  other,  that,  if  one 
be  disturbed,  all  must  suffer.  The  bones  and 
muscles  are  the  portions  of  the  frame  on  which 
motion  most  depends.  There  are  four  hundred 
muscles  in  the  body,  each  of  which  has  certain 
functions  to  perform  that  cannot  be  disturbed 
without  danger  to  the  whole,  and  it  is  a wise 
provision  of  nature  that  the  more  these  muscles 
are  exercised  the  stronger  do  they  become ; 
hence  it  is  that  laborers  are  stronger  and  more 
muscular  than  persons  whose  lives  are  passed 
in  easy  or  sedentary  occupations.  Besides 
strengthening  the  limbs,  muscular  exercise  has 
a most  beneficial  influence  on  respiration  and 
the  circulation  of  the  blood.  Says  a distin- 
guished medical  writer  : — “ Exercise  tells  by 
inciting  both  heart  and  lungs  to  increased  action 
and  energy,  and  this,  done  in  a pure  air,  is  great 
gain  to  the  purification  of  the  blood ; but  ex- 
ercise does  much  more,  for  not  only  are  the 
lungs,  with  their  large  capacity  for  air,  great 
purifiers,  but  the  skin  is  little  less  effective  to- 
wards the  same  end.  All  know  the  palpable 
effect  of  exercise  upon  the  skin  ; but  many  are  1 


not  aware  that  the  sensible  perspiration  is  but 
an  increase  of  an  insensible  perspiration  which 
is  unceasingly  poured  out  from  myriads  of  little 
pores — the  mouths  of  the  sweat  glands  and  the 
oil  glands  of  the  skin.  The  ordinary  insensi- 
ble perspiration  is  continually  freeing  us  from 
a mass  of  impurity  which  cannot  be  retained 
in  our  system  without  injury.  Convert  the  in- 
sensible perspiration  into  sensible,  by  exercise, 
and  produce  moderate  sweating,  and  if  the 
clothing  be  rational,  you  will  give  off  to  the 
winds  the  cause  of  many  a headache  and 
gloomy  thoughts.  Now  this  increased  skin 
secretion  must  come  from  somewhere  ; and  so 
it  does,  for  the  increased  exertion  causes  in- 
creased wear  and  tear  of  system ; every  step 
works  up  tissue  ; and  muscles,  blood-vessels, 
nerves,  are  all  used  quicker  than  when  there 
is  no  action.  Off  go  these  used-up  matters, 
probably  the  worst  first,  through  lungs  and 
skin,  as  fast  as  they  can,  and  the  man  begins 
to  feel  this  waste,  for  from  all  sides  there  are 
telegraphs  to  the  stomach  for  supplies,  and  he 
finds  himself  getting  excessively  hungry,  the 
dinner  hour  very  welcome,  and  the  formerly 
capricious  stomach  ready  for  anything  ; and  so 
new  supplies  go  in  to  supply  the  place  of  the 
old  used-up  works,  and  the  physical  man  is 
greatly  renovated — taken  to  pieces,  as  it  were, 
and  built  up  again.”  By  proper  exercise  is 
meant  the  use  of  all  the  muscles  in  the  body, 
not  to  any  immoderate  degree,  but  sufficiently 
to  keep  them  in  good  condition,  and  to  render 
the  discharge  of  their  several  functions  easy 
and  pleasant.  Hardly  any  kind  of  exercise 
can  be  considered  as  by  itself  doing  this, 
though  to  read  the  advertisements  of  the  va- 
rious “lifting  machines,”  a credulous  person 
might  think  one  had  been  discovered.  The 
lifting  machines  are  good  things,  though,  after, 
the  user  has  recovered  from  the  strain  that 
ambition  always  leads  him  to  give  himself  at 
first.  For  persons  of  ordinary  strength,  the 
most  convenient  one  yet  invented  (summer  of 
1876),  is  probably  Johnson’s.  For  neatness 
and  compactness  it  is  unrivalled.  The  writer 
uses  it.  Walking,  which  is,  on  the  whole,  the 
best  exercise,  if  one  has  the  time,  employs 
the  legs  much  more  than  the  arms.  Rowing, 
again,  exercises  the  chest  and  arms  more  than 
other  parts : taken  in  moderation  and  com- 
bined with  walking,  there  is  no  better  exercise 
than  rowing.  Horse-back  riding  is  very  good, 
and  in  some  particular  cases  remarkably 
useful,  and  probably  calls  into  play  more 
muscles  than  any  other  exercise  outside  of 
the  gymnasium,  or  than  most  single  ones  in 
it ; it  should  be  combined,  however,  with 
others.  The  college  students  have  lately  dis- 
covered that  “passing  the  ball  ” (i.e.  throwing 
from  one  to  another  and  catching  it),  is  a sov- 
ereign exercise.  A better  can  hardly  be 
imagined ; it  uses  all  the  limbs  in  almost  all 
conceivable  positions.  For  those  predisposed 
to  any  diseases  of  the  chest,  reading  aloud 
and  singing  are  among  the  best  exercises 
that  can  be  taken  ; they  call  into  play  many 


EXPECTORANTS 


EYE 


197 


muscles,  and  cause  a more  rapid  transmission 
of  blood  through  the  lun^s.  All  exercises, 
however,  must  be  regulated  by  certain  rules, 
the  principal  of  which  is  to  avoid  carrying  it  to 
excess — to  proportion  it  always  to  the  state  and 
the  previous  habit  of  the  individual.  Active 
exercise  should  be  avoided  immediately  after 
a meal,  as  by  diverting  blood  away  from  the 
digestive  organs  into  the  muscles,  it  tends  to 
suspend  digestion.  In  the  next  place,  it  is  a 
mistake  to  consider  the  labor  of  the  day  as 
equivalent  to  exercise.  Work,  generally  speak- 
ing, is  a mere  routine  process,  carried  on,  with 
but  little  variety  of  circumstances,  in  a con- 
fined atmosphere.  To  derive  the  greatest 
amount  of  good  from  exercise  it  must  be  out 
of  doors,  must  be  combined  with  amusement, 
and  be  made  generally  pleasurable  and  recrea- 
tive. As  a rule,  every  one  should  take  at  least 
two  hours  exercise  out  of  doors  everyday;  but 
this  should  be  so  arranged  as  neither  to  excite 
the  mind  beyond  the  point  of  pleasureable  in- 
terest, nor  to  degenerate  into  mere  routine. 

EXPECTORANTS. — Medicines  which  ex- 
cite and  promote  a discharge  of  mucus  from , 
the  lining  membrane  of  the  bronchial  tubes, 
given  with  the  idea  of  thereby  relieving  inflam- 
mation or  irritation.  They  act  in  two  ways  : 
first,  by  removing  the  constriction  of  those  ves- 
sels, on  which  the  principle  of  nausea  seems  to 
act ; and  secondly,  by  stimulating  the  vessels. 
By  this  latter  method  the  natural  secretions, 
when  deficient,  are  restored ; or  when  they  are 
in  an  unhealthy  state  they  are  changed  to  a 
natural  condition. 

(a)  Ipecacuanha  wine,  3 drachms ; syrup  of 
tolu,  5 drachms  ; mucilage  of  acacia,  1 ounce ; 
water,  6 ounces.  Mix,  and  give  two  tablespoon- 
fuls every  four  hours. 

(5)  Pill  of  squill  and  compound  ipecacuanha 
powder,  1 drachm  of  each.  Mix  and  divide  into 
24  pills,  one  to  be  taken  every  four  or  six  hours. 

(0)  Tinct.  Serpentarim. 

Syr.  Scillae,  of  each  1 drachm. 

Syr.  Ipecac — 2 drachms. 

Syr.  Tolu. 

Tinct.  Opii  Camp,  of  each  6 drachms. 

Chloroform,  10  drops. 

Shake — Teaspoonful  every  3 or  4 hours  for 
cough. 

(d)  Powdered  ipecacuanha,  1 grain,  and 
powdered  opium,  half  a grain,  made  into  a pill 
and  given  at  night  is  sometimes  useful  for 
quieting  those  troublesome  coughs  which  come 
on  at  that  time  ; but  it  must  only  be  given  to 
those  who  are  known  to  be  able  to  take  opium. 

EXTRACT. — This  term  refers  more  proper- 
ly to  the  mode  of  preparation  than  to  the  nature 
of  the  substance  prepared.  Making  an  extract 
consists  in  dissolving  by  water,  spirit,  or  any 
other  menstruum,  such  parts  of  vegetables  as 
are  soluble,  and  concentrating  this  solution  by 
heat  to  a thick  consistence,  or  to  entire  solidity. 
If  water  alone  is  employed,  the  solution  is 
called  a watery  extract;  if  alcohol,  or  proof 
spirit,  then  the  product  is  a spirituous  extract. 
To  make  a watery  extract,  boil  the  substance 


in  water,  strain  the  decoction  thus  secured,  and 
boil  it  down  till  it  has  acquired  the  proper  con- 
sistency. In  performing  this  operation,  a higher 
temperature  than  that  of  boiling  water  must  not 
be  employed,  and  yet  the  evaporation  must  be 
effected  as  quickly  as  possible  by  having  the 
evaporating  vessel  broad  and  shallow,  and  set 
in  a water-bath.  To  make  a spirituous  extract, 
a tincture  of  the  substance  must  first  be  made, 
and  this  evaporated  gently  in  a water  or  sand- 
bath  ; or  a distilling  apparatus  may  be  employed, 
and  thus  the  spirit  be  saved.  Some  extracts 
require  long  digestion.  ( See  Essences.) 

EYE. — Most  of  the  ordinary  ailments  of  the 
eye  are  preceded  by  careless  use  or  by 
some  disorder  of  the  body,  and  the  best  safe- 
guard against  the  local  affection  is  care  of  the 
general  health.  Washing  sound  eyes  carefully 
in  cold  water,  and  opening  them  in  the  water, 
is  an  excellent  way  to  strengthen  and  protect 
them  against  disease.  When,  however,  the  lids 
are  painful  from  over-work,  warm  water  is  often 
more  efficacious.  The  sources  of  trouble  are 
so  multifarious  that  experiment  alone  can  indi- 
cate the  fit  temperature  to  use.  In  reading, 
never  face  the  light.  Let  it  fall  on  the  book 
over  the  shoulder,  the  left  if  practicable.  The 
main  object  is  to  prevent  the  light  recoiling 
from  the  book  to  the  eye.  Imagine  a ball 
thrown  from  the  light  or  window  on  to  the 
book  : positions  that  the  ball  would  strike  in 
rebounding,  are  those  that  the  eye  should  not 
occupy.  If  the  eyes  begin  to  pain  while  read- 
ing, stop  at  once.  All  oculists  are  now  agreed 
in  recommending  the  use  of  glasses  as  soon 
as  the  want  of  them  is  discovered.  Old  people 
must  not  neglect  too  long  the  limits  of  time, 
but  resign  themselves,  as  soon  as  age  indicates, 
to  the  aids  it  requires.  Short-sightedness  and 
long-sightedness  are  organic  conditions,  and 
cannot  be  removed  by  artificial  means.  The 
advice  of  an  oculist  is  of  great  service,  when 
it  can  be  obtained,  in  selecting  glasses. 

Injuries  to  the  Eye. — Foreign  bodies  fre- 
quently get  fixed  in  the  eye,  generally  under 
the  upper  lid.  In  such  cases  M.  Renard,  the 
eminent  French  oculist,  recommends  the 
following  simple  process  : — “ Take  hold  of 
the  upper  eyelid  near  its  angles  with  the  in- 
dex finger  and  thumb  of  each  hand,  draw  it 
gently  forward,  and  as  low  down  as  possible, 
over  the  lower  eyelid,  and  retain  it  in  this 
position  for  about  a minute,  taking  care  to  pre- 
vent the  tears  flowing  out.  When  at  the  end 
of  this  time,  you  allow  the  eyelid  to  resume  its 
place,  a flood  of  tears  washes  out  the  foreign 
body,  which  will  be  found  adhering  to,  or  near 
the  lower  eyelid.”  When  this  does  not  suc- 
ceed after  one  or  two  trials,  shut  the  eye,  pass 
a bodkin  under  the  lid,  press  gently  upon  it 
with  the  finger,  and  pushing  outwards  against 
the  lid  with  the  bodkin,  sweep  the  little  nuisance 
into  the  inner  corner  of  the  eye.  Or  pull  the  lid 
away  from  the  eye,  put  a little  slip  of  letter  paper 
under  the  lid,  press  gently  upon  it  and  draw  it 
away.  Occasionally  one  of  these  particles  pen- 
etrates the  eyeball  and  sticks  too  fast  to  be  re- 


198 


FACE-ACHE 


FAT 


moved  by  any  of  the  foregoing  methods.  In 
such  cases  an  oculist’s  or  surgeon’s  advice  must 
be  sought  at  once , as  every  hour  of  delay  is 
one  of  increasing  danger.  A single  fold  of 
cotton  or  linen,  wet  with  cold  water  and  laid 
over  the  eye,  is  all  that  is  needed  till  surgical 
help  can  be  obtained.  If  the  eyeball  has  been 
cut  or  broken , or  anything  thrust  or  blown  into 
it,  a solution  of  four  grains  of  sulphate  of  atro- 
pia  in  an  ounce  of  distilled  or  pure  water  may 
be  dropped  into  the  eye  three  or  four  times  a 
day ; or  belladonna  ointment  may  be  rubbed  on 
over  the  brow.  Both  of  these  dilate  the  pupil, 
and  atropia  is  the  oculist’s  sheet  anchor.  Never 
put  on  leeches  near  the  eye,  but  on  the  temple, 
just  in  front  of  the  hair.  Never  poultice  the  eye, 
or  put  on  warm  applications  of  any  kind  without 
a surgeon’s  advice.  Never  put  an  “ eye-stone  ” 
into  the  eye  to  remove  a foreign  substance. 

Burns  from  lime,  in  the  form  of  mortar  or 
plaster,  are  very  dangerous  ; for,  although  they 
may  not  destroy  the  eyeball,  they  render  the 
cornea  opaque  where  they  come  in  contact 
with  it,  and  hence  produce  partial  or  total  blind- 
ness. Moreover,  they  burn  the  inner  side 
of  the  lids,  and  thereby  cause  these  to  adhere 
to  the  eyeball  by  fleshy  growths,  which  it  is  al- 
most impossible  afterwards  to  separate  so  as  to 
allow  the  globe  to  move  with  the  necessary 
freedom.  Olive-oil  dropped  into  the  eye  after 
it  has  been  washed  out  with  a weak  solution  of 


vinegar  and  water,  may  be  used  while  surgical 
advice  is  being  obtained.  When  any  of  the 
strong  acids,  such  as  sulphuric  or  nitric,  have 
come  in  contact  with  the  eye,  they  act  chemi- 
cally on  the  tissues,  and  hence  their  danger. 
Immediately  after  such  an  accident,  syringe  the 
eye  with  solution  of  five  grains  of  bicarbonate  of 
potash  to  two  tablespoonfuls  of  water,  and  drop 
sweet  oil  between  the  lids.  When  some  strong 
alkali,  like  caustic  potash  or  soda,  has  gotten  into 
the  eye,  wash  it  out  at  once  with  a tablespoonful 
of  vinegar  in  two  tablespoonfuls  of  water. 

Scalds  from  hot  water,  and  burns  from  liquid 
metals  or  the  like,  can  be  treated  like  the  same 
injuries  in  other  parts  of  the  body.  (See 
Burns.)  Drop  sweet  oil  on  and  in  the  eye,  and 
lay  rags  wet  with  it  on  the  outside  of  the  lids. 
Surgical  advice  should  be  sought  at  once — 
especially  for  those  on  the  outside  of  the  lids ; 
these  are  peculiarly  dangerous,  because  the  con- 
tractions of  the  skin,  after  healing,  may  distort 
the  natural  and  necessary  curve  of  the  eyelids, 
which  adapts  them  to  the  eyeball.  The  edges 
of  the  eyelids  are  frequently  a source  of  trou- 
ble, from  being  irritated  by  cold  or  other  causes. 
The  exudation  which  gathers  and  thickens  upon 
them  should  be  gently  softened  with  warm 
water,  and  its  accumulations  prevented  by  a 
slight  application  of  sweet  oil  or  mutton  suet 
before  going  to  bed.  (For  inflamed  eyes,  see 
Ophthalmia.) 


F 

FACE-ACHE. — Camphor  and  brandy,  made 
strong  by  dissolving  as  much  of  the  former  as 
will  fill  a small  thimble,  in  half  a teacupful  of 
the  best  brandy  is  a good  remedy,  and  may 
be  employed  for  the  faceache,  when  it  arises 
from  cold  in  the  jaw.  Dip  cotton  cloth  or 
paper  in  this  mixture  and  place  it  on  the  cheek 
or  gum.  An  ounce  of  laudanum  added  to  five 
ounces  of  opodeldoc  may  be  used  in  the  same 
way.  Warm  applications  of  any  kind  are 
also  good.  (See  Neuralgia,  and  Tooth- 
ache.) 

FAINTING-FIT.— A fainting  person  should 
always  be  placed  in  a recumbent  posture,  with 
the  head  a little  lower  than  the  body.  Every 
article  of  dress  should  then  be  loosened,  and 
as  soon  as  possible,  a little  cold  water  dashed 
with  sudden  violence  into  the  face.  Volatiles 
may  be  held  to  the  nose  (care  being  taken  not 
to  pour  them  into  the  nostrils)  with  good  effect ; 
and  as  soon  as  the  patient  can  swallow,  re- 
covery will  be  expedited  by  a glass  of  wine,  or 
a few  drops  of  ether  or  sal-volatile  in  water. 
Free  admission  of  fresh  air  is  very  important 
in  a case  of  fainting,  and  for  this  reason  by- 
standers should  forbear  crowding  around. 

FARCED  MEAT.  (See  Forced  meat.) 

FARE.  BIILS  OF.  (See  Bills  of  Fare.) 

FARINA. — A name  applied  to  the  fine  flour 
obtained  by  grinding  and  sifting  any  kind  of 
grain ; also  to  the  starch  obtained  from  roots 


and  grain.  Cornstarch  is  frequently  called 
farina  ; and  several  very  simple  preparations  of 
farinaceous  food  are  distinguished  by  this 
name,  coupled  with  some  high-sounding  epithet. 
(See  Pudding.)  The  boiler  shown  in  the  cut 


Farina  Boiler. 


is  much  better  than  the  common  form  for  cook- 
ing farina,  cornstarch,  and  similar  substances. 
It  is  in  two  parts;  the  farina  being  put  in  the 
upper  one  and  water  in  the  lower.  All  danger 
of  scorching  is  thus  avoided. 

FAT.  — Fat  is  an  animal  oil  of  various  dc. 


FAT 


FEATHERS 


199 


grees  of  consistency,  according  to  the  kind  of 
animal  or  the  particular  part  of  the  body  in 
which  it  is  situated.  While  it  remains  in  the 
living  body  it  is  always  in  a fluid  state,  or  semi- 
fluid ; but  its  consistence  changes  when  it  is  ex- 
tracted and  exposed  to  the  common  tempera- 
ture of  the  atmosphere.  To  obtain  animal  fat 
in  a pure  state,  it  must  be  melted  and  strained 
from  the  investing  membranes — a little  water 
must  be  added  while  it  is  melting  to  prevent 
its  being  scorched.  When  thoroughly  purified, 
it  is  white,  tasteless,  and  inodorous ; but  it 
soon  becomes  rancid  on  exposure  to  air,  on 
account  of  the  absorption  of  oxygen  and  the 
consequent  formation  of  a number  of  fatty  acids. 
By  washing  the  fat  in  fresh  water,  these  acids 
may  frequently  be  extracted  and  the  sweetness 
of  the  fat  restored.  It  is  best,  however,  to 
keep  it  cool  and  tightly  closed. 

Fat  in  any  excess  is  difficult  of  digestion, 
particularly  by  weak  stomachs,  and  therefore  is 
not  proper  for  dyspeptics ; and  it  is  rendered 
still  less  digestible  when  subjected  to  high 
temperature  in  certain  culinary  processes,  as 
frying.  All  meats  and  fish  that  contain  much 
oil  or  fat  are  apt  to  lie  heavy  on  the  stomach, 
if  they  do  not  cause  greater  trouble ; but  while 
caution  is  to  be  exercised,  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  fat  is  one  of  the  most  essen- 
tial elements  of  food.  Dr.  Dobell  says  in  his 
Manual  of  Diet  and  Regimen:  “Fat  is  so 
essential  to  the  maintenance  of  healthy  nutri- 
tion, that  the  quantity  contained  in  the  daily  food 
cannot  be  reduced  without  the  greatest  risk. 
The  importance  of  fat  in  nutrition  should  be 
studiously  borne  in  mind  by  those  who  con- 
struct diets  for  the  poor,  for  public  institutions, 
or  for  the  treatment  of  obesity,  diabetes, 
dyspepsia,  and  the  like.”  Dr.  Lankester  says  : 
“ A healthy  man,  weighing  1 54  pounds,  con- 
tains in  his  body  twelve  pounds  of  fat.  This 
constitutes  more  than  a thirteenth  part,  by 
weight,  of  his  body.  When  this  proportion  is 
not  maintained,  the  body  gets  thin  ; and  this  is 
characteristic  of  some  of  the  most  dangerous 
diseases  to  which  the  human  body  is  subject. 
The  loss  of  fat  is  especially  seen  in  that  com- 
monly fatal  disease,  consumption ; and  one  of 
the  most  effectual  methods  of  treating  this 
fatal  disease  is  the  administration  of  fatty 
articles  of  food.”  Dr.  Smith  says  in  his  book 
on  “ Foods  ” : “The  value  of  fat  in  the  animal 
economy  is  exceedingly  great,  both  chemically 
and  physically.  Chemically,  it  supplies  the 
heat-forming  elements  of  food  in  their  most 
compendious  form,  and  is  much  more  rapidly 
transformed  than  starch  under  the  influence  of 
exertion  ....  Physically  its  action  may  be  less 
important,  but  it  is  most  desirable  as  an  addi- 
tion to  bread  and  farinaceous  food  generally. 
It  supplies  an  agreeable  flavor,  without  which 
they  could  not  be  readily  eaten,  and  lubricates 
the  passage  through  which  the  masticated  food 
is  the  more  readily  conveyed.  It  is  also 
very  probable  that  it  exerts  an  influence,  so 
that  with  some  excess  of  fat,  the  bowels 
will  act  more  readily  than  when  the  diet  is 


deficient  in  that  lubricating  substance.”  We 
emphasize  the  matter  thus  because  it  is  of  the 
first  importance,  and  because  it  is  constantly 
overlooked  or  ignored  in  American  dietaries. 

FEATHERS.  — Feathers  for  bedding  are 
obtained:  1st,  from  the  common  poultry  and 
game  which  come  to  table,  and  called  chickai 
feathers;  2d,  from  the  grey  goose,  and  called 
by  that  name ; 3d,  from  the”  domestic  white 
goose;  and,  4th,  from  the  foreign  white  goose, 
and  called  Dantzic.  The  chicken  feathers  are 
generally  bad  in  quality,  being  mixed  with 
ducks’  feathers,  which  are  hard.  The  Dantzic 
are  the  best  feathers,  next  to  down,  but  expen- 
sive. Perhaps  the  best  for  ordinary  use  are 
white  goose  feathers,  carefully  picked.  Collect 
them  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  death  of  the 
bird,  unless  you  pluck  geese  alive,  as  some 
cruelly  do  several  times  a year.  It  is  said  that 
feathers  thus  obtained  are  more  elastic  than 
when  drawn  from  a bird  some  time  dead.  The 
large  ones  being  removed,  the  rest  are  placed 
in  a large  pan,  put  into  the  stove,  or  before  the 
fire,  and  heated  for  several  hours,  during  which 
they  should  be  constantly  stirred  up  and  shak- 
en. The  heat  destroys  the  eggs  of  insects, 
and  drives  off  the  oily  matter:  it  also  hardens 
and  stiffens  the  fibres,  thus  rendering  them 
much  more  elastic. 

Cleaning. — I.  {For  bedding.)  — Mix  well 
with  a gallon  of  water,  one  pound  of  quick-lime ; 
and  when  the  lime  is  precipitated  n fine  pow- 
der, pour  off  the  clear  lime-water  for  use  at  the 
time  it  is  wanted.  Put  the  feathers  to  be 
cleaned  in  a tub,  and  add  enough  of  the  lime- 
water  to  cover  them  about  three  inches.  The 
feathers,  when  thoroughly  wet,  will  sink  down, 
and  should  remain  in  the  lime-water  three  or 
four  days ; after  which  spread  them  on  a sieve 
and  let  them  drain.  Then  wash  them  well  in 
clean  water,  and  thoroughly  dry  them  on  nets 
in  the  sun. 

II.  ( Ornamental  feathers.) — Work  a short 
time  in  a lukewarm  bath  containing  Castile 
soap,  with  enough  aniline  violet  or  blue,  to 
give  them  a bluish  shade  of  white.  Too  much 
of  the  dye-stuff  must  carefully  be  avoided. 
Then  press  them  between  cloths,  and  while  yet 
moist  expose  them  to  the  fumes  of  burning  sul- 
phur and  rinse,  when  they  will  come  out  white. 
While  drying,  frequent  clapping  them  between 
the  hands  will  give  that  fluffiness  desired  in 
some  kinds,  as  ostrich  feathers. 

Curling. — They  should  be  well  dried,  a 
warm  dull  knife  should  be  used,  which  is  drawn 
slowly  from  the  base  to  the  tip  of  each  fibre, 
the  thumb  or  finger  pressing  the  feather  against 
the  knife.  In  all  these  operations  great  care 
should  be  exercised  to  avoid  breaking  the 
feathers,  especially  if  they  have  been  curled 
before,  when  they  are  apt  to  be  quite  tender. 

Dyeing. — Before  dyeing,  feathers  require  to 
be  cleaned,  and  to  have  the  oil  which  naturally 
adheres  to  them  removed.  If  the  oil  only  is  to 
be  removed,  soaking  for  1 to  12  hours  in  a cold 
bath  containing  1 to  4 oz  of  calcined  soda, 
with  a pinch  of  carbonate  of  ammonia  in  ten 


200 


FEET 


FEVER 


gallons  of  water  suffices.  They  must  then  be 
rinsed  in  clean  water.  If  not  yet  clean,  treat 
as  directed  under  Cleaning. 

After  dyeing,  the  natural  oiliness  and  brillian- 
cy must  be  restored  by  treatment  with  a bath 
containing  £ lb  olive  oil  and  6 oz  potash,  well 
stirred  into  about  gallons  of  warm  water, 
and  then  drying  in  a warm  room,  or,  while  yet 
moist,  terra  alba  (sulphate  of  lime)  may  be  dus- 
ted over  them,  which  is  brushed  off  when  they 
are  dry.  The  latter  method  is  not  so  good  as 
the  oil  bath. 

As  regards  their  affinity  for  colors,  feathers 
are  about  the  same  as  silk  fibre,  though  since 
prolonged  treatment  in  solutions  is  detrimental 
to  them,  the  dye  baths  are  usually  made  stronger 
than  for  silk  goods,  and  the  feathers  are  immers- 
ed fora  shorter  time.  The  Coal  Tar  Colors 
soluble  in  water,  which  dye  silk  without  a 
mordant,  may  be  used  for  feathers.  ( See  Dyes.) 
The  following  special  hints  may  also  be  valu- 
able : — 

Black  is  obtained  by  soaking  them  several 
hours  in  a solution  of  one  pint  of  nitrate  of 
iron  (to  be  had  at  the  druggists),  with  enough 
water  to  make  a gallon  of  the  mixture,  and 
then  working  them  in  a decoction  of  equal  parts 
of  logwood  chips  and  ground  quercitron  bark, 
until  they  take  the  proper  depth  of  tint. 

Bronze  tint  for  the  quills. — This  is  effected 
by  use  of  the  aniline  blue,  not  soluble  in  water, 
but  soluble  in  alcohol.  A concentrated  solution 
of  the  color  is  made  in  alcohol  (all  that  the  alco- 
hol will  take  up),  and  this  is  then  applied  with 
a camel’s  hair  brush  to  the  quills. 

Brown  may  be  obtained  by  dipping  them  for 
I to  2 hours  in  a decoction  of  2 lbs  catechu  in 
a gallon  of  water,  to  i)  lb  of  feathers,  and 
then  in  a bath  containing  % lb  of  bichromate 
of  potash  in  a gallon  of  water  at  130°  Fahr- 
enheit. 

FEET. — The  chief  care  is  to  avoid  tight  or 
high  heeled  shoes.  In  paring  the  nails,  elderly 
persons  are  apt  to  wound  the  flesh,  which  is 
sometimes  dangerous,  the  circulation  in  the 
extremities  being  so  feeble  that  mortification 
sometimes  ensues.  Excessive  perspiration  of 
the  feet  may  be  remedied  by  washing  them 
daily  in  cold  water,  and  sprinkling  in  the  stock- 
ings a powder  of  starch  or  arrowroot,  perfumed 
with  bitter  almonds,  orris,  or  some  other  slight- 
ly odorous  substance.  Sedentary  persons 
often  suffer  with  cold  feet,  owing  to  deficient 
circulation,  and  can  only  be  cured  by  exercise 
and  attention  to  the  general  health  ; but  it  may 
frequently  be  relieved  by  simply  bathing  and 
putting  on  fresh  socks  every  day,  rubbing  the 
feet  with  alcohol,  and  sprinkling  a little  red 
pepper  in  the  shoes.  Never  go  to  bed  with 
cold  feet.  Apply  heat  in  some  way.  ( See  Hot 
Water-bag.) 

FELON.  ( See  Bone-felon.) 

FENNEL. — This  plant  is  easy  to  cultivate. 
Sow  early  in  the  spring,  in  shallow  drills,  from 
six  to  ten  inches  apart,  and  if  intended  to  re- 
main, when  the  plants  are  three  or  four  inches 
high,  they  must  be  thinned  to  about  fifteen 
inches  apart. 


The  tender  stalks  of  fennel  are  used  as  a sal- 
ad ; the  leaves,  when  boiled,  enter  into  many 
fish  sauces,  particularly  for  mackerel ; and 
when  raw  make  excellent  garnishes.  It  is  also 
eaten  raw  with  pickled  fish.  The  whole  of  the 
plant  is  good  in  broth  or  soups  ; it  is  a hardy 
and  wholesome  herb,  and  agrees  well  with  the 
stomach.  The  seeds,  or  “ half  fruits ,”  infused 
in  boiling  water,  make  an  excellent  carminative, 
which,  having  no  actively  exciting  qualities,  is 
frequently  employed  to  disguise  by  its  pleas- 
ant aromatic  flavor  the  taste  of  disagreeable 
medicines,  such  as  senna  and  rhubarb. 

FEVER. — The  different  febrile  diseases  are 
treated  of  in  their  appropriate  places  ; but  we 
shall  offer  here  a few  observations  which  do 
not  apply  especially  to  any,  but  will  be  helpful 
in  the  treatment  of  all — particularly  in  that 
portion  of  the  treatment  which  devolves  upon 
the  family  or  the  nurse.  The  substance  of 
these  observations  is  taken  from  a little  work 
on  household  medicine,  by  George  H.  Hope, 
M.D.,  an  English  physician  of  eminence.  , 

When  nursing  a case  of  fever,  never  forget 
ventilation.  Change  the  atmosphere  of  the 
room  frequently ; blow  the  bad  air  out  of  it, 
and  let  the  fresh  air  in,  not  only  that  the 
patient  may  have  the  best  possible  chance  of 
recovery,  but  for  your  own  sake  and  for  the 
sake  of  others.  In  every  sick-room,  but  es- 
pecially in  a case  of  fever,  the  chimney  should 
be  open,  fire  should  be  kept  up,  even  if  the 
weather  be  quite  mild,  or  if.  the  house  have  a 
furnace  in  it ; this  is  not  so  much  for  heating 
as  for  ventilating  the  room  in  the  best  way. 
It  is  good  that  the  patient’s  hair  should  be  cut 
short,  as  it  enables  him  to  be  attended  to 
better,  and  also  tends  to  keep  the  head  coo! 
and  comfortable.  When  a person  is  delirious 
with  fever,  the  dreams  and  fancies  are  almost 
always  of  a painful  nature,  the  countenance 
showing  plainly  that  the  mind  is  troubled. 
There  is  a sense  of  fear,  a dread  of  something 
which  he  may  not  have  the  power  to  explain  to 
you.  Try  in  everyway  to  gain  his  confidence  ; 
listen  patiently  to  his  complaints,  however 
ridiculous  they  may  appear  to  you ; do  not 
contradict,  or  tease  him  with  argument. 
Remember  “dreams  to  the  dreamer  are  re- 
alities,” and  these  things  terrify  him  just  as 
much  as  if  they  were  actually  in  the  room.  It 
is  very  common  for  some  part  of  the  furniture 
to  take  frightful  shapes  in  the  eyes  of  a fever 
patient.  Perhaps  he  may  be  able  to  tell  you 
what  it  is,  but  if  not,  by  carefully  watching  the 
eyes,  you  will  find  him  look  steadily  at  one 
object,  and  then  turn  away  suddenly,  as  if  he 
were  trying  to  escape.  When  these  visions 
arc  troubling  the  patient,  the  best  plan,  if  you 
can  do  so,  is  to  remove  him  into  another  room, 
The  effect  is  wonderful.  The  visions  disap- 
pear, the  dreadful  forms  are  all  gone,  and  the 
bright  and  cheerful  face  tells  you  better  than 
words  what  a relief  he  feels.  If  you  cannot 
change  the  room,  change  the  furniture,  and  if 
that  cannot  be  done,  alter  its  position. 

A singular  and  yet  not  uncommon  thing  in 


FEVER 


FIG 


201 


fever  with  delirium  is  a strong  dislike  taken  by 
the  patient  to  a particular  person,  and  this 
generally  not  a stranger,  but  a near  relative, 
one  who  is  greatly  beloved  by  him  when  in 
health,  and  who  has  been  for  days  and  nights 
watching  over  him.  In  some  cases  this  feeling 
of  dislike  grows  into  a hatred  so  deep  that  it 
is  not  safe  to  allow  the  person  to  remain  alone 
in  the  room.  This  is  very  distressing ; it 
appears  so  ungrateful,  such  a poor  return  for 
all  the  care  and  kindness  bestowed  upon  him, 
so  unnatural  that  it  is  hard  to  bear.  But  it 
should  be  remembered  that  it  is  unnatural ; it  is 
the  result  of  disease,  and  has  no  more  to  do  with 
a patient’s  real  affection  than  taking  a dislike 
to  some  particular  article  of  food.  As  the 
mind  becomes  healthy  this  will  pass  off ; but 
it  is  very  desirable  that  the  person  to  whom 
the  dislike  is  taken  should  be  removed  as  soon 
as  possible,  and  not  again  enter  the  room  till 
the  mind  is  in  a healthier  state,  or  the  feeling 
may  become  so  fixed  that  it  will  require  a long 
time  to  subdue  it.  During  the  great  thirst  of 
fever  you  will  frequently  find  that  the  patient, 
particularly  a child,  will  prefer  pure  water  to 
any  other  drink ; but  if  you  require  a change, 
what  is  called  apple-tea  is  cheap  and  refreshing. 
Another  pleasant  drink  is  fnade  of  the  juice  of 
three  or  four  oranges,  and  one  lemon  in  a quart 
of  water,  with  a little  sugar.  When  you  can- 
not easily  get  either  oranges  or  lemons,  buy  a 
small  bottle  of  lime-juice  ; this  will  keep  good 
in  a cool  place  for' a great  length  of  time  ; it  is 
very  wholesome,  and  a tablespoonful,  with  half  a 
pint  of  water,  sweetened,  will  make  a glass 
of  good  lemonade  in  a minute.  Perfect  silence 
is  not  always  desirable.  It  is  not  a good  thing 
to  put  on  list  slippers,  and  walk  about  without 
any  noise ; if  you  go  up  to  the  bedside  * of  a 
patient  in  this  way,  he  may  get  a severe  fright. 
In  talking,  the  same  rule  holds  good;  do  not 
whisper,  it  will  very  likely  awaken  the  sleeper, 
just  because  it  is  a strange  sound ; speak  in 
your  natural  voice,  and  it  will  not  arouse  him, 
though  it  be  louder  than  a whisper,  for  he 
hears  it  every  day,  and  is  used  to  it.  There- 
fore let  all  every-day  sounds  go  on  as  usual, 
unless  complained  of  by  the  patient,  and  let 
this  reflection  comfort  you.  Sleep  in  the  midst 
of  noise  is  sounder  and  more  likely  to  continue 
than  in  a dead  silence,  because  slight  causes 
are  less  likely  to  disturb  it.  Is  it  well  to 
awaken  a patient  to  give  food  or  medicine  ? 
Generally  if  a patient  sleeps  he  is  doing  well ; 
but  in  the  sinking  stage  of  fever,  or  other  great 
debility,  it  may  be  needful  to  give  something 
frequently.  After  days  and  nights  of  watchful- 
ness, when  the  mind  is  wandering  with  fever, 
the  patient  will  fall  into  a long  sleep,  which 
may  last  many  hours.  This  is  the  turning- 
point  of  the  disease,  and  generally  he  awakens 
with  the  mind  restored,  and  from  that  time 
commences,  as  it  were,  a new  life.  When 
fever  is  once  formed,  it  runs  a regular  course, 
like  small-pox.  Effort  must  be  made  to  weaken 
it  as  much  as  possible  by  fresh  air,  and  to 
Support  life  by  suitable  diet,  till  the  disease  has  I 


worn  itself  out.  But  as  a person  not  accustomed 
to  such  things  cannot  know  at  the  beginning 
whether  the  illness  be  fever  or  not,  it  is  well  to 
act  only  in  such  a way  as  to  produce  good  if  it 
be  fever,  and  no  harm  if  it  be  not.  A person, 
for  instance,  after  getting  wet  or  being  exposed 
to  cold,  complains  of  headache,  shivering,  and 
pains  in  the  limbs,  back  and  throat,  put  him  to 
bed  and  give  him  some  hot  drink,  soak  his  feet 
in  hot  mustard  water,  and  at  night  give  him  ten 
grains  of  Dover’s  powders  (adult  dose).  Wait 
to  see  if  he  will  not  throw  off  the  attack,  which 
may  be  but  an  ordinary  cold ; and  if  he  does 
not,  or  the  symptoms  increase,  send  at  once  for 
a doctor.  {See  Ague,  Bilious  Fever,  Brain 
Fever,  Scarlet  Fever,  Typhoid  Fever, 
Typhus  Fever,  and  Yellow  Fever.) 

FIG. — The  fresh  ripe  fig  has  a sweet  and 
peculiarly  delicate  taste,  though  those  who  are 
not  accustomed  to  them  do  not  always  like 
them.  In  the  Southern  States  they  grow  abun. 
dantly  and  are  very  prolific,  producing  generally 
two  crops  a year;  north  of  Virginia  they  usu- 
ally require  some  artificial  assistance  to  bring 
them  to  a ripe  and  perfect  state,  and  are  not 
often  met  with.  They  ripen  in  July  and  August. 
The  dried  figs  come  from  Italy,  Spain  and 
Turkey, — the  last  being  most  prized.  They 
are  considered  best  when  recently  arrived  here 
in  December  and  January,  after  which  they 
should  be  closely  examined.  The  fig  contains 
a large  proportion  of  sugar,  without  acidity  or 
oiliness,  and  is  of  easier  digestion  than  any  of 
the  sweet  fruits.  It  is  slightly  laxative,  and  is 
on  this  account  frequently  given  to  children. 
{See  Pudding.) 

Fig  Paste. — 1.  Take  one  pound  of  figs,  chop 
them  coarsely,  and  boil  with  a pint  of  water 
until  reduced  to  a soft  pulp ; strain  through  a 
fine  sieve,  add  three  pounds  of  sugar,  and  evap- 
orate over  boiling  water  until  the  paste  becomes 
quite  stiff.  Place  the  warm  paste  in  a mould, 
made  from  an  ordinary  wooden  box,  by  remov- 
ing the  nails  with  which  the  sides  are  fastened, 
and  holding  them  in  place  by  a stout  string, 
the  sides  may  be  taken  away,  leaving  the  paste 
in  a square  mass,  which  may  be  divided  in 
small  pieces  with  a thin-bladed  knife.  These 
pieces  should  be  rolled  in  fine  sugar;  after 
which  they  may  be  packed  in  boxes  without 
adhering  to  each  other. 

2.  Take  a heaping  tablespoonful  of  corn- 
starch place  in  a saucepan,  and  add  first  enough 
cold  water  to  moisten  the  starch  uniformly,  and 
next  a half  pint  of  boiling  water.  Heat  over 
boiling  water  until  it  is  thoroughly  cooked  and 
becomes  transparent.  In  fact,  the  same  steps 
should  be  taken  as  are  employed  by  a laundress 
in  preparing  a thick  starch.  Next  add  a half 
pound  of  good  brown  or  half-refined  sugar,  and 
the  strained  pulp  of  four  ounces  of  figs,  pre- 
pared as  directed  in  the  preceding  paragraph, 
and  evaporate  the  paste  over  boiling  water  until 
it  becomes  quite  thick  and  adhesive  in  charac- 
ter. Place  in  the  mould  as  previously  directed 
and  treat  in  the  same  manner  when  cold.  In 
1 this  general  way,  from  the  same  material  as  a 


202 


FILTER 


FISH 


base,  are  prepared  the  semi-transparent  pastes 
sold  under  various  names,  by  adding,  before 
evaporation,  grated  cocoanut,  chopped  and 
seeded  raisins,  dried  currants,  any  desired  fla- 
voring or  coloring  substance,  or  the  pulps  of 
preserved  fruits. 

Figs  (to  freshen).— If  you  happen  to  have  figs 
which  you  have  kept  so  long  that  they  seem 
hardly  fit  for  use,  being  hard  and  withered,  they 
can  easily  be  freshened,  and  made  quite  fit  for 
the  table,  in  appearance  and  flavor,  in  the  fol- 
lowing simple  manner  : Take  such  as  are 
rather  dry  and  uninviting;  put  them  into  tepid 
water,  and  leave  them  for  a few  minutes  ; then 
wash  well,  and  dry  them  in  a towel.  Heat  them 
carefully  in  the  oven,  and  on  taking  them  out 
roll  them  in  powdered  sugar,  or  dip  them  in 
the  white  of  egg,  and  then  in  sugar,  and  finally 
lay  them  on  a sieve  to  dry. 

FILTER.  {See  Water.) 

FINGER-NAILS. — The  finger-nails  should 
never  be  cut  too  short,  as  this  deforms  the 
finger-ends  and  renders  them  stubby.  They 
should  always  project  a trifle  beyond  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  finger,  and  be  pared  only  to  a 
slight  curve,  without  encroaching  too  much  on 
the  angles.  To  preserve  the  half-moon,  or 
lunula , which  borders  the  lower  part  of  the 
nail  and  is  esteemed  so  great  a beauty,  the  skin 
must  be  kept  from  encroaching  upon  it  by  push- 
ing it  back  gently  every  morning  with  a blunt 
ivory  instrument.  By  this  means  also  the  an- 
noying “ hang  nail  ” will  be  prevented.  Filing 
or  scraping  the  nails  is  fatal  to  their  perfection, 
as  it  thickens  their  substance  and  destroys  their 
natural  transparency.  The  nail-brush  should 
alone  be  used  for  cleaning  and  polishing  the 
nails.  The  disgusting  habit  of  biting  the  nails 
is  also  destructive  of  their  beauty,  as  they 
become  excessively  brittle  in  consequence,  and 
always  have  a “ frizzled,”  uneven  appearance. 

FIRE-PLACE. — A shallow  fire-place  saves 
fuel,  and  gives  out  more  heat  than  a deeper  one. 
Great  advantages  may  also  be  obtained  by  sim-' 
ply  lining  the  back  and  sides  of  an  ordinary  fire- 
place with  fire-bricks.  Every  one  has  noticed, 
probably,  that  when  a fire  goes  out  the  coals  or 
wood  at  the  sides  are  left  unburnt  while  the  centre 
is  consumed.  With  fire-brick,  the  whole  of  the 
fire,  however  small,  will  be  kept  alight ; and 
even  after  the  fire  is  extinguished,  the  fire-brick 
lining  will  continue  to  throw  out  heat  for  some 
time  A no  less  advantage  is  that  less  smoke 
is  produced. 

FIRES.  — Stove  or  furnace.  Not  only  is 
the  driest  heat  from  an  open  fire  more  healthy 
than  that  thrown  off  by  a stove,  but  such  a fire 
is  also  incomparably  the  easiest  and  most  ef- 
fective contrivance  for  securing  ventilation. 
The  air  of  a room  in  which  a brisk  open  fire  is 
burning  is  almost  certain  to  be  pure ; but  with 
any  other  kind  of  fire  ventilation  is  at  a standstill, 
and  where  it  is  effected  at  all  must  be  brought 
about  by  other  and  artificial  means.  {See  Ven- 
tilation and  Warming.) 

The  kindling  of  a wood  fire  is  a very  simple 
process,  but  to  start  one  in  a grate  or  stove  | 


properly  requires  some  skill.  In  the  first  place, 
the  paper  should  not  be  put  on  the  bottom  of 
the  grate,  as  is  commonly  done,  for  if  the  wood 
is  in  large  pieces  the  iron  of  the  grate  absorbs 
so  much  of  the  heat  of  the  rising  flame  that  it 
will  not  have  strength  enough  to  give  the  wood 
sufficient  assistance  in  igniting  the  coal  that  is 
heaped  upon  it.  The  better  way  is  to  lay  some 
medium  sized  pieces  of  coal  on  the  bottom  bars, 
but  without  covering  them  entirely ; then  lay  on 
the  paper  or  shavings,  then  the  wood,  and  on 
that  some  pieces  of  coal  the  size  of  an  egg,  but 
no  small  coal.  When  the  whole  is  kindled  let 
it  burn  up  well  before  any  more  is  added.  If 
the  small  coal  is  put  on  first,  it  is  sure  to  choke 
the  fire  by  filling  up  the  interstices,  and  prevent- 
ing the  air  from  having  access  to  the  centre. 
The  coal  laid  at  the  bottom  will  catch  fire  by 
the  time  the  wood  is  burnt  out,  and  will  thus 
keep  the  fire  alight. 

FISH. — As  a food  fish  ranks  between  meat 
on  the  one  hand  and  vegetables  on  the  other. 
It  is  not  so  nutritious  as  the  former,  though  the 
red-blooded  fishes,  like  salmon,  are  but  little 
inferior  ; and  it  is  thought  that  a diet  in  which 
fish  predominates  produces  deficient  vitality. 
“ It  is  not  desirable,”  says  Dr.  Edward  Smith, 
“ that  fish  should  be  the  sole  kind  of  animal 
food  eaten  by  any  nation  ; and  even  if  milk  and 
eggs  be  added  thereto,  the  vigor  of  such  peo- 
ple will  not  be  equal  to  that  of  flesh-eating  na- 
tions. At  the  same  time  the  value  of  fish  as 
part  of  a dietary  is  indicated  by  the  larger  pro- 
portion of  phosphorus  which  it  contains,  and 
which  renders  it  especially  fitted  for  the  use  of 
those  who  perform  much  brain-work,  or  who 
are  the  victims  of  much  anxiety  and  distress.” 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  fish  might  with  ad- 
vantage enter  much  more  largely  into  our  family 
diet  than  it  does  at  present ; it  would  afford  a 
pleasant  variety  in  fare  which  is  too  uniform 
either  for  appetite  or  health,  and  would  also  sup- 
ply certain  elements  of  blood  which  are  not  ob- 
tained in  sufficient  quantity  from  either  meat  or 
vegetables.  On  the  score  of  economy,  too,  they 
should  receive  more  attention  from  the  house- 
keeper. The  qualities  of  the  different  kinds  of 
fish,  and  the  rules  for  selecting  them,  are  given 
under  each  fish  separately ; and  we  will  only  re- 
mark here  that  the  flavor  of  fish,  like  that  of 
other  animals,  is  influenced  in  some  degree  by 
the  nature  of  their  food,  and  on  this  account  the 
same  species  will  vary  somewhat  in  its  flavor  on 
different  coasts,  and  in  different  lakes  and 
rivers.  Some  fish  improve  in  firmness  and  flavor 
as  they  attain  a certain  age,  as  cod  and  had- 
dock ; but  generally  when  they  get  old  they  are 
coarse.  The  season  of  the  year  also  has  a 
most  decided  influence  upon  the  quality  of  fish. 
In  general,  fish  are  in  the  best  condition  just 
before  they  spawn,  and  many  while  they  are 
full  of  roe,  as  smelts,  mackerel,  shad,  and  sole ; 
but  as  soon  as  the  spawning  is  over  they  are 
unfit  for  food,  being  sometimes  positively  un- 
wholesome. This  circumstance  is  of  such  im- 
portance that  it  has  been  made  a subject  of 
legislative  action,  regulating  the  times  during 


FISH 


FLANNEL 


20.3 


which  only  certain  fish  must  be  caught.  When 
fish  are  in  season,  the  muscles  are  firm,  and  they 
boil  white  and  curdy ; when  they  are  transpa- 
rent and  bluish,  though  sufficiently  boiled,  it  is  a 
sign  that  they  are  not  in  season  or  are  not  fresh. 


is  desirable,  it  being  a poor  conductor  of  heat, 
and  readily  absorbing  perspiration,  which  slow- 
ly evaporates  from  the  surface  without  chilling 
the  body.  Gauze  Flannel  is  of  a very  loose, 
porous  texture,  not  so  warm  as  ordinary  flannel, 


The  mode  of  cooking  fish  considerably  affects 
their  properties  as  food.  Plain  boiling,  baking, 
broiling,  and  roasting  appear  to  be  the  favorite 
methods  ; but  there  seems  to  be  no  reason  why 
stewing  should  be  objectionable,  except  that  it 
is  usually  accompanied  by  numerous  additions 
which  render  it  extremely  indigestible,  for  in- 
stance, port  wine.  The  various  sauces  com- 
monly eaten  with  fish  are  probably  the  cause  of 
most  of  the  complaints  made  against  this 
food  ; these  sauces  are  to  be  suspected  when 
purchased  ready-made,  as  they  often  contain 
deleterious  ingredients.  Few  vegetables  are 
appropriate  to  be  eaten  with  fish ; pota- 
toes and  parsnips  are  the  principal  of 
those  which  are  found  by  experience  to  agree 
well. 

The  following  is  a list  of  the  various  kinds 
of  fish  treated  of  in  their  appropriate  places  in 
this  book: 


Anchovy, 

Gudgeon, 

Sea-bass, 

Bass, 

Haddock, 

Shad, 

Shrimp, 

Blackfish, 

Halibut, 

Bluefish, 

Bream, 

Herring, 

Skate, 

Lamprey, 

Smelt, 

Bull-trout, 

Ling, 

Sole, 

Sprat, 

Carp, 

Lobster, 

Catfish, 

Mackerel, 

Stickleback, 

Chub, 

Mussels, 

Sturgeon, 

Clams, 

Oyster, 

Sucker, 

Tautog, 

Cockles, 

Perch, 

Cod, 

Codling, 

Pike, 

Tomcod, 

Porgie, 

Trout, 

Conger-eel, 

Prawn, 

Turbot, 

Crab, 

Quahaug, 

Turtle, 

Dace, 

Dory, 

Rockbass, 

Weakfish, 

Rockfish, 

Whitebait, 

Eel, 

Salmon, 

Whitefish. 

Flounder, 

Salmon-trout, 

Whiting, 

Goldfish, 

Sardines, 

FITS.  ( See  Apoplexy,  Catalepsy,  Epi- 
lepsy, Fainting-fits,  Hysterics,  and  In- 
fants.) 

FLANNEL. — A plain  woollen  stuff,  common- 
ly slightly  woven.  It  is  excellent  for  under- 
clothing, or  for  any  clothing  in  which  warmth 


and  therefore  useful  for  some  purposes.  Domett 
is  a kind  of  flannel,  the  warp  of  which  is  made 
of  cotton  and  the  woof  of  wool ; it  is  very  thin, 
and  is  useful  for  linings,  etc.  Canton  fla?mel 
is  a twilled  fabric,  composed  wholly  of  cotton, 
a nap  being  raised  on  one  side  of  the  stuff.  A 
most  delicate  flannel  for  the  wear  of  infants 
consists  of  silk  and  wool.  Flannel  comes  gen- 
erally a yard  wide. 

A woven  merino  under-wear  is  wrongly  call- 
ed flannel.  It  is  not  as  thorough  a protection 
as  flannel.  Red  flannel,  medicated  for  rheu- 
matic complaints,  excels  in  fame  the  ordinary 
red  flannel,  popularly  believed  to  contain  a 
virtue  in  its  dye. 

Opera  flannel  is  the  smoothest  and  finest  of 
the  flannels,  of  medium  thickness ; with  mark- 
ed diagonal  twills  it  is  especially  suitable  for 
outside  garments.  All-wool  flannels  give  more 
heat  than  much  heavier  qualities  mixed  with 
cotton.  Navy  blue  flannels  are  apt  to  crock 
unless  thoroughly  washed  before  making  up. 
If  flannels  are  not  shrunk  before  making  up, 
allow  well  for  shrinkage.  Some  flannels,  in 
the  dye,  obtain  a permanent  disagreeable  odor; 
look  for  this,  especially  in  buying  plaid  flannels. 
As  flannel  absorbs  moisture  readily,  so  does  it 
retain  it ; therefore,  before  using,  it  should  be 
thoroughly  aired. 

To  Shrink  new  flannels  and  make  them  keep 
their  color,  pour  boiling  water  on  them  and  let 
them  lie  in  it  till  cold.  Then,  having  shaken 
them,  stretched  them,  and  folded  them  down 
smoothly  on  a clean  table  to  make  them  straight 
and  even,  hang  them  out  immediately.  When 
about  half  dry,  shake,  stretch,  and  turn  them. 
Take  them  in  while  still  damp,  fold  smoothly, 
cover  with  a clean  towel,  and  after  half  an  hour, 
iron  them  with  an  iron  that  is  nearly  cold. 

To  wash  flannel  ordinarily,  see  Washing. 
To  wash  flannel  that  has  become  yellow,  boil 


FLAP-JACKS 


FLIES 


204 

four  tablespoonfuls  of  flour  in  four  quarts  of 
water,  stirring  it  well.  Then  pour  half  the 
boiling  liquid  over  the  flannel,  let  it  remain  till 
the  water  cools,  rub  the  flannel,  but  use  no 
soap.  Rinse  it  through  several  waters,  then 
repeat  the  process  with  the  remainder  of  the 
flour  and  water  in  a boiling  state  ; again  rinse 
it  through  several  waters,  and  hang  it  up  to 
drain  and  dry.  Do  not  wring  it. 

FLAP-JACKS.  (See  SLAP-JACKS.) 

FLATULENCE.— An  undue  collection  of  air 
or  gas  in  the  stomach  and  intestines.  It  may 
be  swallowed,  it  maybe  formed  from  the  food, 
or  it  may  apparently  be  generated  by  the  secre- 
tions of  the  stomach  and  bowels.  In  most  cases, 
it  is  due  to  improper  food,  or  to  the  abuse  of 
certain  articles,  as  tea.  The  symptoms  are 
often  exceedingly  unpleasant.  There  may  be 
a feeling  of  faintness,  of  giddiness,  or  of  chok- 
ing, accompanied  by  most  troublesome  belch- 
ing. The  gases  then  expelled  are  most  fre- 
quently tasteless  and  odorless,  and,  if  so,  are 
most  probably  due  either  to  swallowing  of  air, 
or  to  the  formation  of  such  simple  gases  as 
carbonic  acid,  or  carburetted  hydrogen  at  the 
expense  of  the  food.  Such  forms  of  flatulence, 
i.  e.,  flatulence  accompanied  by  tasteless  belch- 
ing, are  best  treated  by  dieting,  mainly  solid 
food  with  stale  bread,  a little  dry  sherry  or 
weak  brandy  and  water,  but  no  vegetables,  tea, 
beer,  or  pastry.  Flatulence  may  often  be  only 
the  symptom  of  dyspepsia,  and  may  generally 
be  relieved  by  a slight  stimulant,  as  aromatic 
spirits  of  ammonia ; spirituous  liquors  should 
be  avoided  ; nux  vomica — ten  drops  in  a little 
water,  three  times  a day,  after  meals — is  also  a 
valuable  remedy  in  such  cases.  Occasionally 
the  patient  belches  up  gases  of  the  most  hor- 
rid odor.  These  gases  indicate  putrefactive 
changes  in  the  food,  and  commonly  occur  in 
individuals  who  have  some  obstruction  pre- 
venting the  passage  of  food  from  the  stomach, 
especially  if  the  obstruction  be  cancerous  in 
its  nature.  In  such  cases  the  stomach  some- 
times expands  to  an  enormous  size,  and  vomit- 
ing after  food  is  not  unfrequent.  For  such 
cases,  antiseptic  remedies  almost  invariably 
do  good  The  most  important  antiseptic  rem- 
edies are  carbolic  acid,  sulphurous  acid,  and 
salycylic  acid.  Carbolic  acid  may  be  given  in 
a dose  of  one  or  two  drops  in  a wineglassful 
of  water,  half  an  hour  after  food ; its  taste  is 
disagreeable,  but  it  is  exceedingly  efficacious. 
Sulphurous  acid  may  be  given  in  the  same 
way,  30  drops  of  the  diluted  acid  in  a wine- 
glassful  of  water ; or  it  may  be  given  as  sul- 
phite or  .bisulphate  of  soda.  Salycylic  acid 
may  be  given  in  five  grain  doses  every  two  or 
three  hours.  To  the  former  of  these  most 
people  would  give  the  preference,  as  its  taste 
is  that  of  a pure  acid ; the  taste  of  the  others 
is  far  more  bitter. 

Flatulence  often  gives  rise  to  great  pain  in 
the  bowels,  and  the  patient  urgently  demands 
relief.  This  can  only  be  obtained  by  dispersing 
the  wind,  as  it  is  called,  which  is  not  always  an 


easy  task.  A good  remedy  for  the  purpose  is 
turpentine ; but  it  tends  to  upset  the  stomach, 
and  so  it  is  better  to  give  it  as  an  injection,  es- 
pecially where  the  flatulence  is  of  the  intestinal 
variety.  If  given  by  the  mouth,  about  a drachm 
should  be  given  for  a dose  ; if  as  an  injection, 
half  an  ounce  or  so  beaten  up  with  an  egg  in  a 
pint  of  hot  water.  At  the  same  time  a flannel 
dipped  in  turpentine  and  laid  over  the  abdomen 
will  probably  give  great  relief. 

FLAX. — The  name  of  the  common  flax- 
plant,  and  also  of  its  most  important  product, 
the  filaments  obtained  from  the  fibrous  cover- 
ing of  its  stem,  and  used  in  th'e  manufacture  of 
linen  thread.  The  flax  plant  is  cultivated  and 
grows  abundantly  throughout  Europe,  Africa, 
and  America.  It  thrives  upon  almost  any  good 
soil  thoroughly  pulverized  and  well  drained, 
but  more  especially  upon  rich,  sandy  loams 
regularly  supplied  with  moisture  during  the 
spring  months.  The  preparation  of  the  flax  is 
a tedious  process,  which  need  not  be  explained 
here.  The  best  of  the  coarser  kinds  of  flax- 
thread  comes  from  abroad,  as  does  also  the  best 
spool-cotton. 

Flax-Seed,  the  seed  of  the  foregoing,  are  an 
excellent  ingredient  in  poultices  intended  to 
allay  inflammation ; and  when  steeped  in  hot 
water  for  several  hours  they  make  the  well- 
known  flax-seed  tea,  so  highly  esteemed  as  a 
carminative,  and  mild  cathartic. 

FLEA. — The  best  security  against  fleas  is  to 
keep  the  rooms  as  free  from  dust  as  possible. 
They  lay  their  eggs  wherever  they  find  dust 
and  down  combined,  for  in  these  consist  the 
nourishment  of  their  offspring;  it  is  an  almost 
certain  prevention  of  their  propagation,  there- 
fore, if  carpets,  blankets,  and  everything  man- 
ufactured of  wool,  are  so  well  attended  to  that 
dust  is  prevented  from  accumulating  upon  them. 
Children  are  the  chief  sufferers  from  fleas,  and 
when  these  latter  are  known  to  be  about,  not 
only  should  the  bed  and  bedding  of  the  cribs  be 
examined  daily,  but  a lump  of  camphor  should 
be  put  in  the  water  in  which  the  children  are 
washed ; it  is  said  that  this  renders  the  skin 
obnoxious  to  the  flea.  Any  strong  perfume 
about  the  person  diminishes  their  attacks,  and 
the  common  pennyroyal  makes  its  neighborhood 
untenable  by  them.  When  a flea  is  caught  be- 
tween the  fingers,  plunge  them  at  once  under 
water,  or  it  will  escape.  If  a dog  is  infested 
with  them,  put  him  in  a tub  of  warm  soap-suds, 
and  they  will  rise  to  the  surface ; take  them  oft 
and  burn  them. 

FLIES. — Flies  may  be  destroyed  in  great 
quantities  by  placing  about  the  house  open 
vessels  filled  with  sweetened  water  and  cobalt ; 
six  cents  worth  of  cobalt  is  enough  for  a pint  of 
water.  Carbolic  acid  is  also  very  good.  ( See 
Carbolic  Acid.)  Both  these  are  poisonous, 
however,  and  must  be  used  with  great  caution, 
especially  if  children  are  around.  A harmless 
and  very  effective  mixture  may  be  made  with 
half  a teaspoonful  of  powdered  black  pepper, 
one  teaspoonful  of  brown  sugar,  and  one  table- 


FLOATING  ISLAND 


FLORICULTURE 


205 


spoonful  of  cream  ; place  them  on  a plate  where ' 
the  flies  are  troublesome.  A mixture  of  gum- 
arabic,  honey,  brown  sugar  and  alum,  in  equal 
proportions,  will  answer  the  same  purpose.  Or, 
pour  half  a pint  of  boiling  water  upon  a quar- 
ter of  an  ounce  of  quassia  chips ; when  cold, 
strain  it  and  sweeten  with  molasses  or  brown 
sugar.  Fly  papers  are  sold  by  the  thousand. 
It  is  claimed  for  all  of  them  that  they  are  harm- 
less to  human  life  ; chemical  analysis,  however, 
has  shown  that  most  of  them  contain  ingredi- 
ents which  render  their  use  far  from  safe,  ex- 
cept with  many  precautions.  It  may  be  doubted 
whether  any  mixture  or  paper  kills  more  flies 
than  it  attracts  into  the  house ; and  the  only 
way  to  be  really  rid  of  the  nuisance  is  to  fit 
frameworks  covered  with  netting  to  the  doors 
and  windows. 

FLOATING  ISLAND.— I.  Take : -Eggs, 
milk,  I qt ; white  sugar,  5 ozs  ; vanilla  or  bit- 
ter almonds,  2 teaspoonfuls;  currant  jelly  and 
powdered  sugar,  4 tablespoonfuls  each. 

Beat  up  the  eggs,  whites  and  yolks  sepa- 
rately ; into  the  yolks  stir  the  sugar,  and  add 
the  milk  (hot),  boil  until  it  begins  to  thicken, 
and  then  remove  from  the  fire.  When  cool, 
flavor  it  with  the  vanilla  or  bitter  almond,  stir 
it  up  well,  and  pour  it  into  a glass  dish.  Beat 
the  jelly  and  sugar  into  the  whites  of  the  eggs, 
and  heap  them  upon  the  contents  of  the  dish. 
Decorate  the  top  with  bits  of  bright-colored 
jelly  cut  into  fanciful  shapes. 

II.  Crush  a pint  of  ripe  raspberries  with  a 
gill  of  sugar ; beat  the  whites  of  four  eggs 
stiff ; beat  in  slowly  a gill  of  powdered  sugar; 
press  the  raspberries  through  a strainer  to 
avoid  the  seeds,  and  beat  this  in  gradually  with 
the  egg  and  sugar,  until  so  stiff  that  it  stands  in 
peaks.  Serve  on  milk  ; to  be  eaten  with  cream. 

FLOOR. — It  is  economy  to  have  floors  of 
narrow  boards  and  good  wood.  Broad  and 
poor  boards  shrink  and  leave  wide  cracks  as 
vermin  nests,  and  warp  so  as  to  stand  up  at 
the  sides  and  ends  and  wear  out  carpets.  Hem- 
lock is  probably  the  worst  wood  used  for  plain 
flooring,  and  spruce  or  yellow  pine  the  best. 
Oak  is  preferable  but  expensive.  The  combi- 
nations of  walnut  with  chestnut,  oak,  and  other 
lighter-colored  woods, now  becoming  frequent, 
are  durable,  and  save  the  necessity  of  matting 
if  carpets  are  removed  in  hot  weather. 

Polishing  Hard-wood  Floors. — There  are 
three  treatments,  good  according  to  the  uses  of 
the  rooms.  For  a room  much  used,  where  fur- 
niture is  pulled  here  and  there,  use  only  linseed 
oil,  to  be  well  rubbed  in  with  the  iron-backed, 
long-handled  brush  sold  for  the  purpose. 
Heavy  hand-rubbing  will  laboriously  accom- 
plish the  same  thing-. 

For  a room  not  very  much  walked  over,  the 
mixture  given  under  furniture  polish  will  be 
best.  (See  Furniture  Polish,  No.  3.) 

For  a room  of  gala  use,  shellac  maybe  used. 
Wax  and  turpentine  give  less  polish,  but  more 
durability ; the  oil  gives  best  service,  and  a 
dull  clean  finish.  All  these  things  must  be 
put  on  sparingly  and  well  rubbed  in#  Having 


begun  upon  anything  but  oil,  the  treatment  must 
not  be  varied.  The  pores  of  the  wood  get 
choked  by  all  but  oil,  and,  to  change  the  treat- 
ment, must  be  either  well  scrubbed  with  tur- 
pentine, or,  if  too  much  clogged,  planed  off  so 
as  to  get  a new  surface  of  wood.  Dull  spots 
can  be  rubbed  off  with  a coarse  cloth.  With 
proper  rubbing,  no  floor  should  be  sticky. 

Scouring  needs  a good-sized  wooden  pail 
for  water,  a wooden  bowl  for  sand,  a hard 
scrubbing-brush,  and  a piece  of  flannel  rather 
more  than  a yard  square.  Scrub  the  floor  with 
the  brush,  water,  and  sand,  and  afterwards  wash 
off  the  sand  with  the  flannel.  Soap  is  sometimes 
used  with  the  sand ; but,  instead  of  improving, 
it  injures  the  color  of  the  boards  when  dry,  giv- 
ing them  a blackish  appearance.  If  the  boards 
are  very  dark-looking  before  the  scrubbing  is 
commenced,  some  fuller’s  earth  or  pearl-ash 
may  be  dissolved  in  the  water;  and  plenty  of 
clean  water  should  afterwards  be  used. 

FLORICULTURE. — If  there  be  any  room 
for  choice  in  selecting  the  spot  for  a flower- 
garden,  select  one  that  is  sheltered  from  the 
wind  and  exposed  freely  to  the  morning  sun 
With  the  proper  amount  of  care  and  watchful- 
ness flowers  can  be  made  to  grow  anywhere, 
and  no  one,  even  if  confined  to  the  smallest  of 
city  back-yards,  need  be  deterred  from  making 
the  attempt ; but  most  flowers  love  warm,  sunny 
spots,  where  the  chill  northerly  winds  cannot 
reach  them,  and,  if  the  garden  is  favorably 
located,  a large  part  of  the  work  and  disap- 
pointment attendant  upon  floriculture  may  be 
avoided.  As  the  laying  out  of  the  garden  must 
depend  largely  on  special  local  conditions,  and 
should  be  guided  by  individual  taste,  we  shall 
not  attempt  to  lay  down  any  general  rules 
further  tlian  to  suggest  that  the  complicated 
and  eccentric  forms  at  one  time  so  popular  are 
no  longer  considered  in  good  taste,  and  that  that 
plan  of  arrangement  is  best  which  combines  the 
greatest  simplicity  with  a due  amount  of  variety 
in  the  shape  of  the  beds.  A thing  especially 
to  be  avoided,  except  in  ribbon  beds  and 
“ mosaic  ” planting,  is  the  elaborate  geometri- 
cal figures  which  the  average  books  on  flower- 
culture  are  so  apt  to  suggest  to  their  readers. 
In  preparing  the  ground,  raised  beds  with  deep 
walks  should  be  dispensed  with  as  far  as  pos- 
sible ; they  suffer  from  the  intense  heat  of  our 
summers,  and  the  rains  wash  down  their  edges, 
giving  an  untidy  look,  and  sometimes  laying 
bare  the  roots  of  the  plants.  Grass  edgings 
unless  well  cared  for,  are  objectionable,  on  ac- 
count of  the  difficulty  of  keeping  the  sods  from 
spreading:  and  this  is  true  of  all  running  vine 
edgings  except  ivy.  For  a large  bed,  a bor- 
j der  of  common  flax  easily  raised  from  the  seed, 

I is  very  pretty  if  kept  well  trimmed,  and  the 
dwarf  box  is  unsurpassed.  The  prettiest  of 
all  beds  are  those  neatly  cut  into  the  grass-plat 
and  left  without  other  edging.  In  these  the 
brilliant  hues  of  the  flowers  contrast  well  with 
the  soft,  emerald  tint  of  the  grass.  It  may  be 
a slight  objection  to  these  beds  that  the  dew 
on  tiie  grass  makes  it  necessary  to  be  well  shod 


20  fi 


FLORICULTURE 


in  attending  them  in  the  early  morning  when 
flowers  and  the  work  of  gardening  are  most  at- 
tractive. The  walks  between  beds  may  be 
trodden  down  and  hardened  with  coal-ashes  or 
gravel. 

The  most  desirable  soil  for  flowers  is  a mel- 
low loam,  that  will  not  be  much  affected  by  ex- 
cessive wet  or  drought. 

As  it  is  useless  to  attempt  to  grow  flowers  in 
poor  soil,  the  work  of  fertilizing  and  ameliora- 
tion must  claim  the  earliest  attention.  If  the 
ground  be  clayey  and  adhesive,  dress  it  with 
sand  and  well-rotted  manure  in  sufficient  quan- 
tity to  make  it  mellow  and  friable ; spade  it 
and  mix  it  well.  If  the  soil  be  sandy  and  loose, 
spade  in  clay  and  manure  in  the  same  way. 
Wood  ashes  are  good  for  all  kinds  of  soil,  as 
they  loosen  those  which  are  close,  and  hold 
moisture  in  those  which  are  sandy.  Every 
flower  garden  should  be  heavily  manured  every 
autumn, — the  manure  covering  the  ground 
during  winter  and  being  well  spaded  in  in  the 
spring.  Drainage  (natural  or  artificial)  is  ab- 
solutely essential  to  successful  flower-garden- 
ing; no  soil  that  remains  saturated  for  many 
hours  after  even  the  heaviest  rain  is  fit  for  the 
growth  of  flowers.  Before  it  can  be  success- 
fully cultivated  it  must  be  thoroughly  under- 
drained. , 

For  Pot-plants,  a good  soil  may  be  made  by 
taking  one-fourth  part  of  common  soil,  one- 
fourth  part  of  well-decayed  manure,  and  one- 
half  of  vegetable  mould  from  the  woods  or 
wood-yard.  Break  up  the  manure  fine,  and  sift 
it  through  a coarse  wire  sieve ; then  mix  all 
the  materials  together  thoroughly.  When  the 
common  soil  used  is  too  adhesive,  increase  the 
proportion  of  mould.  If  the  pots  are  large 
it  may  be  well  to  cover  their  bottoms  with  an 
inch  or  so  of  potsherds,  but  the  old  fashioned 
gardeners’  talk  about  “ drainage  ” is  sheer 
nonsense.  Any  flower-pot  will  be  perfectly 
drained  by  the  hole  in  its  bottom.  The  soil 
for  pot-plants  should  be  removed  every  year, 
soon  after  the  plants  have  blossomed.  Loosen 
the  earth  from  the  pots  by  passing  a knife 
round  the  sides;  turn  the  plant  upside  down 
holding  the  fingers  across  the  earth,  and  re- 
move the  pot ; then  take  away  all  the  matted 
fibres  at  the  bottom  and  sides  and  all  the  earth, 
except  what  adheres  closely  to  the  roots  ; then 
re-pot  in  fresh  soil,  prepared  as  above. 

In  planting  flower  seeds,  break  up  the  soil 
until  it  is  entirely  free  from  large  lumps,  rake  it 
over  carefully,  and  rub  that  on  the  surface 
through  the  hands  till  it  becomes  powdery  and 
soft.  It  is  then  ready  for  the  drill.  Seeds  re- 
quire to  be  planted  near  the  surface  or  more 
deeply,  according  to  their  size.  For  seeds  as 
large  as  sweet  peas,  the  drill  should  be  half  an 
inch  deep;  the  smallest  seed  should  be  simply 
laid  on  the  surface,  and  a very  little  fine  earth 
sifted  over  them,  and  afterwards  pressed  down 
with  a trowel  or  with  the  palm  of  the  hand. 
Never  plant  when  the  soil  is  very  wet;  in  very 
dry  weather,  water  the  ground  lightly  at  night, 
being  careful  not  to  use  water  that  is  too  cold. 


If  the  seeds  are  small,  sow  a good  many  of 
them  together,  and  they  will  assist  each  other 
in  breaking  through  the  soil.  When  the  plants 
are  about  an  inch  high,  thin  them  out,  leaving 
many  or  few, according  to  the  number  required 
for  the  garden  ; it  is  best  to  leave  a liberal  mar- 
gin for  mistakes  and  mishaps. 

Transplanting,  unless  the  plant  is  taken  up 
without  separating  it  from  the  earth  around  its 
roots,  retards  the  growth  somewhat ; if  the  soil 
around  the  roots  be  undisturbed,  the  growth  is 
not  interrupted  at  all.  Transplanting  should  be 
done  at  evening,  or  better  still,  just  before  a 
shower.  Take  a round  stick,  sharpened  at  the 
end,  and  make  holes  to  receive  the  plants.  Set 
them  a very  little  deeper  than  they  were  before, 
and  press  the  soil  firmly  around  them ; then 
water,  and  cover  for  three  or  four  days  with  an 
inverted  flower-pot,  or  other  vessel,  or  simply 
with  newspaper.  If  a plant  wilts  after  being 
transplanted,  remove  the  larger  leaves,  and 
water  liberally  for  a day  or  two. 

The  watering  of  plants  is  a subject  on  which 
floriculturists  differ.  Mr.  Rand  maintains  that 
“ if  the  soil  is  close  or  clayey,  very  seldom  will 
water  be  required ; if  sandy  or  loose,  more 
often,  but  each  locality  will  have  its  own  rules.” 
Another  writer  argues  that  “ in  this  hot,  dry 
climate,  the  watering-pot  is  a necessity,”  “ and 
if  there  are  not  plentiful  showers,  plants, 
should  be  watered  freely  every  evening.”  Our 
own  experience  coincides  with  the  latter  view. 
Daily  watering  is  not,  as  some  suppose,  an  ab- 
solute necessity ; but  plants  seldom  thrive  well 
through  the  feverish  days  of  July  and  August 
without  frequent  and  copious  watering.  The 
water  for  plants  should  not  be  very  cold ; a 
good  way  to  take  the  chill  off  is  to  draw  it  in 
the  morning,  and  let  it  stand  all  day  in  the  sun. 
Rain-water  is  the  best,  and  it  may  generally  be 
obtained  by  having  a hogshead  standing  in 
some  place  out  of  sight,  under  a spout  connect- 
ed with  the  roof.  In  watering,  the  water  should 
never  be  dashed  or  poured  on  from  a pail ; but 
showered  on  slowly  and  gently  from  the  rose 
of  a watering-pot.  In  time  of  drought,  syring- 
ing the  leaves  at  evening  is  very  beneficial  to 
shrubs  and  plants. 

Weeding,  in  a small  garden  is  done  most  ef- 
fectually with  the  thumb  and  ting:".  It  is  poor 
gardening  to  cut  off  a weed  just  below  the  level 
of  the  ground  with  a rake  or  hoe,  for  the  root 
remains  alive,  gains  strength,  and  nearly  always 
sends  up  additional  shoots.  Of  course  in  large 
gardens,  the  hoe  must  be  depended  upon,  but 
pulling  up  the  weeds  by  the  roots  is  the  only 
way  of  finally  getting  rid  of  them.  The  best 
time  for  weeding  is  very  early  in  the  morning; 
it  is  not  well  to  weed  at  night,  or  on  a rainy  or 
cloudy  day,  for  there  is  no  sun  to  kill  the 
weeds,  which  it  is  better  to  expose  to  the  sun, 
that  they  may  be  thoroughly  killed.  Pull  them 
up  in  the  morning,  let  them  lie  exposed  all 
day  and  gather  them  up  in  the  evening. 
The  better  and  less  laborious  plan  is,  how- 
ever, to  keep  the  ground  so  thoroughly  raked 
I that  no  Weeds  can  become  established. 


FLORICULTURE 


207 


Insects  are  very  annoying  in  the  garden  ; 
with  the  first  warm  days  they  appear  in  num- 
bers,—covering  the  roses  and  settling  down  upon 
everything  that  is  in  bloom.  Rain  causes  them 
to  disappear,  but  a dry  wind  increases  them.  A 
small  painter’s  brush  dipped  in  quassia  or  aloes 
water  will  brush  them  off  and  destroy  them. 
Hellebore  (powdered)  sprinkled  over  the  leaves 
of  plants  about  once  a week  will  also  help  to 
protect  them.  The  caterpillars  of  many  moths 
and  butterflies  are  destructive  in  the  garden, 
and  one  death  in  the  spring  will  save  much  war- 
fare later  in  the  season.  If  a moth  is  seen 
resting  on  a stem  or  leaf,  with  folded  wings,  it 
is  probably  a female,  and  should  be  killed  at 
once.  If  one  is  found  dead  on  a plant,  she  has 
doubtless  laid  her  eggs,  and  these  must  be 
searched  for  underneath  the  leaves  and 
burned.  A garden  syringe  or  hose  is  the  most 
effective  weapon  against  aphides  and  caterpil- 
lars ; hold  the  pipe  close  to  the  plant,  so  as  to 
bring  a considerable  stream  of  water  upon  it, 
and  it  will  soon  be  freed  from  them.  Every 
time  the  syringe  or  hose  is  used,  rake  the 
earth  away  from  under  the  plants,  and  trample 
upon  the  insects  that  have  been  washed  off. 
Earwigs  are  very  destructive  insects.  Their 
favorite  food  is  the  petals  of  roses,  pinks, 
fuchsias,  dahlias,  etc.,  they  eat  at  night,  and  in 
the  daytime  hide  away  amid  the  dark  leaves. 
They  can  be  caught  by  driving  stakes  into  the 
ground  and  over  these  inverting  flower-pots, 
leaving  them  just  room  to  crawl  under ; then 
look  for  and  destroy  them  every  morning. 
Toads  and  lady-bugs,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
great  helps,  for  they  destroy  vast  numbers  of 
the  aphides,  moths,  caterpillars,  etc. 

When  plants  produce  an  abundance  of  foli- 
age and  no  flowers,  either  remove  them  to  a 
drier  soil,  or  cut  through  some  of  the  principal 
roots.  Root  shortening  is  often  resorted  to  by 
florists  to  force  plants  to  bloom.  By  checking 
the  growth  of  the  woody  portions,  strength  is 
thrown  into  the  flowers.  All  shrubs  produce 
their  flowers  on  the  terminal  points  of  branches ; 
after  the  bloom  is  past,  if  they  are  pinched  off, 
three  or  four  new  branches  will  come  out  in 
the  succeeding  year.  As  plants  are  in  their 
most  vigorous  growth  while  in  flower,  they 
should  never  be  transplanted  at  that  time. 
Then  is  the  time  for  taking  cuttings,  as  they 
are  most  ready  to  send  forth  roots.  The 
throwing  off  of  its  leaves  by  a newly-planted 
cutting  is  a sign  that  it  has  begun  to  grow, 
while  if  the  leaves  wither  on  the  stem,  it  shows 
that  the  cutting  had  not  strength  enough  to  send 
out  shoots.  The  ripening  of  seeds  exhausts 
the  strength  of  the  plants  ; therefore  remove  all 
pods  that  are  not  especially  desired  for  seed. 
A plant  can  be  trained  into  any  shape  by  pinch- 
ing off  the  ends  of  young  shoots,  for  the  plant 
will  avenge  itself  by  sending  forth  two  or  three 
more  in  lieu  of  the  one  pinched  off. 

The  preserving  of  plants  in  Winter  is  one 
of  the  most  perplexing  problems  in  floriculture. 
It  is  useless  to  try  and  make  “window-gar- 
dens”  with  plants  that  have  flowered  all  sum- 


mer ; these  must  have  a period  of  rest  or  they 
will  be  worth  nothing  for  another  season. 

N early  all  bulbs,  and  all  plants  that  have  a 
woody  nature,  can  be  preserved  in  a cool,  dark 
cellar,  where  potatoes  will  not  freeze.  Roses, 
fuchsias,  heliotropes,  oleanders,  sweet  verbenas, 
and  in  fact  nearly  all  flowers,  can  be  kept  by 
laying  them  carefully  down  on  the  ground,  and 
covering  them  with  sods  placed  grass  side  up. 
Zonale  Geraniums  and  Scarlet  Salvias  can  be 
wintered  in  most  cellars,  if  the  earth  is  shaken 
from  their  roots,  and  they  are  tied  up  by  them 
to  the  cellar  beams.  All  blossom  buds  should 
be  cut  off,  or  the  sap  that  is  in  the  branches 
will  cause  them  to  bloom  and  thus  rob  the  roots 
of  the  strength  they  need  to  live  on  through  the 
winter.  Roses  and  geraniums  can  also  be  buried 
in  trenches.  Dig  the  trench  two  and  a half 
feet  deep  and  where  the  water  will  not  settle  ; 
line  the  bottom  with  straw  or  dried  leaves,  and 
lay  the  plants  in  ; cover  the  plants  with  aboard, 
so  supported  as  not  to  press  upon  them,  and 
fill  in  with  sandy  loam,  finishing  off  the  top 
with  a ridge  that  will  carry  off  water.  All 
plants  that  are  only  slightly  tender  can  be  pre- 
served by  cutting  off  superfluous  branches  and 
binding  straw  around  them  so  that  no  part  will 
be  exposed  to  the  frost. 

The  care  of  house-plants  is  a matter  requir- 
ing daily  attention.  As  previously  directed,  the 
soil  in  the  pots  should  be  renewed  every  year. 
In  winter,  house-plants,  except  when  well  sup- 
plied with  sun  and  air,  should  be  watered  only 
enough  to  keep  them  fresh ; many  are  made 
sickly  and  spindling  by  giving  them  too  much 
water  when  they  have  little  light  and  fresh  air. 
If  from  improper  treatment  they  have  become 
spindling,  cut  their  heads  entirely  off,  and  sink 
the  pot  in  earth  or  surround  it  with  damp  sand 
or  sawdust  and  place  it  where  the  morning  sun 
will  strike  it;  often  a new  and  flourishing  head 
will  spring  out.  Plants  ought  not  to  be  kept 
very  warm  in  winter,  nor  exposed  to  £reat 
changes  of  temperature.  From  40  to  60  de- 
grees is  about  the  proper  temperature,  when  a 
little  sun  and  air  are  secured.  In  summer,  the 
plants  should  be  set  out  of  doors,  but  for  a 
time  should  be  well  shaded  ; for  few  house- 
plants  can  bear  the  full  sun  at  first.  When 
insects  become  troublesome,  set  the  plants  un- 
der a barrel,  and  burn  a little  tobacco  in  it. 
When  plants  are  frozen,  a copious  sprinkling 
with  cold  water  and  a gradual  restoration  of 
warmth  are  the  best  remedies. 

Were  the  space  at  our  command,  it  might  be 
desirable  to  add  to  the  foregoing  some  sugges- 
tions as  to  the  kind  and  number  of  plants  to 
select  for  a garden  ; but  often  all  this  must  be 
a matter  of  individual  taste  and  opportunity, 
and  full  details  are  given  under  the  separate 
plants  whose  names  are  scattered  throughout 
the  work.  It  only  remains  to  add  that  the 
word  “hardy,”  so  often  used  in  our  descriptions, 
means  that  the  plants  to  which  it  is  applied  will 
live  out  unprotected  during  the  winter  and  require 
little  attention.  “ Annuals  ” are  plants  that 
bloom  and  die  down  every  year.  “ Biennials  ” 


203 


FLORICULTURE 


are  those  which  run  their  course  in  two  years. 
“Perennials”  are  those  which  grow  and  blos- 
som year  after  year. 


window.  The  material  is  wire,  except  the  shelf 
above,  which  is  of  wood,  and  intended  to  sup- 
port additional  pots.  Fig.  2 shows  the  same 
window  with  the  vines  in  growth.  The  plan 
shown  in  Fig.  3 is  exceedingly  pretty,  and  may 


Fig.  2. 


The  three  accompanying  illustrations  sug- 
gest simple  and  easy  methods  of  training  vines 
for  ornamental  purposes.  Fig  1.  shows  the 
method  of  constructing  a framework  around  a 


be  applied  either  out  of  doors  or  in  a conserva- 
tory. Ivy  is  the  most  satisfactory  vine  for  in- 
door culture,  but  any  quick-growing  vine  with 
abundant  foliage  will  answer. 


Fig.  3- 


FLOSS 


FLUIDS 


209 


FLOSS.— Untwisted  filaments  of  the  finest 
silk,  much  used  in  embroidery  upon  satin,  silk, 
broadcloth,  etc.  It  comes  of  any  color,  in 
skeins  containing  about  ten  yards.  In  buy- 
ing, test  the  strength,  as  some  kinds  are  in- 
ferior, and  well-nigh  worthless. 

FLOUNDER. — There  are  many  different 
species  of  this  fish,  which  is  flat  like  bream, 
and  very  oblong.  The  most  common  variety 
is  the"  flake”  or  “spotted  flounder,”  which 


Floynder. 


weighs  on  the  average  about  two  and  a half 
pounds,  and  is  in  season  from  August  to  No- 
vember. The  "winter  flounder”  or  “New 
York  flat-fish,”  is  a smaller  kind,  rarely  weigh- 
ing over  ten  or  twelve  ounces,  and  excellent 
for  frying.  It  is  in  season  from  October  to 
July.  The  flounder  is  a flat-fish,  not  esteemed 
as  a delicacy,  but  sweet  and  easily  digested. 

Boiled  Flounder — Same  as  Bass  or  Blue- 
fish. 

Fried  Flounder Sprinkle  the  fish  with  salt, 

and  let  them  lie  two  or  three  hours  before  they 
are  dressed.  Wash  and  clean  them  thoroughly, 
wipe  them  dry,  flour  them  well,  and  wipe  them 
again  with  a clean  cloth  ; then  dip  them  in  egg 
and  fine  bread-crumbs,  and  fry  them  to  a light 
brown  in  plenty  of  lard.  If  the  fish  be  large, 
raise  the  flesh  entirely  from  the  bones,  cut  it 
into  nice  pieces,  dip  them  in  eggs  and  bread- 
crumbs, and  fry  as  before. 

FLOUR. — This  term  properly  includes  the 
finely-ground  meal  of  any  of  the  cereals,  but  it 
is  commonly  applied  only  to  wheat-flour,  and 
will  be  so  used  here,  the  other  kinds  being 
spoken  of  under  the  different  grains.  There 
is  no  article  of  food  more  universally  used  than 
flour,  and  none,  perhaps,  which  it  is  more  dif- 
ficult to  obtain  pure.  It  is  adulterated  with 
rice  flour,  potato  starch,  pea  flour,  alum,  plas- 
ter of  Paris,  sulphate  of  copper,  and  other  ma- 
terials which  cost  less  than  flour,  or  add  to  its 
weight  at  a cheaper  rate.  Rice,  potato  starch, 
and  pea  flour,  are  readily  detected  under  the 
microscope  by  the  form  of  the  granules  ; plaster 
of  Paris  by  being  insoluble  in  water  and  sink- 
ing at  once  to  the  bottom  of  a glass  of  water 
when  flour  containing  it  is  stirred  in;  alum  by 
dipping  bread  into  a decoction  of  logwood  when 
a dark  bluish  color  will  be  produced  if  alum  be 
present ; and  sulphate  of  copper  by  a red  color 
when  prussiate  of  potash  is  added  to  bread 
moistened  with  water.  A more  convenient  log- 
wood test  for  alum  is  to  macerate  4j£oz.  of 
logwood  chips  in  8 oz.  of  spirits  for  twenty-four 
hours,  and  filter.  A few  drops  of  this  solution, 
together  with  the  same  amount  of  the  strongest 
solution  of  carbonate  ammonia  that  water  will 
14 


make,  added  to  moistened  bread,  or  flour  in  a 
little  water,  will  show  a dark  bluish  color,  if 
alum  be  present.  These  should  be  kept  sep- 
arately for  the  purpose.  The  easiest  test  with 
chalk,  plaster  of  Paris,  or  other  solutions  is 
specific  gravity;  a vessel  which  will  hold  a 
pound  of  wheat  flour  will  hold  nearly  a pound 
and  a half  of  any  other. 

In  buying  flour,  when  no  elaborate  test  can 
be  applied,  it  is  best  to  try  it  by  testing  it;  in 
this  way  mustiness  or  sourness  can  generally 
be  detected.  Good  flour  has  a yellowish  tinge, 
and  when  pressed  tight  in  the  hand,  retains  the 
creases  of  the  skin  wipressed  on  it ; when  rubbed 
between  the  thumb  and  fingers  a slight  grain 
should  be  felt.  Poor  flour  sometimes  has  a 
dingy  look,  as  if  ashes  was  mixed  with  it.  The 
only  safe  way  is  to  buy  a small  sample,  and,  if 
it  prove  satisfactory  on  trial,  then  get  a larger 
supply  from  the  same  stock. 

Flour  stored  in  barrels  needs  no  other  care 
than  putting  it  in  a cool,  dry  place,  where  it  is 
well  protected  from  rats,  cockroaches,  and  other 
vermin.  A tightly-fitting  cover  to  the  barrel 
is  indispensable. 

FLOWERS.  (To  cut  and  Keep.)— Flow- 
ers should  never  be  gathered  during  the  heat 
of  the  day,  but  either  while  wet  with  dew  in 
the  early  morning  or  after  sunset  when  the 
dew  has  revived  them.  Do  not  break  them  off, 
but  cut  them  with  a knife  or  scissors ; the 
former  is  best,  as  it  cuts  cleanest  and  does  not 
injure  the  plant.  Sand  is  far  cleaner  to  place 
them  in  than  water;  it  can  be  wetted  every 
morning  and  will  keep  for  weeks  without  any 
unpleasant  odor.  If  sand  cannot  be  obtained, 
add  a few  bits  of  charcoal  to  the  water  ; if  the 
water  is  changed  every  day  the  flowers  will 
then  keep  for  a week  or  more.  If  it  -is  de- 
sired to  keep  flowers  for  some  time,  about  half 
an  inch  should  be  cut  off  from  the  ends  of  the 
stalks  every  time  the  water  is  changed ; a 
pinch  of  saltpetre  and  salt  added  to  the  water 
tends  to  prevent  their  decay.  Warm  water 
will  revive  wilted  flowers  ; put  them  into  water 
warm  to  the  hand,  let  them  remain  an  hour 
or  more,  then  cut  off  the  stalks  a little  and 
put  into  fresh  lukewarm  water,  and  they  will 
brighten  wonderfully.  A few  drops  of  liquid 
ammonia  added  to  the  water,  is  also  excellent 
to  revive  them.  See  Floriculture  and 
Flowers  under  their  respective  names. 

FLUE. — Wherever  metal  flues  pass  near 
woodwork  (which  is  to  be  avoided  if  possible), 
the  latter  should  be  well  guarded  by  reflecting 
plates  of  metal,  like  tin  or  zinc,  and  some  space 
should  intervene  between  the  two  so  as  to 
allow  a current  of  air  to  pass  through.  If  the 
pipe  must  be  supported  it  should  only  be  by 
thin,  though  strong  arms  of  metal  wire,  by 
which  the  heat  is  prevented  from  being  com- 
municated in  sufficient  amount  to  raise  the 
temperature  of  the  wood  to  a dangerous  de- 
gree Smoking  flues  are  to  be  treated  the 
same  as  smoking  chimneys.  (See  Chim- 
neys.) 

FLUIDS. — Fluids  taken  into  the  stomach 


210 


FLUMMERY 


FOOD 


are  not  subject  to  the  slow  process  of  diges- 
tion, but  are  immediately  absorbed  and  carried 
into  the  blood.  This  is  the  reason  why  liquid 
nourishment  restores  from  exhaustion  more 
speedily  than  solid  food.  When  food  is  chiefly 
liquid  (soup,  for  example),  the  fluid  portion  is 
rapidly  absorbed ; and  the  solid  parts  remain 
to  be  acted  on  by  the  gastric  juice.  I n the  case 
of  Alexis  St.  Martin,  in  fifty  minutes  after  tak- 
ing soup,  the  fluids  were  absorbed  and  the  re- 
mainder was  even  thicker  than  is  usual  after 
eating  solid  food.  It  is  because  of  this  that 
soups  are  considered  bad  for  weak  stomachs, 
for  this  residuum  is  harder  to  digest  than  or- 
dinary food.  Tea  and  coffee,  and  other  warm 
drinks  are  so  exhilarating  after  fatigue  because 
that  portion  of  them  which  acts  as  food  enters 
into  the  blood  almost  immediately. 

FLUMMERY.—  Take  .--Cream,  or  milk,  I 
qt;  sweet  almonds,  5or6oz;  bitter  almonds, 
4;  sugar,  y2  lb;  potato  flour,  or  corn  starch,  6 
oz. ; eggs  (whites),  10;  lemon  peel  or  vanilla. 

Blanch  and  pound  the  almonds  to  a paste ; 
put  them  in  the  milk  over  boiling  water,  when 
a film  covers  the  milk,  stir  in  the  flour  which 
has  been  mixed  smooth  in  a little  cold  milk, 
when  it  has  thickened  to  a batter  remove  from 
the  fire  and  stir  in  the  eggs  beaten  to  a stiff 
froth,  then  pour  in  moulds  wet  with  cold  water. 
Serve  cold  with  sugar  and  cream.  If  lemon  is 
liked,  scald  thin  strips  of  the  rind  in  the  milk 
until  flavored.  Extract  of  vanilla  may  be  added. 
FLUTING.  (See  Crimping.) 

FLUX.  ( See  Dysentery.) 
FOMENTATIONS. — Warm  lotions  applied 
to  diseased  parts  by  means  of  flannels.  They 
are  often  prescribed  by  physicians,  and  it  is 
well  to  know  how  to  manage  them.  The  best 
way  is  to  have  some  pieces  of  flannel  or 
blanket,  first  cut  to  the  required  size,  and  then 
soaked  thoroughly  in  water  just  hot  enough  to 
be  grateful  to  the  patient.  Place  beneath  the 
part  to  be  fomented  some  water-proof  or  oil- 
cloth, and  then  having  had  the  flannels  wrung 
nearly  dry  in  a towel  twisted  by  two  assistants, 
wrap  them  around  the  limb,  or  lay  them  flat  on 
the  injured  part,  and  over  them  bind  some 
water-proof  or  thoroughly  dry  and  thick  cover- 
ing ; repeat  the  whole  process  as  often  as  may 
be  necessary. 

FONDU. — I.  Take  .--Cheese,  4 oz  ; eggs, 

6 ; butter,  % lb  ; salt,  pepper,  and  cayenne. 

Grate  two  ounces  each  of  Gruyere  and  Par- 
mesan cheese  (common  cheese  will  do,  but  is 
not  so  nice)  into  a basin  and  season  with  salt, 
pepper  and  cayenne  ; add  the  yolks  of  six  eggs, 
and  a quarter  of  a pound  of  melted  butter ; 
whip  the  whites  of  the  six  eggs,  and  stir  them 
gently  with  the  other  ingredients.  Line  an 
ordinary  cake-mould  with  a strip  of  writing 
paper  six  inches  high  ; pour  the  mixture  in, 
and  bake  fifteen  minutes  in  a moderate  oven. 
Serve  very  hot. 

II.  Take  .--Cheese,  3 oz ; eggs,  5 ; milk  or 
cream,  1 pt ; butter,  2 oz ; potato  flour,  or  ar- 
rowroot, 2 oz  ; salt  and  pepper. 

Mix  a quarter  of  a pint  of  milk  and  two 


ounces  of  potato  flour  or  arrowroot  to  a smooth 
batter ; heat  three-quarters  of  a pint  of  milk 
(or  cream  in  preference)  to  boiling,  and  pour  it 
in ; stir  them  well  together,  and  then  add  two 
ounces  of  butter  cut  small.  When  this  is 
melted  and  beaten  thoroughly  into  the  mixture, 
add  the  well-beaten  yolks  of  five  eggs,  half  a 
teaspoonful  of  salt,  a little  cayenne,  and  three 
ounces  of  lightly-grated  cheese.  Whip  the 
whites  of  the  eggs  to  a stiff  and  solid  froth,  stir 
them  in  gently,  and  bake  as  before  about  20 
minutes.  This  is  very  nice. 

FOOD. — A food  is  a substance  which,  when 
introduced  into  the  body,  supplies  material 
which  renews  some  structure  or  maintains 
some  vital  process ; and  it  is  distinguished 
from  a medicine  in  that  the  latter  modifies 
some  vital  action,  but  does  not  supply  the 
material  which  sustains,  such  action.  It  is  es- 
sential to  the  idea  of  a food  that  it  support  or 
increase  vital  actions  ; whilst  medicines  usually 
may  lessen,  increase,  or  otherwise  modify  some 
of  them.  “Foods  are  derived,”  says  Dr. 
Edward  Smith,  “ from  all  the  great  divisions  of 
nature  and  natural  products,  as  earth,  water 
and  air,  solids,  liquids  and  gases  ; and  from 
substances  which  are  living  and  organic,  or  in- 
animate and  inorganic.  The  popular  notion  of 
food  as  a solid  substance  derived  from  animals 
and  vegetables,  whilst  comprehensive  is  too 
exclusive,  since  the  water  which  we  drink,  the 
air  which  we  breathe,  and  certain  minerals 
found  in  the  substance  of  the  earth,  are,  adopt- 
ing the  definition  given,  of  no  less  importance 
as  foods.  It  is,  however,  of  great  interest  to 
note  how  frequently  all  these  are  combined  in 
one  food,  and  how  closely  united  are  substances 
which  seem  to  be  widely  separated.  Thus 
water  and  minerals  are  found  in  both  flesh  and 
vegetables,  whilst  one  or  both  of  the  compon- 
ent parts  of  the  air,  viz. : oxygen  and  nitrogen, 
are  distributed  through  every  kind  of  food 
which  is  alone  capable  of  sustaining  life. 
Hence,  not  only  may  we  add  food  to  food  to 
supply  the  waste  of  the  body,  but  we  may 
within  certain  limits  substitute  one  for  another 
as  our  appetites  or  wants  demand.  . . .Further, 
there  seems  to  be  an  indissoluble  bond  exist- 
ing between  all  the  sources  of  food.  There 
are  the  same  classes  of  elements  in  flesh  as 
in  flour,  and  the  same  in  animals  as  in  vege- 
tables. The  vegetable  draws  water  and  min- 
erals from  the  soil,  whilst  it  absorbs  and 
incorporates  the  air  in  its  own  growth,  and  is 
then  eaten  to  sustain  the  life  of  animals,  so 
that  animals  gain  the  substances  which  vege- 
tables first  acquired.  But  in  completing  the 
circle  the  vegetable  receives  from  the  animal 
the  air  (carbonic  acid)  which  was  thrown  out  in 
respiration,  and  lives  and  grows  upon  it ; and 
at  length  the  animal  itself  in  whole  or  in  part, 
and  the  refuse  which  it  daily  throws  off,  be- 
come the  food  of  the  vegetable.  Even  the 
very  bones  of  an  animal  are  by  the  aid  of 
nature  or  man  made  to  increase  the  growth  of 
vegetables  and  really  to  enter  into  their  struc- 
ture ; and  being  again  eaten,  animals  may  be 


FOOD 


211 


said  to  eat  their  own  bones,  and  live  on  their 
own  flesh.”  It  will  be  seen  from  this  that  an- 
imal and  vegetable  foods  contain  precisely  the 
same  elements  though  in  different  combina- 
tions. At  the  same  time  they  differ  sufficiently 
to  make  a due  proportion  of  each  necessarv  to 
perfect  nutrition.  One  sterling  point  of  differ- 
ence is,  that  nitrogen  constitutes  a much  larger 
percentage  of  animal  bodies  than  of  vegetables. 
Nitrogen  is  one  of  the  most  important  elements 
of  food  ; only  such  substances  as  contain  it  can 
efficiently  produce  flesh  or  repair  wasted  tissue. 
So  important  is  this  distinction,  in  fact,  that 
one  of  the  divisions  of  food  most  generally  rec- 
ognized by  physiologists  is  into  nitrogenous 
and  non-nitrogenous , or  as  Liebig  termed  them, 
the  flesh-forming  and  the  heat-producing.  Both 
kinds  are  essential  to  the  maintenance  of  life, 
and  it  is  because  vegetables  as  a whole  are  de- 
ficient in  nitrogen  that  the  highest  degree  of 
bodily  vigor  cannot  be  kept  up  by  them  alone. 

It  is  understood  that  the  structures  of  the 
body  are  in  a state  of  continual  change,  so  that 
atoms  which  are  present  at  one  hour  may  be 
gone  the  next,  and  when  gone,  the  structures 
will  be  so  far  wasted,  unless  the  process  of 
waste  be  accompanied  by  renewal.  But  the  re- 
newing substance  must  be  of  the  same  nature 
as  that  wasted,  so  that  bone  shall  be  renewed 
by  the  constituent  elements  of  bone,  and  flesh 
by  those  of  flesh.  This  is  the  duty  assigned  to 
food, — to  supply  to  each  part  of  the  body  the 
very  same  kind  of  material  that  it  lost  by  waste. 
As  foods  must  have  the  same  composition  as 
the  body,  or  supply  some  such  other  materials 
as  can  be  transformed  into  the  substances  of 
the  body,  it  is  desirable  to  gain  a general  idea 
of  what  these  substances  are.  The  following 
is  a summary  of  the  principal  materials  of 
which  the  body  is  composed  : — 

Flesh,  in  its  fresh  state,  contains  water,  fat, 
fibrin,  albumen,  besides  compounds  of  lime, 
phosphorus,  soda,  potash,  magnesia,  silica  and 
iron,  and  certain  extractives,  whose  nature  is 
unknown.  Blood  has  a composition  similar  in 
elements  to  that  of  flesh. 

Bone  is  composed  of  cartilage,  fat,  and  salts 
of  lime,  magnesia,  soda  and  potash,  combined 
with  phosphoric  and  other  acids. 

Cartilage  consists  of  chondrin,  from  which 
gelatine  is  formed,  with  salts  of  soda,  potash, 
lime,  phosphorus,  magnesia,  sulphur  and  iron. 

The  brain  is  composed  of  water,  albumen, 
fat  (so-called),  phosphoric  acid,  osmazome  and 
salts. 

The  liver  consists  of  water,  fat,  and  albumen, 
with  phosphoric  and  other  acids  in  conjunction 
with  soda,  lime,  potash  and  iron. 

The  lungs  are  formed  of  a substance  called 
connective  tissue,  from  which  gelatine  is  formed 
by  prolonged  boiling,  albumen,  a substance 
analogous  to  caseine,  various  fatty  and  or- 
ganic acids,  with  salts  of  soda  and  iron,  and 
water. 

Bile  consists  of  water,  fat,  resin,  sugar,  fatty 
and  organic  acids,  cholesterin,  and  salts  of 
potash,  soda,  and  iron.  1 


Hence,  it  is  requisite  that  the  body  should  be 
provided  with  salts  of  potash,  soda,  lime, 
magnesia,  sulphur,  iron  and  manganese,  as 
well  as  sulphuric,  hydrochloric,  phosphoric, 
and  fluoric  acids  and  water ; also,  nearly 
all  the  fat  which  it  consumes  daily,  and 
probably  all  the  nitrogenous  substances  which 
it  requires  and  which  are  closely  allied  in  com- 
position, as  albumen,  fibrin,  etc.  “ So  great  an 
array  of  mysterious  substances,”  says  Dr. 
Smith,  “ might  well  prevent  us  from  feeding 
ourselves  or  others  if  the  selection  of  food  de- 
pended solely  upon  our  knowledge  or  judgment ; 
but  it  is  not  so,  for  independently  of  the  aid 
derived  from  our  appetites,  there  is  the  great 
advantage  of  having  foods  which  contain  a pro- 
portion of  nearly  all  these  elements  ; and  com- 
binations of  foods  have  been  effected  by  ex- 
perience which  protect  even  the  most  ignorant 
from  evil  consequences.  Thus  flesh  or  the 
muscular  tissue  of  animals,  contains  precisely 
the  elements  which  are  required  in  our  flesh- 
formers,  and,  only  limited  by  quantity,  our 
heat-generators  also ; and  life  may  be  maintained 
for  very  lengthy  periods  upon  animal  food  and 
water.  Seeing,  moreover,  that  the  source  of 
flesh  in  animals  which  are  used  as  food,  is  of 
vegetable  origin,  it  follows  that  vegetables 
should  contain  the  same  elements  as  flesh,  and 
it  is  a fact  of  great  interest  that  in  vege- 
tables we  have  food  elements  closly  analogous  to 
those  contained  in  the  flesh  of  animals.  Thus, 
in  addition  to  water  and  salts,  common  to 
both,  there  is  vegetable  chondrin,  vegetable  al- 
bumen, vegetable  fibrin,  and  vegetable  casein,  all 
having  a composition  almost  identical  with  ani- 
mal albumen,  fibrin,  chondrin,  and  casein.”  The 
articles  containing  most  of  the  three  articles 
needed  generally  in  the  body  are  as  follows : 
for  fat*  and  heat-making — butter,  lard,  sugar  and 
molasses ; for  flesh  or  muscle-forming — lean 
meat,  cheese,  peas,  beans,  and  lean  fishes  ; for 
brain  and  nerves — shell  fish,  lean  meats,  peas, 
beans  and  very  active  birds  and  fishes,  who  live 
chiefly  on  food  in  which  phosphorus  abounds. 
In  a meat  diet,  the  fat  supplies  the  carbon  for 
keeping  up  the  heat  of  the  body,  and  the  lean 
furnishes  nutriment  for  the  muscles,  brain  and 
nerves.  Green  vegetables,  fruits  and  ber- 
ries furnish  additional  supplies  of  the  acids,, 
the  salts,  and  water  needed.  Since  the 
analogy  between  animal  and  vegetable  foods 
is  so  close,  substantially  the  same  elements  be- 
ing found  in  each,  it  may  be  asked,  what  is  the 
practical  difference  between  them  for  purposes 
of  nutrition  ? As  a general  rule,  then,  it  may 
be  said  that  while  flesh  presents  the  elements 
of  nutrition  in  a form  the  most  compendious 
and  easy  of  digestion,  vegetables  are  composed 
of  substances  which  must  not  only  be  digested 
but  thoroughly  transformed  before  they  can  be 

* This  is  of  course  intended  only  as  a general  statement  . The 
fat  in  our  bodies  is  directly  derived  from  nitrogenized  tissues: 
When  the  non-nitrogenized  principles  are  excluded  from  our  food 
the  body  becomes  lean?  because  the  nitrogenized  tissues  are  con- 
sumed m the  production  of  heat,  instead  of  being  converted 
into  fat. 


212 


FOOD 


FRACTURES 


used  for  the  reparation  of  the  body.  The  cook- 
ing of  flesh  is  doubtless  desirable,  although  it 
is  not  necessary  to  its  digestion,  but  the  cook- 
ing of  most  vegetables  is  essential,  in  order  to 
enable  the  stomach  to  dissolve  and  perfectly 
transform  them.  A good  test  is  the  amount  of 
matter  which  leaves  the  bowels  after  the  con- 
sumption of  vegetable  and  animal  foods ; and 
if  quantities  supplying  an  equal  amount  of  nu- 
triment be  taken,  the  refuse  from  the  former 
will  be  twice  as  great  as  from  the  latter.  It  is 
commonly  assumed,  and  is  one  of  the  leading 
arguments  of  the  vegetarians,  that  the  digestion 
of  vegetables  is  easier  than  that  of  animal  food, 
and  that  the  process  is  more  quickly  perform- 
ed ; but  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Beaumont, 
upon  the  stomach  of  Alexis  St.  Martin,  have 
shown  that  mutton  is  digested  more  quickly 
than  bread,  and  an  egg  sooner  than  a potato. 
To  this  must  be  added  the  fact  that  a greater 
bulk  of  vegetable  than  of  animal  food  is  required 
to  provide  a given  amount  of  nutriment,  and 
hence,  those  who  live  chiefly  on  the  former 
must  be  large  eaters.  Dr.  Edward  Smith,  dis- 
cussing this  point,  says  : “ When  we  compare 

them  it  may  be  stated  generally,  that  vegetable 
food  must  be  eaten  in  larger  quantities,  and  be 
better  cooked,  than  animal  food,  and  that  it 
requires  a longer  period  for  and  greater  power 
of  digestion,  whilst  it  excites  the  vital  processes 
more  slowly,  and  in  a lower  degree.” 

The  following  table,  showing  the  average 
quantity  of  nutritive  matter  iniooo  parts  of  sev- 
eral varieties  of  animal  and  vegetable  food  will 
illustrate  some  of  the  points  previously  made  : — 


Beef 260 

Veal 250 

Mutton 290 

Pork 240 

Brain 200 

Chicken 270 

Cod 210 

Haddock 180 

Sole 210 

Bones 510 

Blood 215 

Milk 72 

White  of  egg 140 

Wheat 950 

Rice 880 

Barley 920 

Rye 792 

Oats 742 


Turnips 42 

Cabbage 73 

Beet -root 148 

Cucumber 25 

Strawberries 100 

Pears 160 

Apples 170 

Gooseberries 190 

Cherries 250 

Plums 290 

Apricots 260 

Peaches 200 

Grapes 270 

Melons 30 

Tamarinds 340 

Almonds , 650 

Potatoes 260 

Carrots 98 


Water,  coffee,  tea,  cocoa,  and  other  drinks 
are  simply  liquid  foods,  each  supplying  nutri- 
ment in  greater  or  less  amounts,  and  repairing 
waste.  Alcohols  are  generally  excluded  from 
the  list  of  foods,  but  taken  in  limited  quantities 
and  under  proper  conditions,  it  is  thought  that 
they  promote  digestion  and  stimulate  the  con- 
version of  food  into  tissue  and  blood.  Atmos- 
pheric air  is  also  ranked  among  the  foods  by 
modern  physiologists,  since  from  it  chiefly  is 
derived  one  of  the  most  important  and  neces- 
sary elements  of  nutrition,  oxygen. 

The  effects  of  cooking  upon  food  must  not 
be  overlooked.  This  effect  is  two-fold.  It 
softens  and  disintegrates  the  substances  which 
are  naturally  too  hard  for  digestion,  and  thus 
renders  them  amenable  to  the  digestive  opera- 


tions ; this  is  the  effect  produced  upon  many 
vegetable  substances,  such  as  starch,  grains  of 
every  kind,  and  all  substances  having  a resist- 
ing envelope  or  a tough  and  solid  texture,  such 
as  peas,  beans,  potatoes,  turnips  and  the  like. 
In  animal  substances,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
most  useful  effect  of  cooking  appears  to  be  the 
partial  transformation  of  the  albumenoid  mat- 
ters, as  in  roast  meat,  whereby  they  acquire  a 
peculiar  and  agreeable  flavor.  There  is  reason 
to  believe  that  this  flavor,  besides  being  pleas- 
ant to  the  palate,  stimulates  the  secretion  of  the 
digestive  fluids  which  are  essential  to  its  con- 
version into  substances  capable  of  being  appro- 
priated by  the  body.  (See  Diet.) 

FORCE-MEAT.  (See  Stuffing.) 

FORK. — Forks  for  table  use  are  now  gen- 
erally either  of  silver  or  silver-plated  ware,  and 
either  of  these  is  in  every  way  preferable  to 
steel  or  German  silver.  For  the  commoner 
kinds,  stag’s  horn  makes  very  durable  handles, 
the  surface  of  the  horn  being  left  in  its  natural 
state  ; these  are  often  used  for  large  carving- 
forks.  Bone  handles  are  made  of  the  shank 
bone  of  the  ox ; some  of  the  bones  are  very 
dense  and  hard,  but  they  do  not  keep  their 
color,  and  are  very  liable  to  crack  if  dipped  in 
hot  water.  Neither  these  nor  ivory  handles 
should  ever  be  put  into  water  at  all.  Those 
who  cannot  afford  silver  forks  can  now  get  good 
plated  ones  at  a moderate  price,  which  will  wear 
at  least  as  well  as  steel  ones  and  their  use  is  to 
be  strongly  recommended,  on  grounds  both  of 
convenience  and  elegance.  Try  to  get  those 
with  extra  plating  on  the  outer  prongs. 

FOWL.  (See  Chicken,  and 'Poultry.) 

FOXGLOVE. — A large  herbaceous  plant,  of 
which  there  are  many  varieties,  with  purple, 
white,  rusty,  and  variegated  flowers.  The  com- 
mon foxglove  has  large  and  numerous  flowers 
of  a bright  rose  color,  spotted  white  and  purple 
on  the  inside,  and  hanging  down  from  the  stem 
in  beautiful  racemes.  The  plant  is  a biennial, 
and  therefore  the  seeds  should  be  sown  every 
year.  Sow  as  soon  as  the  frost  is  out  of  the 
ground.  It  blossoms  in  July  and  August. 

FRACTURES. — These  accidents  often  hap- 
pen where  surgical  aid  cannot  be  obtained  at 
once,  and  perhaps  not  at  all,  but  fortunately  the 
most  inexperienced  eye  can  detect  when  one  of 
the  larger  bones  is  broken,  and  the  treatment 
is  generally  very  simple,  at  least  until  the  ar- 
rival of  the  doctor.  In  case  of  such  an  accident, 
however,  the  doctor  should  be  sent  for  at  once, 
and  be  careful,  if  in  the  country  or  at  some  dis- 
tance from  the  doctor’s  house,  to  forward  a 
clear  statement  as  to  the  apparent  nature  of  the 
accident,  which  limb  is  hurt,  and  where  and 
how  it  happened — this  will  enable  him  to  bring 
the  proper  instruments  and  apparatus,  if  any  are 
needed.  Where  an  arm  or  leg  is  broken,  it. is 
far  better  to  slit  open  the  dress  with  a pair  of 
scissors  than  to  pull  it  off  ; but  however  the  un- 
covering of  the  limb  may  be  managed,  it  must 
be  done  very  slowly  and  gently,  and  the  limb 
should  be  supported  so  as  to  prevent  jarring  or 
shaking  to  the  damaged  part.  It  must  be  care- 


FRACTURES 


213 


fully  kept,  too,  in  the  right  direction,  for  other- 
wise some  sharp  splinter  of  bone  may  penetrate 
the  hitherto  unwounded  skin. 

In  fractures  of  the  lower  limbs  occurring  at 
a distance  from  home,  the  jolting  of  a carriage 
or  wagon  should  be  avoided,  and  the  patient  car- 
ried. A door,  a broad  plank  or  shutter,  a large 
sack  cut  open,  a sheet  or  blanket  or  piece  of 
tarpaulin  fastened  at  the  corners  to  two  strong 
hoe-handles  or  sticks,  makes  an  excellent  ham- 
mock, carried  by  four  men. 

Splints  are  needed  in  case  of  injury  to  the 
arm  or  hand,  and  these  can  easily  be  made  of 
thin  board  or  stiff  card-board,  a cigar-box,  or  an 
old  band-box  cut  into  strips  the  width  of  the 
hand  or  a little  wider,  or  any  hard,  unyielding 
and  light  material ; whatever  is  used,  let  it  be 
long  enough  to  reach  from  a little  beyond  the 
elbow  to  a little  beyond  the  ends  of  the  fingers. 
Cover  this  with  a pad  of  soft  hay,  hair,  wool, 
cotton,  or  anything  soft,  and  then  both  the  arm 
and  hand  will  rest  comfortably.  For  a sling, 
suspend  a handkerchief  or  strip  of  cloth  around 
the  neck,  bearing  in  mind  that  the  hand  must 
not  hang  lower  than  the  elbow. 

Pain  and  swelling  are  the  immediate  or  early 
results  of  a fracture,  and  it  is  better  for  a non- 
professional in  treating  a case  to  allow  several 
hours,  or  even  a day  or  two,  to  elapse  before  he 
ventures  to  apply  the  splints  and  bandages  as  a 
permanent  dressing.  Yet  the  limb  must  not  be 
left  quite  alone.  Lateral  support  should  be 
given  it  by  small  pillows,  pads  of  tow,  folded 
sheets,  or  some  other  soft  material ; and  cold 
applications,  such  as  lint  dipped  in  cold  water, 
will  aid  in  removing  the  swelling.  If  the  leg  or 
thigh  be  broken,  the  limb  may  be  placed  in  its 
proper  direction  on  one  or  more  long  pillows, 
and  these  tied  at  intervals  around  it  with  some 
tapes  or  cravat  bandages.  In  every  case  of 
fracture  the  patient  must  be  kept  quiet  and  free 
from  excitement,  and  not  allowed  to  exert  him- 
self until  the  wound  is  thoroughly  healed. 

Arm  (Above  the  Elbow). — There  is  only 
one  bone  here.  Provide  four  splints,  with  a 
soft  pad  to  each,  to  reach  from  the  shoulder  to 
the  elbow-joint ; place  one  behind,  one  before, 


and  one  on  each  side,  and  secure  them  well 
with  a bandage  or  straps.  Use  the  sound  arm 


as  a model  to  shape  the  splints  by.  Carry  the 
arm  in  a sling. 

Arm  (Below  the  Elbow). — Here  there  are 
two  bones,  and  one  or  both  may  be  broken.  If 
you  try  to  raise  the  arm  by  taking  hold  of  the 
wrist  you  will  easily  detect  it.  In  dressing,  hold 
the  arm  bent,  with  the  thumb  uppermost — as 
if  the  person  were  going  to  lay  the  palm  flat 


against  his  chest ; place  one  splint  along  the 
palm  of  the  hand  to  the  bend  of  the  arm,  and 
the  other  along:  the  back  of  the  hand  to  a little 


beyond  the  elbow ; apply  a wet  bandage  or 
straps  loosely  to  keep  them  steady,  and  carry 
the  arm  in  a sling.  In  bandaging  the  first  two 
or  three  days  allow  for  swelling. 

Collar-bone. — This  bone  runs  from  the  top 
of  the  breast-bone  to  the  shoulder,  and  is  gen- 
erally broken  near  the  middle.  On  the  sound 
side  the  bone  is  smooth  and  even,  on  the  injured 
side  you  will  observe  the  lump  caused  by  the 
broken  ends  rising  one  over  the  other,  and  if 
the  shoulder  be  pulled  forward,  you  will  see  the 
parts  move  and  the  patient  will  suffer  pain.  In 
a child  the  collar-bone  does  not  break  with  a 
clean  fracture  as  in  an  adult ; the  bone  bends 
to  some  extent  and  then  cracks  without  break- 
ing through.  It  is  important  to  remember  this, 
for  in  a child  you  will  not  see  the  ends  of  the 
bone  move  as  they  do  in  an  adult.  In  treating, 
prepare  a round  pad  the  thickness  of  a man’s 
arm  and  five  inches  long ; push  the  shoulder 
] backwards,  and  press  with  the  other  hand  on 


214 


FRACTURES 


the  fracture  till  you  get  it  in  its  place ; put  the 
pad  into  the  arm-pit,  and  secure  the  arm  with  a 
bandage  round  the  body,  as  shown  in  Fig.  i ; 


Fig.  i.  Fractured  Collar-bone. 


raise  the  fore-arm  well  up  in  a sling.  A bet- 
ter way  of  dressing  it  is  that  shown  in  Fig.  2. 
Take  a band  of  stout  cloth,  three  or  four 
inches  wide  and  five  yards  long.  Lay  one  end 
on  the  shoulder,  bring  the  band  down  the  front, 
around  the  elbow,  and  up  the  back  of  the  shoul- 
der ; then  across  the  breast  to  under  the  other 
arm ; and  then  twice  around  the  body.  Draw 
the  bandage  tight.  Take  the  patient  to  a sur- 
geon, and  let  him  show  you  how  to  fix  it  perma- 


nently; you  will  have  to  watch  over  it  for  a 
month. 

Elbow-joint. — It  sometimes  happens  that 
the  sharp  bone  which  projects  at  the  back  of 
the  elbow  is  broken  by  a fall  or  blow.  The  arm 
cannot  then  be  used  ; and  if  you  compare  the 
two  arms  together,  you  will  find  that  the  point 
of  the  elbow  is  gone,  and  is  drawn  up  towards 


the  back  of  the  upper  arm.  Keep  the  arm  quite 
straight , place  a long  well-padded  splint  on 
the  inside,  and  bandage  both  above  and  below 
the  elbow. 

Hand,  Foot,  or  Ankle. — These  bones  are 
solid  and  are  almost  always  wounded  by  some 
such  accident  as  hreaks  or  crushes  the  bone,  such 
as  by  machinery,  threshing-machines,  etc.,  and 
are  always  serious.  A doctor  must  be  sought 
at  once  ; and  in  the  mean  time  cover  the  wound- 
ed part  with  several  folds  of  rags  or  handker- 
chiefs, dipped  in  cold  water.  If  water  is  not  at 
hand,  wrap  it  up  in  a good  handful  of  damp 
grass.  If  there  be  much  bleeding,  dip  the  wound 
into  cold  water  if  you  can  find  any.  If  the  hand 
is  wounded,  hold  it  on  the  top  of  the  head. 

Head. — Any  accident  sufficiently  severe 
to  fracture  the  bones  of  the  head  or  face, 
or  to  cause  the  person  to  remain  insensible, 
needs  immediate  medical  attention.  All  that 
a non-professional  can  venture  upon  is  to 
place  the  patient  in  a reclining  posture  with 
the  head  raised,  apply  cold  water  to  the 
injured  part,  especially  if  there  be  bleeding, 
and  keep  down  all  noise  and  excitement. 

Hip-joint. — The  bone  here  is  liable  to  be 
broken  in  aged  people  from  any  slight  causes. 
Sometimes  the  person  feels  something  crack  in 
the  hip,  and  cannot  stand  or  rise  from  the 
ground  ; if  placed  upright,  you  will  find  that  the 
injured  limb  is  shorter  than  the  other,  and  the 
foot  turns  outwards.  Remove  the  clothes  care- 
fully, and  keep  the  patient  quietly  in  bed  till  the 
doctor  comes. 

Jaw. — The  lower-jaw  is  sometimes  broken 
by  a blow.  It  is  not  difficult  of  detection  ; the 
bone  in  its  whole  outline  is  so  easily  examined 
by  the  fingers  that  irregularity  or  change  of 
direction  must  be  noticed  at  once.  If  there 
is  but  little  displacement,  it  will  be  enough  to 
support  the  injured  bone  by  one  or  more 


Fractured  Jaw. 


bandages,  so  applied  as  to  retain  the  jaw  in 
place  ; they  may  be  tied,  one  at  the  back  of  the 


FRACTURES 


215 


neck  and  another  across  the  top  of  the  head, 
If,  however,  there  be  displacement  and  separa- 
tion, so  that  the  two  ends  cannot  be  easily 
kept  in  the  same  place,  a further  arrangement 
must  be  contrived.  This  will  best  be  done  by 
employing  a piece  of  gutta  percha,  moulded  so 
as  to  form  a cover  for  the  jaw  on  both  sides, 
and  in  its  whole  length  ; this  will  give  a perfect 
support,  and  may  be  kept  in  place  by  bandages 
applied  as  above  directed.  Three  weeks  or 
more  will  pass  before  the  bones  will  unite 
thoroughly ; and  during  this  period  the  patient 
must  be  supported  on  soups,  beef-tea,  and 
other  liquid  food. 

Knee-cap. — The  cap  of  the  knee  is  usually 
fractured  by  falling  on  the  knee,  or  trying  to 
prevent  falling.  As  soon  as  it  happens,  the 
person  has  lost  all  power  of  standing  on  that 
leg,  and  if  placed  upright  drops  down  again 
instantly.  The  bone  is  split  across,  and  has 
left  a gap  similar  to  that  of  the  elbow  when  the 
bone  is  broken.  Keep  the  leg  quite  straight, 
placing  the  splint  along  the  back  of  the  limb  ; 
and  treat  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  the  elbow- 
joint.  When  the  patient  is  obliged  to  move, 
pass  a strong  bandage  round  the  neck,  over 
the  shoulder,  and  under  the  foot,  and  draw  it 
so  tight  that  it  will  entirely  support  the  weight 
of  the  leg. 

Leg  (Below  the  knee). — Here  there  are  two 
bones  as  in  the  fore-arm.  If  the  small  one  be 
broken,  you  may  have  great  difficulty  in  finding 
it,  and  it  is  of  no  consequence,  as  the  large  one 
will  act  as  a support.  If  both  bones  are  bro- 
ken, the  patient  is  unable  to  raise  his  limb,  there 
is  distortion  and  swelling,  with  pain,  at  the 
place  of  fracture,  and  the  ends  of  the  bone 
will  move  on  one  another  slightly  if  the  foot 
be  raised.  This  fracture  may  be  treated  by 
the  employment  of  two  side  splints ; these 
should  be  applied,  one  to  each  side  of  the 
limb,  and  retained  in  place  by  straps  or  band- 
ages. The  patient  should  then  lie  on  the  side 
corresponding  with  the  fracture,  keeping  the 
limb  as  quiet  and  moving  it  as  seldom  as  possi- 
ble. Or  the  patient  may  have  the  less  irksome 
position  on  his  back  if  the  fractured  limb  be 
steadied  by  a straight  outside  splint,  which 
should  be  made  of  wood  four  fingers  in  width, 
to  reach  from  the  knee  to  below  the  foot,  and 
with  the  lower  end  notched  as  in  the  long 
thigh  splint.  The  inequalities  about  the  ankle 
are  great,  so  that  the  padding  must  be  abund- 
ant and  well  arranged ; the  limb  must  be 
tightly  fixed  to  the  splint  by  means  of  a band- 
age or  straps.  Four  or  five  weeks  confine- 
ment must  be  insisted  on  after  a fracture  of 
this  kind. 

Ribs  (Without  a wound). — The  symptom 
of  a broken  rib,  after  a blow  or  fall,  is  an  aching 
pain,  which  becomes  sharp  on  taking  a deep 
breath,  and  is  referred  to  one  particular  point 
which  is  very  painful  if  pressed ; or,  if  the  ribs 
near  the  back-bone  be  suddenly  pressed,  pain 
will  be  felt,  not  where  you  press,  but  where  the 
bone  is  broken.  If  there  be  spitting  of  blood, 
keep  the  patient  quiet  and  give  no  stimulants. 


| If  there  be  a bruise,  apply  hot  fomentations  or 
a large  hot  poultice ; then  wrap  a bandage  of 
flannel  six  inches  wide  round  the  chest  to  sup- 
port the  injured  part ; draw  this  tight,  and  sew 
it  on  with  large  stitches,  not  placed  opposite 
each  other,  but  more  like  what  is  called  the 
“ herring-bone  stitch  ; ” tighten  it  from  day  to 
day  as  required.  If  the  accident  happens  at 
some  distance  from  the  house,  tie  a handker- 
chief firmly  over  the  clothes  till  you  reach 
home. 

Ribs  (With  a wound). — If  the  wound  be 
merely  a scratch,  after  applying  the  fomenta- 
tions, use  a bit  of  lint  and  plaster,  and  bandage 
as  before ; but  if  it  be  at  all  deep,  even  if  you 
do  not  think  it  has  gone  through  into  the  chest, 
put  on  some  folds  of  wet  rag  and  a bandage. 
Let  the  patient  lie  on  the  injured  side,  ahd  keep 
him  as  quiet  as  possible  till  the  doctor  comes. 
In  all  cases  of  a wound  to  the  chest,  the  person 
must  lie  on  the  wounded  side. 

Thigh. — Fracture  of  the  thigh  may  occur  at 
any  point  throughout  the  shaft  of  the  bone,  and 
is  ascertained  by  the  person  not  being  able  to 
raise  the  leg,  and  by  pain  when  he  attempts  to 
do  so.  The  greatest  trouble  in  this  case  arises 
from  the  violent  spasms  of  the  muscles,  which 
draw  the  broken  bone  out  of  its  place  and 
cause  great  suffering.  If  the  accident  occurs 
in  the  fields,  or  away  from  home,  get  some  stiff 
straw,  reeds,  bits  of  very  thin  boards,  or  if  any- 
body has  a stiff  hat,  knock  the  crown  out, 
split  up  the  body,  and  bind  this  rather  tightly 
with  handkerchiefs,  suspenders,  etc.,  round  the 
broken  limb.  On  reaching  home,  if  the  spasms 
be  severe,  put  a strong  bandage  round  the  an- 
kle, cross  it  over  the  instep  and  bring  the  ends 
together  under  the  foot,  and  to  this  sling  a 
brick  or  any  convenient  article  weighing  about 
eight  pounds.  Let  this  hang  over  the  foot  of 
the  bed,  so  as  to  draw  down  the  leg ; it  will 
afford  great  relief,  and  in  the  mean  time  the 
doctor  must  be  summoned. 

The  best  dressing  for  a fractured  thigh  is  a 
long  splint  on  the  outside  of  the  leg,  with  a 
shorter  one  on  the  inside.  For  an  adult  the 
splints  should  be  about  four  fingers  in  breadth, 
and  thoroughly  well  padded.  The  outer  one 
should  project  some  four  inches  below  the  foot, 
and  reach  up  to  midway  between  the  upper 
prominence  of  the  thigh-bone  and  the  arm- 
pit.  In  the  first  place,  the  whole  leg  should 
be  evenly  bandaged  from  toes  to  groin ; then 
apply  the  outer  splint,  and  fasten  the  leg  firmly 
to  it.  It  is  customary  to  have  two  deep  notches 
cut  at  the  lower  extremity  of  the  splint,  and  two 
holes  bored  through  it  close  to  the  upper  end. 
The  foot  must  be  fixed  to  the  lower  end  by 
carrying  the  bandage  round  the  ankle  and  in- 
step, and  then,  after  each  turn,  through  the 
notches  just  mentioned.  Then  the  leg,  to  a 
little  above  the  knee,  must  be  bandaged  to 
the  splint ; and,  this  point  reached,  the  upper 
end  of  the  splint  must  be  fixed  so  as  to 
prevent  shortening  at  the  fractured  point,  by 
passing  a folded  handkerchief  round  the  groin, 
the  two  ends  of  which  may  be  threaded  through 


216 


FRAMES 


FRENCH  COOKERY 


the  holes  at  the  upper  extremity  of  the  splint, 
and  firmly  knotted.  The  inner  splint,  reaching 
only  from  inside  of  knee  to  the  groin,  should  now 
be  put  on,  and  the  bandage  carried  upwards 
round  and  round  so  as  to  encircle  the  whole, 


and  retain  both  splints  in  close  contact  with  the 
thigh.  Pocket  handkerchiefs  or  strips  of  cloth 
should  fasten  the  splint  to  the  abdomen,  the 
knot  in  tying  them  being  made  upon  the  splint. 
The  patient  must  of  necessity  lie  on  his  back 


Fractured  Thigh. 


during  recovery,  and  six  or  eight  weeks  will  pass 
over  before  the  fracture  is  thoroughly  healed. 

FRAMES  (Gilt).— To  preserve  them  from 
flies  in  summer,  boil  three  or  four  onions  in  a 
pint  of  water ; then  with  a painter’s  brush  dip- 
ped in  the  infusion,  wash  over  the  gilded  por- 
tions of  the  frames.  Once  during  the  spring 
and  summer  will  be  often  enough  to  apply  it. 

FRANGIPANE. — A French  paste  used  for 
tartlets  or  any  kind  of  pastry.  It  is  made  by 
moistening  two  ounces  of  flour  with  a little 
milk,  and  heating  the  two  together  in  a sauce- 
pan ; then  add  three  or  four  eggs,  and  stir  to- 
gether till  cool  enough  to  make  up  with  the 
hand. 

Frangipane  de  Pommes-de-Terre. — Cook 
some  potatoes  by  steam,  take  off  the  skins, 
and  mash  them  well ; then  put  them  into  a ba- 
sin, add  some  eggs  (four  to  a pound  of  the 
potatoes),  a little  butter,  salt,  grated  citron, 
some  bitter  macaroons,  sugar  or  not,  according 
to  taste,  and  use  it  as  a paste  in  all  sorts  of 
entre?nets  of  pastry. 

FRECKLES. — These  are  commonly  consti- 
tutional, appearing  in  childhood  and  lasting 
through  life.  Sometimes  they  seem  to  be  caused 
by  exposure  to  sun  and  wind,  and  then  they 
disappear  to  a great  extent  with  removal  of  the 
cause.  Treatment  of  the  permanent  freckles 
has  generally  very  little  effect,  but  the  fol- 
lowing applications  may  be  tried  : — Take  of 
muriatic  acid,  one  drachm ; rain-water,  half  a 
pint ; spirit  of  lavender,  half  a teaspoonful ; 
mix.  Apply  it  two  or  three  times  a day  to  the 
freckles  with  a bit  of  linen,  or  a camel-hair  pen- 
cil. Or,  with  one  ounce  of  elder-flower  oint- 
ment, mix  twenty  grains  of  sulphate  of  zinc. 
Rub  this  into  the  skin  at  night,  and  next  morn- 
ing wash  with  soap  and  water  and  apply  a lo- 
tion made  of  half  a pint  of  infusion  of  rose- 
leaves,  mixed  with  thirty  grains  of  citric  acid. 
If  these  applications  irritate  the  skin,  use  as  a 
lotion : almond  mixture,  half  a pint ; Goulard’s 
Extract,  half  a drachm. 

FRENCH  CHALK.  (See  Chalk.) 

FRENCH  COOKERY  (Terms  used  in).— 
Such  of  the  dishes  and  processes  peculiar  to 
French  cookery  as  it  seems  worth  while  to  di- 
rect attention  to,  have  been  treated  of  in  their 


appropriate  places ; but  the  descriptive  terms 
used  in  that  cookery  are  now  so  commonly  intro- 
duced into  culinary  and  other  treatises  that  a 
vocabulary  of  them  can  hardly  fail  to  prove  prac- 
tically useful  here : — 

Allemande,  veloute  sauce  reduced  and 
thickened  with  yolks  of  eggs. 

Assiette  volante,  dish  passed  round. 

Au  naturel,  cooked  and  served  in  its  natural 
state  ; plain. 

Baba,  a light  sort  of  cake,  served  as  a re- 
move to  the  second  course  roast. 

Beignet,  fritter. 

Bisque,  a soup  of  shell-fish  and  game. 

Blanc,  a rich  white  broth  in  which  game, 
poultry,  etc.,  are  cooked. 

Blancher,  to  render  white,  to  remove  hulls. 

Blanquette,  scollops  cut  from  cold  roast 
joints  and  warmed  in  allemande  sauce. 

Boudin,  an  oblong  Quenelle  poached  in  broth 
filled  with  minced  red'tongue,  truffle,  etc. 

Bouilli,  boiled  fresh  beef  with  vegetables. 

Braising,  a process  of  cooking  with  fire  on 
the  cover  of  the  pot. 

Brioche,  a light  sort  of  cake. 

Buisson,  a high  standing  dish  of  sugar-work 
and  pastry. 

Caramel,  burnt  sugar,  for  coloring  soups. 

Casserole,  a mould  of  rice,  a stewpan. 

Chartreuse,  game,  chicken,  etc.,  put  in  a 
mould,  lined  with  vegetables  in  a rich  pattern. 

Compotier,  a dish  to  hold  the  compote. 

Court  Bouillon,  a preparation  of  wine,  water, 
and  savory  herbs  in  which  fish  is  cooked. 

Consomme,  a strong,  clear,  sparkling  soup. 

Cullis,  a very  rich  white  or  brown  gravy. 

Croustade,  bread  carved  to  represent  a vase, 
etc.,  to  hold  ragouts  and  other  preparations. 

Croquettes,  a sweet  or  savory  preparation, 
bread-crumbed  and  fried  crisp. 

Crofltons,  fried  bread  cut  for  garnishing. 

En  papillote,  cooked  in  oiled  paper. 

Entrees,  made  dishes,  for  the  first  course. 

Entremets,  dressed  vegetables,  large  sal- 
ads, sweets  of  all  description,  hot  jellies,  etc. 

Espagnole,  one  of  the  grand  stock  sauces, 
from  which  is  made  the  special  sauces — brown. 

Farcie,  forcemeat. 

Feuilletage,  puff  paste. 


FRICASSEE 


FRITTERS 


217 


Fricandeau,  a piece  of  the  inside  of  leg  of 
veal,  larded  and  stewed. 

Friture,  frying-pan. 

Gateau,  cake. 

Gras,  made  from  meat. 

Glace,  a term  employed  promiscuously,  but 
simply  meaning  a shining  surface,  whether  a 
cake  iced,  or  a ham  glazed. 

Gratinate,  to  make  rich  by  reducing. 

Grenadins,  the  fricandeau  piece  of  veal  cut 
into  thick  cutlets. 

Jardiniere,  a vegetable  garnish  boiled  down 
in  its  own  gravy. 

Liaison,  a thickening  of  yolk  of  eggs  diluted. 

Macedoine,  many  varieties  of  vegetables 
boiled  down  as  jardiniere. 

Maigre,  made  without  meat. 

Marinade,  a preparation  for  enriching  the 
flavor  of  meat,  fish,  etc.,  made  of  wine,  vinegar, 
water,  herbs,  and  vegetables,  of  oil,  vinegar, 
etc.,  and  of  liquor,  sugars,  and  spices. 

Miroton,  a rechauffe,  very  nicely  prepared. 

Nouilles,  a paste  of  Hour,  cream,  and  eggs. 

Noix  de  veau,  technical  term  meaning  cush- 
ion, that  part  of  the  leg  of  veal  next  the  udder. 

Paner,  to  bread-crumb. 

Panieres,  to  cover  with  bread-crumbs. 

Passer,  to  fry  lightly. 

Pigne,  to  lard  on  the  surface  only. 

Foelee,  a braise  to  enrich  game,  etc. 

Potage,  soup  or  light  broth. 

Profitrolles,  a light  pastry  used  as  an  en- 
tremet. 

Puree,  meat,  vegetables,  fish,  etc.,  after  being 
cooked,  chopped  fine,  pounded  in  a mortar  to 
a smooth  paste,  rubbed  through  the  tamis, 
diluted  with  the  liquor  it  was  cooked  in. 

Quenelles,  a rich  farcie  moulded  in  forms 
and  poached  in  broth. 

Ragout,  consisting  of  one  or  more  ingredi- 
ents in  a rich  brown  or  white  cullis. 

Rissoles,  small  pastry  consisting  of  either 
savory  or  sweets,  fried. 

Roux,  a thickening  of  flour  and  butter. 

Salmi,  a hash  of  game  served  in  a sauce 
made  of  the  trimmings. 

Salpi$on,  a preparation  of  red  tongue,  ham, 
mushrooms,  and  chicken  or  game,  chiefly 
used  to  fill  boudins,  croquette,  bouchees,  etc. 

Saute,  to  cook  quickly  over  a sharp  fire  with 
just  enough  oil  or  butter  to  prevent  sticking. 

Sautoir,  saute-pan. 

Tamis,  a sieve  of  fine  cloth  wire,  also  of 
coarse  woollen  cloth. 

Timbale,  a pie  raised  in  a mould. 

Toppot,  the  surface  fat  from  the  common 
stock-pot. 

Tourte,  a tart,  of  fresh  or  preserved  fruit. 

Vanner,  to  use  sauce  with  a small  ladle  in 
peculiar  manner. 

Veloute,  the  grand  stock  sauce  for  white 
sauce,  as  Espagnole  is  for  brown. 

FRICASSEE. — A dish  made  qf  chickens  or 
any  small  animal,  dressed  or  fried.  Receipts 
for  various  kinds  of  it  are  given  in  different 
parts  of  the  work.  (See  Chicken,  Frog, 
Parsnip,  Veal.) 


FRIEZE. — A kind  of  coarse  woollen  cloth 
or  stuff,  resembling  baize,  witftAnap  on  one 
side,  this  nap  is  of  a peculiar  kind^>^to^isting 
of  little  tufts  or  burrs,  called  the yW^Ar^^iCh 
is  made  by  the  machine  in  weaving,  it  comes 
only  in  dark  colors,  and  is  a yard  wide. 

FRINGE. — Fringes  are  for  furniture,  or  for 
ladies’  dresses.  The  former  are  from  two  to 
four  inches  deep,  and  comes  in  three  varieties  : 
plain  head,  plain  head  and  bullion , and 
gimp  head.  Those  for  dresses  are  called 
“ fancy  fringes,”  are  made  of  worsted  or  silk, 
and  come  from  half  an  inch  to  three  or  four 
inches  in  width. 

FRITTERS. — Take  /-Flour,  i pt;  eggs,  4 ; 
boiling  water,  1 pt ; salt,  1 teaspoonful. 

While  the  water  is  boiling,  stir  in  the  flour 
gradually,  and  let  it  boil  three  minutes,  stirring 
all  the  time  ; take  from  the  fire,  stir  in  the  yolks 
of  the  eggs,  one  by  one,  and  afterwards  the 
whites,  which  must  be  previously  whipped  to  a 
froth.  Drop  it  by  spoonfuls  into  boiling  hot 
lard,  and  fry  to  a light  brown.  Serve  hot,  pow- 
dered over  with  white  sugar. 

Apple  Fritters. — I.  Take  : — Flour,  10  oz  ; 
milk,  3 gills ; eggs,  2 ; sour  apples,  chopped 
fine,  or  sliced  thin,  2. 

Beat  the  yolks  very  light ; mix  in  the  milk 
and  flour;  whisk  the  whites  to  a stiff  froth  and 
stir  them  in  very  gently ; add  the  apple  and 
drop  the  batter  by  the  spoonful  in  hot  lard  an 
inch  and  a half  deep. 

II.  Make  a batter  same  as  in  first  recipe. 
Peel  the  apples;  slice  them  across  into  rounds, 
from  which  remove  the  cores ; dip  these  slices 
into  the  batter,  and  fry  them  to  a light  brown 
and  until  tender.  Pile  them  regularly  on  the 
dish  and  dust  with  white  sugar  before  serving. 
Some  steep  the  sliced  apples  in  brandy  before 
dipping  them  into  the  batter. 

Bread  Fritters. — Take  .--Bread-crumbs,  1 pt ; 
Zante  currants,  ]/z  lb ; milk,  1 pt ; butter,  1 
tablespoonful ; powdered  white  sugar,  % lb ; 
eggs,  6 ; brandy,  2 tablespoonfuls. 

Grate  some  bread  into  a dish  until  you  have 
a pint  of  crumbs  ; pour  over  these  a pint  of 
boiling  milk,  in  which  a tablespoonful  of  butter 
has  been  melted  ; cover  the  pan,  and  let  it 
stand  an  hour.  Then  beat  the  mixture  up 
well,  flavor  with  nutmeg,  and  add  a quarter  of 
a pound  of  powdered  white  sugar,  stirred  in 
gradually,  and  two  tablespoonfuls  of  brandy ; 
beat  six  eggs  till  very  light,  and  stir  them  by 
degrees  into  the  mixture  ; lastly,  add  the  cur- 
rants (washed,  dried,  and  dredged  well  with 
flour),  a few  at  a time,  and  beat  the  whole 
together  very  hard.  It  should  be  a thick  bat- 
ter ; if  it  turns  out  too  thin  add  a little  flour. 
Have  ready  over  the  fire  a frying-pan  with 
boiling  lard;  put  in  the  batter  in  large  spoon- 
fuls (be  careful  not  to  let  them  run  into  each 
other)  and  fry  to  a light  brown.  Drain  them 
on  a perforated  skimmer,  or  an  inverted  sieve, 
and  send  them  to  table  hot.  Serve  with  wine 
and  powdered  sugar. 

Fruit  Fritters. — Take  .--Flour,  Ii  pts;  milk, 
1 gill ; cream,  1 pt  (or  a pint  of  milk  with  a 


218 


FRITTERS 


FROG 


teaspoonful  of  melted  butter  in  it)  ; eggs,  6;  salt, 
2 teaspoonfuls. 

Mix  these  ingredients  together  ; add  either 
blackberries,  currants,  gooseberries,  or  rasp- 
berries ; and  fry  in  small  cakes  to  a light  brown. 
Eat  with  a sauce  made  of  butter,  beaten  up 
with  sugar,  and  flavored  with  wine,  or  nutmeg, 
or  grated  lemon-peel. 

Indian  Meal  Fritters. — Take  /-Eggs,  4; 
milk,  1 pt ; yellow  corn  meal,  1 pt ; flour,  2 
gills  ; salt,  1 even  teaspoonful. 

Beat  the  yolks  of  the  eggs  until  very  light ; 
add  the  milk,  meal,  flour  and  salt ; beat  hard, 
then  whisk  the  whites  to  a stiff  froth  and  mix 
them  very  gently  with  the  batter ; drop  by  the 
spoonful  in  hot  lard  an  inch  and  a half  deep. 
As  fast  as  the  fritters  are  done,  take  them  out 
with  a perforated  skimmer,  through  the  holes 
of  which  let  the  lard  drip  back  into  the  pot. 
Send  them  to  table  hot,  and  eat  them  with  wine 
and  sugar,  or  with  molasses. 

Lobster  Fritters. — Cut  the  meat  of  a boiled 
lobster  in  small,  neat  dice  ; have  4 pint  of 
stiffly  reduced  allemande  sauce,  add  the  lobster, 
season  with  cayenne,  mace,  salt,  and  white 
pepper  ; form  in  the  shape  of  corks,  dip  in 
batter,  and  fry  to  a fine  brown  in  plenty  of 
lard. 

Mincemeat  Fritters. — Mincemeat,  y'2  lb; 
bread-crumbs,  2 oz.  (or  flour,  1 tablespoonful); 
eggs,  2;  juice  of  fz  lemon. 

Mix  the  above  ingredients  together  well  and 
drop  the  mixture  by  dessertspoonfuls  into  boil- 
ing lard ; fry  them  seven  or  eight  minutes, 
drain  them  on  a napkin  or  white  blotting  paper, 
and  send  them  to  table  very  hot.  These  are 
very  nice. 

Pear  and  Peach  Fritters. — Pears,  peaches, 
oranges,  or  apricots,  can  be  made  into  fritters 
in  the  same  way  as  apples. 

Potato  Fritters. — Take  .--White  potatoes, 
2 (14  oz);  eggs,  4;  cream,  1 tablespoonful; 
sweet  wine,  1 tablespoonful ; lemon  and  nut- 
meg. 

Boil  two  large  potatoes,  and  mash  them  well ; 
beat  four  yolks  and  three  whites  of  eggs,  and 
stir  them  in ; add  the  cream,  wine,  a squeeze  of 
lemon  juice,  and  a little  nutmeg.  Beat  this  bat- 
ter half  an  hcnir  at  least.  It  will  be  extremely 
light.  Have  plenty  of  boiling  lard,  drop  a 
spoonful  of  the  batter  at  a time  into  it,  and 
fry  to  a light  brown.  Serve  with  a sauce  com- 
posed of  a wineglassful  of  white  wine,  the 
juice  of  a lemon,  one  dessertspoonful  of  peach- 
leaf  or  almond  water,  and  some  white  sugar, 
warmed  together.  Or  make  a sauce  of  butter 
and  sugar  beaten  together  and  flavored  with 
wine. 

Rice  Fritters. — Take:- Rice  and  milk. 

Steep  a quarter  of  a pound  of  boiled  rice  in 
half  a pint  of  milk,  make  it  into  thin  cakes,  and 
fry  them  in  butter  to  a light  brown.  Serve  with 
sweet  or  wine  sauce,  made  as  above. 

Spanish  Fritters. — Cut  a French  roll  into 
lengths,  as  thick  as  the  finger,  in  any  approved 
shape.  Soak  in  a batter  made  of  two  table- 
spoonfuls of  cream  and  one  tablespoonful  of 


sugar,  flavored  with  nutmeg  and  pounded  cin- 
namon, and  beaten  up  with  an  egg.  When  well 
soaked,  fry  to  a light  brown,  and  serve  with  a 
sauce  made  of  butter  and  sugar  flavored  with 
wine. 

Venetian  Fritters. — Take  /-Whole  rice,  4 
oz ; milk,  1 pt ; sugar,  2 oz ; butter,  1 oz ; grat- 
ed rind  of  a lemon  ; currants,  30Z;  minced 
apples,  4 oz ; Hour,  1 teaspoonful ; eggs,  3 ; 
salt. 

Wash  and  drain  three  ounces  of  whole  rice, 
put  it  into  a pint  of  cold  milk,  and  bring  it  very 
slowly  to  the  boiling-point  ; stir  it  Often,  and 
let  it  simmer  gently  until  it  is  quite  thick  and 
dry.  When  nearly  done,  add  to  it  two  ounces 
of  pounded  sugar,  and  one  of  fresh  butter,  a 
pinch  of  salt,  and  the  grated  rind  of  half  a 
small  lemon.  Let  it  cool  in  the  sauce-pan,  and 
when  only  just  warm,  mix  with  it  thoroughly 
three  ounces  of  currants,  four  of  apples  chop- 
ped fine,  a teaspoonful  of  flour,  and  three  well- 
beaten  eggs.  Drop  the  mixture  in  small  fritters, 
fry  them  from  five  to  seven  minutes,  and  let  them 
become  quite  firm  on  one  side  before  they  are 
turned.  Drain  them  as  they  are  taken  up,  and 
sift  white  sugar  over  them  after  they  are  dished. 

FROG.-The  frog,  which  is  so  frequently  eaten 
in  France  and  many  parts  of  the  Continent,  is 
not  our  common  frog,  but  another  species  some- 
! what  larger,  the  Rana  esculent  a.  It  is  of  a 
green  color,  spotted  with  black,  and  having  two 
: pale  yellow  lines  down  the  back.  It  is  the 
. hind  quarters  only  that  are  eaten,  and  these 
are  more  fleshy  than  the  thigh  of  our  common 
frog,  resembling  the  most  delicate  chicken. 
The  loins  and  fore-legs  are  used  in  soup. 
This  frog  is  rare  in  this  country,  and 
the  only  edible  frogs  are  the  bullfrogs  in 
their  several  varieties,  of  which  the  “ Gibbon’s 
green  frog”  is  the  best.  They  are  sold  in  our 
markets  by  some  of  the  fishermen,  ready  skin- 
ned, at  so  much  per  piece  or  dozen,  according  to 
the  size.  They  arc  very  delicate,  and  sweet  to 
the  taste  ; and  those  who  try  them  seldom  hes- 
itate to  eat  them  again. 

Fried  Frog. — Skin  well ; cut  off  the  hind 
legs  and  throw  them  into  boiling  water,  with  a 
little  salt,  for  five  minutes ; take  out  and  lay 
them  in  cold  water  to  cool,  then  drain.  Have 
hot  fat  in  a frying-pan  on  the  fire ; and  fry  them 
to  a light,  crisp  brown. 

Fricasseed  Frog. — Cut  off  and  skin  the  hind 
legs,  and,  giving  them  a turn  or  two  in  a sauce- 
pan of  boiling  water,  throw  them  into  cold 
water,  and  put  them  into  a sauce-pan  with  but- 
ton mushrooms,  a bunch  of  parsley,  garlic,  one 
cloves,  and  a bit  of  butter.  Add  a pinch  of 
flour,  and  moisten  with  a glass  of  white  wine 
and  a little  broth.  Throw  in  some  pepper  and 
salt,  and  cook  them  until  they  are  tender. 
Take  them  out ; boil  down  the  sauce  to  a smaller 
quantity  ; thicken  it  with  yolks  of  egg,  and  a 
bit  of  butter ; throw  in  some  chopped  and 
scalded  parsley,  and  pour  it  over  the  legs  in 
their  dish. 

Stewed  Frog. — Prepare  and  dress  hind  legs 
same  as  stewed  chicken.  (See  Chicken.) 


FROST-BITES 


FRUIT 


210 


FROST-BITES. — These  result  from  ex- 
posure to  cold  and  especially  to  a cold  wind, 
and  affect  only  the  extremities,  and  projecting 
parts  of  the  body,  as  hands,  feet,  nose  and 
ears.  They  are  caused  by  the  cold  arresting 
the  circulation  of  the  blood  in  the  exposed 
parts,  and  are  frequently  so  rapid  and  so  free 
from  pain  that  a person  is  not  aware  of  any- 
thing wrong. 

Treatment. — Keep  the  person  away  from  the 
heat,  if  he  is  allowed  to  come  near  a fire  or  into 
a warm  room  it  will  burst  the  local  blood  ves- 
sels, causing  dreadful  suffering  and  trouble- 
some wounds.  Rub  the  part  well  with  snow  ; 
and  if  snow  cannot  be  had,  get  the  coldest 
water.  Let  the  patient  rub  himself  if  possible, 
for  the  exertion  will  stimulate  the  circulation  of 
the  blood  and  help  him  to  keep  warm.  Con- 
tinue this  rubbing  for  several  hours  if  neces- 
sary, till  the  parts  are  quite  soft,  and  something 
like  the  natural  color  is  restored.  Even  when 
this  point  has  been  reached,  friction  with  flan- 
nels, continued  for  some  time,  will  be  of  great 
advantage.  After  this  has  been  done,  the  parts 
may  be  anointed  with  sweet  oil,  or  lard,  or 
lime-water  and  oil  (equal  parts),  and  wrapped 
up  well  with  flannel.  If  there  should  be  any 
sores,  dress  them  the  same  as  burns. 

FROST  FISH.  (See  Tom-Cod). 

FROZEN  LIMBS,  ETC.— Whether  the 
whole  body  or  a part  only  is  affected  by  cold, 
the  method  of  treatment  is  the  same.  Avoid  a 
sudden  change  of  temperature.  If  a person  be 
found  quite  benumbed  with  cold,  if  he  is  taken 
direct  to  a fire,  his  life  will  probably  be  de- 
stroyed ; a barn,  or  shed,  a room  which  feels 
very  cold  to  you,  is  warm  enough  at  first.  Re- 
move the  clothes  if  wet,  and  rub  the  body  dry. 
Wrap  him  in  blankets,  and  give  a little  warm 
wine  and  water,  or  weak  spirits  and  water  or 
tea.  After  a while,  remove  him  to  a warm 


room,  but  stm  not  near  a fire,  and  so  gradually 
increase  the  warmth.  Rubbing  the  skin  is  the 
most  important  restorative  agent ; proceed  as 
for  Frost-Bites.  If  the  vital  functions  are 
suspended,  artificial  respiration  may  be  set  up 
according  to  the  directions  given  in  article  on 
Drowned. 

Whenever  a person  is  exposed  to  intensely 
cold  weather  without  being  able  to  reach  a place 
of  shelter,  he  should  the  moment  he  finds  his 
strength  failing , look  out  for  a snow  drift, 
sheltered  from  the  wind  by  a hill  or  some  other 
object,  and  at  once  scrape  out  a hole  in  it  large 
enough  for  the  body,  and  then  crawl  into  it. 
The  snow  will  shelter  him  from  the  cold  and 
wind,  and  keep  him  warm.  Human  beings  and 
sheep  have  lain  for  days  this  way  and  been 
saved,  and  generally  it  is  the  only  chance. 

Nipped. — This  is  another  effect  of  cold,  and 
is  generally  caused  by  standing  or  walking 
against  a very  cold  wind.  Persons  suffering 
from  it  are  seized  suddenly  with  severe  pain  in 
the  bowels  and  drawn  together  with  cramps : 
the  hands  are  swollen,  and  the  head  aches 
| violently.  The  treatment  should  be  similar  to 
I that  already  described  : a warm  room  or  fire 
must  be  avoided  at  first,  and  warmth  gradually 
: restored.  Any  kind  of  warm  stimulating  drinks 
! may  be  taken  in  small  quantities  at  short  inter- 
vals, and  after  warmth  is  somewhat  restored, 
warm  flannels  should  be  applied  to  the  parts 
which  are  most  painful. 

FRUITS. — This  very  large  class  of  vegetable 
products  comprises  representatives  from  every 
hot  and  temperate  climate,  and  offers  the 
greatest  variety  of  flavors,  and  those  of  the 
most  agreeable  character,  of  all  vegetable  and 
animal  foods.  The  true  position  of  fruits  as 
food  is  less  that  of  nutrients  than  of  agreeable 
luxuries.  Their  qualities,  however,  place  them 
in  the  first  rank  of  subsidiary,  or  luxurious 


foods,  since  they  supply  an  agre„aDie  and  re- 1 and  by  acting  upon  the  sense  of  taste  may 
freshing  material  when  taken  alone  or  with  ultimately  induce  the  invalid  to  eat  food  of  a 
other  foods,  which  in  health  is  desirable,  and  in  ! more  nutritive  character.  The  albuminous 
disease  almost  necessary  to  life.  They  will  be  fruits,  such  as  cocoa-nuts,  filberts,  aim  nds, 
taken  by  the  sick  when  nothing  else  is  desired  hickory  nuts,  and  the  like,  are,  as  Dr.  Smith 


220 


FRUIT 


FRYING 


says,  really  seeds,  and  contain  a large  propor- 
tion of  nutritive  matter.  The  different  varieties 
of  fruit  are  treated  of  in  their  proper  places  in 
various  parts  of  the  work. 

All  fruits  designed  for  immediate  eating 
should  be  gathered  before  ten  o’clock  in  the 
morning  during  summer,  in  order  to  obtain  their 
best  flavor.  To  store  fruit,  gather  it  in  the 
middle  of  a dry  day,  being  very  careful  not  to 
bruise  or  injure  it  in  any  way.  As  to  time,  the 
safest  rule  is  to  observe  when  the  fruit  begins 
to  fall  naturally;  unripe  fruit  never  keeps  so 
well  as  that  which  is  nearly  ripe — it  is  more  apt 
to  shrivel  and  lose  flavor.  A moist,  but  not 
damp,  atmosphere  is  best  for  keeping  fruits ; 
and  as  many  persons  have  cellars  who  have  not 
fruit-rooms,  they  should  store  their  fruit  in  a 
corner  of  the  cellar  in  preference  to  dry  closets 
in  higher  parts  of  the  house.  Again,  fruit 
keeps  better  and  longer  in  the  dark  than  when 
exposed  to  the  light.  ( See  Candying  Fruit, 
and  Canning  Fruit.) 

FRUIT  (Wax,  to  make).  —The  first  process 
is  forming  the  mould  from  which  the  cast  of 
fruit  is  to  be  taken.  This  is  done  by  mixing 
plaster  of  Paris  with  water,  to  the  consistency 
of  thick  paint.  As  the  mould  of  fruit  cannot 
be  taken  whole,  it  is  necessary  to  prepare  it  for 
the  parts  required.  For  an  apple,  orange,  or 
pear,  two  parts  will  be  sufficient ; but  in  other 
cases,  when  the  fruit  abounds  in  irregularities, 
it  is  requisite  to  take  the  mould  in  three  or  more 
parts,  otherwise  it  will  be  difficult  to  remove. 

In  preparing  an  apple,  etc.,  it  is  necessary  to 
oil  the  surface  of  one  half  of  the  fruit,  which, 
having  done,  place  over  it  the  plaster  of  Paris  ; 
as  it  sets,  or  dries,  which  it  will  do  very  quickly, 
smooth  the  edges  to  the  exact  half,  with  a 
knife,  making  at  the  same  time  several  notches 
in  the  edge,  in  order  that  the  two  parts,  when 
taken,  may  fit  closely ; when  the  plaster  is  suf- 
ficiently hardened,  oil  the  edge  with  a camel- 
hair  pencil,  and  prepare  for  taking  the  mould  of 
the  second  half,  which  is  performed  in  the  same 
manner ; the  two  halves,  placed  together,  will 
form  a perfect  mould,  the  plaster  being  readily 
removed  by  means  of  oiling. 

The  next  process  is  taking  the  cast;  the 
parts  of  the  mould  will  be  rendered  more  hard 
by  immersion  in  cold  water ; all  the  parts  must 
now  be  bound  together  with  string.  Prepare 
the  wax  by  melting  it  to  the  consistency  of 
cream,  pour  it  into  the  mould  at  the  aperture 
caused  by  the  stalk,  which  must  be  increased 
should  the  orifice  be  not  sufficiently  capacious 
to  admit  the  wax ; when  the  wax  is  thoroughly 
hardened,  the  string  must  be  removed,  and  the 
pieces  of  the  mould  taken  from  the  fruit ; a 
perfect  cast  of  the  fruit  is  thus  produced.  The 
colors  used  are  to  be  obtained  in  powder,  and 
delicately  put  on  the  wax  by  means  of  the 
finger,  the  lighter  parts  being  touched  with  a 
camels-hair  pencil. 

With  some  descriptions  of  fruit,  as  an  orange, 
grapes,  etc.,  the  color  may  be  put  in  the  wax 
and  the  bloom  produced  afterwards  by  the  use 
of  the  powder.  The  stalks  are  formed  and  in- 


serted at  the  top  of  the  fruit.  The  leaves  are 
produced  by  thin  sheets  of  wax,  punched  out 
to  the  size  required,  with  punches  prepared  for 
the  purpose ; these  can  be  obtained  at  most 
hardware  stores. 

FRUMETY. — Roast  a quarter  of  a pint  of 
wheat  till  it  is  done ; then  boil  it  in  water  for 
three  or  four  hours ; pour  off  the  water,  and 
add  one  quart  of  milk,  two  spoonfuls  of  flour, 
two  eggs,  half  a teacupful  of  raisins  and  cur- 
rants, a little  lemon-peel  and  cinnamon.  Boil  a 
quarter  of  an  hour  and  serve. 

FRYING. — Considered  generally  to  be  the 
most  unhealthful  mode  of  cooking  practiced ; 
although  if  carefully  performed  there  seems  no 
reason  why  an  article  which  is  fried  may  not 
be  as  nutritious  as  an  article  which  is  baked, 
and  just  as  conducive  to  general  health.  While 
of  course  it  is  not  wise  to  supply  a quantity  of 
fried  dishes,  it  is  not  wise  to  supply,  without 
change,  dishes  which  are  boiled  or  roasted. 


Wire  Lining  for  Frying-pan. 


Frying,  as  usually  performed  in  American 
kitchens,  is  unhealthful  because  performed  un- 
skillfully.  Considering  the  frequent  slice  of 
bread-crumbed  fish,  reeking  with  black  grease, 
it  is  no  wonder  that  frying  is  so  generally 
condemned. 


The  proper  mode  of  cooking  is  to  entirely 
immerse  the  article  to  be  fried  in  smoking  hot 
fat— either  clarified  beef  drippings,  lard,  or  oil; 
on  no  account  use  butter,  as  cooking  butter 
produces  some  change  (probably  chemical) 
that  makes  it  one  of  the  most  indigestible  sub- 
stances known.  The  moment  the  article  to  lie 
cooked  touches  fat  sufficiently  hot,  its  surface 
becomes  coagulated,  making  it  impossible  for 
the  fat  to  get  in  or  the  natural  juices  to  get  out. 
It  is  well  to  protect  some  articles  in  frying  by 
placing  them  on  wire  supports. 


English  Frying-pan. 


Have,  on  a sharp  fire,  a deep  frying-pan  more 
than  half  filled  with  beef  drippings.  Your  ar- 
ticle for  frying  is  crumbed  and  ready  to  cook  ; 
now  if,  on  looking  across  the  pan,  you  see  a 
thin,  bluish  smoke  rising,  lay  in  the  article 


FUCHSIA 


FULLER’S  EARTH 


221 


and  keep  the  pan  gently  moving,  so  that  the 
contents  do  not  stick  to  the  sides.  Turn  the 
article  once  or  twice,  and  when  of  a fine  buff 
color,  take  it  out  ; lay  it  for  a moment  on  clean, 
brown  paper  to  absorb  the  fat  ; garnish  and 
serve  sufficiently  hot. 


Saute  Pan. 

Sauteeing  is  an  entirely  different  process,  in 
that  only  enough  fat  or  butter  is  used  to  pre- 
vent the  article  cooked  from  sticking  to  the 
sautoir,  while  it  is  browned  quickly  over  a very 
hot  fire.  Then  enough  gravy  is  added  (if  the 
dish  is  not  bread-crumbed)  for  the  sauce.  Per- 
mit it  to  simmer  a moment  or  two,  and  then 
instantly  serve. 

FUCHSIA. — Fuchsias  are  among  the  most 
desirable  of  plants,  either  for  outdoor  or  indoor 
culture.  They  are  extremely  easy  to  grow ; they 
bear  a profusion  of  flowers,  and  both  flowers 
and  foliage  are  very  beautiful.  In  the  garden, 
a moist,  shady  position  is  the  most  suitable  ; 
the  noonday  sun  scorches  the  tender  buds  and 
causes  them  to  fall.  Fuchsias  are  gross  feed- 
ers and  luxuriate  in  the  richest  soil.  A rich 
loam,  well  mixed  with  leaf  mould  and  rotted 
cow  manure,  should  be  provided  for  them  ; and 
twice  a week  during  the  summer  they  should 
have  liquid  manure,  either  from  the  barn-yard, 
or  by  dissolving  one  tablespoonful  of  guano  in 
a gallon  of  warm  water.  Water  twice  a day 
in  dry  weather  with  tepid  water.  T reated  thus, 
some  kinds  will  send  out  shoots  from  four  to 
five  feet  in  length  in  six  or  eight  months. 

Fuchsias  may  be  grown  either  from  seeds  or 
cuttings,  but  the  former  method  is  dubious  and 
troublesome  and  it  is  best  either  to  buy  the 
plants  of  the  florist  or  to  raise  from  cuttings. 
Take  the  cuttings  either  in  February,  March,  or 
April,  from  three  to  four  inches  long.  Plant 
them  in  clear  sand,  keep  “ sopping  wet,”  and  in 
three  weeks  they  will  be  well  rooted ; put  in 
three  inch  pots,  in  the  richest  of  soil,  with  a 
little  sand  to  keep  it  mellow ; let  them  grow 
until  the  pot  is  well  filled  with  roots,  which  will 
be  in  three  or  four  weeks  ; then  re-pot  in  six  or 
eight-inch  pots,  if  designed  to  grow  in  them ; 
but  if  raised  to  bed  out,  plant  at  the  start  in 
five-inch  pots,  and  when  all  fear  of  frost  is 
passed,  plant  in  the  garden.  Fuchsias  show 
to  great  advantage  when  trained  as  standards  ; 
to  do  this  the  side  shoots  of  a young  plant  must 
be  nipped  off,  and  the  stem  trained  up  a 
straight  stick.  When  it  has  grown  as  high  as 
desired,  let  the  side  shoots  branch  out,  and  a 
handsome  bush  will  be  produced.  They  can 
also  be  trained  to  walls,  or  planted  in  masses  in 
beds.  If  the  young  plant  does  not  branch  out, 
pinch  off  the  terminal  shoot ; side  branches 
will  soon  appear,  and  the  most  central  can  then 
be  trained  up  for  a stem. 

During  the  winter  the  plants  can  be  kept  in 
frost-proof,  dry  cellars,  either  in  pots  or  boxes  ; | 


i or  they  can  be  pulled  up  by  the  roots,  the  soil 
shaken  from  them,  and  packed  in  layers  in  sand 
j which  is  thoroughly  dry,  first  cutting  off  all  the 
tender  shoots.  In  March  or  April,  bring  them 
to  the  light  and  plant  in  rich  soil,  pruning  not 
only  the  top  but  the  roots ; in  cutting  the  tops 
back,  have  an  eye  to  shape.  Plant  out  as  soon 
as  all  danger  from  frost  is  over. 

The  varieties  of  fuchsias  are  innumerable,  and 
we  can  only  give  lists  of  a few  of  the  most 
J desirable  of  the  single  and  double  flowering 
kinds. 

Single  Fuchsias. — These  are  all  choice  : — 
Annie , tube  and  sepals  white,  corolla  deep 
pink;  Arabella , white  sepals,  pink  corolla; 
Charming,  violet  corolla,  crimson  sepals ; 
Fairest  of  the  Fair,  white  tube  and  sepals, 
violet-rose  corolla ; Father  Ignatius,  carmine 
sepals,  blue  corolla,  bell  shaped  ; Jules  Calot, 
orange-red  sepals,  orange-crimson  corolla; 
Land  of  Plenty , red  sepals,  violet-black  corolla ; 
Lustre,  vermilion  corolla;  waxy-white  sepals; 
M arginata , white  sepals,  rose-pink  corolla  : 
Prince  Imperial,  scarlet  sepals,  violet  corolla ; 
j Pose  of  Castile , white  sepals,  violet  corolla ; 
j Souvenir  de  Cheswick  rosy-crimson  sepals, 
violet  corolla ; Striped  Unique,  purple  corolla 
striped  with  white  ; Taglioni,  white  reflexed 
sepals,  dark  violet  corolla ; Wane  of  Life,  violet- 
blue  corolla,  scarlet  sepals,  gold  tinted  foliage  ; 
, Weeping  Beauty,  scarlet  sepals,  blue  corolla  . 

Double  Fuchsias. — These  are  unsurpassed 
| for  beauty  and  elegance  by  any  plant  in  the 
| floral  kingdom.  E.  G.  Henderson,  scarlet 
j sepals,  violet  corolla;  Elm  City ; Emperor, 
crimson  sepals,  white  corolla ; Grand  Duke, 
crimson,  violet -purple  corolla;  Monstrosa, 
bright  rose  sepals,  white  corolla ; Nonpareil, 
two  corallas,  purplish-blue ; Norfolk  Giant, 
crimson  sepals,  violet  corolla ; Picturata , scarlet 
sepals,  double  white  corolla  ; Snowdrop,  scarlet 
sepals,  semi-dark  white  corolla  ; Surpasse  V.  de 
Peubla;  scarlet  sepals,  double  white  corolla; 
Symbol,  crimson  tube  and  sepals,  creamy-white 
corolla ; Tower  of  London,  scarlet  sepals, 
violet-blue  corolla;  Wilhelm  Pfitzer , rosy-car- 
mine sepals,  lavender-blue  corolla. 

Golden  Leaved  Fuchsias. — The  varieties  of 
these  are  few  in  number,  and  the  best  are  : — 

; Cloth  of  Gold,  Crown  of  Jewels,  Golden 
Fleece,  Golden  mantle,  Golden  Treasure,  and 
Orange  Boven. 

Winter  Flowering  Fuchsias. — These  bloom 
from  December  to  May.  There  are  only  two 
varieties : Speciosa,  tubes  and  flowers  of  a 
peach-blossom  color,  crimson  corolla ; and 
Serratifolia.  The  flowers  of  the  latter  are  dis- 
stinct  from  those  of  any  other  kind  of  fuchsia. 
The  tube  is  crimson,  the  tips  of  the  sepals  shad- 
ing to  green,  with  white  stamens. 

FUEL.  ( See  Coal,  Coke,  and  Wood). 

FULLER'S  EARTH. — A substance  useful 
for  removing  grease  from  floors,  carpets,  cloth- 
ing, or  greasy  vessels  of  any  kind.  It  is  of  a 
grayish-brown  color,  hard,  compact,  and  rough, 
but  scrapes  with  a polished  surface.  It  is  al- 
ways scraped  to  a powder  before  using,  and 


222 


FUMIGATION 


FURNISHING 


applied  in  that  form.  When  it  becomes  sat- 
urated with  the  grease,  it  must  be  removed  and 
a fresh  supply  put  on. 

FUMIGATION. — The  slow  burning  of 
brown  paper  or  cotton  rags  is  the  most  familiar 
way  of  destroying  bad  smells  by  fumigation. 
Sugar  or  coffee  sprinkled  thickly  in  a shovelful 
of  live  coals,  and  left  to  smoulder  slowly,  is 
also  very  effective  and  not  disagreeable.  A 
pleasant  fumigation  can  be  made  by  dipping 
cartridge  paper  in  alum  and  water,  drying  it, 
and  spreading  one  side  with  a mixture  of  equal 
parts  of  gum  benzoin,  olibanum,  and  Peruvian 
balsam  ; melt  these  together  and  spread  them 
upon  the  paper  with  a hot  knife.  In  using, 
hold  slips  of  the  paper  over  a candle  or  lamp, 


to  evaporate  the  odorous  matter,  but  not  to  ig- 
nite it.  Ships  and  rooms  infected  with  con- 
tagious diseases  are  fumigated  with  burning 
sulphur.  The  roll  sulphur  is  placed  in  an  iron 
pan  or  open  kettle,  and  is  ignited  by  pouring 
a little  alcohol  upon  it,  to  serve  as  a kindler. 
( See  Deodorizers  and  Disinfectants.) 

FUNNEL. — F unnels  are  made  of  tin,  tinned 
iron,  pewter,  white  or  brown  stone-ware,  and 
glass,  and  of  various  sizes.  Very  small  ones  are 
useful  for  filling  vials  and  small  bottles  where 
it  is  difficult  to  avoid  spilling.  Where  acids  are 
to  be  poured,  glass  or  earthenware  is  requis- 
ite, as  metal  will  be  corroded  by  it.  Glass  is 
best  under  all  circumstances,  because  one  can 
see  whether  it  is  perfectly  clean.  A servicea- 


Fig.  i. — A Corner  of  the  Hall. 


ble  funnel  can  be  made  at  any  time  by  folding  a 
piece  of  clean  letter-paper  into  the  proper  shape. 

FURNACE — (See  Warming.) 

FURNISHING. — The  reader,  if  impecuni- 
ous, need  not  be  discouraged  by  the  discussion 
here  of  points  involving  considerable  outlay, 
for  in  addition  to  these,  the  article  contains 
much  for  his  special  benefit.  He  is  earnestly 
recommended  to  study  the  article  on  Decora- 
tion. In  it  he  will  find  an  authoritative  ex- 
position of  those  elementary  principles  of  taste 
which  underlie  all  the  decorative  arts,  and  he 
will  need  little  more  in  the  way  of  suggestion 
concerning  furniture  in  its  artistic  aspects.  The 
present  article  deals  with  the  practical  aspects, 
including  cost.  Unfortunately,  prices  have  been 


fluctuating  so  much  in  recent  years  that  esti- 
mates are  inevitably  misleading.  Ways  of 
getting  over  this  difficulty  will  be  treated  far- 
ther on. 

In  addition  to  this  article,  the  reader  will 
also  find  it  desirable  to  consult  the  articles  on 
Carpets,  Curtains,  Earthenware,  Paper- 
hanging, etc.,  the  present  article  being  mainly 
confined  to  the  consideration  of  what,  for  want 
of  a more  definite  term,  we  may  call  movable 
furniture. 

Since  Harper s and  Scribner's  magazines 
and  the  Centennial  Exposition  have  been  doing 
so  much  to  show  people  what  good  furniture 
is,  it  seems  almost  supertluous  to  give  even  the 
few  illustrations  we  have  space  for ; but  this 


FURNISHING 


223 


work  may  find  its  way  into  the  hands  of  some 
who  have  not  enjoyed  those  opportunities,  and 


Fig.  2. 

will  naturally  be  kept  by  many  after  the  dis- 
appearance of  their  unbound  magazines  and 
catalogues  brought  from  the  Centennial  ; we, 
therefore,  insert  a few  illustrations.  The  reader 
will  find  a few  others  containing  good  ideas  on 
furnishing,  in  the  article  on  House. 

Of  the  illustrations  in  this  article,  Figs.  5,  6,  7, 
11,  16,  and  21  are  from  the  catalogue  of  Messrs. 
Cox,  of  London  ; Figs.  1, 8,  9,  12,  13,  14,  and  17 
are  from  the  catalogue  of  Messrs.  J.  & R. 
Lamb,  of  New  York  ; Figs.  18  and  19  are  from 
the  catalogue  of  Messrs.  Horton  & Ramus,  of 
New  York  ; the  others  were  prepared  for  the 
work;  Figs.  2,  3,  4,  15,  and  22  by  Mr.  Babb, 
and  Figs.  10  and  20  by  Mr.  M.  N.  Cutter. 

Now  for  a few  specific  considerations,  mainly 
with  reference  to  getting  the  best  effect  for  the 
least  money. 

The  hall  determines  the  first  impression  on 
entering  the  house,  and  it  is  well  worth  while 
to  economize  elsewhere  for  the  sake  of  effect 
here.  Probably  the  worst  possible  step  is  to 
buy  the  stereotyped  hat  and  umbrella  rack. 
No  matter  how  elaborate,  they  are  always  the 
same  thing  over  again,  and  generally  very  ugly. 
If,  however,  one  is  needed,  some  simple  ar- 
rangement like  that  in  Fig.  2,  honestly  made 
of  good  wood,  with  “ dead  ” finish,  will  prob- 
ably  give  more  satisfaction,  in  the  long  run, 
than  the  more  elaborate  designs  in  which  the 
cabinet-makers  delight.  A mirror,  large  or 
small,  of  some  original  shape,  framed  in  some 
durable  way,  with  pegs  for  the  hats  and  coats, 


can  be  made  very  effective.  Under  it,  may 
stand  a chair  or  table,  either  having  a drawer. 
Or  a table  alone  will  do  ; for  hats  and  coats 
can  be  kept  on  plain  hooks  back  under  the 
stairs.  Sticks  or  umbrellas  can  be  disposed  of 
in  a cheap  stand  behind  the  door.  If  the  hall 
be  rather  dark,  a white  cast  or  bust  at  the  end 
will  be  very  effective.  A pair  of  horns,  or  sev- 
eral pair,  can  never  be  amiss,  nor  can  any  other 
decoration  suggesting  out  of  doors  and  the 
storied  halls  of  the  olden  time. 

Where  there  is  room  for  them,  one  should 
try  to  have  the  broad  table,  the  clock,  and  the 
little  cupboard  for  brushes,  gloves,  and  other 
things  that  one  needs  on  going  out  and  coming 
in,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1.  This  “ little  cupboard,” 
by  the  way,  can,  in  a small  hall,  easily  be  sub- 
stituted by  drawers  under  chairs. 

A hall  should  look  as  large  as  it  can  be 
made  to. 

Stair  rods  seem  a ridiculous  superfluity  for 
poor  folks.  Let  the  stair  carpet  be  long  enough 
to  shift  as  often  as  it  wears  out  on  the  edges  of 
the  steps. 

The  Parlor  is  usually  the  most  Philistine  of 
J all  Philistine  American  institutions.  Where 
J there  is  the  usual  ill-spent  wealth,  the  room  is 
filled  with  gorgeous  upholstery  in  the  cabinet- 
maker’s style  of  art,  has  the  horrible  “ cabinet 
rich  and  stylish,”  which  usually  figures  on 
the  furniture  man’s  bills  for  enough  to  buy  two 
respectable  paintings,  is  either  utterly  innocent 
of  all  works  of  art  but  a few  china  or  parian 


Fig-  3- 

dolls  and  a French  clock  of  a pattern  turned 
out  by  the  dozen,  or  has  the  walls  covered 


224 


FURNISHING 


with  paintings  which  are  simply  good  canvas 
spoiled.  If  such  parlors  were  furnished  in  hon- 
est pine,  and  one-tenth  of  the  saving  devoted 
to  a few  good  engravings  on  the  walls,  their 
refinement  would  be  vastly  increased.  There 
is  no  need  of  extremes,  however,  for  the  money 
usually  spent  would  give  honest  hard  wood 
furniture,  luxuriously  fashioned  and  cushioned, 
covered  with  good  worsted  reps  or  satines,  and 
good  photographs,  engravings,  or  even,  in  many 
cases,  paintings  by  deserving  artists. 

In  the  few  well-furnished  parlors  that  we 
have,  the  most  frequent  lade  is  the  suggestion 
of  ease.  There  is  generally  too  much  wood 
shown  in  chairs  and  sofas,  and  too  little  cush- 
ion. Fig.  4 suggests  a good  style.  Ladies  are 


There  seems,  in  most  parlors,  too  much  re 


Fig.  4. 

always  complaining  that  sofa  seats  are  too 
broad.  Hence  the  advantage  of  cushions  that 
can  be  piled  against  each  other,  or  laid  against 
the  back  of  a deep  easy  chair. 

If  the  reader  will  carefully  consider  what  Mr. 
Babb  has  to  say  about  chairs  in  the  article  on 
Decoration,  he  may  care  to  see  a good  chair  or 
two  in  Figs.  10  and  14,  and  in  front  in  Fig.  20. 

A good  table  is  not  yet  an  easy  thing  to  find. 
There’s  not  much  to  be  said  against  Fig.  5, 
except  that  it’s  a pity  that  woodcuts  won’t  show 
color.  A fitly  colored  jar,  contrasted  with  the 


wood,  in  such  a position,  is  always  very  agree- 
able. 


luctance  to  have  anything  around  to  indicate 
that  the  room  is  used. 


Fig.  7. 


The  parlor  should  suggest  festivity  rather 
than  meditation.  If  colors  be  well  chosen. 


Fig.  8. 

Brussels  carpet  and  worsted  reps  will  produce 
really  as  good  effect  as  richer  materials;  though. 


FURNISHING 


225 


on  account  of  the  danger  from  moths,  woolen 
upholstery  and  Brussels  carpets  are  less  eco- 
nomical for  peo- 
ple upon  whom 
the  first  outlay 
does  not  bear  too 
heavily  than  silk 
fabrics  and  the 
higher  grades  of 
carpet. 

Most  parlors  are 
oblong,  with  two 
windows  at  one 
end.  The  spot  be- 
tween them  is  the 
point  in  the  whole 
room  for  effect : 
all  living  things 
turn  toward  the 
light.  People  of 
taste,  if  they  have 
plenty  of  money 
for  more  import- 
ant things,  some- 
times put  mirrors  • Flg- 

in  this  spot : Philistines  always  do.  Something  I 
bright  and  effective  should  go  there  always.  I 


There  are  worse  things  for  the  purpose  than  a 
light  cabinet  (if  it  is  tasteful,  which  not  one 

in  a hundred  is), 
laden  with  good 
bric-a-brac.  Fig. 
6 or  7 would  do. 
A massive  or 
d a r k-c  o 1 o r e d 
cabinet,  unless 
the  color  of  tne 
wall  is  warm, 
would  be  too 
sombre.  Such  an 
one  as  Fig.  9 
requires  space, 
for  more  reasons 
than  one.  (The 
chair  in  the  same 
figure  would  have 
to  be  redrawn 
before  it  could 
be  recommend- 
ed.) Whatever  is 
done,  don’t  let  the 
9'  piano  stand  in 

front  of  this  spot  and  obliterate  it — especially 
as  pianos  are  all  so  ugly.  Fig.  8 suggests 


Fig.  10. 


an  improved  style  of  upright  piano — an  instru- 
ment that  there  is  some  excuse  for  in  a crowded 
city  house. 


Can  anybody  tell  why  marble  is  a fit  ma- 
terial to  cover  any  piece  of  furniture  but  a 
steam-heater  or  a washstand  ? 


15 


226 


FURNISHING 


The  Library.  The  main  economical  ques- 
tion is  doors  or  no  doors  to  the  bookcases. 


Fig.  ii. 

Doors  nearly  double  the  cost,  and  the  books 
will  do  very  well  without  them,  especially  if  a 


strip  of  leather  depend  over  their  tops  from  the 
shelf  above.  “ Pinked  ” edges  on  this  strip 
will  curl  up,  but  gilt  lines  have  a pleasant  ef- 
fect. Library  furniture  is  best  covered  in 
leather — green  or  dark-brown.  Here  one 
comes  to  read,  and  the  eye  should  not  be  wooed 
from  its  work  by  any  dashes  of  importunate 
color. 

The  wooden  mantel  with  shelves  rising  above 
it  is  justly  growing  in  favor.  Fig.  12  shows  an 
inexpensive  arrangement,  giving  something  of 
the  same  effect.  The  fireplace  is  tiled. 

This  room  generally  contains  the  gentleman’s 
desk.  Fig.  13  combines  beauty  and  utility  for 
either  the  business-man  or  the  scholar. 

The  Dining-room.  Probably  there  is  no 
better  test  of  the  refinement  of  a family  than 
the  relation  of  its  dining-room  to  the  rest  of 
the  house.  If  the  family  meal  is  regarded 
as  a mere  feeding,  the  place  where  it  is  taken 


Fig.  12. 


will  plainly  show  the  fact.  If  the  meal  be  a I qualities  of  head  and  heart  engage,  and  to 
cheerful  household  ceremony,  where  the  best  I which  the  most  honored  friends  are  gathered, 


Fig-  13- 


these  facts,  too,  will  be  indicated  by  the  room.  I the  dining-room  is  the  sideboard,  or  buffet,  as 
The  piece  of  furniture  that  makes  or  mars  I we  seem  to  be  in  the  way  of  calling  it  now. 


FURNISHING 


227 


With  a good  substantial  table  and  chairs  (the  I any  amount  of  effect  can  be  added  to  the  buffet 
latter  cushioned  if  it  can  possibly  be  afforded),  I without  its  appearing  to  overshadow  the  rest, 


Fig. 

and  every  feature  will  tell.  If  you  cannot  have 
as  elaborate  a one  as  Fig.  14,  you  will  not  be 


in  bad  taste  with  Fig.  15.  When  people  are 
at  table,  they  see  neither  the  table  nor  the 


14- 

chairs,  but  they  do  see  the  buffet.  If  you  can 
cover  it  with  ancestral  plate,  very  good  ; but  if 
you  cannot,  it  may,  perhaps,  be  made  to  look 
as  well  with  bright  china,  glass,  Japanese  lac- 


quer-work, and  flowers  (never  artificial  ones). 
Don’t  have  a marble  top,  it  will  “ chip  ” glass 
articles  with  angular  bottoms.  Many  a fine 
piece  has  been  thus  gradually  spoiled,  and  the 


228 


FURNISHING 


cause  not  realized.  A “ dinner  wagon,”  as 
shown  in  Fig.  1 6,  is  vastly  more  useful  than  a 
side-table. 


Bedrooms.  As  far  as  decorative  effect  goes, 
the  thing  of  least  importance  in  a bedroom  is 
the  bed.  Generally,  the  more  the  cabinet- 


Fig. 

maker  does  to  it,  the  uglier  he  gets  it,  and  even 
if  he  gets  it  pretty,  those  who  lie  upon  it  do 
not  see  it,  and  when  not  lying  upon  it,  their  at- 
tention is  more  apt  to  be  directed  to  another 
article,  which  is  the  real  center  of  bedroom 


Fig.  18. — Brass  Bedstead. 


effect,  namely,  the  dressing-bureau.  This  gen- 
erally stands  in  the  same  important  spot — 
between  the  windows — that  has  been  enlarged 
upon  in  treating  of  the  parlor.  Hence,  if  you 
are  not  rich,  get  a plain  bedstead  and  spend 


17- 

your  spare  money  on  the  bureau.  Don’t  over- 
look brass  bedsteads.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that 


they  will  soon  be  cheaper  than  at  this  writing. 
Nothing  need  be  better.  In  New  York  there 


FURNISHING 


229 


Fig.  20. — Bachelor  Quarters — 7 x 9. 


is  made  of  any  of  the  ordinary  hard  woods 


Fig.  21. — Brass  Bedstead. 


(though,  of  course,  generally  to  be  found  only 


in  walnut),  a good,  neat,  strong  bedstead, 
against  which  nothing  can  be  said,  for  $28.00. 
It  is  not  out  of  place  with  a bureau,  in  the 
massive  style,  worth  $280.00.  Fig.  22  cost 
but  $45.00,  made  to  order,  in  the  time  of  high 
prices. 

Marble  tops  on  bureaus  always  crack  things, 
and  are  unpleasant  to  the  touch  except  in 
summer. 

Nursery. — Don’t  have  a carpet.  It  always 
will  smell.  Lay  the  floor  in  hard  wood  if  you 
can  possibly  afford  it ; the  cheaper  wood  car- 
peting can  be  made  to  do.  In  the  middle  of 
the  room  have  a woolen  drugget,  fastened  at 
the  corners  by  movable  nails,  so  it  can  be  taken 
up  and  shaken  daily,  and  washed  often. 

Don’t  have  curtains  to  the  windows.  The 
children  while  awake  need  every  ray  of  light 
they  can  get.  Have  thick,  dark-green  shades, 


230 


FURNISHING 


though,  to  shut  out  all  light  while  they  are  nap- 
ping. A low  table,  six  or  eight  feet  long  by 
two  wide,  is  a grand  thing  for  a nursery.  The 
children  will  handle  many  toys  on  it  instead  of 
cultivating  round  shoulders  on  the  floor.  Let 
its  legs  fold  against  it  so  that  it  can  be  laid 
against  the  wall  when  room  for  romping  is 
needed.  The  height  of  your  chair-seats  regu- 
lates the  distance  your  children  shall  tumble 
from. 

Servants’  Rooms — Iron  bedsteads  are  the 
thing.  They  are  durable  and  do  not  make  good 
nests  for  bugs.  Bureau  washstands  economize 


space.  The  room  is  not  to  be  occupied  much; 
it  ought  to  be  comfortable  though,  and  decent 
enough  to  attract  servants  who  are  decent. 
Bright,  broad  coloring  in  the  carpet  will  do 
much  to  obviate  a cheerless  look. 

The  Kitchen — {See  lists  farther  on,  and  sep- 
arate article  on  Kitchen.) 

Gas  Fixtures  do  more  to  make  or  mar  a room 
than  almost  anything  else.  We  do  not  mean 
that  the  chandelier  should  be  so  gaudy  as  to  be 
the  only  thing  visible  in  the  room,  but  that  it 
should  cost  enough  to  be  good.  This  is  too 
often  lost  sight  of,  and  some  people  even  econ- 


Fig.  22. 


omize  on  the  gas  fixtures  which  never  wear 
out,  rather  than  on  the  carpets  and  upholstery, 
which  do.  Most  people  do  worse,  however, 
by  buying  abominable  angular  cast  metal  con- 
cerns, or  those  with  curved  glass  tubes  which 
threaten  breakage  if  you  look  at  them.  The 
basis  of  most  good  metal  chandeliers  is  wrought 
tubing,  and  of  most  good  glass  or  earthenware 
ones,  vases  or  plates  around  or  through  which 
the  gas  is  conveyed  in  metal  tubes.  A room 
in  Brussels  and  worsted  reps  with  a good 
chandelier  will  have  treble  the  effect  of  a room 


in  moquette  and  brocatelle  with  a poor  chan- 
delier. 

Common  gas  fixtures  can  be  refinished  for 
about  one-third  of  their  cost,  and  changed 
from  gilt  to  bronze,  or  steel,  or  oxydized  silver, 
if  desirable.  The  better  ones  of  honest  brass, 
are  generally  covered  with  lacquer,  and  need 
relacquering  not  oftener  than  once  in  ten  or 
twelve  years. 

Curtains  do  not  need  to  be  of  material  as  dur- 
able as  chair  covering.  If  you  can  make  colors 
correspond,  a vastly  inferior  grade  will  do. 


FURNISHING 


231 


Woods An  account  of  the  qualities  of  the 

different  woods  may  be  of  use  to  the  pur- 
chaser. 

Ash  is  rather  lighter  colored  than  oak,  but 
is  sometimes  used  in  connection  with  it.  It  is 
less  likely  to  split. 

Beech , a very  close  and  tough  wood,  is  chiefly 
used  for  the  framework  of  chairs,  tables,  and 
bedsteads.  It  is  nearly  of  the  color  of  birch, 
but  rather  paler,  and  it  may  be  known  by  the 
presence  of  those  peculiar  little  specks  of  darker 
brown,  which  are  easily  seen  in  a carpenter’s 
plane. 

Birch  is  very  close-grained,  strong,  and  easily 
worked.  It  is  of  a pale  yellowish  brown:  If 

polished  or  varnished,  it  somewhat  resembles 
satinwood,  but  is  darker,  and  by  staining  is 
capable  of  being  made  to  closely  resemble  Hon- 
duras mahogany.  It  is  used  in  the  better  kinds 
of  low-priced  furniture. 

Cedar  somewhat  resembles  mahogany, 
though  more  purplish.  It  has  no  “ curl,”  and 
is  free  from  tendency  to  warp  or  “ cast.”  The 
best  varieties  have  a peculiarly  pleasant  aroma, 
which  is  offensive  to  moths  ; hence  it  is  highly 
valued  for  making  drawers  and  chests  for  cloth- 
ing. 

Chestnut  is  coarse-grained,  strong,  elastic, 
light,  and  very  durable.  Some  of  the  best  of 
the  cheaper  furniture  is  made  of  it.  It  looks 
so  much  like  white  oak  as  to  be  frequently  used 
in  combination  with  it. 

Ebony  is  of  a deep  black  color,  and  highly 
prized  for  several  purposes,  particularly  inlay- 
ing. It  is  exceedingly  hard,  heavy,  and  dura- 
ble, but  expensive.  Pear  and  other  woods 
dyed  black  are  often  substituted  for  it  ; but  are 
not  so  susceptible  of  good  polish  and  luster, 
or  so  permanent  in  color.  The  best  comes 
from  Africa  ; a kind  variegated  with  brown  is 
brought  from  Mauritius  and  Ceylon. 

Mahogany  is  imported  of  two  kinds — Hon- 
duras and  Spanish.  The  former  has  a coarse, 
loose,  and  straight  grain,  without  much  curl  or 
wave.  The  latter  is  darker,  with  curl,  by  which 
in  great  measure  its  price  is  regulated,  and 
with  a very  fine,  close  texture.  Spanish  ma- 
hogany will  bear  great  violence  ; it  is  also 
free  from  any  tendency  to  warp.  When,  how- 
ever, it  is  very  much  curled,  it  is  not  nearly 
so  strong  or  so  free  from  twist  ; but  this  is  of 
little  consequence,  as  its  value  is  so  great  that 
it  is  generally  veneered  on  to  some  less  valu- 
able wood,  as  Honduras  or  cedar.  The  heavi- 
est mahogany  is  generally  the  best. 

Maple  is  of  several  qualities,  the  bird’s-eye 
maple  being  most  highly  valued.  It  somewhat 
resembles  satinwood,  but  is  more  buff  than 
yellow,  has  more  curl,  and  more  “ bird’s- 
eye.”  Maple  is  light  and  not  very  durable,  and 
is  used  only  in  the  cheaper  kinds  of  furni- 
ture. 

Oak. — There  are  several  varieties,  of  which 
the  white  oak,  the  red  oak,  and  the  live  oak 
are  the  most  important.  The  first  is  most  used. 
Oak  takes  long  to  season,  and  is  worse  than 
most  woods  if  used  green.  It  is  very  hard  to  | 


I work.  Its  appearance  improves  with  age.  On 
account  of  its  tendency  to  warp,  a great  deal 
of  so-called  oak  work  is  panelled  with  chest- 
nut. 

Bearwood  is  of  a light  yellow  color,  and  on 
account  of  its  even  grain,  a favorite  wood  for 
carving.  It  is  often  stained  to  imitate  ebony. 

Pine  is  used  in  two  varieties,  the  white  and 
the  yellow.  When  thoroughly  dry,  these  woods 
are  very  free  .from  all  tendency  to  warp  or 
shrink  ; but  in  a half-seasoned  state  articles 
made  of  them  fall  to  pieces.  They  are  readily 
distinguished  from  one  another  by  the  differ- 
ence of  color,  and  from  deals  by  the  absence 
of  turpentine  veins.  When  oiled  and  varnished, 
both  kinds  of  pine  look  very  well.  It  seems  a 
sin  to  stain  it. 

Ratan,  from  strips  of  which  the  seats  of  cane 
chairs  are  made,  is  a small  sort  of  cane,  brought 
from  China,  Japan,  and  Sumatra.  A very 
pretty  and  durable  style  of  summer-chairs, 
lounges,  tables,  baskets,  etc.,  is  now  made 
wholly  of  ratan. 

Rosewood  is  hard  and  dark,  with  some  little 
curl,  intermediate  in  this  respect  between  Span- 
ish and  Honduras  mahogany,  and  of  a very 
open  grain.  Most  articles  of  rosewood  furni- 
ture are  veneered,  but  the  best  are  of  solid 
wood.  The  color,  which  consists  of  large  elon- 
gated dark  zones  on  a reddish-brown  ground, 
is  permanent,  unless  it  be  much  exposed  to  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun  ; and  it  takes  a fine  pol- 
ish, which  is  improved  by  slight  waxing,  or,  bet- 
ter, by  the  French  polish,  which  brings  out  the 
color  of  the  wood  admirably. 

Satinwood  is  now  used  chiefly  for  inlaying, 
lining,  and  veneers.  It  is  of  a full  yellowish 
color,  with  a fine  grain,  little  curl,  and  a silky 
luster.  Its  toughness  fits  it  well  for  furni- 
ture. 

Walnut  is  a native  wood,  but  is  used  in  such 
prodigious  quantity  that  it  is  also  imported. 
Well  seasoned  it  is  exceedingly  tough  and  lit- 
tle inclined  to  warp. 

(See  Lacquering  and  Varnishing.) 

Selection  of  Furniture. — Points  of  taste  in  the 
selection  of  furniture  have  been  treated  in  the 
article  on  DECORATION  (which  the  reader  in- 
tending to  furnish  is  advised  to  study),  and,  in- 
cidentally, earlier  in  this  article.  Here  we  shall 
only  attempt  a few  purely  practical  considera- 
tions. Too  much  deference  is  generally  paid 
to  the  fashion  of  the  day,  which  entirely  changes 
before  the  articles  are  worn  out,  while  things 
| good  in  themselves  are  never  out  of  fashion. 
For  those  who  can  afford  it,  expensive  and 
highly  ornamented  furniture  is  a legitimate 
j luxury ; but  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 
this  outlay  is  not  only  a present  increase  of  cost, 
but  that  in  all  future  additions  the  same  style 
must  be  carried  out,  or  the  whole  will  partake 
of  a piecemeal  character,  and  look  much  worse 
to  a tasteful  eye  than  if  none  of  the  articles 
were  elaborate. 

Often  in  cheap  showy  furniture,  hastily  flung  to- 
gether by  inferior  manufacturers,  the  cost  of  re- 
I pai  rs  amounts  to  the  difference  between  the  price 


232 


FURNISHING 


paid  and  that  of  really  good  furniture.  It  is 
far  better  for  the  young  housekeeper  to  make 
up  his  mind  what  he  can  afford  to  expend,  and 
then  go  to  some  firm  well-known  as  makers 
of  good  articles  and  deal  with  them  as  far  as  it 
will  go.  The  lists  given  in  the  latter  part  of 
this  article  will  serve  as  a guide  to  some  ex- 
tent in  this  respect,  but  of  course  they  may  be 
varied  to  suit  the  particular  tastes  or  circum- 
stances of  each  individual  case. 

A mistaken  prejudice  against  the  style  of 
furniture  known  as  “ cottage,”  often  adds 
materially  to  the  cost  necessarily  involved  in 
furnishing  a house,  for  all  the  hard  woods  are 
expensive.  This  prejudice  was  perhaps  ex- 
cusable when  the  “ cottage  furniture  ” first  be- 
came fashionable,  for  it  was  too  often  poorly 
finished,  rough  in  design,  and  tawdry  in  color- 
ing ; but  now  it  is  well  made,  and  more  artis- 
tically painted.  It  is  prettier  and  more 
desirable  than  the  pine  furniture  stained  in 
imitation  of  the  costly  woods.  It  can  be 
bought,  or  painted  to  order  in  any  color  that 
may  be  preferred  ; but  the  light  stone  colors, 
and  soft  browns  will  furnish  a room  in  better 
taste  than  the  yellows,  blues,  and  greens  that 
have  been  the  rule  until  recently.  A “ cottage  ” 
bedroom  set,  with  marble-top  washstand  can  be 
had  for  about  one  half  the  price  of  a plain 
hardwood  set.  But  in  the  name  of  all  honesty, 
do  not  buy  a “ Cottage  set”  that  is  painted  in 
poor  imitation  of  something  more  expensive 
like  oak  or  walnut.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that 
dealers  will  soon  be  content  to  offer  honest 
pine  without  paint,  but  properly  polished  to  dis- 
play its  own  merits. 

Second-Hand  Furniture. — There  is  a radi- 
cal difference  of  opinion  among  housekeepers 
as  to  the  advisableness  of  buying  furniture  at 
second-hand,  as  it  is  called.  On  the  one  hand  it 
cannot  be  denied  that  second-hand  furniture 
can  generally  be  bought  for  little  more 
than  half  the  price  of  the  new ; but  it  is 
urged  on  the  other  hand  that  every  “ bar- 
gain ” is  counter-balanced  by  two  or  three 
“sells,”  and  that  the  temptation  to  buy  things 
merely  because  they  are  going  cheap,  almost 
always  leads  to  a larger  expenditure  than  was 
contemplated.  The  truth  is  that  the  purchasing 
of  such  furniture  is  a matter  which  calls  in  an 
eminent  degree  for  good  judgment,  and  plenty 
of  time,  and  as  time  is  money,  it  is  doubtful 
whether  money  had  not  better  be  spent  on 
new  furniture  than  time  on  second  hand. 
Beds,  bedding,  carpets,  oil-cloths,  and  up- 
holstered furniture  should  never  be  bought 
at  second-hand,  either  at  an  auction  or  from 
a regular  dealer.  All  articles  made  of  wood, 
should  be  carefully  examined  as  to  their  con- 
dition, particularly  as  to  whether  they  are 
made  of  unseasoned  wood,  which  in  second- 
hand furniture  is  very  easily  detected.  Sur- 
faces out  of  level,  open  joints,  rickety  legs, 
and  cracks  in  the  wood,  are  plainly  to  be  seen 
if  present,  and  indicate  either  bad  workmanship 
or  bad  materials,  or  both.  Window-curtains 
and  mirrors  can  be  bought  at  second-hand 


very  cheaply,  if  the  purchaser  can  content  him- 
self with  such  as  are  not  of  the  newest  pattern 
and  style.  It  is  a serious  question,  though, 
when  economy  is  an  object,  whether  such  vani- 
ties had  not  better  be  dispensed  with  in  favor 
of  engravings,  busts,  or  other  works  of  art. 
Glass,  crockery,  and  cutlery  may  also  be 
bought  very  cheap ; but  kitchen  utensils  had 
much  better  be  procured  new,  as  it  is 
difficult  to  estimate  exactly  the  amount  of  wear 
they  have  been  subjected  to.  Some  of  the 
more  expensive  articles,  however,  such  as 
meat-screens,  fish-kettles,  etc.,  may  be  bought 
with  advantage  if  in  good  condition. 

It  is  best  in  purchasing  furniture  at  auction 
to  examine  it  carefully  before  the  sale  com- 
mences, and  mark  on  the  catalogue  such  arti- 
cles as  are  wanted,  with  the  outside  prices  you 
are  willing  to  give ; having  done  so,  never  go 
above  the  prices  thus  fixed  upon.  Inflexible 
adherence  to  this  rule  is  the  first  condition  of 
safe  buying ; for  one  is  very  apt  to  be  carried 
away  by  the  competition  of  bids,  and  nearly 
every  auctioneer  has  a set  of  dummies  in  the 
audience  who  are  quick  to  discover  who  will 
let  goods  be  run  up  on  them.  At  the  same 
time  he  who  makes  up  his  mind  to  buy  nothing 
but  “ great  bargains  ” at  auction  will  generally 
find  his  time  wasted.  Second-hand  furniture 
has  a value  nearly  as  uniform  and  stable  as  the 
new ; and  “ bargains  ” are  to  be  looked  upon 
with  suspicion. 

Price-Lists  of  Furniture. — The  most  practi- 
cal assistance,  perhaps,  is  lists  of  the  articles 
needed  and  their  prices.  We  have  prepared 
three,  based  on  actual  houses,  designed  to 
meet  the  wants  of  several  classes  of  pur- 
chasers expending  from  say  eight  hundred  to 
five  thousand  dollars.  It  is  not  supposed, 
of  course,  that  these  lists  will  be  followed 
literally.  Each  individual  housekeeper  will 
have  his  own  tastes  and  means  to  consult ; 
between  the  limits  the  lists  furnish  all  the  ma- 
terials necessary  for  making  a choice.  Those 
who  go  beyond  five  thousand  dollars,  although 
they  will  be  governed  mainly  by  their  own 
taste,  may  yet  find  some  useful  suggestions  in 
the  lists.  At  this  time,  however,  we  all  labor 
under  one  great  difficulty.  All  prices  are  now 
(1877)  in  chaos.  Those  prevailing  at  the  times 
when  these  houses  were  furnished  are  all 
changed ; and  if  we  were  to  now  ascertain 
the  prices  of  the  same  dealers,  they  would 
probably  be  changed  before  the  reader  sees 
the  book.  The  only  way  for  the  reader  to  use 
the  lists  is  to  assume  that  the  prices  are  from 
twenty  to  forty  per  cent,  too  high  ; and,  if  he 
wishes  more  detailed  accuracy,  to  learn  the 
present  prices  of  several  articles  and  strike  an 
average. 


LIST  No.  1. 

A modest  establishment,  consisting  of  Hall 
6 x 18,  with  stairs,  Parlor  15  x 18,  Dining-room 
15x18,  Bedroom  15x18,  Nursery  15  x 18,  Hall- 


FURNISHING 


233 


Bedroom  6 x io,  Servant’s  Room  6 x io,  Kitchen 
and  Laundry  together,  all  neatly  and  durably 
furnished  before  the  recent  revolution  in  prices 
for  about  $i,ooo,  would  cost  in  1877  probably 
$800. 

HALL  6 X 18  INCLUDING  STAIRWAY. 

ao  yards  American  body 
Brussels,  made  and 
laid  with  lining  $2.00* 
per  yard $40.00 


Hat-rack  and  Umbrel- 
la-stand  10.00 


Total $50,00 

PARLOR  AND  SITTING-ROOM  COMBINED,  15  X 18. 

All  the  furniture  in  Walnut , Oak,  or  other  plain  hard  wood. 


2 Scotch  Holland  Win- 
dow Shades  with  tas- 
sels and  patent  rollers  $ 4.40 
14  yards  Nottingham 
Lace,  two  window's. . . 21.00 
2 Window-cornices,  gilt, 
lacquer,  or  wood  to 

match  furniture 4.00 

40  yards  American  Body 
Brussels  carpeting, 
made  and  laid  with  lin- 
ing at  $2.00  per  yard..  80.00 
Lounge,  in  worsted  reps  25.00 


2 Oriental  folding  chairs, 
in  worsted  reps  to 

match,  at  $ 10,00 20.00 

Rocker  to  match,  seat  in 

reps 14.00 

2 small  chairs,  cane  or 

straw  seats 8.00 

Centre  table  with  rep 
cover  to  match  furni- 

turet 16.00 

Stand  of  shelves,  with 
drawer,  for  books,  etc.  12.00 


Total $204  40 

DINING-ROOM,  15  X 18. 

Furnished  in  Hardwood \ had  better  contrast  with  that  of 
Parlor . 


2 Window  Shades 

Curtains  as  in  Parlor, 
with  cornices  in  gilt, 
lacquer,  or  wood  like 

furniture 

40  yards  American  Body 
Brussels  Carpeting  to 
match  parlor,  made 
and  laid  with  lining,  at 

$2.00  per  yard 

Extension  Table  for  12 

persons 

6 Chairs, 

Sideboard  

Small  Tray  for  waiter.. . 
Britannia  Coffee  Pot. . . 

1 doz.  Plated  Table 

Forks 

1 doz.  Plated  Dessert 

Forks 

1 doz.  Plated  Table 
Spoons 


25.00 


80.00 

14.00* 

15.00 

40.00 
•75 

2-75 

10.00 
9.00 


1 doz.  Plated  Dessert 

Spoons 

1 doz.  Plated  Tea  Spoons 
A Plated  Dinner  Castor 
1 doz.  Ivory-handled 

Knives 

Carver  and  Steel 

Bronze  Call  Bell 

Plain  white  French  Chi- 
na Dinner  Set, suitable 
for  all  meals 

1 doz.  Goblets,  cut  glass. 

“ Tumblers  for  ser- 
vant’s use,  etc 

2 Preserve  Dishes,  cut 

glass,  and  of  different 
sizes 

China  Fruit  Basket  .... 

Water  Pitcher 

Molasses  Jug 

1 doz.  Glass  Salt  Cellars 


9.00 

5-50 

8.90 

6.60 

3-50 

•75 


30.00 

4.00 


3*oo 

1.50 

•75 

•75 

•75 


Total $286.90 


Table  Linen  and  Towels. 


12  yards  Linen  Damask 

for  3 table-cloths 12.00 

Material  for  2 kitchen 

table-cloths 1.50 

3 doz.  Plain  Napkins...  4.00 
3 doz.  Towels 10.00 


6 Towels  for  servant’s 

room 1. 00 

8 Towels  for  glass  and 

china 1.50 

8 Coarser  Dish  Towels.  1.00 


Total $31.0 


upper  hall.  3 x 12. 

4 yards  carpet  as  m bedrooms  at  $ i. 50,. . . . 


$6.00 


PRINCIPAL  BEDROOM,  15  X l8. 

2 Window-shades 3.80  12  Feather  Pillows,  4 lbs. 

„ . c * u 


14  yards  Chintz  for  cur- 
tains for  two  windows  3.50 
2 Window-cornices  lac- 
quered   2.50 

30  yards  American  In- 
grain carpeting,  made 
and  laid  with  lining,  at 
$1.50  per  yard 45.00 


each 8.00 

Feather  Bolster,  6 lbs..  6.00 

1 pair  Blankets 10.00 

2 Marseilles  Spreads  . . . 8.00 

3 pairs  Cotton  Sheets, 

9 4 wide 8.25 

3 pairs  Cotton  Pillow- 
cases, 5-4  wide 3.60 


* The  carpets  on  each  floor  of  a small  house  hod  better  match 
throughout.  It  looks  better  than  a patchwork  of  small  carpets,  giving 
breadth  of  effect,  and  is  much  more  economical  for  making  over.  A 
few  cents  less  than  $2  per  yard  will  supply  this,  but  even  figures  are 
taken  to  facilitate  calculation. 

t It  is  a good  plan  to  have  the  gimp  and  buttons  on  the  furniture  of 
■o  n^odest  a room  ns  this,  from  a different  color  from  the  reps.  Then 
a band  of  the  relieving  color  on  the  table  cover  gives  much  effect. 


PRINCIPAL  BEDROOM, 

Suite  of  Cottage  Furni- 
ture, with  marble-top 


wash-stand 50  00 

Springs  for  Bedsteads. . 5.00 

Hair  Mattress,  40  lbs. . . 28.00 


HALL  E 

8 yards  American  In- 
grain carpet,  as  on  rest 


of  floor 12.00 

Window  Shade 1.90 

Cornice  ...  1.25 

7 yards  Chintz  for  Cur- 
tain, at  40  cts 2.80 

Iron  Bedstead 4.00 

Straw  Mattress 1.25 

Hair  Mattress 12.00 

2 Feather  Pillows,  4 lbs. 

each 8.00 

NUR: 

No  carpet,  drugget  for 

middle  of  floor 5.00 

2 thick  green  Window 

Shades 5.00 

Crib  and  Bedding 20.00 

Attendant’s  Iron  Bed 
and  Bedding  as  in  hall 
bedroom 39*75 

servant’s  ee 

1 Window  Shade  and 

Trimmings 1.00 

15  yards  Rag  Carpeting.  15.00 

Looking-glass 1 .00 

Bureau  Washstand 5.00 

Chair 75 

Single  Iron  Bedstead...  4.00 

Straw  Mattress 1.25 

Hair  top  Mattress 8.00 

1 pair  Blankets 5.50 

kitchen  and  la 

Barrel  Cover 50 

Basket,  for  Clothes  ... . 1.00 

Basket,  for  Market 1.00 

Bench,  for  W ashing ....  1.50 

Boiler,  for  Clothes 6.00 

Boiler,  Oval 2.00 

Boxes,  nest  of 1.00 

2 Brooms 70 

Cake  Pan 35 

Cannister 45 

2 Chairs,  plain 1.50 

1 u Shaker  Rocker.  1.50 

Chopping  Bowl 25 

Chopping  Knife 1.00 

Cleaver 1.75 

Clock 2.50 

Clothes  Horse 2.00 

Coffee  Mill 1.50 

6 doz  Clothes  Pins 70 

Coffee  Pot,  Britannia...  1.75 

Cork  Screw 50 

Cullender 75 

Dipper,  tin 20 

Duster,  for  Paint 50 

Dust  Pan 35 

Dredger,  for  Pepper  ...  .15 

Feather  Duster 1.00 

6 Forks,  table 1.50 

Fork,  large,  for  cooking 

Meat 40 

Frying  Pan 1.00 

Funnel *.  .15 

Grater 15 

Griddle 90 

Gridiron 1.75 

Ice  Pick 25 

Jelly  Mould 50 

Kettle,  for  Range 2.25 

6 Knives 1.25 

SUMMARY 

Hall  and  Stairway. . . $ 50.00 

Parlor 204.40 

Dining  Room 286.90 

Upper  Hall 6.00 

Large  Bedroom 188.21 

Hall  Bedroom 70.20 


This  list  makes  no  provision 


15  x 18. — Continued. 


3 Cotton  Bolster-cases..  1.56 
China  Toilet  Set 5.00 


Total $188.21 

M,  6 X 12. 

3 pairs  Cotton  Sheets, 

6-4  wide 3.40 

3 pair  Pillow-cases,  5-4 

wide 3.60 

1 pair  Blankets 5.00 

Coverlid 2.50 

Bureau  Washstand.  5.00 

Chair 2.00 

Toilet  set 4.00 

Looking-glass 1.50 


Total..... $70.20 

ERY. 

Bureau  Washstand 5.00 

Toilet  set 4.00 

Looking-glass 2.00 

2 Shaker  Chairs, straight  3.00 

2 Shaker  Chairs,  (rock- 
er)   5.00 


Total $88.75 

>ROOM,  6 X IO. 

Colored  Cotton  Bed- 
spread   1.75 

Feather  Pillow,  3 lbs. ..  3.00 

3 pairs  Cotton  Sheets, 

6-4  wide 3.39 

3 Pillow-cases 1.20 

Toilet  set 2.50 


Total $53*34 

NDRY  TOGETHER. 

Knife,  for  Cook 50 

Ladle,  tin 30 

Lemon  Squeezer 30 

2 match  Safes 30 

1 Pail  (Japaned)  for 

Water 1.25 

2 Pails,  wooden 60 

Pan,  for  Baking 50 

Pan,  for  Washing 35 

1 doz.  Patty  Pans 75 

6 Pie  Plates 60 

Pint  Measure 25 

Poker 25 

Potato  Masher 15 

Refrigerator 20.00 

Rolling-pin 25 

3 pairs  Sad  Irons 5.00 

Sauce  Pan  (enameled). . .75 

Scoop. . 25 

Scrubbing  Brush 25 

Shovel 50 

Sieve 50 

Skewers  (set  of) 1.00 

Skimmer 30 

Skirt  Board 2.00 

Slop  Pail,  with  cover. . . 1.25 

2 Soap  Cups * .20 

Spoon,  for  Basting 30 

6 Spoons  (britannia)  tea.  1.25 

2 Stands,  for  Irons 30 

Step  Ladder 2.50 

Table,  small.. 2.50 

Table,  large  with  drawer  4.50 

Tea  Drawer 75 

Towel  Roller 50 

2 Tubs 4.50 


Total $97*95 

LIST  NO.  I. 

Nursery 88.75 

Servant’s  Room 53*34 

Kitchen  and  Laundry,  97.95 


Total $1045.75 


cooking,  heating,  and  light- 


234 


FURNISHING 


ing,  most  modem  houses,  no  matter  how  modest,  being  pro- 
vided with  ranges  and  fireplaces,  and  many  with  gas-fixtures. 
If  it  is  necessary  to  provide  these  and  keep  within  limits,  the 
carpeting  of  the  first  floor  will  have  to  be  reduced  to  Ingrain, 
this  will  take  a quarter  less  yards  (as  it  is  wider  by  one-quarter 
than  the  Brussells),  and  a quarter  less  price  per  yard.  The  es- 
timate gives  for  parlor,  dining-room,  and  stairs,  an  aggregate 
of  100  yards,  at  #2.00  per  yard,  total,  $200.00.  The  same 
space  can  be  covered  by  75  yards  of  American  Ingrain  at  $1.50. 
Total,  $112.50.  Leaving  $87.50  for  other  purposes.  Butin 
any  room  that  is  used,  it  is  really  cheaper,  if  the  money  is 
available,  to  pay  $200.00  for  good  body  Brussels  than  any  less 
sum  for  any  lower  grade  of  carpet- 

LIST  No.  2. 

A small,  English  basement  house,  16.8x50,  in 
a fashionable  locality,  where  the  usual  expense 
for  furnishing  a similar  establishment  would  be 
$4,000  to  $5,000.  This  list  follows  quite  closely 
one  that  was  very  pleasantly  furnished  (includ- 
ing gas-fixtures)  for  about  $2,500,  and  a consid- 
erable amount  in  addition  was  invested  in  works 
of  art.  This  house  was  furnished  prior  to  the 
recent  revolution  in  prices.  Prices  are  now 
(1877)  twenty  to  thirty  per  cent,  lower.  List 
omits  shades  and  curtains. 

J8gf*Through  this  list  let  itbe  understood,  without  repetition 
in  each  instance,  that  prices  of  carpets  include  making,  lay- 
ing, and  lining. 

HALL  AND  STAIRWAY. 

Furnished  in  Oak. 


Carpet,  as  in  list  No.  i.$4o  oo 
Table  with  marble  slab, 
and  umbrella  stand  at 
each  end,  ( second 

hand) io  oo 

2 pair  deer’s  horns 
mount’d  on  oak  shields 
for  hat  and  coat  racks.  20  00 
Oblong  mirror  framed 

in  oak. 25  00 


Bronze  statuette  on 
newel  post  for  gas- 
light, with  globe 54  00 

Outside  mat  with  lock 

and  chain 5 00 

2 rugs  at  $3 6 00 


Total $160  00 


RECEPTION  ROOM. 


Furnished  in  Oak. 


HALL,  PARLOR  FLOOR. 

Contained  a statue  in  a niche,  two  of  the  dining  chairs  gen- 
erally stood  in  this  hall.  The  carpet  is  included  ander  the 
parlor. 

Drop-light,  of  classic  design,  with  glass,  cost $17  00 

DINING-ROOM. 

IVainut  and  Leather. 

Carpet  included  under  parlor. 


Extension  Table $45  00 

8 Dining  Chairs  at  $7  50  60  00 
Sideboard,  a rich  and 
unique  old  piece, 
bought,  of  course  at 
second  hand, a “find.”  65  00 
Beam  Rug 5 00 


Side  Table 12  00 

Chandelier,  3 lights  and 
Argand  slide  with 

globes 45  00 

Table  linen  and  furni- 


ture (exclusive  of  sil- 
ver)  150  00 

Total $382  oa 

3RD  STORY,  FRONT. 

Chestnut  and  Oak , Cretonne  Curtains , Gray  Rep  Lounge. 


26  yds.  American  In- 
grain   $39  00 

Chamber  Suite,  less 
Washstand  and  Table 
(there  being  marble 
washstand  with  fau- 
cets)  75  00 

Bed  Table 18  00 

Lounge 20  00 

Best  Hair  Mattress....  30  00 


Spring  Mattress 12  00 

Best  Feather  Bolster  and 

Pillows 20  00 

Bed  Linen,  as  in  list 

No.  32  00 

2 jointed  gas  brackets 
with  globes 8 00 

Total $254  00 


3RD  STORY,  BACK, 

Same  as  front,  deducting  Lounge  $ 20 , and  bed  table  $i3; 
but  allowing  $6  for  table  in  suite. — Net  $222. 


14%  yds.  Brussels  at 
$2 $29  00 


3RD  STORY,  HALL  AND  STAIRS. 

Gas  Bracket  and  Globe.  2 75 

Total  $31  75 

4TH  STORY,  FRONT. 

Same  as  3d  story  back,  deducting  $35  because  Cottage  Suite 
was  used.  Net  $187. 

3RD  STORY  HALL. 


Which  was  used  by  the  gentleman  as  a snuggery  for  study, 
writing,  etc. 


Same  as  in  List  No.  1..$  6 00  1 Gas  Bracket  and  Globe.  1 50 

I Total $7  50 

TWO  SERVANTS  ROOMS. 

Each  same  as  in  List  No.  1,  at  $43-34$  adding,  say,  one  half 
to  one  of  them  which  accommodates  two  persons.  Total  for 
the  two  $108.35. 

KITCHEN,  LAUNDRY,  ETC. 

The  following  are  additional  to  List  1. 


.22%  yds.  Brussels  car- 
pet at  $2 $45  00 

Library  Desk 38  00 

Book-case  with  closet 

underneath 12  00 

Lounge,  green  worsted 

rep 25  00 

2 Cane-seat  Chairs  at 
#2  75 5 5° 

Shaker  rocking  chair 
covered  in  reps  with 
fringe : covering  done 
at  home 1100 


150  yds.  Brussels  carpet 
— for  whole  floor,  in- 
cluding parlor,  large 
middle  hall  and  stair- 
way, and  dining-room 

at  $2 $300  00 

Divan  Sofa 75  00 

2 small  chairs  cushioned 

seat  and  back 22  00 

Arm-Chair  upholstered 

throughout ....  30  00 

Oriental  Folding  Chair  11  00 
Rocker.... 3500 


Mantel-board  covered  in 
rep  with  fringe  (cover- 
ing done  at  home,)  gilt 

nails 8 00 

Gilt  Chandelier,  3 lights 

with  globes 15  00 

Rug 4 00 

Total $163  50 


2 Dwarf  Book-Cases  at 

$37  5° 75  00 

Centre  Table,  covered 
with  Billiard-Cloth  to 
match  reps — a unique 
iece  bought  at  second 

and .•  24  00 

Rug  10  00 

Chandelier,  6 lights  with 
globes 54  00 

Total $636  00 


Essentials  same  as  in 

List  No.  1 $94  75 

Apple  Corer 12 

2 Baking  Dishes 40 

Bosket  tor  large  silver.  7 00 

“ small  “ . 3 50 

“ wash  (add’nl 

to  List  1) 1 5° 

Board  (bosom) 65 

“ (knife) 45 

4 Bowls,  small 60 

1 Bowl,  large,  with  lip.  75 

Bread  Knife 75 

Brush  for  bottles 20 

“ furniture bo 

“ range 75 

2 Brushes  for-  scrubbing 

(large). 80 

Brush  for  sink 10 

1 pr.  Butter  Hands 50 

Butter  Ladle 20 

Cake  Box 1 25 

Cake  Cutter 15 

2 Candlesticks 4° 

Can  opener 5° 


Carver 1 75 

Caster  . . . . . 1 50 

Chamois  skin 50 

Champagne  opener 1 75 

Cracker  dox 40 

Cup  mop 20 

Cutter  for  biscuit 5 

Egg-beater 25 

Fluting  Machine 8 00 

Funnel 25 

Grater  (additional  to 

List  1)... 30 

Gravy  Strainer 50 

Gridiron  (wire) 1 00 

Keeler  (cedar) 1 50 

Kettle,  Copper,  for  pre- 
serving  4 00 

Kettle  for  fish 3 00 

tl  starch 1 00 

Knife  Tray.. 75 

**  Washer 1 00 

50  yds.  of  Oilcloth  for 
kitchen  and  basement 
hall,  laid,  at  $1  35...  67  50 

Mat  for  door 1 25 

Meat  Saw 1 40 


BACK  ROOM  ON  FIRST  FLOOR. 

Was  used  as  an  ironing  room  ; the  room  above  it  being  used  for 
dining,  the  dumb-waiter  being  carried  up  an  extra  story.  Ar- 
ticles used  will  be  included  under  Kitchen. 

parlor. 

Furnished  in  Walnut  and  W orsted  Reps. 


FURNISHING 


235 


Mincing  Knife 

Mill  for  Spice 

Mirror 

2 Mouse-traps 

Mop  and  extra  handle. . 
i doz.  Muffin  Rings. . . . 

Oven  (English) 1600 

Pail,  Tin 4° 

Pan,  Drip . . 70 

“ Dish,  additional  to 

List  1 : 1 00 

44  Frying,  additional 

to  List  ••••••  40 

44  Frying,  additional 
to  List  80 

3 Pans  for  Jelly  Cake..  75 

Pan  for  Laplanders ....  75 

44  Pudding 20 

44  Refrigerator 
drippings 1 00 


1 doz.  Patty  pans  for 

Oysters 75 

Pitcher 75 

2 Pots  (stone). ....  ....  3 00 

Refrigerator  (additional 

price  to  List  1) 10  00 

Scales  and  Weights....  325 

Settee,  Table  ironing..  700 

Sieve  (hair) 45 

Soup  Digester 3 50 

Spice  Box 1 00 

Tack  Hammer.. 50 

Teapot  (Britannia) 2 00 

Toast  Fork.. 15 

Tray  (galvanized  iron). . 75 

Wash-board,  zinc 75 

Water  Cooler 1 50 

Watering  Pot 75 

Wringer 8 00 


Total $285  07 


SUMMARY  OF  LIST  NO.  2. 


Hall - $160  00 

Reception-room 163  50 

Parlor 636  00 

Parlor  Hall 17  00 

Dining-room 382  00 

3d  story  front 254  00 

44  back 222  00 

44  hall 31  75 


4th  story  front 187  00 

44  hall 7 50 

Servants*  rooms ......  108  3 5 

Kitchen  (unnecessarily 
elaborate) 285  07 


Total $2454  17 


LIST  No.  3. 

A good-sized  house,  in  a fashionable  locality, 
conducted  with  considerable  elegance.  It  usu- 
ally costs  to  furnish  such  an  establishment  about 
$10,000:  this  one  was  furnished  for  about 
$5,000,  thus  leaving  a handsome  margin  for 
works  of  art.  The  result  attracts  general 
approval. 

HALL. 

Walnut . 

Floor  being  tiled,  no  carpet  is  needed. 


Mirror  shaped  and 
framed  after  original 
designs,  supplied  with 
hooks  for  coats  and 

hats $100  00 

2 Chairs  with  drawers 
under  seats  for 
brushes,  gloves,  &c., 
seats  and  backs  in 
leather  at  #18 36  00 


Plain  umbrella  stand 
(between  chairs  and 

under  mirror) 6 00 

Bracket  for  card  re- 
ceiver behind  door. . 

Fine  Brussels  stair  car- 
pet with  pads — See 
summary  at  end  of 
List 


5 00 


Total $147  00 

PARLOR,  15  X 29. 

Maple , Birch , 0 ah  and  Satine^  with  Silk  and  worsted  Fringe. 


Constructive  Cabinet, 
elaborate  m e tal 

hinges  and  tiles $135  00 

Divan  Sofa 80  00 

2 large  French  Arm 

Chairs  at  $50 100  00 

2 Ladies’  Chairs,  to 

match  at  $27 54  00 

4 small  Chairs,  uphol- 
stered, at  $6.50.....  26  00 

Mantel-board... 12  00 

Satine  Lambrequins* 
with  fringe,  home- 
made, at  $ 18  each ...  36  00 

Plain  construcive  cen- 
tre table,  after  origi- 


nal design,  covered 
with  Persian  Rug. .. 

Brussels  carpet,  extra 
quality  (border  be- 
ing carried  around 
fire-place  obviates 
necessity  of  rug,  but 
is  a blunder,  never- 
theless). See  sum- 
mary at  end  of  List  3. 

2 pr.  Superior  Notting- 
ham Curtains  at  $10. 

2 Broad  Lacquered 
Cornices  at  $3.50.. . . 


75  00 


7 00 


4 Book  Cases,  in  the 
constructive  style,  slA 
feet  high,  respect- 
ively 11,  6,  6 and  3 
feet  wide,  long  one 
being  in  three  divi- 
sions, with  centre  di- 
vision higher  than  the 
others.  No  doors. 
Uprights  with  a little 
intaglio  carving,  tops 
projecting,  shelves 


Total $545  00 

LIBRARY,  15  X l8. 

Oak  and  Leather. 

with  strips  of  leather 


Register  Guard  to  pro- 
tect books  (painted  to 

match  furniture) 3 50 

Mantel-board 10  00 

Carpet,  Brussels,  at 
$ 2.22  (see  summary  at 
end  of  List  3. 

Spanish  Lounge 50  00 

2 Rotary  Arm  Chairs, 
seats  .»nd  backs  cush- 
ioned, at  $19 38  00 


2 smaller  but  heavy 
Chairs, cushion’d  seats 

at  $9. so 

1 Lady’s  light  Shaker 
Rocker  with  tape 
check  seat  and  back. . 
1 Foot  Rocker  (cushion- 
ed like  rest  of  furni- 
ture   


6 00 


6 50 


Total $356  00 


DINING-ROOM. 

Walnut  and  Leathei — Floor  Parquetted 


Turkish  Rug $ 35  00 

Table 60  00 

8 Chairs,  heavy,  cush- 
ioned seats,  at  $9.50.  7600 

Buffet,  Gothic,  elabor- 
ate metal  mountings.  115  00 

Side  Table 15  00 

Small  stand  of  shelves 

for  glass,  &c 20  00 

Table  Linen  and  furni- 
ture (exclusive  of  sil- 
ver), say 200  00 


6 00 


Plate  warmer 

2 Walnut  Cornices, 

with  tiles  inserted,  at 

$6.. 

Curtains  same  as  parlor 
(different  pattern) ... 

Mantel-board 10  < 

3 Children’s  Chairs  at 

$>6.50 19  50 


14  00 


56  00 


Total #626  50 


BILLIARD-ROOM. 

Oak. 

6 Oak  billiard  chairs  at 

$2.50 15  00 

Cocoa  matting  around 
table,  bound  and  laid 
(floor  in  hard-wood).  20  00 


Total $285  00 


Table  and  fixtures  com- 
plete from  best  maker 
(second-hand  table, 
but  with  new  cloth 
and  entirely  refinish- 
ed ; fixtures  all  new, 
the  whole  bought 
from  the  Factory  and 
not  to  be  in  any  way 
distinguished  from 

new $250  00 

(Kjifp*  Shades  were  bought  for  the  light  over  the  table,  but 
subsequently  discarded  because  they  darkened  the  room  and 
did  not  help  the  players. 

BED-ROOM  I,  15  X 20. 

Chestnut , Oakf  and  Worsted  Reps  with  Fringe  0/ Different 
Colors . 


Oak  Bedstead,  plain  and 

substantial 28  00 

Oak  and  Chestnut  Dress 
ing  Bureau,  construc- 
tive, from  original  de- 
signs. with  elaborate 

metal  mountings 80  00 

Bed  Table 15  00 

Gardner  Rack  for 
brushes,  bottles,  &c., 

in  wash  closet 2 50 

Mug,  Soap-tray  and 

brush-tray 1 00 

Mantel-board,  home- 
made  s 50 

Best  Hair  Mattress  45 

lbs.  at  80c 36  00 

Best  Hair  Bolster,  7 lbs. 

at  80c 5 60 

2 Feather  Pillows,  4 lbs. 
each,  at  $ 1. 10 8 80 


Bed  Covering,  as  in 

List  No.  2 7 

Best  Spring  Mattress..  2$ 

Lounge 30 

2 Chairs,  upholstered 

seats,  at  $5.50 11 

1 Large  Shaker  Rocker.  10 

1 Small  44  44 

tape  check  seat  and 
back 6 00 

2 Gilt  Lacquer  Cornices 

at  $2 4 00 

Curtains,  French  Dotted 
Muslin,  ruffled  and 
lined  with  paper  mus- 
lin List  1 31  41 

Carpet,  Brussels,  at 
$1.94,  see  summary  at 
end  of  List  3. 

Total $306  81. 


NIGHT  NURSERY. 

Chestnut. 

2 Straight  Shaker  Rock- 
ers at  $3 6 00 

Carpet,  Brussels — See 
summary  at  end  of 
List  3. 

1 Window  Shade?  heavy 
green,  best  fittings. . . 


(same  as  furniture) 
with  gilt  line  near 

edge. . . $80  00 

Constructive  Library 
Table  with  elaborate 

metal  mountings 80  00 

Curtains  same  as  parlor 
except  lambrequins  in 
rep,  and  coraices  to 
match  furniture,  to- 
gether  63  00  i 


2 Bureaus  at  $25 5000 

Table 9 00 

Bed  for  attendant,  as  in 

List  1 40  00 

3 Cribs  at  $24 72  00 

3 Sets  Mattresses  and 

bedclothes  for  cribs  at 

$20 60  00 

2 Substantial  Shaker 

Rockers  at  $5 10  00 

DAY  NURSERY. 

Chestnut , and  Oak  Floor  Parquetted. 


5 00 

Total $252  00 


Table  (as  described  in 
general  hints  on  nur- 
sery)  10  00 

Chairs  as  in  Night  Nur- 
sery  16  00 

Sewing-table 5 00 

3 Low  Children’s  Ch’irs 

at  $2 6 00 


3 Gardner  Book-racks 
for  books  and  toys,  at 

$2.50.... 

Drugget  for  centre  of 
floor. 


7 50 


* A bad  business,  see  Curtains. 


8 8 8 8 8 


236 


FURNITURE  OIL 


FUSTIAN 


HALL  BED-ROOM,  8 X 12. 


Bedstead  (three-quarter 
size)  same  quality  as 

in  Bed-room  1 28  00 

Bedding  and  Covering, 
say  V4  less  than  Bed- 
room   79  77 

Bureau  Washstand,  mar 

ble  top 25  00 

Curtains  and  Cornice, 
one  window,  same  as 

Bedroom . 25  00 

1 Small  Walnut  Chair, 


Walnut. 


cushioned  seat  ......  5 50 

1 Folding  Easy  Chair..  25  00 
1 Gardner  Rack  for 
brushes,  bottles  &c..  2 50 

Toilet  Set 7 50 

Carpet,  Brussels,  same 
as  Bed-room  1.  See 
summary  at  end  of 
List  3. 


Total #198  2 7 


BED-ROOM  II,  15  X 18. 
Walnut  and  W orsted  Reps . 


Bedstead $28  00 

Mattresses  and  bedding 
same  as  bedroom  ^de- 
ducting $13  for  Spring 
Mattress  on  account 
of  less  frequent  use..  91  36 
Bureau,  Marble  Top 
(which  ought  not  to 


have  been) 45  00 

Small  Table 7 50 

Lounge 20  00 


3 small  Chairs,  cushion- 

SERVANTS  ROOMS  (TWO 
2 single  rooms,  same  as 
List  1 (these  rooms 
being  larger  than  in 
List  1,  the  carpet  will 
be  included  twice — the 
second  time  in  sum- 
mary at  end  of  List  3) 


ed  seat,  at  $5.50 16  50 

Shaker  Rocker,  covered 
to  match  furniture. . . 10  00 
2 Cornices,  lacquered, 

at  $1.50 3 00 

2 Prs.  Curtains,  as  in 

Bed-room  5 50 

Carpet,  Ingrain,  at  $1.45 
See  summary  at  end 
of  List  3. 

Total $226  86 

8 x 12  and  one  15  x 18). 

at  $53-34 68 

1 double  room,  at  say 
50  per  cent,  additional 
to  above 65  00 

Total $171  68 


KITCHEN. 

Same  as  List  II. 


Hall 

Parlor 

Library 

Dining-room  . . . 
Billiard-room.. . 

Bedroom  1 

Night  Nursery 


SUMMARY 

OF  LIST  3. 

Day  Nursery. . . . 

Bedroom  II 

Servants’  Rooms 

49  50 
198  27 
226  86 

171  68 


■$3164  97 


Kitchen  furniture  same  as  List  11 

In  a matter  of  this  amount,  a dollar  here  and  there 
is  not  worth  considering,  consequently  it  was  not 
deemed  worth  while  to  unravel  the  carpet  bill  to  get  at 
each  room.  The  style  of  each  room  is  specified  with 
price  per  yard,  made  and  laid,  with  lining.  The  total 
bill  was  $1053  04,  from  this  should  be  deducted  $67  50 
for  kitchen  and  basement  oilcloth,  already  being  in- 
cluded under  kitchen  furniture,  leaving  net 

This  house  was  taken  with  the  gas  fixtures  in.  The 
gas  fixtures  in  List  2 cost  $202  75  . Twice  that  amount 
ought  to  do  for  this  house 


285  07 


985  54 
405  5° 


$4841  08 


Now,  as  a parting  hint:  don’t  buy  anything 
at  the  start  that  you  are  not  sure  to  need.  You 
can  fill  in  afterwards  according  to  both  neces- 
sity and  taste.  To  furnish  in  taste,  especially, 
even  where  means  are  unlimited,  requires  more 
time  and  waiting  for  lucky  chances. 

FURNITURE  OIL. — For  mahogany  and 
polished  woods  of  all  kinds  the  following  is  ex- 
cellent : — Put  into  a jar  one  pint  of  linseed  oil, 
into  which  stir  one  ounce  of  powdered  rose- 
pink,  and  add  one  ounce  of  alkanet-root,  beaten 
in  a mortar;  set  the  jar  in  a warm  place  for  a 
few  days,  when  the  oil  will  be  deeply  colored, 
and  the  substances  having  settled,  it  may  be 
poured  off  for  use.  Rub  on  with  a woollen  rag. 
This  oil  darkens  mahogany  or  oak,  and  gives 
it  that  rich  blackish  surface  common  in  old 
furniture.  For  unvarnished  walnut  kerosene 


oil  is  as  good  as  any  other  after  the  first  two 
or  three  coats,  which  should  be  of  linseed  oil. 
It  dries  quickly,  and  presents  a smoother  sur- 
face. 

FURNITURE  POLISH.— I.  Take  of  but- 
ter of  antimony,  half  an  ounce  ; vinegar, 
one  ounce;  spirits  of  wine,  one  ounce;  lin- 
seed oil,  three-quarters  of  a pint  to  one 
pint.  Mix  and  shake  well  together  ; the 
linseed  oil  should  be  added  in  sufficient  quan- 
tity to  make  the  liquid  of  the  consistency  of 
cream.  Rub  on  with  a flannel  and  plenty  of 
friction. 

II.  French  polish:  Dissolve  half  a pound  of 
shellac  in  as  much  wood-naphtha  as  will  suf- 
fice to  take  it  up  and  make  a creamy  fluid — 
and  add  to  this  a quarter  of  a pint  of  spirit 
copal  varnish.  Pour  a little  of  this  into  a cup 
and  add  half  as  much  naphtha,  and  apply 
rapidly  to  the  surface  of  the  wood  with  a bold 
sweep  of  a rubber  composed  of  some  woollen 
material,  which  must  be  changed  as  fast  as  it 
gets  sticky.  As  soon  as  the  first  coat  is  thor- 
oughly dry,  which  may  be  known  by  its  not 
sticking  to  the  finger,  add  another  coat  in  the 
same  way  ; but  when  the  body  of  polish  is  suf- 
ficiently thick,  mix  some  spirits  of  wine>  with 
the  naphtha  and  bring  the  surface  to  a fine 
gloss,  using  fresh  rubbers,  and  finishing  off 
with  the  polish  mixed  with  spirits  alone,  in- 
stead of  naphtha. 

III.  Mix  two  parts  linseed  oil,  two  parts 
alcohol,  one  part  turpentine,  and  spirits  of 
ether  in  proportion  of  one  ounce  to  one  quart 
of  the  mixture.  Rub  on  with  rags.  This  is  a 
good  floor  polish. 

FURS. — These  should  be  combed  now  and 
then  while  in  use,  and  especially  as  the  Spring 
approaches.  When  put  away  for  the  Summer 
they  should  be  first  beaten  with  a small  cane 
and  carefully  combed  through,  and  then  sewed 
up  in  small  folds  of  calico  or  calico  carefully 
turned  in  at  the  edges.  A barrel  or  keg  in 
which  whiskey  has  been  kept  is  the  most  re- 
liable place  known.  Keep  in  a dry  place 
and  examine  once  a month.  It  is  a mistake 
to  suppose  that  moths  can  be  kept  away  by 
camphor,  pepper,  cedar-wood,  and  the  like ; 
these  substances  are  distasteful  to  insects  un- 
der ordinary  conditions  ; but  that  they  cannot 
be  relied  upon  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  moths 
have  been  known  to  hatch  in  an  atmosphere 
impregnated  with  camphor. 

FUSTIAN. — A species  of  coarse  cotton 
cloth,  very  similar  in  its  manufacture  to  that  of 
velvet,  having  in  addition  to  the  warp  and 
woof  a pile  consisting  of  threads  doubled  to- 
gether and  thrown  in  ridges,  and  presenting  a 
smooth  evenly-ribbed  surface  on  the  exterior. 
The  best  descriptions  of  this  class  of  goods  are 
known  as  cotton  velvet , velveteen , and  the  like. 
Fustian  is  also  used  as  a general  term  com- 
prehending a variety  of  cotton  fabrics,  as  cor- 
duroy, jean,  thickset,  moleskin,  and  other  stout 
cloths  for  wearing  apparel.  They  are  cither 
plan  or  twilled ; and  are  strong,  durable,  and 
cheap. 


GAMBOGE 


GARDENING 


237 


G 


GAMBOGE. — A gum  resin  exuded  by  a 
species  of  tree  found  chiefly  in  Cambodia,  and 
of  a brilliant  yellow  color.  It  is  used  chiefly  as 
a pigment  by  painters  ; but  is  sometimes  pre- 
scribed medicinally.  It  is  a very  powerful 
cathartic,  unless  taken  in  excessive  doses,  when 
it  causes  vomiting  and  acute  pain.  On  account 
of  its  rapid  action,  and  producing  watery  evacu- 
ations, Gamboge  is  a drug  of  great  importance  in 
all  cases  of  dropsy,  apoplexy,  and  where  a 
brisk  effort  and  copious  discharge  from  the 
bowels  are  required.  It  should  never  be  taken, 
however,  except  as  directd  by  a physician. 

GAME. — Under  this  head  are  included  all 
the  edible  wild  animals  and  wild  fowl.  No 
markets  in  the  world  are  so  abundantly  suppli- 
ed with  this  species  of  food  as  the  American, 
and  it  would  take  up  too  much  space  even  to 
enumerate  the  various  forms  in  which  it  appears. 
Each  separate  species  is  treated  of  in  its  prop- 
er place  ; and  we  shall  here  only  call  attention 


to  the  fact  that  white-meated  game  should 
be  thoroughly  cooked,  and  dark-meated  eaten 
rare,  and  to  the  relation  which  Game  in  gen- 
eral bears  to  other  foods.  The  point  of  con- 
trast between  the  flesh  of  wild  animals  and 
that  of  domesticated  and  artificially  fed  ones 
is  the  greater  hardness  and  solidity  of  the  flesh, 
the  greater  proportion  of  solid  fibre  to  the  juices, 
the  less  proportion  of  water  and  fat  in  the  juices, 
and  the  greater  proportion  of  lean  to  fat.  Hence 
it  follows  that  under  the  same  circumstances  (say 
when  both  the  wild  and  the  tame  animals  have 
been  killed  within  a day)  the  mastication  of 
the  flesh  of  wild  animals  is  less  easy,  the  flavor 
is  more  concentrated,  and  the  proportion  of 
flesh-forming  compounds  is  greater.  They  are 
therefore  strong  foods,  and  if  well  digested, 
are  highly  nutritious.  Their  decided  flavor 
is  also  a recommendation  to  invalids  or  others 
who,  being  satiated  with  ordinary  food,  need 
something  to  stimulate  defective  appetite.  For 


the  difference  between  wild  and  domestic  fowl, 
see  Birds. 

Keeping  Game  not  only  renders  it  more  ten- 
der, but  brings  out  its  flavor.  If  it  be  wrapped 
in  a cloth  moistened  with  pyroligneous  acid  and 
water  in  equal  proportions,  it  will  keep  good  for 
many  days  in  the  hottest  weather ; this  is  better 
than  putting  it  on  ice.  If  there  be  any  danger 
that  the  birds  will  not  keep  till  a convenient 
time  for  dressing  them,  pick  and  draw  them, 
wash  them  well  in  water,  and  rub  them  with 
salt ; plunge  them  singly  into  a large  pot  of 
boiling  water,  draw  them  up  and  down  by  the 
legs,  to  let  the  water  pass  through  them ; after 


they  have  been  in  the  water  five  minutes  hang 
them  up  to  dry  in  a cold  place,  sprinkle  them 
with  pepper,  and  salt  well  inside.  By  this 
means  they  may  be  kept  a long  time  ; before 
dressing  them,  they  must  be  washed  in  clear 
water.  When  feathered  game  has  become 
tainted,  pick  and  clean  the  birds  as  soon  as 
possible,  and  immerse  them  in  new  milk.  Let 
them  remain  in  this  till  next  day,  when  they 
will  be  quite  sweet  and  fit  for  cooking.  Birds 
should  be  hung  up  by  the  neck,  and  not  by  the 
feet,  notwithstanding  our  artist  having  done  it. 

GARDENING.  — The  practical  directions 
concerning  soil,  drainage,  etc.,  in  the  article  on 


238 


GARLIC 


GAS 


Floriculture,  apply  equally  to  the  garden 
designed  for  vegetables,  and  need  not  be  re- 
peated here.  The  soil  should  be  turned  up  as 
deep  as  the  spade  will  reach  as  soon  as  the 
frost  is  out  of  the  ground ; a liberal  supply  of 
manure  should  be  forked  in  at  a second  work- 
ing ; and  the  garden  should  be  laid  out  in  such 
a manner  that  every  portion  can  be  reached 
easily  without  injuring  the  plants  when  in  full 
growth.  To  plant  garden  seeds , lay  across  the 
beds  a board  about  a foot  wide  and  with  a stick, 
make  a furrow  on  each  side  of  it,  one  inch  deep. 
Scatter  the  seeds,  say  a dozen  to  a foot,  in  this 
furrow,  and  cover  them ; then  lay  the  board 
over  them  and  step  on  it,  to  press  down  the 
earth,  and  to  mark  the  next  row.  When  the 
plants  are  an  inch  high,  thin  them  out,  leaving 
space  proportioned  to  their  sizes.  Seeds  of 
similar  species,  such  as  melons  and  squashes, 
should  not  be  planted  near  together,  as  this 
causes  them  to  degenerate  by  a cross-fertiliza- 
tion of  their  flowers.  Neither  should  the  same 
vegetables,  with  the  exception  of  onions,  be 
planted  in  the  same  place  for  two  years  in 
succession.  The  seeds  of  nearly  all  the  early 
vegetables  require  to  be  started  in  a hot-bed 
(see  Hot-bed).  Full  directions  for  culture  are 
given  under  the  name  of  each  vegetable.  ( See 
Floriculture.) 

GARLIC. — A species  of  the 
onion,  with  a taste  more  acrimo- 
nious than  any  other,  and  an  ex- 
tremely disagreeable  smell.  It  is 
a native  of  Sicily,  but  now  grows 
'throughout  the  world.  Its  culture 
is  the  same  as  that  of  the  onion  in 
all  respects  ( see  Onion).  Garlic 
is  extensively  used  as  a seasoning 
herb  on  the  Continent,  and  es- 
pecially in  France,  where  it  is  con- 
sidered essential  to  many  dishes. 
In  this  country  it  is  used  compara- 
tively little,  though  with  the  in- 
troduction of  foreign  methods  of 
cookery  its  use  is  spreading.  The 
root,  which  is  the  only  part  of  the 
plant  made  use  of,  consists  of  a 
group  of  several  bulbs,  called 
cloves  of  garlic , enclosed  in  a 
single  membranous  skin.  These  are  usually 
found  strung  in  ropes  or  bunches,  like  onions ; 
and  are  in  season  throughout  the  year. 

Vinegar  (Garlic). — On  two  ounces  of  garlic, 
peeled  and  bruised,  pour  a quart  of  the  best 
vinegar ; stop  the  jar  or  bottle  close,  and  in  a 
fortnight  or  three  weeks  the  vinegar  may  be 
strained  off  for  use.  A few  drops  will  give  a 
sufficient  flavor  to  a sauce  or  to  a tureen  of 
gravy.  The  garlic  may  be  used  in  smaller  or 
larger  proportions,  as  a slighter  or  stronger 
flavor  is  desired,  and  may  remain  longer  in  the 
vinegar. 

GAS. — Gas  is  at  once  the  cheapest  and 
brightest  of  all  generally  employed  artificial 
lights.  Of  its  economy,  as  to  the  quantity  of 
light,  there  can  be  no  doubt ; for  when  gas  is 
Used  regularly  and  properly  attended  to,  an  or- 


Garlic. 


dinary  burner  consuming  five  cubic  feet  per 
hour,  emits  a light  equal  to  sixteen  to  twenty 
candles.  The  impression  that  it  is  expensive 
arises  from  the  fact  that  persons  who  have 
been  accustomed  to  using  one,  or  at  most,  two 
candles  in  their  apartment  are  seldom  satisfied 
with  the  same  quantity  of  light  from  their  gas- 
burner  when  it  can  be  so  easily  made  to  yield 
more.  The  very  excellencies  of  gas  in  this  re- 
spect are  turned  to  bad  account ; its  high 
illuminating  power  leads  to  its  use  in  excessive 
quantities  ; and  nearly  every  room  in  which  gas 
is  used  is  lighted  far  more  brilliantly  than  when 
any  other  illuminating  agent  is  relied  upon,  or 
than  is  at  all  necessary.  The  evils  of  this  do 
not  end  with  the  increased  expensiveness.  The 
air  is  heated  by  the  excessive  combustion,  and 
poisoned  by  large  quantities  of  carbonic  acid 
which  there  are  no  means  of  removing.  The 
eye  is  unprotected  from  the  glare  by  screen  or 
shade,  extraneous  light  is  freely  admitted, 
which  obscures  the  impression  and  strains  the 
nerve  of  vision,  and  in  proportion  as  the  sensi- 
bility of  the  eye  is  impaired,  stronger  light  is 
used,  which  gives  temporary  relief,  but  with  dan- 
ger of  ultimate  and  permanent  injury  to  the 
sight.  The  use  of  gaslight  also  greatly  height- 
ens the  necessity  for  effective  ventilation  of 
the  house,  for  it  generates  poison  exactly  in 
proportion  to  its  brilliancy.  On  all  accounts  the 
excessively  bright  illumination  to  which  the 
use  of  gas  has  led  is  to  be  deplored  ; the  estab- 
lished rule  should  be  that  in  an  ordinary  apart- 
ment no  more  than  one  burner  should  be  kept 
lighted  except  under  special  circumstances. 

The  light  obtained  from  a given  quantity  of 
gas  depends  largely  upon  the  kind  of  burner. 
Various  burners  are  now  in  use.  They  are 
usually  designated  by  some  term  signifying  the 
kind  of  opening  at  which  the  gas  escapes.  Thus 
we  have  the  argand  burner,  with  a circle  of 


Fig.  i. 


Fig-  i- 


Fig.  3-  Fig-  4. 


holes  as  in  Fig.  8,  named  from  analogy  with  the 
argand  lamp ; the  fishtail  burner,  where  the  gas 
escapes  by  two  holes  inclined  toward  one  an- 
other (Figs.  2 and  4);  the  bat  wing  burner,  where 
the  orifice  is  simply  a slit  (Figs,  i and  3).  The 
size  of  the  orifice  is  adapted  for  different 
amounts  of  gas  per  hour ; then  we  have  3-foot,  4 


GAS 


239 


Rate  of  consumption  from  a 5-foot  burner.  It  will  be  observed  that  in  turning  down,  the  illumination  decreases  more  rapidly 
than  the  consumption. 


foot,  7-foot  etc.,  burners.  The  jet  is  either  of 
brass  or  of  steatite  (soapstone) ; the  latter,  though 
the  first  cost  is  greater,  are  really  more  econom- 
ical as  they  do  not  clog  with  rust.  Many  burners 
are  what  are  called  “ check  ” burners  ; in  these 
the  gas  passes  through  two  openings,  an  interior 
and  exterior  one.  The  interior  opening  at  the 
base  of  the  burner  is  smaller  than  the  visible 
exterior  one,  and  as  a result  the  gas  escapes 
and  burns  at  a lower 
pressure  than  could  be 
otherwise  obtained, 
Figs.  6 and  7 repre- 
sent bases  for  check 
burners. 

Regulator  burners 
contain  a mechanical 
arrangement  in  which 
the  flow  of  gas  through 
them  is  regulated,  in 
proportion  to  the  pres- 
sure that  no  more  than 
a given  amout  of  gas 
may  be  burned  in  them, and  the  light  is  kept  steady. 
Such  burners  are , however,  liable  to  get  out  of 
order.  A batswing,  fish  tail  or  argand  jet, may  be 
used  in  a check  or  regulator  burner.  The  most 
economical  burner  giving  the  maximum  of  light 
for  the  amount  of  gas  consumed  is  the  argand 
burner.  These,  however,  require  a chimney 


which  with  its  liability  to  break,  and  necessity  for 
constant  cleaning,  is  objectionable.  Moreover, 
these  burners  are  more  susceptible  to  the  inev- 
itable variations  in  pressure  of  the  gas  reaching 
our  dwellings.  A batswing  check  burner  is  more 
advantageous  for  simplicity ; but  the  breadth 
of  the  flame  would  prevent  its  being  used 
when  globes  are  employed,  for  the  flame  would 
come  so  near  the  glass  as  to  endanger  it.  In 
such  a case  a check  fishtail  or  argand  burner 


Fig.  8. 

should  be  used.  The  most  perfect  burner  yet 
constructed  is  Suggs’  London  burner  (Fig.  8). 
This  burner  is  used  in  the  tests  made  upon 


Fig-  6.  Fig.  7. 


240 


GAS. 


gas.  The  maximum  illuminating  power  is 
obtained  when  the  flame  is  just  on  the  verge  of 
smoking. 

The  loss  of  light  by  the  use  of  shades , chim- 
neys, etc.,  is  very  considerable  and  largely  due 
to  the  conversion  of  light  into  heat.  The  follow- 
ing numbers,  selected  from  the  results  of 
William  King,  of  Liverpool,  and  Prof.  F.  H. 
Storer,  of  Boston,  are  a sufficient  illustration  : — 


Thickness  of  Loss  of 
glass. 


light. 
IO.57 
29.48 
52.82 

55-85 

1-3  inch.  6-15 
8-61 


1-8 

1-8 

1-8 

1-8 

1-6 


Description  of  glass 

Clear  glass  (King)  . 

Ground  glass  “ . 

Smooth  opal  “ . • . 

Ground  opal  “ . . . 

Thick  English  plate  (Storer) 

Crystal  plate  “ 

English  Crown  “ 

Double  English  window  “ 

Double  German  (Belgian)  Storer, 

Single  German  (Belgian)  “ 

Double  “ (Belgian)  ground 

(Storer) 1-8 

Single  “ “ “ “ 1 -1 6 

Berkshire,  Mass,  ground  (Storer)  1-66 
Orange-colored  window  glass 
(Storer) 

Purple  “ “ “ “ 

Ruby  “ “ “ “ 

Green  “ “ “ “ 

A porcelain  transparency  . 

Probably  many  of  our  readers  have 
frequently  annoyed  while  engaged  in 


13.08 
6-39 
13.00 
4.27 

62.34 

65.74 

62.74 

34- 48 

35- i  1 
89-62 
Si-97 
97.68 
been 

study, 

writing,  or  in  some  evening  occupation,  by  a 
sudden  flaring  up  of  the  gas,  accompanied  with 
a sharp  hissing  sound.  This  is  caused  by  an 
unnecessary  force  or  pressure  and  causes  a 
large  waste  of  gas.  This  cannot  be  remedied 
effectually  by  the  simple  change  of  burners,  but 
requires  a self-acting  cock  which  will  regulate 
the  pressure  and  maintain  an  even  amount  of 


1-16 
1-8 
1-16 
1-16 
1. 16 


*'ig.  9- 


force.  Frost’s  Gas  Regulator  (Fig.  9)  has  been 
practically  tested  by  the  writer  in  his  home  and 
has  been  found  to  distribute  to  each  light 
enough  gas  to  supply  the  orifice  and  adapt 
itself  to  all  alike  as  they  are  opened  or  shut 
off. 

The  conical  valve  is  connected  with  the 
diaphragm,  which,  when  raised  by  pressure  of 


the  gas,  raises  the  valve  and  vice  versa.  If  the 
diaphragm  is  raised  too  easily,  a slight  weight 
can  be  laid  upon  it  by  taking  off  the  top. 

Every  housekeeper  is  aware  of  the  annoyance 
and  danger  attendant  upon  the  use  of  matches, 
and  we  therefore  mention  in  this  connection  a 
very  ingenious  little  invention,  also  success- 
fully used  by  the  writer,  known  as  the  Stock- 


Fig,  10. 


well  Self-Lighting  Burner.  It  consists  of  a 
burner  to  the  lower  part  of  which  is  attached 
a circular  chamber  provided  with  a swinging 
cover,  within  arid  fitting  against  the  wall  of 
this  compartment  is  a disk  rotated  by  the  key, 
the  projecting  spindle  of  which  holds  a coil 
of  paper,  Fig.  11,  con-  r- 
taining  135  dots  of  fulmi-  [ 
nating  compound.  A (Fig. 

10)  is  a bent  piece  of  met- 
al, the  lower  portion  of 
which  so  joins  the  disk 
thatthe  motion  of  the  key  Fig.  u. 

causes  it  to  ascend  or  descend,  while  its  upper 
portion  presses  against  the  tape.  As  the  key 
is  turned,  the  piece  A pushes  back  the  hammer 
B,  until  the  bend  at  C is  reached  when  the 
hammer  is  released  and  springs  forward  strik- 
ing one  of  the  fulminating  dots  which  explodes 
and  lights  the  gas.  There  is  nothing  about  the 
device  to  get  out  of  order  and  no  skill  is 
required  to  operate  it,  as  it  works  automatically 
through  turning  the  same  key  which  must  be 
moveil  to  turn  on  the  gas.  There  is  no  chance 
of  lighting  the  fulminate  save  by  the  operation 
specified  and  the  arrangement  is  such  that  the 
hammer  does  not  fall  until  just  as  the  kev  is 
placed  so  as  to  turn  the  gas  fully  on,  which 
insures  ignition.  It  is  very  safe  and  handy  in 
closets,  cellars,  and  all  places  where  the  gas 
is  used  occasionally. 

Dr.  Arnott,  a well-known  English  writer  on 


GAS 


GENTIAN 


241 


the  subject,  suggests  the  following  rules  for 
using  gas: — i.  Have  the  apparatus  made  by 
competent  workmen.  2.  If  any  leak  be  per- 
ceived, turn  off  the  meter.  Have  it  promptly 
attended  to,  and  open  the  doors  or  windows  to 
prevent  accumulation.  3.  On  no  account  carry 
a light  of  any  kind  where  there  is  a smell  of 
gas.  4.  Have  rooms  in  which  gas  is  burnt 
ventilated  from  near  the  ceiling.  To  these  may 
be  added  : — 5.  If  the  gas  flickers  noisily,  turn 
it  lower  to  save  both  the  eyes  and  the  gas  and 
to  prevent  smoke.  If  turning  lower  does  not 
produce  a steady  flame,  probably  the  burner  is 
worn  out  and  economy  requires  a fresh  one. 
6.  At  least  once  a year  make  the  rounds  of  the 
burners  in  frequent  use  and  substitute  fresh 
ones  for  those  worn  out.  Any  man  who  uses 
gas  ought  to  be  able,  if  disposed,  to  keep  a pair 
of  pliers,  and  do  this  himself.  7.  Use  one  large 
burner  rather  than  two  small  ones.  You  get 
more  light  for  the  money.  8.  If  the  gas  gen- 
erally “goes  up  and  down,”  water  in  the  pipes 
is  indicated.  This  is  apt  to  come  from  con- 
densation outside  the  house,  in  cold  weather. 
Notify  the  company  to  pump  it  out.  Some- 
times water  will  thus  accumulate  at  the  bottom 
of  a bend  in  the  pipe  operating  as  a sort  of  trap, 
and  shut  off  the  gas  entirely.  ( See  Meter.} 

GAUFFERING. — This  is  done  with  a pair 
of  light  tongs,  about  the  size  of  a pair  of  shears, 
with  the  blades  nearly  round.  The  frill,  wrong 
side  upwards,  is  held  on  the  edge  of  the  iron- 
ing cloth  with  the  left  hand,  while  the  right, 
taking  the  gauffering-iron,  properly  heated, 
seizes  hold  of  the  frill  well  in  the  gathers,  with 
the  left  blade  under  and  the  right  over  it,  after 
which  with  a slight  twist  from  left  to  right,  two 
flutes  in  opposite  directions  are  made  by  one 
action,  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand  pressing  the 
adjacent  part  of  the  frill  against  the  cloth,  thus 
resisting  the  twist  of  the  iron,  and  causing  it  to 
smooth  and  round  out  the  flutes.  As  the  irons 
cool  very  rapidly,  two  or  three  must  be  kept 
heated,  placing  them  on  the  ironing-stove  or 
in  the  fire ; use  them  of  about  the  same  degree 
of  heat  as  ordinary  irons. 

GAUZE. — An  extremely  light  and  trans- 
parent fabric  of  silk,  very  loosely  woven,  the 
threads  being  all  at  some  distance  from  each 
other.  Common  gauze  is  cotton,  plain,  striped, 
or  figured,  and  can  be  gotten  from  a yard  to  two 
yards  wide.  In  the  best  kind  the  figure  is  formed 
of  silk ; a sort  with  flowers  of  gold  is  brought 
from  China.  Lisse  Gauze,  is  a plain  but  superior 
kind.  Craped  Lisse  Gauze  is  crimped  or  craped. 
Gossamer  is  a very  rich  gauze  used  for  veils  ; 
it  is  four  times  as  thick  and  strong  as  the  com- 
mon gauze,  though  nearly  as  open  in  its  tex- 
ture. It  may  be  had  four  and  five  quarters 
wide. 

GELATINE,  (Cooper’s  Isinglass  and 
Gelatine.) — This  is  made  from  the  sinews  of 
the  feet  of  calves  and  cattle.  They  pass 
through  a tedious  process  of  preparation  for 
some  months.  In  the  last  process,  before 
melting,  they  are  transferred  every  day,  for 
nearly  two  weeks,  from  one  vat  of  clean  water 


to  another.  It  is  said  that  Coxe's  gelatine  is 
made  from  the  clippings  of  skins ; it  cannot  be 
made  from  hoofs,  as  some  suppose.  Russian 
isinglass  is  made  simply  by  drying  the  sounds 
of  fish.  It  W'as  formerly  used  for  jellies,  blanc- 
mange, &c.,  but  Coxe’s  gelatine,  and  Cooper’s 
gelatine  and  isinglass,  are  found  so  excellent, 
and  are  so  much  cheaper,  that  it  is  now  but 
rarely  used  for  these  purposes.  The  Russian 
isinglass  costs  from  six  to  seven  dollars  a 
pound ; Cooper’s  isinglass  costs  but  ninety 
cents.  The  shreds  of  gelatine  are  not  so  fine 
as  those  of  Russian  isinglass,  inasmuch  as  the 
gelatine  having  no  cellular  membrane  to  hold 
it  together,  will  not  cohere  sufficiently  to  allow 
of  the  same  degree  of  subdivisions  as  isinglass. 
Of  the  gelatines  or  Cooper’s  isinglass,  one 
ounce  is  sufficient  for  a quart  of  jelly  or  blanc- 
mange ; more  is  often  used,  but  it  takes  very 
much  from  the  delicacy  of  the  preparation. 

Gelatine  and  Russian  isinglass  may  be  distin- 
guished from  each  other  by  the  following 
directions : — The  shreds  of  isinglass  when 
dissolved  in  cold  water  become  white,  opaque, 
soft  and  swollen ; the  swelling  is  equal  in  all 
directions,  and  under  the  microscope  they 
appear  quadrangular.  In  boiling  they  dissolve 
nearly  without  residue.  The  smell  of  the  dis- 
solved isinglass,  when  hot,  is  somewhat  fishy, 
but  not  unpleasant.  The  moistened  shreds,  or 
the  solution,  exhibit  to  test-paper  a neutral,  or 
faintly  alkaline,  and  rarely  a slightly  acid,  reac- 
tion. The  shreds  of  gelatine,  on  the  contrary, 
when  placed  in  cold  water,  swell  up,  acquire  in- 
creased transparency,  and  become  translucent 
and  glass-like.  The  form  which  they  take  in  swell- 
ing is  not  regular  like  that  of  isinglass,  but 
they  become  expanded,  flat,  and  ribbon-like,  the 
broad  surfaces  corresponding  to  the  incised 
margins.  The  dry  threads  on  the  uncut  surfaces 
frequently  present  a peculiar  shining  lustre,  not 
unlike  that  of  tinsel.  In  boiling  water  the 
shreds  do  not  entirely  dissolve,  but  in  most 
cases  a copious  deposit  falls  to  the  bottom  of 
the  glass.  The  smell  of  the  hot  infusion  is  like 
that  of  glue,  and  therefore  disagreeable.  The 
moistened  filaments  or  the  solution  of  gelatine 
usually  exhibit  a strong  acid  reaction  to  test- 
paper  ; this,  in  some  cases,  is  due  to  the  sub- 
stances used  in  bleaching  it,  and  is  not  neces- 
sarily indicative  of  anything  deleterious. 

GENTIAN. — An  herb  growing  wild  in  the 
Alps,  Apennines,  and  Pyrenees,  and  repre- 
sented by  one  or  two  species  in  the  United 
States.  The  root  is  much  employed  in  medi- 
cine. It  is  cylindrical,  ringed,  and  more  or  less 
branched  ; and  is  sold  in  a dried  state,  in  pieces 
varying  from  a few  inches  to  more  than  a foot 
in  length,  and  from  half  an  inch  to  two  inches 
in  thickness. 

Gentian  is  an  excellent  tonic  bitter,  and  not 
being  astringent,  is  often  used  in  diseases  of 
the  digestive  organs,  in  cases  of  general  debil- 
ity, and  as  a febrifuge.  It  can  be  administered 
in  the  form  of  an  infusion,  an  extract,  or  a tinc- 
ture— the  two  latter  are  sold  in  the  drug-stores. 
Only  small  quantities  of  the  infusion  should  be 


242 


GERANIUM 


GERMAN  SILVER 


made  at  any  one  time,  as  it  ferments  rapidly 
and  spoils. 

GERANIUM. — This  most  popular  of  plants, 
is  also  one  of  the  easiest  to  cultivate.  Plants 
of  any  kind,  and  in  every  stage  of  growth,  can 
be  gotten  of  florists ; and  these  may  be  propa- 
gated to  any  extent  by  cuttings,  with  little  or 
no  trouble.  Take  the  cuttings  in  June  or  July 
from  the  healthiest  plants  ; plant  them  in  small 
pots  filled  with  a compost  of  loam  and  sand, 
having  one  or  two  inches  of  the  former  on  the 
top  of  the  pot.  Insert  the  cutting  firmly  about 
half  its  length,  and  keep  the  sand  sopping  wet 
until  it  has  rooted  ; when  one  or  two  leaves  are 
developed,  transplant  it  into  a larger  pot  filled 
with  good  rich  loam  mixed  liberally  with 
manure,  and  by  November  you  will  have 
vigorous  plants  for  house  culture.  In  the  open 
border,  a rich  light  loam  will  grow  geraniums  to 
perfection,  and  the  soil  fresh  from  the  woods 
and  pastures  is  best  of  all ; persons  in  the 
country  can  obtain  this  by  lifting  the  sods  from 
cow  or  sheep  pastures,  and  taking  the  earth 
from  under  them.  Liquid  manure  applied  twice 
a week  during  the  summer  will  cause  them  to 
bloom  profusely. 

The  shrubby  kinds  of  geraniums  are  the 
most  tender,  and  when  placed  out  of  doors, 
should  be  defended  from  strong  winds,  and  be 
so  placed  as  to  enjoy  the  sun  until  eleven 
o’clock  in  the  morning.  As  the  shrubby  kinds 
grow  fast,  so  as  to  fill  the  pots  with  their  roots, 
and  push  them  through  the  opening  at  the 
bottom,  they  should  be  moved  every  two  or 
three  weeks  in  summer,  and  the  fresh  roots 
cut  off.  They  should  also  be  newly  potted 
twice  in  the  summer ; once  about  a month  after 
they  are  placed  out  of  doors,  and  again  towards 
the  end  of  August.  When  this  is  done,  all  the 
roots  outside  the  earth  should  be  pared  off,  and 
as  much  of  the  old  earth  removed  as  can  be 
done  without  injuring  the  plants.  They  should 
then  be  planted  in  a larger  pot ; some  fresh 
earth  should  first  be  laid  at  the  bottom,  and 
on  that  the  plant  should  be  placed  so  that  the 
old  earth  adhering  to  it  may  be  about  an  inch 
below  the  rim  of  the  pot ; it  should  next  be 
filled  up,  and  the  pot  slightly  shaken ; the 
earth  must  then  be  gently  pressed  down  at  the 
top,  leaving  out  a little  space  for  water  to  be 
given  without  running  over  the  rim;  finally,  the 
plant  should  be  liberally  watered,  and  the  stem 
fastened  to  a stake,  to  prevent  the  wind  dis- 
placing the  roots  before  they  are  newly  fixed. 
As  the  branches  grow,  and  new  leaves  are 
formed  at  the  top  of  them,  the  lower  ones  may 
die,  and  should  be  plucked  off  every  week. 
Geraniums,  except  the  shrubby  kinds,  require 
shelter  from  frost  only,  and  should  have  free 
air  admitted  to  them,  when  the  weather  is  not 
very  severe.  In  sultry  weather,  they  should 
all  be  watered  liberally  every  morning,  except 
some  few  of  a succulent  nature,  which  must  be 
watered  sparingly;  the  latter  may  be  known  by 
plucking  a leaf  from  them.  During  the  winter, 
geraniums  are  usually  kept  as  house  plants, 
and  are  unsurpassed  for  this  purpose  ; but  they 


can  also  be  preserved  in  this  way : — Dig  them 
up  before  the  first  frost  blights  their  leaves,  and 
after  cutting  away  all  the  tender  shoots  and 
buds,  and  shaking  the  earth  from  their  roots, 
hang  them  up  in  a dark,  cool,  dry  cellar,  heads 
downward.  In  the  spring,  they  can  be 
brought  to  light,  the  branches  trimmed  off, 
and  planted  in  boxes  in  a warm  kitchen.  They 
will  soon  put  forth  leaves  and  be  ready  to 
transplant  to  the  garden. 

Double  Geraniums. — These  do  not  drop 
their  leaves  like  the  single  varieties,  and  their 
clusters  of  flowers — of  all  shades  of  scarlet 
and  pink — are  of  an  immense  size.  They 
flourish  better  if  partially  shaded  from  the  in- 
tense heat  of  the  noonday  sun,  and  will  bloom 
until  the  first  frost  comes.  Choice  varieties 
are  : — Crown  Prince , brightest  rose  color  ; 
Emile  Lemoine , cherry-carmine,  Gloire  de 
Doubles , cerise  with  white  centre  (finest  of  all); 
Gloire  de  Nancy,  brilliant  scarlet ; Marie  Le- 
moine, rosy-pink. 

Sweet-scented  Geraniums. — These  are  in- 
dispensable for  bouquets  and  vases.  Formerly, 
the  Rose  and  the  Oak-leaved  were  the  only  kind 
commonly  cultivated,  but  now  there  are  more 
than  a dozen  fine  varieties.  The  following  are 
the  best : — Denticulalura  j Graveolus  j Lady 
Plymouth  j Odoratissimum ; Shrubland  Pet. 

Zonale  Geraniums. — These  are  admirable 
in  coloring,  and  of  very  free  growth;  their 
trusses  of  flowers  are  five  to  six  inches  in  diam- 
eter, and  are  of  all  shades,  from  the  most 
dazzling  crimson  and  brightest  rose,  to  the 
purest  white.  Choice  varieties  are  : — Blue 
Bells,  magenta  pink ; Christine,  rose  pink ; 
Coleshill,  scarlet,  enormous  flowers;  Giant  de 
Battailes,  dark  crimson  ; General  Grant,  daz- 
zling scarlet ; Incomparable,  striped  ; King  of 
Roses,  scarlet,  shaded  to  magenta ; Madame 
IVerle,  white,  with  pink  centre  ; Maid  of  Kent, 
richest  pink;  Mrs.  Keeler,  peach  blossom  hue; 
Reinedcs  Vierges,  pure  white;  Warrior,  intense 
scarlet. 

Lilliputian  Zonales,ox  Tom  Thumb  Geran- 
iums, are  dwarfs,  growing  from  six  to  ten  or 
twelve  inches  high;  they  are  very  stocky,  and 
their  flowers  are  fully  equal  in  size  and  beauty  of 
coloring  to  those  of  the  larger  kinds.  Desir- 
able varieties  are  : — Baby  Boy,  scarlet,  with 
white  eye  ; Little  Dear,  delicate  rose,  spotted 
white ; Little  Gem,  brilliant  vermilion,  white 
centre ; Pretty  Jemima,  scarlet  with  white 
centre. 

GERMAN  SILVER. — The  best  ware  of 
this  material  resembles  silver,  and  is  equally 
durable.  It  is  verv  cheap,  and,  when  properly 
taken  care  of  and  kept  bright,  looks  very  well. 
After  using,  it  should  be  put  immediately  into 
hot  water,  washed  well,  and  wiped  dry  with  a 
soft  cloth.  Once  a week  it  should  be  washed 
in  soap-suds,  and  then  cleaned  with  whatever  is 
used  for  cleaning  silver-ware.  Should  it  be- 
come discolored  or  spotted  by  vinegar  or  other 
acids,  wash  it  first,  and  then  clean  it  with  sweet 
oil  and  powdered  rotten-stone.  If  the  ware  has 
become  very  much  discolored,  mix  a quarter  of 


GERMAN  STUDENT  LAMP 


243 


a pint  of  vinegar  with  half  an  ounce  each  of 
alum  and  cream  of  tartar ; add  to  this  a pint  of 
boiling  water,  dip  the  plate  into  the  mixture, 
and  rub  it  dry. 


German  Student  Lamp  (or  St.  Germain). 
— This  favorite  and  really  excellent  lamp  is 
constructed  on  the  same  principle  as  the  Ar- 
gand  Lamp.  (See  Argand).  Its  peculiarity 
is  that  the  fountain  of  oil  (A).,  is  placed  on 
the  side  of  the  centre  piece  higher  up  than  the 
wick  with  a self-acting  valve  H,  by  which  the 
reservoir  X is  fed  from  it.  For  study,  sewing, 
or  any  work  requiring  a concentrated  light  this 
lamp  is  unequalled.  It  gives  a very  soft,  bril- 
liant and  steady  light,  and,  with  ordinary  care, 
will  emit  neither  smell  nor  smoke.  To  fill  the 
lamp  take  out  the  holder,  A,  invert  it  and  pour 
in  the  oil  till  it  reaches  the  valve  H ; then  pull 


up  the  valve  by  means  of  the  wire  B,  invert  it, 


holding  it  above  the  holder  X so  that  any  oil 
which  may  escape  drops  into  this  holder ; re- 
place it  in  the  holder  X.  To  put  on  the  wick, 


~C 


a 


take  off  the  chimney-holder  F,  take  out  the 
cylinder  C,  take  out  the  smallest  cylinder  D, 


tie  the  wick  at  the  base  of  Cylinder  D,  then  re- 
place the  cylinder  D in  the  large  one  C,  taking 
care  to  push  it  down  as  far  as  the  point  E. 
Replace  everything  as  before,  the  large  cylin- 
der C having  the  brass  catches  G up,  and  the 
ring  E down ; To  raise  the  wick  turn  the 
chimney-holder. 


244 


GHERKIN 


GINGER 


The  wick  should  be  trimmed  regularly.  If 
a crust  has  formed,  do  not  disturb  it,  but  only 
remove  any  little  point  or  unevenness  that  may, 
occur;  do  not  use  the  scissors  unless  the  wick, 
through  uneven  draft,  should  have  coaled  or 
charred  unevenly.  By  this  method  you  will 
have  an  even  flame,  and  the  wick  will  last  much 
longer  than  when  cut  frequently.  If  your 
lamp  should  make  a humming  noise,  which  is 
caused  by  the  shank  of  the  chimney  being  of 
the  wrong  length,  raise  the  chimney  slightly, 
or  change  it  for  one  with  a longer  shank. 

Use  kerosene  or  spirits  in  place  of  water  for 
cleaning  chimneys.  The  brass  part  of  the 
lamp  may  be  cleaned  with  Vienna  lime  and 
kerosene,  and  polished  with  rouge. 

Some  lamps  are  made  to  burn  sperm,  lard, 
or  olive  oils.  Those  made  for  heavy  oils  will 
not  burn  kerosene,  and  vice  versa.  A kero- 
sene lamp,  with  one-twelfth  or  one-eighth  of  a 
heavier  oil  mixed  with  kerosene,  is  all  that  can 
be  desired. 

GHERKIN. — A very  small  species  of  the 
cucumber — it  is  sometimes  called  ‘‘Jamaica 
cucumber.”  The  fruit  is  oval  in  shape,  and  of 
a light  green  color,  about  the  size  of  a common 
egg-plum,  and  thickly  covered  on  the  outside 
with  prominent  flesh  species  or  prickles.  When 
cut  its  smell  is  like  that  of  a cucumber,  and  it  is 
very  full  of  small  seeds.  Gherkins  are  used 
only  for  pickles,  and  for  this  purpose  are  excel- 
lent. They  are  not  much  cultivated  here,  but 
may  generally  be  found  in  the  markets  in 
August  and  September.  The  method  of  rais- 
ing them  is  the  same  in  all  respects  as  that  for 
raising  cucumbers.  (See  Pickles.) 

GIBLETS. — These  include  the  heads,  neck, 
gizzards,  livers,  legs,  and  ends  of  wings  of 
chickens,  clucks,  geese,  turkeys,  and  other  birds, 
tame  or  wild.  They  are  used  for  stewing,  fric- 
assee, soups,  pot-pie,  and  gravies.  Prepare 
them  thus : — After  carefully  plucking  and 
singeing  those  that  are  covered  with  skin,  cut 
off  the  beak,  take  out  the  eyes,  and  split  the 
head  in  two ; cut  the  neck  into  not  less  than 
three  pieces  ; chop  the  wings  across  in  two ; 
skin  the  feet,  by  scalding,  and  cut  off  the 
claws  ; cut  the  heart  in  two ; cut  the  gizzard, 
after  skinning  and  cleaning,  into  four  pieces ; 
leave  the  liver  as  it  is.  Place  them  in  a bowl 
or  pan,  pour  boiling  water  and  a little  salt  on 
them,  let  them  stand  five  or  six  minutes,  then 
wash  and  drain  them,  and  they  will  be  ready 
for  cooking.  (See  Pies,  and  Soups.) 

Fricasseed  Giblets. — Put  a piece  of  butter 
or  lard  in  a stew-pan,  and  set  it  on  a good  fire  ; 
when  melted,  sprinkle  into  it,  little  by  little,  a 
teaspoonful  of  flour ; stir  together,  and  when 
of  a brownish  color  add  a gill  of  broth,  the 
same  quantity  of  warm  water,  a sprig  of  pars- 
ley, a pinch  of  grated  nutmeg,  two  small 
onions,  salt  and  pepper,  and  lastly  the  giblets. 
Cook  for  about  two  hours.  Dish  the  pieces, 
strain  the  sauce,  mix  with  the  yolk  of  an  egg 
well-beaten,  and  pour  it  over  the  giblets  ; then 
serve. 

Stewed  Giblets. — Prepare  them  as  above. 


Put  them  in  a stew-pan  with  a small  quantity  of 
water,  season  with  onion,  sweet  herbs,  a very 
small  piece  of  mace,  salt  and  pepper,  and  stew 
slowly  for  two  or  three  hours.  Before  serving 
give  them  one  boil  with  a teacupful  of  cream, 
and  a tablespoonful  of  butter  rubbed  in  a tea- 
spoonful of  flour. 

GIDDINESS.  (See  Vertigo.) 

GILLIFLOWER. — The  annual  varieties  of 
the  Gilliflower  are  very  pretty  summer  bloom- 
ing plants.  The  seeds  should  be  sown  in  a 
hot-bed  in  April,  and  when  the  frost  is  well  out 
of  the  ground,  transplant  them  to  the  gar- 
den. Select  a showery  day ; or  transplant 
after  nightfall,  water  freely,  and  protect  from 
the  sun  next  day.  The  removal  must  be  made 
very  carefully,  for  they  bear  it  poorly,  owing  to 
their  long,  fibreless  roots.  The  flowers  are 
white,  purple,  red,  and  yellow  all  summer. 

GILT  FRAMES. — To  protect  from  flies. 
(See  Frames.) 

GIMP. — A kind  of  silk,  woollen,  or  cotton 
twist,  often  with  a metallic  wire,  or  sometimes 
a coarse  thread,  running  through  it.  It  comes 
of  various  widths,  woven  in  a variety  of  pat- 
terns and  colors,  and  is  much  used  as  a trim- 
ming for  dresses,  furniture,  etc.  The  worsted 
is  the  most  durable,  but  the  silk  is  the 
richest. 

GIN. — An  ardent  spirit,  formerly  made  by 
fermenting  juniper  berries,  but  now  produced 
chiefly  from  corn,  wheat,  barley,  or  some  other 
grain.  Hollands  is  a variety  of  corn  spirit, 
flavored  with  juniper  berries ; and  English 
gin  consists  generally  of  plain  corn  spirit 
flavored  with  oil  of  turpentine  and  a small 
quantity  of  other  substances.  American  gin 
varies  in  flavor  with  every  distiller.  Probably 
nothing  used  as  a food  by  man  is  liable  to 
greater  and  more  injurious  adulterations  than 
gin ; and  the  difficulty  of  getting  it  free  from 
any  poisonous  drug  should  induce  every  one  to 
abstain  from  its  use. 

Julep  (Gin). — Take  one  gill  of  gin,  half  a gill 
of  maraschino,  four  sprigs  of  mint,  and  one 
pint  of  pounded  ice ; shake  together,  sweeten 
with  a spoonful  of  sugar,  and  as  the  ice  melts, 
drink  the  julep  with  a straw. 

GINGER.— The  ginger  of  commerce  is  the 
root  of  a plant  (the  Zingiber  officinale)  which  is 
cultivated  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  the  tropical  parts 
of  America,  the  largest  supply  being  furnish- 
ed by  the  West  Indies.  There  are  two  kinds 
of  ginger,  but  the  difference  consists  chiefly  in 
the  mode  of  preparing  it.  White  ginger  is  com- 
posed of  the  best  pieces,  from  which  the  outer 
skin  has  been  stripped  off ; they  are  then  well 
washed  and  dried  in  the  sun : it  breaks  with  a 
fibrous  fracture,  and  is  the  strongest  and  best 
flavored.  Black  ginger  is  an  inferior  kind, 
which  is  only  scalded  before  being  dried. 
Preserved  ginger  comes  from  the  West  Indies. 
It  is  made  by  scalding  the  roofs  when  they  are 
young  and  full  of  sap  ; then  peeling  them  in 
cold  water,  and  putting  them  into  jars  with  a 
rich  syrup,  in  which  state  we  receive  them.  It 
should  be  chosen  of  a high  yellow  color  with  a 


GINGHAM 

little  transparency;  that  which  is  dark-color- 
ed, fibrous,  and  stringy  is  not  good. 

Ginger  is  one  of  the  most  agreeable  and 
wholesome  of  spices ; it  is  stimulating  to  the 
digestive  organs,  and  much  less  hurtful  than 
pepper.  As  a medicine  it  is  highly  useful,  and 
an  essence  or  essential  oil  of  ginger  is  prepared 
as  a more  convenient  mode  of  administering  it. 
Ground  ginger  is  frequently  adulterated  with 
wheat  flour,  potato  flour,  sago,  cayenne  pepper, 
and  turmeric  powder,  none  of  which  are  prejudi- 
cial to  health,  but  which  detract  greatly  from  its 
usefulness  as  a spice.  It  is  best  to  buy  it  in 
the  roots,  and  prepare  it  for  use  at  home. 
(See  Cake,  and  Cordial.) 

Essence  of  Gin. — Mix  four  ounces  of  pow- 
dered ginger  with  a quart  of  gin ; let  it  stand 
ten  days,  shaking  it  up  every  day.  This  is  an 
excellent  stomachic,  relieving  flatulence,  and 
aiding  slow  digestion.  Dose  : A teaspoonful 
in  a glass  of  cold  water. 

Ginger-pop. — Put  into  an  earthen  pot  two 
pounds  of  loaf  sugar,  two  ounces  of  cream  tar- 
tar, two  ounces  of  best  ginger  bruised,  and  two 
lemons  cut  into  slices.  Pour  over  them  three 
gallons  of  boiling  water ; when  lukewarm,  toast 
a slice  of  bread,  spread  it  thickly  with  yeast, 
and  put  it  into  the  liquor ; mix  with  it  also 
the  whites  of  two  eggs  and  their  crushed 
shells.  Let  it  stand  till  next  morning ; then 
strain  and  bottle.  It  will  be  ready  for  use  in 
three  or  four  days. 

Mock  Ginger. — Boil,  as  if  for  the  table, 
small,  tender,  white  carrots  ; scrape  them  until 
free  from  all  spots,  and  take  out  the  hearts.  Steep 
them  in  water,  changing  it  every  day,  until 
all  vegetable  flavor  has  left  them.  To  every 
pound  of  carrot  so  prepared  add  one  quart  of 
water,  two  pounds  of  loaf  sugar,  two  ounces  of 
whole  ginger,  and  the  shred  rind  of  a lemon. 
Boil  for  a quarter  of  an  hour  every  day,  until 
the  carrots  clear;  and,  when  nearly  done,  add 
red  pepper  to  taste.  This  will  be  found  equal 
to  West  India  preserved  ginger. 

Wine  (Ginger). — Take  .-Water,  i gall;  loaf 
sugar,  3 lbs ; ginger,  i oz : raisins  lb ; one 
lemon,  and  one  orange  ; isinglass,  I oz ; yeast, 
i tablespoonful. 

Boil  the  sugar  and  water  a quarter  of  an 
hour,  then  take  a little  of  it  to  boil  with  the 
ginger  and  peel  of  the  lemon  and  orange  for  one 
hour.  When  nearly  cold,  mix  the  two  togeth- 
er, and  put  in  the  juice  of  the  orange  and 
lemon,  with  one  ounce  of  isinglass  and  a table- 
spoonful of  yeast.  Lastly,  after  twenty-four 
hours,  pour  the  whole  into  a small  cask,  let  it 
remain  six  weeks,  then  rack  carefully ; let  it 
remain  another  month,  and  bottle.  This  is  an 
excellent  receipt. 

GINGER  BEER.  ( See  Beer.) 

GINGERBREAD.  (See  CAKE.) 

GINGHAM.— A thin  cotton  fabric,  general- 
ly of  a check  pattern,  which  is  produced,  not  by 
dyeing  or  stamping  the  manufactured  material, 
but  by  interweaving  the  colored  threads.  There 
are  various  kinds  and  qualities  of  gingham, 
bearing  different  names  ; “ umbrella  gingham  ” 


GLADIOLUS  245 

is  woven  with  threads  all  of  the  same  color. 
Gingham  is  generally  a yard  wide. 

GEADIOLUS.— This  has  of  late  years  be- 
come the  chief  favorite  among  the  bulbous 
plants,  and  a few  at  least  of  its  numberless 
varieties  should  find  a place  in  every  garden.  It 
has  become  a regular  “florist’s  flower,”  and 
good  varieties  can  be  purchased  at  from  $1.50 
to  $3.00  per  dozen.  To  grow  the  bulbs  in  per- 
fection they  should  be  planted  in  a sandy  loam, 
enriched  with  peat  and  leaf-mould  ; a mixture 
of  one-half  loam,  one-quarter  peal,  and  one- 
quarter  leaf-mould  will  prove  the  best  soil.  If 
strong  manures  are  used,  they  cause  the  colors 
of  the  flowers  to  run  into  each  other,  and  give 
them  a muddy  appearance.  They  may  be 
planted  in  the  open  air  during  April  or  May. 
Plant  in  groups  or  singly ; groups  of  three  or 
five  is  the  prettiest  way.  They  should  be  set 
from  two  to  four  inches  deep,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  bulbs.  As  they  grow  up  they  should, 
be  tied  to  a light  stake,  three  to  four  feet  long, 
which  should  be  set  when  the  bulbs  are  planted. 
Gladioli  show  to  excellent  advantage  when 
planted  around  rose  bushes  or  large  shrubs  ; 
they  bloom  late  in  the  season  when  most  other 
flowers  are  passed,  and  if  properly  trained  pro- 
duce a charming  effect.  They,  are  also  very 
nice  plants  for  house  culture  ; six  or  eight  bulbs 
can  be  grown  in  a twelve  inch  pot,  and  each 
kind  tied  to  a thin  stake.  They  will  bloom 
finely.  If  the  stalks  are  cut  off  for  vases  or 
bouquets,  they  will  continue  to  bloom  for  a week 
or  two,  sending  forth  fresh  flowers  daily. 

The  gladiolus  may  be  propagated  by  seed  ; 
the  sowing  should  be  in  the  fall,  as  soon  as  the 
seeds  are  gathered,  or  in  February,  March,  or 
April,  in  peaty  soil,  in  a frame  covered  with 
glass  to  exclude  the  frost,  or  in  pots  or  pans, 
well  drained.  The  seeds  should  be  barely 
covered.  The  young  bulbs  require  the  same 
attention  as  the  older  plants,  but  as  they  do  not 
bloom  until  the  third  summer,  it  is  more  con- 
venient and  satisfactory  as  a general  thing  to 
buy  the  bulbs  of  the  florist.  They  increase 
very  rapidly  ; from  one  bulb,  two  or  three  will 
spring. 

The  gladiolus  will  not  survive  our  northern 
winters,  and  must  always  be  kept  in  a cool  dry 
place.  When  the  frost  has  killed  the  leaves, 
dig  up  the  bulbs,  dry  them  in  the  sun,  cut  off 
the  leaves  an  inch  from  the  stem,  and  put  the 
bulbs  in  a paper  bag.  Kept  in  a frost-proof 
cellar,  they  will  retain  all  their  life,  and  may  be 
planted  out  in  the  spring  as  soon  as  the  frost  is 
out  of  the  ground.  There  are  three  species, 
however,  (G.  Byzantinum,  Communes,  and  Ro- 
seus,)  which  are  tolerably  hardy,  and  if  once 
planted  in  the  open  border  will  flower  well  year 
after  year  with  little  attention.  Bulbs  of  these 
varieties  should  be  planted  in  November,  and 
need  no  protection  ; though  they  must  be  planted 
deep  enough  to  escape  severe  frosts  and  to 
avoid  being  thawed  out  of  the  ground. 

The  varieties  of  the  gladiolus  are  almost 
numberless  and  nearly  all  are  worthy  of  culti- 
vation. Long  lists  are  given  in  the  florists’ 


24G 


GLASSWARE 


GLUE 


catalogues,  and  these  may  be  consulted;  but 
Mr.  Rand  suggests  that  for  a dozen  choice 
varieties  one  should  choose  : Surprise,  clear  red; 
Lord  Campbell,  splendid  yellow  ; Vulcain,  dark 
scarlet;  P teuton,  clear  red,  shading  to  pure 
white ; Celine,  rosy  white,  with  amaranthine 
lines  ; Ophir,  straw  color,  mottled  with  purple, 
La  Quint aine  peach  cherry;  Raphael,  deep 
cherry,  lighted  with  white ; Rembrandt,  vivid 
scarlet;  Isoline,  white,  shading  to  pink  ; Jeanne 
d'  Arc,  pure  white,  rose-tipped  petals;  Princess 
Clothilde,  rose, with  cherry  markings ; and  Count 
de  Morny,  deep,  cherry  crimson,  with  white 
lines.  For  the  same  number  of  cheaper  sorts 
he  recommends  : Penelope''  rosy  white  ; Goliah, 
rose  cherry;  Aristotle,  rose,  marbled  with  red; 
Empress  white,  marked  with  pale  pink ; Jauire 
cherry  with  white ; Nemesis,  cherry,  clouded 
with  white ; Hebe,  clear  rose ; Fanny  Rouget, 
carmine  and  flesh  color;  Sulphurous,  sulphur 
yellow;  Archimedes,  rosy  red;  Vesta,  pure 
white  with  purple  lines ; and  Don  Juan,  deep 
red,  with  faint  white  lines.  The  following,  he 
says,  should  be  in  every  collection,  however 
small : Count  de  Morny,  La  Poussin,  Breuchlcy- 
ensis,  Vesta,  Penlope,  Hebe,  Pleuton,  Calypso, 
Vulcain,  Madame  de  Vatry. 

GLANDERS.  (See  Horse.) 

GLASS — -Glass  is  commonly  classified  as 
follows:  bottle  glass,  window  glass,  plate  glass, 
flint  glass,  crystal,  strass,  enamel.  The  prin- 
cipal ingredients  are  silica,  lime,  soda,  potash, 
and  oxide  of  lead;  and  the  various  kinds  are 
made  by  varying  the  ingredients  and  their 
proportions.  The  coloring  matters  are  metal- 
lic oxides.  Many  different  substances  will 
attack  one  or  another  of  the  substances  in 
glass,  and  in  time  change  its  color  or  texture. 
Glass  that  loses  its  polish  when  heated  will  be 
affected  by  acids.  Attempts  have  been  made  to 
produce  a glass  which  will  not  break;  but  thus 
far  the  only  result  is  a glass  which  stands 
heavy  blows  so  long  as  it  is  free  from  scratches 
and  bruises.  If  the  minutest  corner  be  broken, 
the  whole  instantly  flies  into  fragments. 

Blue  Glass — There  is  just  now  a furor  about 
blue  glass  as  a promoter  of  health.  It  is 
claimed  that  it  intercepts  certain  rays  of  the 
sunlight,  and  transmits  others.  But  it  remains 
to  be  proved  that  this  is  of  any  benefit  to  ani- 
mal or  vegetable  life. 

To  Clean  Cut  Glass Wash  it  in  warm 

water,  and  let  it  dry  thoroughly;  then  polish 
with  a soft  brush  and  prepared  chalk. 

GLAZE. — This  is  merely  strong,  clear  gravy 
or  animal  jelly  boiled  down  to  the  consistency 
of  thin  cream  ; but  this  reduction  must  be  care- 
fully managed  that  the  glaze  may  be  brought  to 
the  proper  point  without  being  burned  ; it  must 
be  attentively  watched,  and  stirred  without  be- 
ing quitted  for  a moment  from  the  time  of  its 
beginning  to  thicken  ; when  it  has  reached  the 
proper  degree  of  boiling,  it  will  jelly  in  dropping 
from  the  spoon,  like  preserves,  and  should  then 
be  poured  out  immediately,  or  it  will  burn. 
When  wanted  for  use,  melt  it  gently  by  placing 
the  vessel  which  contains  it  in  a pan  of  boiling 


water,  and  with  a paste-brush  lay  it  on  the  meat, 
upon  which  it  will  form  a sort  of  clear  varnish. 
Inconsequence  of  the  very  great  reduction  which 
it  undergoes,  salt  should  be  added  to  it  spar- 
ingly when  it  is  made.  Any  kind  of  stock  may 
be  boiled  down  to  glaze  ; but  unless  it  be  strong, 
a pint  will  afford  but  a spoonful  or  two  : a small 
quantity  of  it,  however,  is  generally  sufficient, 
unless  a large  repast  is  to  be  served.  Two  or 
three  layers  must  be  given  to  each  joint.  The 
glaze,  when  cold,  becoming  a jelly,  gives  a rich 
and  savory  appearance  to  the  articles  which  it 
envelops. 

GLAZING. — The  glaze  for  meats  is  made  as 
above.  A beaten  egg,  or  syrup,  or  jelly,  or  egg 


and  sugar,  etc.,  is  used  to  glaze  cakes,  and  pas- 
try. Glazing  is  done  with  a brush  or  with 
feathers  ; dip  the  brush  into  the  egg  or  jelly 
and  spread  it  on  the  cake  or  other  object  as  di- 
rected in  the  different  receipts.  It  is  also  done 


Glazing  Brush. 


by  sifting  powdered  sugar  on  cakes  which  are 
put  back  into  the  oven  for  a short  time — till  the 
sugar  is  melted. 

GLOVES. — Light  kid  gloves  may  be  cleaned 
by  rubbing  them  thoroughly  with  magnesia,  moist 
bread,  or  India  rubber;  Indian  meal  is  also 
good.  Or,  lay  them  on  a clean  towel,  rub 
them  with  a piece  of  flannel  dipped  in  hot, 
strong  lather  of  white  soap,  till  the  dirt  is 
removed,  using  as  little  water  as  possible. 
Hang  them  up  at  a distance  from  the  fire  to 
dry  gradually,  and  after  they  are  quite  dry,  pull 
out  the  shrivels  and  stretch  them  on  the  hand. 
If  so  badly  soiled  that  they  cannot  be  cleaned, 
sew  up  the  tops  of  the  gloves  and  rub  them 
over  with  a sponge  dipped  in  a decoction  of  saf- 
fron and  water.  The  gloves  will  be  yellow  or 
brown,  according  to  the  strength  of  the  decoc- 
tion. (See  Cleaning  and  Dyeing.) 

GLUE. — A common  substance  for  cementing, 
made  of  the  skins  and  gelatinous  parts  of  ani- 
mals, boiled  to  a thick  jelly,  and  then  formed 
into  a solid  mass  by  spreading  it  out  in  thin 
layers  upon  a net  and  drying  it  until  it  is  quite 
i hard,  in  which  state  it  is  sold.  Good  glue  is  of 


GLYCERINE 


GOLD-FISH 


247 


a light  brown  color,  semi-transparent,  and  free 
from  waves  or  cloudy  lines.  When  desired  for 
use  it  should  be  broken  into  small  pieces  and 
placed  in  a vessel  containing  sufficient  water  to 
cover  it,  in  which  it  will  soften  and  swell ; then 
set  this  vessel  into  another  one  containing 
water  in  which  are  placed  a few  pebbles  or  nails 
to  prevent  the  bottoms  of  the  two  vessels  from 
coming  in  contact ; set  this  over  the  fire,  and 
when  the  glue  is  dissolved  and  has  boiled  a few 
minutes,  it  is  ready  for  use.  It  must  be  kept  hot 
while  using  it. 

GLYCERINE.-— When  an  alkali  is  added  to 
oils  and  fats,  the  fatty  acids  combine  with  the 
alkali  and  form  soaps.  At  the  same  time  gly- 
cerine is  formed  ; easily  soluble  in  water  or  alco- 
hol, it  has  scarcely  any  perceptible  smell,  and 
only  a sweet,  and  rather  insipid  taste.  It  forms 
a moist  and  pleasant  covering  for  the  skin  in 
many  of  its  diseases.  Its  healing,  as  well  as  pro- 
tective, properties  render  it  peculiarly  applicable 
as  a dressing  for  bruised  or  excoriated  surfaces, 
such  as  burns  or  scalds,  to  which  it  may  be  ap- 
plied with  a camel’s  hair  brush.  Where  there 
is  harshness,  dryness,  or  a scurfy  state  of  the 
skin,  a lotion  composed  of  one  part  glycerine 
to  fifteen  parts  of  plain  water,  or  elder-flower 
water,  is  very  serviceable.  Glycerine  soap  is 
also  excellent  for  all  these  purposes ; and  a 
salve  for  chapped  hands,  cracked  lips,  etc.,  may 
be  made  as  follows ; dissolve  one  ounce  of 
powdered  borax  in  one  ounce  of  rose-water, 
and  add  half  an  ounce  of  glycerine  : melt  one 
drachm  of  spermaceti  in  the  same  quantity  of 
olive  oil  and  ten  drachms  of  pure  lard ; add 
the  latter  to  the  former  mixture  little  by  little, 
stirring  all  the  time,  and  continuing  to  do  so 
until *nearly  cold. 

In  deafness  and  other  affections  of  the  ear 
glycerine  has  also  been  found  serviceable.  In 
many  cases  of  dysentery  it  is  often  adminis- 
tered both  as  a medicine  and  as  an  emetic ; for 
the  former  mix  twelve  drachms  of  glycerine  in 
three  ounces  of  orange-flower  water  and  three 
ounces  of  plain  water : dose,  two  tablespoon- 
fuls every  hour ; for  the  latter,  add  one  ounce 
of  glycerine  to  five  ounces  of  a decoction  of 
bran  or  linseed,  and  take  twice  a day. 

GOAT-FLESH.- — This  is  very  commonly 
eaten  in  Switzerland  and  other  mountainous 
parts  of  the  world ; but  though  occasionally 
found  in  our  markets  can  scarcely  be  reckoned 
among  the  articles  of  food  used  generally  in  this 
country.  In  its  general  characters,  goat-flesh 
resembles  mutton,  but  it  is  harder  and  tougher 
and  has  a stronger  flavor,  so  that  it  is  seldom 
preferred  to  it.  According  to  Dr.  Smith,  how- 
ever, it  is  much  more  nutritious  than  mutton, 
so  far  as  nitrogenous  or  flesh-forming  elements 
are  concerned,  but  is  inferior  in  the  carbona- 
ceous or  fat  forming  elements.  The  flesh  of  the 
kid  is  more  esteemed  than  that  of  the  goat ; 
it  has  a flavor  not  unlike  that  of  venison.  Cook 
in  the  same  way  as  mutton  or  lamb. 

GOITRE. — An  enlargement  of  the  thyroid 
gland,  occasioning  a swelling  of  the  throat, 
which  frequently  attains  a very  large  size.  It 


is  not  inflammatory  or  malignant  in  char- 
acter, is  free  from  pain,  and  generally  of  the 
natural  color  of  the  skin.  At  first  the  tumor  is 
soft  and  elastic,  but  as  it  increases  in  size  it 
becomes  hard  and  firm.  Its  size  sometimes 
becomes  so  great  as  not  only  to  be  a serious 
inconvenience,  but  even  to  impede  respiration 
and  obstruct  the  voice.  Goitre  is  endemic  or 
common  in  certain  regions  of  the  world,  such  as 
Switzerland,  Savoy,  and  the  Tyrol,  in  Europe, 
and  certain  portions  of  the  Andes  and  Hima- 
layas ; but  to  what  peculiarity  of  these  regions 
it  is  owing  is  very  uncertain,  though  it  is  gen- 
erally attributed  to  a calcareous  impregnation 
of  the  water.  It  also  occurs  hereditarily,  inde- 
pendent of  endemic  influence.  It  is  much 
more  common  among  females  than  males,  and 
usually  occurs  about  the  age  of  puberty. 

Treatment. — Iodine  is  the  great  remedy  for 
this  disease,  either  administered  internally  in 
small  doses  for  a long  time,  or  applied  exter- 
nally in  the  form  of  an  ointment  or  of  the  tinc- 
ture painted  over  it  every  night. 

GOLD-FISH. — The  extreme  elegance  of 
form  of  gold-fish,  the  splendor  of  their  scaly 
covering,  the  ease  and  agility  of  their  move- 
ments, and  the  facility  with  which  they  may  be 
kept  alive  in  very  small  vessels,  render  them 
very  popular  household  pets.  Though  the  fish 
are  seen  to  best  advantage  when  kept  in  glass 
globes,  yet  these  globes  are  very  unsuitable 
dwellings  for  them.  Fish  require  abundance 
of  air ; and  scarcely  any  other  vessel  than  a 
globular  one  contains  so  much  water  with  so 
little  exposure  to  the  air.  They  also  require 
shade  when  they  feel  the  want  of  it ; and  it 
need  scarcely  be  said  that  all  day  long  a glass 
globe  is  in  a blaze  of  light.  Further,  the  water 
in  a globe  must  be  changed  daily;  consequent- 
ly the  fish  must  be  lifted  out  either  by  the  hand 
or  a small  net,  and  it  is  utterly  impossible  to 
handle  these  delicate  creatures  without  injur- 
ing them  at  one  time  or  another.  Where 
there  can  be  a contrivance  made  for  letting  in 
a flow  of  water,  be  it  ever  so  small,  say  a drop  a 
minute,  in  and  out  of  the  vessel  containing  the 
fish,  the  water  will  not  require  to  be  changed  ; 
and  a small  water  plant,  say  the  very  curious 
vallisneria  spiralis , would  afford  the  required 
shade.  But  as  a globe  is  always  the  most  popu- 
lar domicile  for  these  fish,  we  may  give  a few 
directions  as  to  how  they  should  he  treated  in 
it.  When  purchasing  a globe,  select  as  wide- 
mouthed  a one  as  can  be  had,  and  subse- 
quently never  fill  it  more  than  three-fourths  full 
of  water ; by  these  means  you  will  secure  as 
much  air  for  the  fish  as  is  possible  under  the 
circumstances.  Keep  the  globe  also  in  the 
most  airy  part  of  the  room,  never  letting  it  be 
in  the  sun  or  near  the  fire.  Change  the  water 
daily,  and  handle  the  fish  tenderly  in  doing  so. 
Never  give  the  fish  any  food  ; all  they  require 
when  in  a globe  is  plenty  of  fresh  water  and 
fresh  air — they  will  derive  sufficient  nutriment 
from  the  animalculae  contained  in  the  water. 
Many  gold-fish  are  killed  by  having  bread  given 
to  them.  They  eat  it  eagerly,  but  the  uneaten 


248 


GOLD-LACE 


GOOSEBERRY 


crumbs  immediately  turn  sour  and  deteriorate 
the  water  to  an  extent  which  makes  it  unfit  to 
sustain  life. 

Two  diseases,  being  the  most  frequent,  may 
be  pointed  out  as  the  ones  to  which  gold-fish 
are  most  fatally  liable.  Sometimes  a fish  seems 
less  lively  than  usual,  and,  on  a close  inspec- 
tion, will  have  a sort  of  mealy  look,  and,  in  a 
day  or  two,  this  mealiness  will  turn  out  to  be  a 
parasitical  fungus.  There  are  several  reputed 
remedies  for  this  very  mysterious  disease,  but 
there  is  absolutely  nothing  for  it  but  to  take  the 
fish,  at  the  first  appearance  of  the  disease,  and  : 
throw  it  away,  for  it  will  not  recover,  and  it 
will  only  infect  the  others.  We  would,  how- 
ever, advise  the  inexperienced  gold-fish  keeper, 
whenever  a fish  seems  unhealthy,  to  place  it  by 
itself  for  a few  days  : he  will  then  see  whether 
the  fungus  makes  its  appearance ; if  not,  the 
fish  may  recover,  and  be  returned  to  the  globe. 
The  other  disease  is  apparently  an  affection  of 
the  air-bladder,  arising  from  being  supplied 
with  too  little  air.  When  under  the  influence 
of  this  disease,  the  fish  swims  sideways,  with 
its  body  bent  as  if  its  back  were  broken,  and  in 
a short  time  dies.  Whenever  these  symptoms  j 
are  observed,  the  fish  should  be  placed  in  a 
large  tub  of  water,  and  a small  stream  of  water 
allowed  to  drop  into  it.  The  water,  through 
dropping,  becomes  more  aerated,  and  the  fish, 
thus  receiving  an  abundant  supply  of  air,  will 
frequently  recover. 

GOLD-LACE,  (to  clean.)— Burn  some  rock 
alum  ; then  powder  it  very  fine  and  sift  it.  Dip 
a clean  soft  brush  into  the  powdered  alum  and 
rub  the  gold-lace  with  it  very  briskly;  after- 
wards wipe  it  with  a clean  soft  flannel.  Gold 
■embroidery  may  be  brightened  in  the  same 
manner. 

GOOSE.— Among  the  best  breeds  of  geese 
■for  the  table  are  the  Bremen,  Chinese,  and 
African.  Hybrids  are  also  highly  prized  for 
their  superior  size  and  flesh.  Though  greatly 
relished  by  some,  the  goose  is  seldom  a favorite 
food,  and  is  generally  considered  very  poor 
■eating.  The  flesh  abounds  in  flavor,  and  is 
said  to  be  highly  stimulating.  When  young  it 
as  tender,  but,  in  general,  it  is  only  adapted  for 
good  stomachs  and  powerful  digestion,  and 
should  be  sparingly  used  by  the  sedentary  or 
the  weak,  and  by  persons  subject  to  cutaneous 
■diseases.  Its  strong  flavor  is  thought  by  some 
to  require  modification  by  stuffing  with  sage  and 
onions,  while  others  relish  it  only  when  this  is  ! 
not  demanded.  The  fat  of  the  goose  is  reck- 
oned peculiarly  subtle,  penetrating,  and  resolv- 
ent, and  is  usually  preserved  for  domestic  ap- 
plication. The  average  weight  of  the  large 
kind  of  geese  is  from  nine  to  fifteen  pounds, 
and  instances  have  been  known  of  their  weigh- 
ing thirty  pounds  when  duly  fattened;  but  the 
smaller  breeds  are  preferable  for  the  table. 
Geese  are  called  green  until  they  arc  three  or 
four  months  old,  and  these  are  something  of  a 
delicacy. 

In  purchasing  geese,  select  those  which  are 
fresh  and  fat,  with  the  head  and  giblets  cut  off, 


and  nicely  drawn,  as  it  will  make  a saving  of 
nearly  two  pounds  in  weight.  The  bills  and 
feet  are  red  when  the  goose  is  old,  yellow  when 
young ; fresh  killed,  the  feet  are  pliable,  stiff 
when  too  long  kept. 

Wild  Geese  are  considered  superior  to  the 
domestic  for  eating  purposes,  and  the  young 
are  very  fine.  They  are  best  in  October, 
November,  and  December;  but  are  found  in 
the  markets  as  late  as  January.  Brant  ox  Brent 
geese  have  long  been  famous  among  wild  fowl 
and  are  much  sought  after 
Roast  Goose.— Truss,  stuff,  baste,  and 
roast  exactly  like  Duck;  but  serve  with  apple 
sauce.  A specially  nice  way  to  roast  is  to  begin 
by  basting  with  a teacupful  of  cider ; then,  when 
it  begins  to  warm,  dredge  with  flour;  after- 


wards baste  with  its  own  fat  and  gravy,  mixing 
with  the  cider.  The  roasting  of  a full-grown 
goose  takes  at  least  two  hours ; and  the  nearer 
it  draws  to  a close,  the  more  assiduous  must  be 
the  basting ; the  fatter  the  goose  the  more 
liberal  may  be  the  dredging  with  flour. 

Green  Geese  are  never  stuffed.  Season 
the  inside  with  pepper  and  salt,  and  roast  the 
goose  at  a brisk  fire  from  forty  to  fifty  minutes. 
Serve  it  with  good  brown  gravy  only. 

Stewed  Goose.— Take  an  oval  or  ob- 
long boiler,  just  big  enough  to  hold  the  goose. 
Cover  the  bottom  with  thin  slices  of  bacon,  and 
lay  the  goose  upon  them ; surround  it  with  a 
calf’s  foot  cut  in  pieces  (this  may  be  omitted), 
and  season  with  cloves,  onions,  sliced  carrots, 
pepper,  salt,  and  blades  of  mace  ; pour  over  it 
a wineglassful  of  brandy,  one  of  white  wine,  a 
pint  of  broth,  and  a pint  of  water.  Close  the  lid 
tightly,  and  stew  slowly  for  five  or  six  hours. 
This  may  be  eaten  either  hot,  with  its  accom- 
paniments, or  cold,  with  the  gravy  about  it  in 
the  shape  of  jelly. 

GOOSEBERRY. — This  does  not  attain  the 
perfection  with  us  which  it  reaches  in  England, 
but  is  nevertheless  one  of  the  pleasantest  and 
most  useful  of  our  smaller  fruits.  The  berries 
are  acid  and  at  the  same  time  sweet,  and  have 
a peculiarly  bland  and  grateful  flavor.  When 
ripe  they  form  an  excellent  dessert  eaten  with 
sugar,  but  they  arc  used  chiefly  in  making  pies, 
tarts,  sauces,  preserves,  etc.  There  are  a great 
number  of  varieties  of  the  gooseberry,  but  the 
red,  yellow,  green,  and  white,  and  those  of  a 
medium  size  and  free  from  mould  are  the  best. 
They  make  their  appearance  in  our  markets 
from  the  South  early  in  May  and  continue  until 
about  the  ist  of  August. 

Gooseberries  may  be  propagated  by  layers 
and  cuttings  ; they  should  be  grown  in  a rich 


GOURD 


GOUT 


249 


but  not  wet  soil.  They  are  best  if  kept  free 
from  suckers  and  trained  like  trees.  One  third 
of  the  old  wood  should  be  trimmed  away  every 
autumn.  (See  Compotes,  Jam,  Jelly,  Pies, 
Preserves  and  Sauces.) 

Champagne  (Gooseberry). — Gather  the 
red  gooseberries  when  just  turning,  and 
pour  cold  water  over  them  in  the  proportion  of 
three  quarts  of  water  to  one  gallon  of  fruit ; let 
this  stand  a week,  stirring  every  day,  and  bruis- 
ing the  berries  till  they  are  thoroughly  mashed ; 
then  strain  through  a sieve,  and  add  to  every 
gallon  of  liquor  four  pounds  of  moist  sugar ; 
let  the  fermentation  proceed  for  two  or  three 
days  ; then  pass  through  a flannel  bag  into  the 
cask,  leaving  the  latter  open  till  fermentation 
subsides ; add  to  every  five  gallons  of  wine 
half  an  ounce  of  isinglass  dissolved  in  a little  of 
the  wine,  and  close  the  cask.  If  the  cham- 
pagne is  desired  to  be  strong,  add,  before 
closing  the  cask,  a bottle  or  two  of  brandy  ; but 
it  will  be  brisk  and  agreeable  without.  It 
should  remain  twelve  months  in  the  cask  before 
bottling. 

Dried  Gooseberries.— To  seven  pounds 
of  gooseberries  add  a pound  and  a half  of 
powdered  sugar,  which  must  be  strewed  over 
them  in  the  preserving-kettle.  Let  them  remain 
over  a slow  fire  till  they  begin  to  break,  and 
then  remove  them.  Repeat  this  process  for 
two  or  three  days  ; then  take  the  gooseberries 
from  the  syrup  and  spread  them  out  on  sieves 
near  the  fire  to  dry.  The  syrup  may  be  used 
for  other  preserves.  When  the  gooseberries 
are  quite  dry,  store  them  in  tin  boxes  on  layers 
of  paper.  They  will  keep  in  this  way  all  winter, 
and  may  be  used  for  pies,  tarts,  etc. 

Wine  (Gooseberry). — I.  Take  /-Gooseber- 
ries ; sugar;  Malaga  raisins  ; brandy. 

Take  ripe  gooseberries,  mash  them  well, 
and  put  them  into  a tub  allowing  for  each 
quart  a quart  of  water;  let  them  stand  all  night, 
then  strain  them  through  a sieve,  and  press 
them  with  the  hand.  To  every  gallon  put  three 
pounds  of  moist  sugar.  Let  it  stand  two  days, 
and  then  put  it  into  a cask  with  one  pound  of 
Malaga  raisins  to  each  gallon  of  liquor,  and  a 
little  brandy;  let  it  remain  in  the  barrel  three  or 
four  months,  or  till  fine  ; then  bottle  it. 

II.  Take  /-Gooseberries,  36  lbs;  boiling  wa- 
ter, 3 galls ; sugar,  1 2 lbs. 

To  thirty-six  pounds  of  ripe  fruit  add  three 
gallons  of  boiling  water;  let  it  stand  twenty- 
four  hours,  then  strain  off;  add  twelve  pounds 
of  good  brown  sugar,  stir  and  skim  occasionally 
for  twenty-four  hours  more,  and  then  put  it 
into  the  cask  to  ferment.  It  will  be  ready  to 
bottle  in  four  months. 

GOSSAMER.  (See  Gauze., 

GOURD. — The  gourd  family  is  a large  one, 
embracing  the  pumpkin,  squash,  etc. ; but  the 
name  is  usually  applied  only  to  the  common 
gourd,  or  calabash.  It  is  a creeping  vine, 
rather  ornamental  in  appearance,  and  grows 
luxuriantly  wherever  planted  and  without  any 
attention.  Plant  the  seeds  in  the  early  Spring. 
The  fruit  when  very  young  and  tender  can  be  I 


used  for  pickling,  like  cucumbers  ; as  it  grows 
old  the  shell  or  rind  becomes  hard,  light,  and 
strong,  and  makes  excellent  water-dippers, 
buckets,  etc.,  etc. 

GOUT. — A painful  disease  of  the  joints, 
generally  of  the  feet  and  hands,  and  especially 
of  the  great  toes.  It  occurs  mostly  in  persons 
advanced  in  life  and  who  indulge  freely  in  the 
pleasures  of  the  table,  and  is  hereditary.  A fit 
of  the  gout  is  generally  preceded  by  indiges- 
tion, drowsiness,  eructation,  a slight  headache, 
and  sometimes  vomiting.  The  appetite  is  often 
remarkably  keen  a day  or  two  before  the  fit,  and 
there  is  a slight  pain  in  passing  urine,  and 
frequently  an  involuntary  shedding  of  tears. 
Sometimes  these  symptoms  are  much  more 
violent,  especially  upon  the  approach  of  the  fit ; 
and  it  has  been  observed  that  as  is  'the  fever 
which  ushers  in  the  gout  so  will  the  fit  be ; if 
the  fever  be  short  and  sharp,  the  fit  will  be  so 
likewise;  if  it  be  feeble,  long  and  lingering, 
such  will  the  fit  be  also.  The  regular  gout 
generally  makes  its  attack  in  the  spring  or  the 
beginning  of  winter,  in  the  following  manner : 
At  some  time  during  the  night  the  patient  is 
seized  with  a pain  in  his  great  toe,  or  occasion- 
ally in  the  heel,  or  ankle,  or  calf  of  the  leg. 
This  pain  is  accompanied  with  a sensation  as 
if  cold  water  were  poured  upon  the  part,  which 
is  succeeded  by  a shivering  with  some  degree 
of  fever.  Afterwards  the  pain  increases,  and 
settling  among  the  small  bones  of  the  foot,  the 
patient  feels  as  if  the  part  were  stretched, 
burnt,  squeezed,  gnawed,  or  torn  in  pieces. 
The  part  at  length  becomes  so  exquisitely  sen- 
sitive that  the  patient  cannot  bear  to  have  it 
touched,  or  even  to  suffer  any  one  to  walk 
across  the  room.  This  torture  usually  lasts  for 
twenty-four  hours  from  the  coming  on  of  the  fit ; 
the  patient  then  becomes  easier,  and  the  part 
begins  to  swell,  appears  red,  and  is  covered  with 
a slight  moisture.  Towards  morning  he  drops 
asleeps,  and  generally  falls  into  a gentle  sweat. 
This  terminates  the  first  paroxysm,  a number 
of  which  constitute  a fit  of  the  gout,  which  is 
longer  or  shorter  according  to  the  patient’s  age, 
strength,  the  season  of  the  year,  and  the  dispo- 
sition of  the  body  to  the  disease.  The  parox- 
ysms, however,  generally  grow  milder  every  day, 
till  at  length  the  disease  is  carried  off  by  per- 
spiration, urine,  and  other  evacuations.  In 
some  patients  this  happens  in  a few  days ; in 
others,  it  requires  weeks,  and  in  some,  months 
to  complete  the  fit.  When  the  fit  is  over,  the  sys- 
tem is  relieved,  and  the  patient  feels,  both  in 
mind  and  body,  better  than  before  the  attack. 
At  first  a fit  of  gout  occurs  only  once  in 
two  or  three  years ; but  by  degrees  they  be- 
come more  and  more  frequent,  more  severe, 
and  of  longer  duration.  In  its  progress  various 
parts  of  the  body  become  affected  and  trans- 
lations take  place  from  one  joint  or  limb  to 
another,  and  after  frequent  attacks,  the  joints 
lose  their  strength  and  flexibility,  and  become 
so  stiff  as  to  be  deprived  of  all  motion.  As  the 
fits  become  more  frequent  and  severe,  so  the 
constitutional  derangements  become  more  mark- 


250 


GRAFTING 


GRAFTING 


ed  and  constant.  The  appetite  fails,  indiges- 
tion is  rarely  absent,  there  is  a tendency  to 
costiveness,  the  mind  becomes  restless  and 
irritable,  calcareous  deposits  are  formed  in  the 
arteries,  calculi  form  in  the  bladder,  and  fre- 
quently the  heart  becomes  diseased. 

Treatment. — Topical  applications  should  be 
only  of  soothing  remedies.  Colchicum  is  ap- 
proved, but  must  be  used  with  great  caution, 
the  dose  should  not  exceed  twenty  drops  once 
in  four  to  six  hours  in  a tumbler  of  water  with 
some  alkali,  such  as  half  a drachm  of  the  bicar- 
bonate of  potash.  As  soon  as  it  purges,  or  if 
there  be  great  pain  at  the  pit  of  the  stomach,  it 
must  be  discontinued.  The  judicious  use  of  pur- 
gatives ; abstinence  from  highly  nitrogenous 
food  and  stimulating  drinks  ; pure  air,  exercise, 
regular  habits  of  labor  and  sleep,  and  avoiding 
exposure  to  cold,  dampness,  and  fatigue  of 
body  or  mind,  is  the  only  treatment  that  can 
be  relied  on  ; though,  in  special  cases,  a phy- 
sician’s advice  may  supplement  it  with  direct 
remedies.  If  during  an  attack  of  gout,  the  pain 
quit  the  great  toe,  or  knee,  or  hand,  or  what- 
ever part  it  happened  to  be  located  in,  and  the 
swelling  and  redness  disappear,  and  if  at  the 
same  time,  there  ensues  an  agonizing  pain  in 
the  stomach,  coming  on  in  paroxysms,  lauda- 
num in  doses  of  twenty  drops  every  hour  may 
be  of  the  utmost  service  till  the  doctor  comes, 
who  will  probably  give  larger  doses  ; hot  bottles 
should  also  be  unceasingly  applied  to  the  region 
of  the  stomach.  If  laudanum  cannot  be  pro- 
cured, strong  brandy  is  the  best  substitute  ; but 
if  the  pain  be  inflammatory,  and  not  spasmodic, 
brandy  would  do  much  more  harm  than  lauda- 
num. Some  gouty  persons  experience  great 
relief  by  drinking  a tumblerful  of  an  infusion 
made  from  green  coffee. 

GRAFTING. — The  following  directions  are 
from  the  “American  Fruit  Culturist,”  by  John 
J.  Thomas  (published  by  W.  Wood  & Co.): — 

“ Propagation  by  grafting  differs  from  in- 
creasing by  cuttings,  by  inserting  the  cutting 
into  the  growing-stock  of  another  tree  instead 
of  directly  into  the  soil.  To  effect  these  two 
requisites,  it  is  needful  first , that  the  opera- 
tion be  performed  with  a sharp  knife  that  the 
vessels  and  pores  may  be  cut  smoothly  and 
evenly,  and  the  two  parts  be  brought  into  im- 
mediate and  even  contact.  Secondly  that  the 
operation  be  so  contrived,  that  a permanent 
and  considerable  pressure  be  applied  to  keep 
all  parts  of  these  cut  faces  closely  together. 
Thirdly , that  the  line  of  division  between  the 
inner  bark  and  the  wood  should  coincide  or 
exactly  correspond  in  each  ; for  if  the  inner 
bark  of  the  one  sets  wholly  on  the  bark  of  the 
other,  the  upward  current  through  the  wood 
and  back  through  the  bark  is  broken  and  the 
graft  cannot  flourish  or  grow.  Fourthly, 
that  the  wounded  parts  made  by  the  operation 
be  effectually  excluded  from  the  external  air, 
chiefly  to  retain  a due  quantity  of  moisture  in 
the  graft,  but  also  to  exclude  the  wet,  until,  by 
the  growth  of  the  graft,  the  union  is  effected.” 

“ i — The  first  requisite  is  best  attained  by 


keeping  a keen,  flat  bladed-knife  to  cut  the 
faces,  and  another  knife  for  other  purposes. 

2 —  The  second  requires  that  the  jaws  of  the 
stock,  in  cleft  grafting  press  with  some  force 
but  not  too  much,  against  the  wedge-shaped 
sides  of  the  graft,  a stock  one-third  of  an  inch 
in  diameter  will  somtimes  do  this  sufficiently; 
but  three-quarters  of  an  inch  is  a more  conve- 
nient size.  In  whip  grafting,  the  tongue  and  slip 
should  be  firmly  crowded  or  bound  together. 

3 — 1 he  third  requisite  is  attained  by  close 
examination  with  the  eye. 

4 —  1 he  fourth  is  accomplished  by  grafting 
wax,  or  grafting  clay.  An  excellent  grafting  wax 
is  made  of  three  parts  of  rosin,  three  of  bees- 
wax and  two  of  tallow.  The  wax  may  be  directly 
applied  when  just  warm  enough  to  run,  by  means 
of  a brush ; or  it  may  be  spread  thickly  with  a 
brush  on  sheets  of  muslin,  which  are  afterwards, 
during  a cold  day,  cut  up  into  plasters  of  con- 
venient size  for  applying;  or,  the  wax,  when 
cold,  may  be  worked  up  with  wet  hands,  and 
drawn  out  into  thin  strips  or  ribbons,  and  wrap- 
ped closely  around  the  inserted  graft ; in  all 
cases  success  is  more  certain  when  the  wax  is 
closely  pressed  so  as  to  fit  to  every  part,  and 
leave  no  interstices ; and  it  is  indispensable 
that  every  portion  of  the  wound  on  the  stock 
and  graft  be  totally  excluded  from  the  external 
air.  In  cool  weather,  a lantern,  chafing  dish 
or  hot  brick,  will  be  found  necessary  to  soften 
the  plasters  before  applying  them.” 


Fig.  i,  Fig.  2,  Fig.  3.  Fig.  4. 


“ The  above  figures  represent  the  two 
most  common  modes  of  grafting  fruit-trees ; 
Figs.  1 to  4,  representing  successive  stages  of 
whip  or  tongue  grafting,  from  the  sloping  cut 
of  the  scion  and  stock,  to  the  completion  of  the 
operation  by  the  covering  with  the  wax-plaster.” 


GRAFTING 


“ Whip-grafting  may  be  employed  for  large 
stocks,  as  shown  by  the  following  cut.  In 
order  that  the  line  of  separation  between  the 
bark  and  wood  may  coincide  in  both,  the  graft 
must  be  placed  at  one  side  of  the  large  stock, 
a , sloped  and  tongued  for  the  inception  of  the 
graft,  b,  their  union  being  represented  by  c. 


Fig.  5- 


To  facilitate  the  wrapping  of  the  wax-plaster, 
one  side  and  the  upper  point  of  the  stock  are 
pared  off  with  a knife,  before  the  two  are  join- 
ed, as  shown  by  the  dotted  line.  This  is  a 
good  mode  of  grafting  any  stocks  not  over 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  in  the  nur- 
sery row. 


Fig.  6.  Fig.  7.  Fig.  8. 


Fig.  6 shows  a stock  cut  off  for  cleft-graft- 
ing, with  the  upright  cleft  separated  by  an  iron 
or  steel  wedge,  ready  for  the  graft ; Fig.  7,  the 
graft  cut  wedge-form  to  fit  it ; and  Fig.  8 the 
graft  in  its  place  after  the  wedge  has  been  with- 
drawn, the  projecting  angle  of  the  stock  sloped 


GRAPES  251 

off  with  a knife,  and  the  whole  ready  for  the 
application  of  the  wax. 

“ Whip-grafting  is  particularly  applicable  to 
small  stocks,  or  where  the  graft  and  stock  are 
nearly  all  equal  size;  and  cleft-grafting  to 
stocks  considerably  larger  than  the 
scion.  In  all  cases,  where  the  stock 
is  in  any  degree  larger,  the  graft 
must  be  placed  toward  one  side, 
so  that  the  line  between  the  bark 
and  wood  may  exactly  coincide  at 
one  point  at  least  in  both,  as  in  the 
Fig.  9.  cross-section  of  cleft-grafting,  Fig.9. 

“ In  grafting  the  peach  which,  from  its  large 
pith  and  spongy  wood,  scarcely  ever  succeeds 
as  commonly  performed,  it  is  found  advantage- 
ous, in  selecting  the  grafts  to  leave  a quarter 
of  an  inch  of  the  more  compact  two  years’ 
wood  at  the  lower  extremity. 

With  the  plum  and  cherry,  success  is  much 
more  certain  very  early  in  spring,  before  the 
buds  commence  swelling,  or  even  before  the 
snow  is  off  the  ground.  Apples  and  pears  may 
be  grafted  later,  and  if  the  scions  have  been  kept 
in  good  condition  in  a dormant  state,  they  will 
mostly  grow  if  inserted  even  after  the  trees  are 
in  leaf. 

“ After  a graft  is  inserted,  and  as  soon  as  the 
tree  commences  growth,  the  buds  on  the  stock 
must  be  rubbed  off  in  order  to  throw  the  rising 
sap  into  the  scion.  If  large  trees  are  grafted, 
the  buds  need  only  rubbing  off  the  branch 
which  holds  it.” 

“ Grafts  are  usually  cut  during  the  latter  part 
of  winter  or  early  in  spring.  They  may  be  pre- 
served out-of-doors  safely  if  buried  in  moder- 
ately moist  earth  by  placing  them  in  a box  open 
downwards,  and  buried  on  a dry  spot,  being 
kept  from  contact  with  the  earth  by  sticks 
across  the  box.  They  may  be  preserved  in  a 
cellar  in  a box  of  damp  powdered  moss.  Saw- 
dust answers  the  same  purpose  if  not  in  large 
quantities  so  as  to  become  heated. 

GRAPES. — Grapes  may  be  raised  from 
either  cuttings  or  seeds ; the  former  is  much 
the  best  way.  Select  the  cuttings  in  the  au- 
tumn from  the  well-ripened  wood  of  the  former 
year,  and  take  five  joints  for  each  ; bury 
them  till  April,  then  soak  them  for  some  hours 
and  set  them  out  aslant,  so  that  all  the  eyes 
but  one  shall  be  covered.  A gravelly  or  sandy 
soil  is  best  for  grapes.  A southern  exposure 
is  best.  Manure  from  the  stable  is  more  likely 
to  do  harm  than  good  ; the  best  fertilizer  is 
some  old  bones  sunk  into  the  soil  near  the 
roots.  Prune  the  vines  the  first  year  so  as  to 
leave  only  two  main  branches,  pinching  off  all 
other  shoots  as  fast  as  they  appear.  In  No- 
vember cut  off  all  of  these  two  branches  except 
four  joints.  The  second  year,  in  the  -spring, 
loosen  the  earth  around  the  roots,  and  allow 
only  two  branches  to  grow,  and  every  month 
pinch  off  all  side  shoots ; if  they  are  very 
strong  take  off  only  a part  and  prune  off  the 
rest  in  the  fall.  In  November  cut  off  all  the 
two  main  stems  except  eight  joints.  After  the 
second  year  no  more  pruning  is  needed  except 


252 


GRAPE 


GRAVY 


to  reduce  the  side  shoots 'for  the  purpose  of 
increasing  the  fruit.  There  are  several  species 
of  the  native  hardy  grape,  of  which  the  Isa- 
bella is  the  most  popular.  The  Catawba  ranks 
very  high,  as  do  the  Concord, , Diana , Clinton , 
Delaware , etc. 

Grapes  ripen,  according  to  locality,  from  the 
ist  of  September  until  November,  and,  when 
carefully  kept,  a month  or  two  longer.  We 
have  also  the  luscious  foreign  grapes,  raised  in 
hot  and  cold  graperies  from  April  until  De- 
cember, among  which  are  the  Black  Hamburgh, 
White  Muscat,  White  Sweetwater,  Tokay,  etc. 
The  Syrian,  a white  species,  produces  the 
largest  clusters.  The  White  Malayan,  of  for- 
eign growth,  is  found  throughout  the  winter  in 
grocery  stores  where  imported  fruits  are  kept. 
Fox  or  wild  grapes  are  abundant  from  the  mid- 
dle of  August  to  November;  they  are  round 
and  soft,  with  a pleasant,  tart  taste,  and  are 
used  for  pies,  preserves,  etc. 

Grapes  may  be  kept  fresh  for  winter  use  in 
the  following  manner : Pick  the  bunches  only 
on  a warm  day,  and  place  them  in  a cool,  shady 
place  for  at  least  three  days;  then  pack 
them  in  paper  boxes  that  will  hold  about  ten 
pounds  each.  Between  each  layer  of  grapes 
place  a single  thickness  of  newspaper;  the 
boxes  should  not  contain  more  than  three  lay- 
ers in  thickness.  Then  place  in  a cool,  dry 
room — not  in  the  cellar,  for  the  comparative 
dampness  there  will  cause  mold  and  decay.  A 
few  fine  clusters  for  special  table  purposes  may 
be  preserved  by  cutting  the  bunches  late  in 
the  season,  but  in  good  condition  and  on  a 


Grapes  Preserved  Fresh. 


piece  of  the  vine.  Wax  one  end  of  the  stem 
and  put  the  other  through  a cork  into  a vial  of 
water  containing  a layer  of  charcoal ; make 
the  cork  around  the  vine  tight  with  beeswax  ; 
then  place  the  whole  in  a cool  room  with  an 
even  temperature.  ( See  Jei.ly,  and  Pre- 

serves.) 

Wine  (Grape). — I.  Bruise  the  grapes,  which 
should  be  perfectly  ripe.  To  each  gallon  of 
grapes  put  a gallon  of  water,  and  let  the  whole 
stand  a week  without  stirring.  At  the  end  of 
that  time  draw  off  the  liquor  carefully,  and  put 


to  each  gallon  three  pounds  of  lump  sugar. 
Let  it  ferment  in  a cool  place,  and  when  fer- 
mentation ceases  stop  it  up  tight.  In  six 
months  it  will  be  fit  to  bottle. 

II.  Pick  the  grapes  from  the  stems  and  break 
them  slightly  with  the  hand.  Allow  fifteen 
pounds  of  them  to  each  gallon  of  water;  let 
them  stand  for  three  days,  then  press  them 
and  draw  off  the  liquor.  Add  two  pounds  of 
sugar  to  each  gallon  of  the  juice  and  water,  and 
put  into  a cask  and  ferment.  Examine  it  care- 
fully once  a week,  and  when  fermentation 
has  nearly  ceased  rack  it  off.  Bung  it  down 
close  for  six  months,  and  it  will  then  be  fit 
either  to  drink  or  to  bottle. 

GRATE. — Whenever  coal  is  used  as  a fuel, 
grates  are  an  essential  part  of  the  fire-place, 
and,  next  to  the  wood  fire  they  furnish  by  far 
the  healthiest  means  of  warminga  room.  They 
are,  however,  the  most  expensive  fires  that  can 
be  had,  and  this  is  largely  owing  to  the  fact 
that  the  grate  is  constructed  on  wrong  princi- 
ples. It  is  nearly  always  too  shallow' — seldom 
more  than  two  bars  in  height — and  too  deep 
from  front  to  rear,  so  that  in  order  to  warm 
the  room  as  much  as  possible  the  coal  has  to 
be  piled  on  in  a large  heap,  only  the  front  part 
of  which  sends  heat  into  the  room — the  greater 
portion  of  that  which  is  consumed  at  the  back 
merely  heating  the  grate  and  chimney.  A high 
grate,  with  four  or  five  narrow  bars  in  front, 
and  a depth  from  front  to  rear  of  from  five  to 
six  inches  at  the  top  and  from  three  to  four  at 
| the  bottom,  with  a sloping  back  of  fire-brick, 
though  less  elegant,  would  be  infinitely  more 
economical  than  the  ordinary  grate.  Its  ad- 
vantages are  that  it  would  give  a large  front 
area  of  burning  coal  without  any  superfluous 
consumption  of  fuel  behind,  and  that  the  ashes 
and  cinders  cleared  out  of  the  lowest  bars 
could  be  thrown  in  the  top  of  the  grate,  and, 
having  to  pass  through  the  whole  extent  of  the 
fire  again,  would  be  mostly  consumed,  leaving 
nothing  but  a little  dust  behind.  Bituminous 
coal  is  pleasantest  to  burn  in  grates,  but  where 
it  is  used  the  flue  should  be  nearly  as  deep  as 
the  grate  itself,  and  the  bars  of  the  grate  should 
be  round  and  not  close  together. 

The  best  material  for  grates  is  dead  wrought 
iron.  The  polished  steel  bars,  besides  being 
hard  to  keep  in  order,  are  objectionable,  be- 
cause bright  surfaces,  while  they  reflect  heat 
well,  throw  it  off  by  radiation  very  imperfectly. 
See  Chimney. 

GRAVY.— In  any  household,  gravies  are 
usually  required  only  in  moderation  and  a clev- 
er cook  can  always  manage  to  supply  at  trifling 


cost  all  that  is  generally  needed  for  plain  fam- 
ily dinners.  But,  however  small  the  quantities 


GRAVY 


GREASE-SPOTS 


253 


in  which  they  are  made,  their  quality  should 
be  particularly  attended  to,  and  they  should  be 
well  adapted  in  flavor  to  the  dishes  they  are  to 
accompany.  For  some  a high  degree  of  savor 
is  desirable ; but  for  fricassees  and  other 
dishes  of  delicate  white  meats  this  should  be 
avoided  and  a soft,  smooth  sauce  of  mild  flavor 
should  be  used  in  preference  to  any  more 
piquant  relish.  The  necks  of  poultry,  with  the 
feet  properly  skinned,  a few  herbs,  a morsel  of 
ham  or  lean  bacon,  a bit  of  spice,  and  a few 
drops  of  mushroom  catsup,  will  of  them- 
selves suffice  to  make  a gravy  for  the  broils 
from  which  they  are  taken ; and  if  not  wanted 
for  this  purpose  they  should  always  be  stewed 
down  or  thrown  into  a stock  pot,  for  which  the 
shank  bones  of  beef  or  mutton  and  all  trim- 
mings of  meats  should  be  reserved.  No  parti- 
cle of  fat  should  ever  be  perceptible  upon  gra- 
vies when  they  are  sent  to  table,  and  when  it 
cannot  be  removed  by  skimming  they  should 
be  allowed  to  cool  sufficiently  for  it  to  congeal, 
and  be  taken  off  at  once.  It  may  be  cleared 
from  such  as  have  not  been  thickened  by  pass- 
ing them  through  a closely  woven  cloth,  which 
has  been  previously  wetted  with  cold  water. 
For  burnt  sugar  browning  for  gravies,  see 
Caramel.  This  should  always  be  kept  on 
hand. 

Brown  Gravy. — Put  fresh  meat  cut  in  small 
pieces  into  a sauce-pan  ; season  with  salt  and 
pepper  and  a bit  of  butter,  and  heat  it  half  an 
hour,  tdl  brown,  stirring  so  that  it  shall  not 
stick.  Pour  on  boiling  water  (a  pint  for  each 
pound),  simmer  three  hours,  and  skim  it  well. 
Settle  and  strain  it,  and  set  it  aside  for 
use ; thicken  as  you  need  it  with  brown  flour, 
a teaspoonful  to  half  a pint. 

Clear  Gravy. — Slice  beef  thin ; broil  a part 
of  it  over  a quick  fire,  just  enough  to  give  color 
to  the  gravy,  but  not  to  dress  it ; put  that  and 
the  raw  part  into  a stew-pan  with  onions,  a clove 
or  two,  whole  black  peppers,  berries  of  allspice, 
and  a bunch  of  sweet  herbs ; cover  it  with  hot 
water,  give  it  one  boil,  and  skim  it  well  two  or 
three  times ; then  cover  it  over,  and  simmer 
till  quite  strong. 

Fish  Gravy. — Skin  two  or  three  eels  or  some 
flounders;  clean  them  well;  cut  them  into 
small  pieces,  and  put  into  a sauce-pan ; cover 
them  with  water,  and  add  a little  crust  of 
bread  toasted  down,  two  blades  of  mace,  whole 
peppers,  sweet  herbs,  a piece  of  lemon-peel, 
and  a teaspoonful  of  grated  horse-radish ; 
cover  close  and  simmer;  add  a teaspoonful 
each  of  butter  and  flour,  and  boil  till  strong. 

Game  or  Poultry  Gravy. — A plain  gravy 
for  game  or  poultry  may  be  made  so  that  it  will 
keep  a week  in  moderately  cool  weather  as 
follows  : Cut  lean  beef  thin,  put  it  into  a fry- 
ing-pan without  any  butter,  and  set  it  on  a fire, 
covered,  but  take  care  not  to  let  it  burn  ; let  it 
stay  till  the  juice  that  comes  out  of  the  meat  is 
dried  up  into  it  again ; pour  in  as  much  water 
as  will  cover  the  meat,  and  let  that  stew  away. 
Then  put  to  the  meat  a small  quantity  of 
water,  herbs,  onions,  spice,  and  a bit  of  lean 


ham;  simmer  till  rich,  and  keep  it  in  a cold, 
dry  place.  Do  not  take  off  the  fat  till  about 
to  be  used. 

Hasty  Gravy. — Chop  up  a pound  of  lean 
meat,  a small  onion,  a few  slices  of  carrot  and 
turnip,  and  a little  thyme  and  parsley ; put 
these  into  a sauce-pan  with  half  an  ounce  of 
butter,  and  stir  them  until  they  are  slightly 
browned  ; add  a little  spice  and  a pint  of  water  ; 
clear  the  gravy  from  scum,  let  it  boil  half  an 
hour,  and  then  strain  it  for  use. 

Kidney  Gravy. — Strip  the  skin  and  remove 
the  fat  from  three  fresh  mutton  kidneys  ; slice 
and  flour  them ; melt  two  ounces  of  butter  in  a 
deep  sauce-pan,  and  put  in  the  kidneys  with  an 
onion  cut  small  and  a teaspoonful  of  fine  herbs, 
stripped  from  the  stalks.  Keep  these  well 
shaken  over  a small  fire  until  nearly  all  the 
moisture  is  dried  up ; then  pour  in  a pint  of 
boiling  water,  add  half  a teaspoonful  of  salt 
and  a little  cayenne  or  black  pepper,  and  let 
the  gravy  boil  gently  for  an  hour  and  a half — 
or  longer,  if  it  be  not  rich  and  thick.  Strain  it 
through  a fine  sieve,  and  take  off  the  fat ; spice 
or  catsup  may  be  added  at  pleasure. 

Poultry  Gravy. — A little  good  broth  added 
to  half  a dozen  slices  of  lean  ham,  lightly 
browned  in  a morsel  of  butter,  with  half  a 
dozen  corns  of  pepper  and  a sprig  or  two  of 
parsley,  and  stewed  for  half  an  hour,  will 
make  excellent  gravy  of  a common  kind. 
When  there  is  no  broth  the  neck  of  the 
chicken  must  be  stewed  down  to  supply  its 
place. 

Veal  Gravy. — I.  Flour  and  fry  lightly  in  a 
bit  of  butter  two  pounds  of  veal;  drain  the 
meat  well  from  the  fat,  and  lay  it  into  a small 
stew-pan  ; pour  in  a quart  of  boiling  water ; 
skim  well,  and  add  a little  salt,  a fried  onion 
sliced,  a carrot  sliced,  a small  bunch  of  thyme 
and  parsley,  a blade  of  mace,  and  a few  pepper 
corns.  Stew  these  gently  for  three  hours,  pass 
the  gravy  through  a sieve  into  a pan,  and  when 
it  is  quite  cold  clear  it  entirely  of  fat ; heat  as 
much  as  is  wanted  for  table,  and  if  not  suffi- 
ciently thick  stir  in  some  browned  flour  and  a 
little  catsup.  Beef  gravy  may  be  made  in  the 
same  way. 

II.  Veal  gravy  may  be  made  as  directed  for 
Clear  Gravy,  omitting  the  spice,  herbs  and 
flour. 

GREASE-SPOTS. — (To  Remove  from 
Cloth.) — Grease-spots,  if  not  made  by  mineral 
oils,  may  generally  be  removed  from  silk,  wool- 
en, cotton,  or  linen  cloth,  by  simply  using  soap 
and  water  and  a nail-brush,  and  afterwards  wip- 
ing off  the  lather  with  a wet  towel.  When  this 
fails,  cover  the  spots  with  French  chalk,  scraped 
to  a fine  powder,  lay  a piece  of  brown  paper 
over  them,  and  on  this  set  a warm  iron.  This 
will  melt  the  grease,  and  the  chalk  will  absorb 
it,  and  the  whole  may  then  be  removed  by  brush- 
ing. If  once  is  not  sufficient,  repeat  the  pro- 
cess. Or,  the  French  chalk  may  be  mixed  with 
lavender  water,  or  with  benzine,  so  as  to  make  a 
paste,  which  is  to  be  put  upon  the  stain  : over 
this  lay  a piece  of  blotting  paper,  and  run  it  over 


254 


GRIDIRON 


GROUSE 


with  a hot  iron  ; then  brush  off  the  chalk ; com- 
mon chalk  will  answer  when  French  chalk 
cannot  be  had,  but  it  is  not  so  good. 

Or,  grate  raw  potatoes  into  water,  so  as  to 
form  a pulp;  pass  the  liquid  through  a sieve 
into  another  vessel  with  an  equal  quantity  of 
water  in  it,  and  let  the  potato  subside  ; pour  the 
clear  liquor  from  the  top,  and  bottle  it  for  use  ; 
dip  a sponge  or  a small  brush  in  this,  and  wet 
the  spot  till  it  disappears  ; then  wash  it  in 
clear  water.  Be  very  careful  not  to  wet  more 
than  the  spot  or  it  will  discharge  the  color  of 
the  fabric. 

Scouring  drops,  made  by  mixing  equal 
quantities  of  oil  of  turpentine  and  essence 
of  lemon  are  excellent  for  taking  stains  and 
grease  out  of  silk.  Rub  them  on  with  a bit  of 
flannel. 

Marble. — -Grease  can  be  removed  from  mar- 
ble by  ox-gall  and  potter’s  clay  wet  with  soap- 
suds (a  gill  of  each)  ; it  is  better  also  to  add  a 
gill  of  spirits  of  turpentine.  Rub  the  mixture 
on  the  spots,  let  it  remain  for  some  time,  and 
then  wash  off  with  warm  water. 

Paper. — Oil  or  grease  can  be  removed  from 
paper  or  books  by  rolling  up  each  leaf  and  in- 
serting it  in  a wide-mouthed  bottle  half  full  of 
sulphuric  ether ; shake  it  gently  up  and  down 
for  a minute,  and  on  its  removal  the  stains  will 
be  found  to  have  disappeared.  The  ether 
evaporates  rapidly,  and  a single  sponging  with 
cold  water  is  all  that  is  afterward  required. 

Or,  dust  on  a little  magnesia  or  French  chalk, 
lay  over  it  a piece  of  blotting  paper,  and  pass 
a moderately  heated  iron  across  a few  times. 

Benzine  also  removes  grease  spots.  Place 
a piece  of  linen  of  several  folds  on  a table 
to  act  as  a sponge  in  absorbing  the  benzine 
stretch  the  soiled  article  over  the  linen,  dip 
a piece  of  cotton  or  flannel  into  the  benzine, 
and  rub  the  spot  well;  after  which  dry  with 
blotting  paper  or  fine  linen.  The  benzine 
ought  to  be  applied  in  a circular  direction.  Do 
not  leave  off  until  the  liquid  evaporates  ; then 
expose  the  article  to  a good  current  of  air. 
Benzine  is  sold  by  all  druggists,  and  should  be 
kept  in  the  house,  ready  for  use.  Never  carry 
it  ?icar  a fire  or  burning  substance  of  any  kind, 
as  it  is  likely  to  explode.  Sec  Cleaning, 
Stains  and  Washing. 

GREEN  GAGE.  ( See  Plum.) 

GREY-POWDER. — The  name  commonly 
given  to  a combination  of  three  parts  of  mer- 
cury with  five  parts  of  chalk.  It  is  most  fre- 
quently given  to  children  with  clay-colored 
passages  in  doses  of  two  to  three  grains  once, 
or  oftener,  in  the  twenty-four  hours. 

GRIDIRON. — The  ordinary  gridiron  is 
merely  a square  frame  of  iron,  with  cross-bars 
of  the  same.  An  improvement  upon  this  con- 
sists in  making  the  upper  surface  of  these  bars 
concave  or  grooved,  and  all  terminating  in  a 
hollow  trough  near  the  handle,  so  as  to  save 
the  rich  gravy  which  would  otherwise  fall  into 
the  fire.  Before  using  a gridiron  it  should  be 
cleaned  thoroughly  and  the  upper  surface  well  [ 
greased  with  lard  or  dripping.  It  should  be  | 


placed  on  the  fire  so  as  to  slant  down  towards 
the  hand  of  the  cook.  The  “ Sprat  ” gridiron 
is  double,  folding  together  like  waffle-irons ; 
it  is  useful  in  broiling  steaks  when  the  fire  is 
low. 

GRILLING.  ( See  Broiling.) 

GROCERIES. — In  the  purchase  of  groceries 
at  a retail  shop  it  does  not  appear  that  any  ad- 
vantage in  price  is  obtained  by  laying  in  large 
stores  at  once,  though  the  practice  may,  under 
some  circumstances,  be  convenient.  The  retail 
grocer  is  compelled  by  competition  to  put  the 
lowest  price  he  can  afford  on  his  goods  to 
ready-money  customers ; and  only  those  re- 
quiring credit  have  to  pay  high  prices.  In 
purchasing  from  the  wholesale  dealer,  a house- 
keeper may  occasionally  gain  some  advantage  ; 
but  to  do  so  uniformly  would  not  be  desirable 
for  either  buyer  or  seller.  A quick  consumption 
of  the  finer  articles  of  grocery  is  necessary, 
especially  of  those  with  aromatic  qualities 
which  exposure  to  the  air  dissipates.  Family 
stores,  which  are  slowly  consumed,  are  daily 
deteriorating  in  quality;  excepting  only  some 
few  articles  which  are  supposed  to  improve  by 
keeping.  By  purchasing  in  small  quantities 
as  needed,  from  the  retail  dealer,  this  incon- 
venience is  avoided.  The  different  articles 
of  grocery  are  treated  of  in  their  respective 
places. 

GROG. — A mixture  of  rum  and  water,  drunk 
cold,  without  any  sugar.  Hot  grog  is  a name 
often  applied  to  rum  punch. 

GROUSE. — The  only  species  of  grouse  suf- 
ficiently numerous  in  this* country  to  enter 
largely  into  diet  is  the  pinnated  grouse  or 
“prairie-hen”  as  it  is  generally  called.  This 
is  one  of  the  finest  of  the  game-birds,  and  is 
somewhat  the  color,  form,  and  size  of  the  par- 
tridge which  it  also  resembles  in  flavor.  Prairie- 
hens  are  very  abundant  throughout  the  West- 
ern States,  and  especially  on  the  prairies,  and 
are  sent  to  all  the  Eastern  markets  in  great 
numbers.  They  begin  to  arrive  in  October, 
and  continue  until  April ; usually  brought  in 
barrels  and  other  packages  in  a frozen  state. 
Their  flesh  is  dark,  but  from  a fat  young  bird 
it  is  excellent  eating  and  highly  nutritious.  In 
purchasing,  select  the  heaviest,  and  at  the 
same  time  try  the  feathers  around  the  vent ; if 
they  pull  out  easily  the  bird  is  apt  to  be  too 
stale.  The  nose  must  also  be  brought  into 
requisition  to  detect  the  least  unpleasant  smell. 
An  old  prairie-hen  has  a white  bill  and  bluish 
legs;  when  young  the  bill  is  of  a dark  gray 
color,  and  the  legs  are  yellowish. 

Baked  Prairie-hen.— Clean  and  prepare  the 
bird  as  directed  for  chicken.  Truss  like 
chicken,  grease  the  fleshy  portions  with  apiece 
of  salt  pork  or  with  lard,  and  place  it  on  its 
back  in  the  baking-pan,  in  which  a tablcspoon- 
ful  of  butter  has  been  melted;  set  it  in  a quick 
oven,  baste  often,  and  serve  when  rather  under- 
done. Mix  some  lemon-juice  with  the  gravy, 
and  turn  it  over  the  bird  before  serving. 

Broiled  Prairie-hen. — Clean  and  prepare  as 
for  baking,  and  then  split  the  bird  down  the 


GRUEL 


GUINEA-FOWL  255 


breast  so  as  to  open  it ; butter  all  over,  inside 
and  out,  and  sprinkle  on  a little  salt  and  pep- 
er;  place  it  on  the  gridiron  over  a good  fire, 
reast  downwards  ; turn  it  over  three  or  four 
times ; serve  it  as  soon  as  it  has  turned  a nice 
brown. 

Fricasseed  Prairie-hen.— Prepare,  cook  and 
serve  like  chicken  in  fricassee. 

Roast  Prairie-hen. — Truss  in  the  same  way 
as  for  roast  chicken,  grease  the  fleshy  portions 
with  a bit  of  salt  pork,  and  roast  about  half  an 
hour  at  a clear,  brisk  fire,  keeping  it  basted 
almost  without  intermission.  Serve  on  buttered 
toast  which  has  been  laid  under  it  in  the  pan 
for  ten  minutes,  or  with  gravy  and  bread-sauce 
only. 

Salmi  of  Prairie-hen. — This  is  an  excellent 
way  of  serving  the  remains  of  roasted  game ; 
but  when  a choice  salmi  is  desired,  the  birds 
must  be  scarcely  more  than  half  roasted  for  it. 
In  either  case  cut  them  up  neatly,  and  strip 
every  particle  of  fat  and  skin  from  the  legs, 
wings,  and  breasts  ; bruise  the  bodies  well,  and 
put  them  with  the  skin  and  other  trimmings 
into  a stew-pan ; add  two  or  three  sliced  escha- 
lots, a small  blade  of  mace,  and  a few  pepper 
corns  ; then  pour  in  a pint  or  more  of  good  veal 
gravy  or  strong  broth,  and  boil  it  briskly  until 
reduced  nearly  half  ; strain  the  gravy,  pressing 
the  bones  well  to  obtain  all  the  flavor,  skim  off 
the  fat,  add  a little  cayenne  and  lemon-juice, 
heat  the  birds  very  gradually  in  it  without 
allowing  it  to  boil ; place  bits  of  fried  bread 
round  a dish,  arrange  the  birds  in  the  centre, 
give  the  sauce  a boil,  and  pour  it  over  them. 
Partridges  and  other  wild-fowl  can  be  prepared 
in  the  same  way. 

Stewed  Prairie-hen. — Put  about  an  ounce 
of  butter  and  two  ounces  of  salt  pork,  cut  into 
bits,  into  a sauce-pan,  and  set  it  on  a quick  fire  ; 
when  the  butter  is  melted,  put  the  bird  in,  and 
brown  it  all  around ; then  add  four  small 
onions,  half  a carrot  in  slices,  salt,  and  pep- 
per ; stir  till  the  onions  and  carrots  are  partly 
fried  ; then  add  a pint  of  good  broth  (or  half 
a pint  of  broth  and  the  same  of  white  wine),  and 
a bunch  of  sweet  herbs  ; boil  gently  till  done. 
Dish  the  bird,  strain  the  gravy  over  it,  and  serve 
warm. 

GRUEL. — This  is  one  of  the  most  important 
branches  of  “ cookery  for  the  sick,”  as  it  can 
be  eaten  and  digested  when  every  other  kind 
of  food  is  rejected  by  the  stomach.  Gruel  can 
be  made  either  very  thick  or  very  thin,  and 
should  be  adapted  to  the  invalid’s  taste  in  this 
respect.  By  the  addition  of  a little  spice,  or 
wine,  or  brandy,  it  can  also  be  made  very  tooth- 
some and  nutritious ; but  where  gruel  is  pre- 
scribed by  a physician,  this  must  never  be 
ventured  upon  without  his  express  consent. 

Barley  Gruel. — Boil  four  ounces  of  pearl 
barley  in  two  quarts  of  water  till  reduced  about 
one  half ; then  strain,  and  sweeten. 

Common  Gruel. — Mix  three  tablespoonfuls 
of  Indian  meal  in  enough  cold  water  to  make 
a thick  paste  ; add  by  degrees  a pint  of  boil- 
ing water,  and  half  a teaspoonful  (or  less)  l 


of  salt,  and  boil  it  ten  minutes,  stirring  all  the 
time. 

Oatmeal  Gruel. — According  to  the  thickness 
required,  rub  smooth  in  a bowl  one  or  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  oatmeal  with  three  table- 
spoonfuls of  water  ; stir  into  this  by  degrees  a 
pint  of  boiling  water ; set  it  on  the  fire  in  a 
sauce-pan  and  boil  ten  minutes,  stirring  all  the 
while ; then  strain  it  into  the  bowl  into  which 
it  is  to  be  served.  Gruel  made  in  this  way 
with  milk  instead  of  water  is  more  nutritious  ; 
seasoned  with  salt  and  butter  it  is  less  insipid. 
If  the  doctor  consents,  a dessert-spoonful  of 
brandy,  or  a tablespoonful  of  wine  may  be 
added. 

Rice  Gruel. — Put  a tablespoonful  of  un- 
ground rice  into  a pint  and  a half  of  boiling 
water,  with  a stick  of  cinnamon  or  mace  ; strain 
it  when  boiled  soft,  add  half  a pint  of  milk  and 
a teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  boil  a few  minutes 
longer.  If  rice  flour  is  used,  mix  a tablespoon- 
ful of  it  smoothly,  with  three  tablespoonfuls  of 
cold  water,  and  stir  it  into  a quart  of  boiling 
water ; let  it  boil  five  or  six  minutes,  stirring  con- 
stantly; season  with  salt  and  a little  butter, 
and,  if  liked,  add  sugar  and  nutmeg  to  taste. 

Water  Gruel. — Make  one  gill  of  Indian 
meal  and  a heaping  tablespoonful  of  wheat 
flour  into  a thick  and  smooth  paste  with  cold 
water ; stir  it  into  two  quarts  of  boiling  water ; 
let  it  boil  slowly  twenty  minutes.  Add  salt, 
sugar  and  nutmeg  to  taste.  Oatmeal  may  be 
used  instead  of  the  Indian  meal  in  this  receipt. 

GUAVA. — There  are  several  species  of  the 
guava,  some  of  which  are  natives  of  Asia,  some 
of  America,  and  some  common  to  both.  The 
best  of  these  is  the  white  guava,  which  is  abun- 
dant in  the  West  Indies.  The  fruit  of  this 
species  is  rather  larger  than  a hen’s  egg,  smooth, 
yellow,  and  of  a peculiar  smell.  The  pulp  is  of 
a very  agreeable  taste,  sweet  and  aromatic ; it 
is  used  at  dessert  and  preserved.  Guava  jelly 
comes  from  the  West  Indies,  and  is  one  of  the 
most  highly  esteemed  of  conserves.  It  is  ex- 
cellent for  giving  strength  and  tone  to  the 
stomach  after  a spell  of  sickness,  or  when  the 
digestion  is  out  of  order. 

GUINEA-FOWL.— This  bird  is  so  called 
because  first  brought  from  Africa,  where  only 


Guinea-Fowl. 

it  is  wild  in  great  abundance.  Though  do- 
mesticated in  this  country,  Guinea-fowls  still 
retain  much  of  their  wild  nature,  and  are  apt  to 
wander.  (See  Poultry.)  They  lay  very  abun- 
dantly, and  the  egg  is  excellent — more  delicate 


256 


GUMBO 


HAGGIS 


in  flavor  and  more  nutritious  than  that  of  the 
common  fowl.  The  flesh  is  dark,  like  that  of 
the  prairie-hen,  and  many  consider  it  more 
savory  than  the  common  fowl,  though  not  so 
juicy.  They  are  generally  found  unpicked  in 
our  markets,  and  by  raising  the  feathers  on  the 
breast  it  can  easily  be  seen  whether  they  are  fat 
and  plump.  A good  fowl  will  weigh  from  three 
and  a half  to  five  pounds,  the  smaller  ones  are 
best  for  broiling  and  roasting.  The  guinea-fowl 
is  considered  best  in  the  Winter  months,  tak- 
ing the  place  of  partridges  after  the  latter  are  out 
of  season.  Cook  and  serve  them  like  Grouse. 

GUMBO. -A  slang  term  applied  in  Louisiana 
to  the  vegetable  Okra,  and  now  generally  used 
to  describe  okra  soup.  (See  Soup.) 

GUM-BOIL  should  be  let  alone  unless  very 
troublesome,  when  see  Ulcerated  Teeth  under 
Teeth. 

GUTTA-PERCHA.— This  resembles  India- 
rubber  in  composition  and  in  resistance  to  the 
action  of  chemical  agents  ; but  it  has  not  the 
same  elasticity,  and  it  is  much  harder  at  the 
ordinary  temperature.  It  is  dissolved  in  naph- 
tha and  melted  by  heat,  and  can  be  moulded, 
when  warm,  into  any  shape.  In  this  way  it  is 
made  to  take  the  variety  of  forms  now  so 
common,  as  picture-frames,  ink-stands,  dolls, 
combs,  buttons,  and  numerous  household 
utensils.  Articles  made  of  gutta  - percha 
should  never  be  exposed  to  a high  tempera- 
ture. 

GUTTERS.  — Great  attention  should  be 
paid  to  the  gutters  on  the  roof  of  a house,  not 
only  in  their  first  construction,  but  in  seeing 
that  they  are  kept  in  proper  repair,  otherwise 
the  water  will  penetrate  and  injure  the  apart- 
ments. All  metal  gutters  must  have  a small 


degree  of  slope,  so  as  to  give  the  water  a cur- 
rent, which,  particularly  in  those  of  consider- 
able length,  increases  the  width  of  the  gutter 
at  one  end,  and,  therefore,  requires  a greater 
quantity  of  metal.  Builders,  to  avoid  expense, 
are  apt  to  make  this  slope  too  small.  The 
sheets  ought  never  to  be  joined  by  solder, 
because,  if  confined,  the  expansion  in  warm 
weather  will  cause  the  metal  to  crack;  but 
they  should  be  connected  by  drips— a kind  of 
step  of  two  inches,  made  in  laying  the  boards 
for  the  metal.  The  metal  over  this  is  only 
hammered  close,  and  not  soldered.  With  the 
same  object  of  saving  metal,  builders  often 
make  this  step  too  little ; and,  when  this  is  the 
case,  the  snow,  in  thawing,  is  liable  to  rise  up 
in  the  joint  and  damage  the  ceilings.  When  wet 
appears  in  the  ceiling  of  the  upper  story  of  a 
house  it  is  generally  owing  to  one  of  these  cir- 
cumstances having  been  neglected,  or,  perhaps, 
to  some  crack  in  the  gutter.  The  whole  should 
therefore  be  carefully  examined  by  a plumber; 
but  if  the  defect  arises  from  the  metal  of  the 
gutter  having  been  cut  too  narrow  originally, 
there  is  no  effectual  remedy  but  taking  it  up 
and  putting  down  wider  metal. 

Gutters  are  now  frequently  made  of  tin,  but 
this  is  a frail  material,  especially  for  large 
roofs,  and  is  very  likely  to  rust  through  in  a 
few  years.  Gutters  should  always  be  cleaned 
out  at  regular  intervals,  as  much  damage  is 
caused  occasionally  by  overflows  arising  from 
an  accumulation  of  dirt,  which  prevents  the 
gutter  from  draining  the  roof.  During  our 
Northern  winters  gutters  are  often  frozen  just 
where  they  enter  the  ground.  In  such  cases 
pour  boiling  water  on  the  outside  till  the  ob- 
struction is  melted  out,  or  throw  in  salt. 


H 


HADDOCK. — The  haddock  is  a smaller 
fish  than  the  cod,  which  it  resembles  a good 
deal  in  every  other  respect.  The  flesh,  how- 
ever, is  more  watery  and  the  flavor  inferior. 
The  average  size  is  not  more  than  two  or  three 


Haddock. 


pounds,  but  sometimes  they  reach  a much 
greater  weight.  They  are  at  their  best  in  No- 
vember and  December,  and  again  in  June  and 
July.  They  are  better  for  being  hung  up  for  a 
day  or  two,  with  a sprinkling  of  salt.  When 
large,  haddock  is  dressed  in  the  same  way  as 
cod,  and  takes  an  equal 'time  to  cook.  Small 
haddock  may  be  either  boiled  or  fried.  They 


scarcely  hold  together  well  enough  to  stand 
broiling  without  considerable  trouble. 

Fried  Haddock. — Cut  the  fish  in  pieces  of 
the  proper  size  for  serving;  wash  and  wipe 
them  dry,  and  roll  in  Indian  meal.  Fry  some 
pieces  of  salt  pork  ; take  out  the  pork  and  put 
a little  lard  into  the  frying-pan ; when  it  is 
boiling  hot  put  in  the  fish,  and  fry  it  to  a light 
brown.  Dish  it  with  the  fried  pork,  and  serve 
with  drawn  butter. 

HAGGIS.— A favorite  dish  in  Scotland, 
made  by  boiling  a sheep  or  calf’s  liver,  heart, 
etc.,  for  several  hours,  mincing  them  up  fine, 
mixing  this  mincemeat  with  scorched  oatmeal, 
onions,  a small  quantity  of  beef  suet,  salt, 
pepper,  and  some  strong  broth  or  gravy,  and 
putting  the  whole  into  a sheep’s  paunch  or 
stomach,  carefully  tied  at  both  ends,  and  of 
which  the  mixture  fills  about  two-thirds,  the 
rest  of  the  space  being  left  for  the  expansion 
of  the  steam  generated  by  the  boiling  to  which 
it  is  subjected  for  three  or  four  hours.  Ilaggis 


HAIR 


HAKE 


257 


is  very  savory  to  the  nostrils  when  freshly 
cooked,  but  it  requires  a very  strong  stomach 
to  digest  it  without  reproach  or  inconvenience. 

HAIR. — The  proper  management  of  the  hair 
is  very  simple.  It  should  be  kept  as  clean  as 
possible  by  daily  brushing  with  a stiff  brush, 
by  removal  of  the  scurf  that  forms  upon  the 
skin  ( see  Dandruff),  and  by  occasionally 
washing  it  with  pure,  cold  water,  which  will 
have  no  injurious  effect  upon  the  health,  pro- 
vided the  hair  is  not  so  long  as  to  make  its 
drying  difficult.  To  assist  in  drying  it  thor- 
oughly, dip  the  brush  into  a very  little  hair- 
powder  or  starch,  brush  it  into  the  hair  and 
then  brush  it  out.  After  this  a little  perfumed 
pomatum  may  be  brushed  in — too  much  not 
only  makes  the  hair  greasy,  but  injures  it. 
There  is  a natural  oil  secreted  by  the  hair 
which  ought  to  be  sufficient  for  keeping  it  in 
good  order,  but  this  is  often  deficient,  and  the 
hair  becomes  dry  and  harsh  ; then  it  is  that  the 
deficiency  may  be  supplied  by  a little  pomatum 
or  oil.  A multitude  of  hair  oils  are  sold  by 
perfumers,  their  compositions  being  kept  se- 
cret, and  each  being  represented  as  having  ex- 
traordinary qualities.  It  is  best  to  have  nothing 
to  do  with  any  of  them,  for  when  they  are  not 
injurious  they  are  no  better  than  preparations 
which  can  be  made  at  home  with  little  trouble, 
and  for  which  we  shall  give  a receipt  or  two, 
further  along.  When  hair  has  become  too 
greasy  from  too  free  use  of  oil  or  pomatum,  it 
is  proper  to  remove  the  unctuous  matter  by 
persistent  brushing.  Occasionally  soap  is  re- 
sorted to  for  this  purpose,  but  soap  will  change 
the  color  of  the  hair,  and  should  be  used  cau- 
tiously. A little  white  soap  dissolved  in  spirits 
of  wine  is  most  effectual  and  less  injurious 
than  soap  alone.  After  using  it  the  hair  must 
be  well  washed  with  water. 

It  is  very  doubtful  whether  frequent  cutting 
of  the  hair  is  favorable  to  its  growth  and 
beauty,  as  is  generally  assumed.  It  always 
renders  the  hair  coarse  and  stubby,  and  it  is 
certain  that  the  common  practice  of  cropping 
or  shaving  the  head,  for  the  purpose  of 
strengthening  the  growth  of  the  hair,  not  only 
fails  of  this  effect,  but  often  produces  total 
baldness. 

The  loosening  and  falling  out  of  the  hair  is 
frequently  the  direct  result  of  fever  or  derange- 
ment of  the  system,  but  is  more  often  the  con- 
sequence of  weakness  of  the  nervous  power. 
It  may  be  checked  by  improvement  of  the  gen- 
eral health  and  the  use  of  proper  local  reme- 
dies. A useful  practice,  when  the  hair  is 
sufficiently  short,  is  to  plunge  the  head  into 
cold  water  every  morning  and  night,  and,  after 
thoroughly  drying,  to  brush  it  briskly  until  the 
scalp  is  warmed  to  a glow.  A simple  lotion, 
composed  of  2 drachms  of  Tincture  of  Canthar- 
ides,  6 drachms  of  essence  of  Rosemary  and 
1 1 ounces  of  elder-flower  water  may  be  effect- 
ively employed  as  a tonic.  In  cases  of  bald- 
ness the  scalp  may  be  advantageously  shaved 
and  the  secretion  of  the  hair  stimulated  by 
dry  friction,  tonic  lotions  (rum,  for  example),  and  I 
1 7 


by  a stimulating  diet.  There  is  a premature 
grayness  which  sometimes  occurs  in  the  young, 
chiefly  in  those  of  light  complexion  and  light- 
colored  hair.  It  comes  from  the  same  causes 
as  the  loosening  or  falling  out  of  the  hair. 

Dyeing  the  hair  is  the  most  absurd  of  all 
attempts  at  human  deceit,  since  it  never  is 
successful,  and  deceives  no  one  but  the  de- 
ceiver himself.  The  practice  is  generally  begun 
with  the  idea  that  a single  application  will  be 
sufficient  for  all  time ; but  the  dye  only  dis- 
colors that  portion  of  the  hair  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  scalp.  The  new  growth,  which  is 
constantly  taking  place  from  the  roots,  appears 
always  with  the  natural  tint.  Moreover,  there 
is  no  dye  which  does  not  injure  the  hair  itself; 
and  many  of  them — those  containing  lead  or 
arsenic — tend  to  paralyze  the  brain  and  nerv- 
ous system. 

To  remove  superfluous  hair,  see  Depila- 
tory. 

Castor-Oil  Pomatum. — Take  tube-rose  po- 
matum, one  pound  ; castor  oil,  half  a pound  ; 
otto  of  bergamot,  one  ounce.  Melt  these  to- 
gether ; then  beat  up  with  a whisk  or  spoon 
for  half  an  hour  or  more,  as  the  grease  cools. 
Minute  particles  of  air  are  inclosed  by  the  po- 
matum when  prepared  in  this  way,  and  render 
it  light  and  spongy. 

Hair  Grease. — I.  Melt  half  a pound  of  lard 
and  six  ounces  of  olive  oil  in  a jar  placed  in 
hot  water;  when  nearly  cool  add  about  two 
drachms  of  essence  of  lemon,  oil  of  lavender, 
or  any  other  perfume,  and  then  pour  it  into 
glass  bottles,  or  earthen  pots. 

H.  Mix  fresh  beef  marrow  and  clear  neats- 
foot  oil  in  equal  proportions ; melt  as  before 
and  decant,  leaving  the  dregs  behind;  after 
which,  when  nearly  cool,  the  scent  is  to  be 
added  as  above,  and  the  whole  stirred  till  quite 
firm. 

Hair  Tonic. — An  excellent  tonic  to  prevent 
the  hair  from  falling  off  may  be  made  as  fol- 
lows : — Spirit  of  turpentine  and  neats-foot  oil, 
of  each  one  ounce  ; active  solution  of  canthar- 
ides,  thirty  drops  : mix.  Apply  to  the  roots  of 
the  hair  two  or  three  times  a week. 

Hair  Wash. — A most  excellent  hair  wash, 
which  cleanses  the  scalp,  and  at  the  same  time 
softens  and  promotes  the  growth  of  the  hair, 
can  be  put  up  by  any  druggist  from  the  fol- 
lowing prescription,  which  should  be  copied  out 
and  given  to  him  : Rose-water,  7 oz ; aromatic 
spirits  of  ammonia,  1 oz;  tincture  of  can- 
tharides,  1)4  drachms;  glycerine,  y2  oz.  Mix 
and  shake  before  using;  apply  to  the  scalp 
with  an  old  tooth-brush. 

HAIR  CLOTH.— -This  is  made  of  the  long 
hair  taken  from  horses’  tails,  and  is  extensively 
used  for  covering  chairs,  sofas,  etc.,  and  for 
making  sieves.  It  is  very  durable,  not  being 
liable  to  decay  through  ordinary  causes.  It  is 
insoluble  in  water,  but  is  acted  upon  and  dis- 
solved by  alkalies ; much  soap,  of  course,  in- 
jures it.  A little  salt  may  be  added  to  the 
water  with  which  it  is  washed. 

HAKE. — These  fish  (called  also  “ Stock- 


258 


HALIBUT 


HAM 


fish”)  are  occasionally  taken  with  the  cod  and 
haddock,  and  seem  of  their  species ; but  are 
longer,  with  a tapering,  cylindrical  body.  In 
season  from  June  to  September.  Their  flesh 
is  sweet  and  tender,  but  a little  dry.  Prepar- 
ed, cooked  and  served  in  all  respects  like  cod. 

HALIBUT.— In  season  throughout  the 
year.  On  the  fish-stands  it  is  usually  cut  as 
wanted.  The  thick  portions  are  best  for  steaks 


Halibut. 


and  stews  ; but  the  nape  or  thin  flank  part  is 
an  excellent  piece  for  broiling,  being  usually 
fat  and  juicy.  The  flesh  is  pearly  white  and 
very  nutritious  ; that  taken  from  a fish  weigh- 
ing from  fifty  to  seventy-five  pounds  is  the  best. 
The  very  large  fish  is  coarse-grained  dry  and 
tasteless  ; that  of  a yellowish  tint,  without  the 
pearly  brightness,  is  apt  to  be  rank  and  un- 
wholesome. Halibut  is  also  found  in  a cured 
state — pickled,  salted  and  smoked,  and  by 
many  is  considered  superior  to  cod. 

Baked  Halibut. — The  part  next  to  the  tail- 
piece is  considered  best.  Wash  it  nicely  and 
lay  in  salt  and  water  for  a couple  of  hours  be- 
fore cooking ; wipe  dry,  and  score  the  outer 
skin  ; bake  in  a moderately  hot  oven,  basting 
often  with  butter  and  water  heated  together  in 
a tin  cup.  A piece  weighing  six  pounds  will 
require  an  hour  for  baking;  when  a fork  will 
penetrate  it  easily  it  is  done.  Serve  with  a 
sauce  made  of  the  gravy  left  in  baking  it,  a 
tablespoonful  of  walnut  catsup,  a teaspoonful 
of  Worcestershire  sauce,  and  the  juice  of 
lemon,  thickened  with  browned  flour,  and  boiled 
up  once. 

Boiled  Halibut — Lay  it  in  cold  water,  well 
salted,  for  two  hours  ; wash  and  scrape  clean  ; 
lay  it  in  the  fish-kettle,  cover  with  boiling  water, 
well  salted  ; i onion,  a bouquet  of  parsley,  1 
blade  mace,  i sprig  thyme,  | carrot,  6 pepper- 
corns; skim;  set  where  it  will  simmer;  dish 
on  a napkin;  sauce  in  tureen. 

Broiled  Halibut. — The  nape  or  thin  flank 
is  best  for  broiling.  Soak  in  salt  water  for 
two  hours  ; then  wash  it  and  wipe  it  dry  ; 
sprinkle  a little  flour  over  it ; put  the  outside 
to  the  fire  first,  and  broil  slowly  for  half  an 
hour.  When  it  is  dished,  spread  a little  butter 
over  it,  and  sprinkle  pepper  on. 

Fried  Halibut. — Cut  into  slices  half  an 
inch  thick,  shake  some  flour  over  them,  or 
dip  them  in  egg  and  roll  in  bread-crumbs, 
and  fry  them  in  butter  or  sweet  oil  to  a crisp 
brown. 

Steak  (Halibut). — The  receipt  for  frying 
halibut  steaks  is  given  above,  but  it  is  best 
to  broil  them  on  a buttered  gridiron  over  a 
clear  fire,  first  seasoning  them  with  salt  and 
pepper.  When  dished,  butter  well,  cover 
closely,  and  serve  hot. 


HAM. — The  best  hams,  whether  corned  or 
cured  and  smoked,  are  those  from  eight  to 
fifteen  pounds  in  weight,  having  a thin  skin, 
solid  fat,  and  a small,  short,  tapering  leg  or 
shank.  In  selecting  them,  run  a knife  along 
the  bone  on  the  fleshy  side ; if  it  comes  out 
clean  the  ham  is  good,  but  if  the  knife  is 
smeared,  it  is  spoilt. 

To  cure  hams,  rub  the  meat  side  well  with 
fine  salt,  when  perfectly  cool,  and  lay  them 
in  a clean  cask  for  a couple  of  days.  Then, 
to  every  hundred  pounds  of  meat,  take  eight 
pounds  of  ground  rock-salt,  two  ounces  of 
saltpetre  or  saleratus  (saleratus  is  best),  two 
pounds  of  sugar,  one  and  a half  ounces  of  pot- 
ash, and  four  gallons  of  water;  mix  these 
well  together  until  quite  dissolved,  then  skim 
the  mixture  and  pour  it  over  the  meat.  Some 
boil  this  pickle,  and  when  cool  pour  it  over 
the  meat.  Let  the  hams  remain  in  this  brine 
for  about  six  weeks ; after  which,  take  them 
out,  soak  them  in  cold  water  four  or  five 
hours,  and  then  hang  them  up  to  dry  for  two 
days,  when  they  will  be  ready  for  the  smoke- 
house. Hang  them  hock  end  downwards, 
and  smoke  them  about  four  weeks ; then  take 
them  down,  examine  closely,  and  if  there  is  a 
suspicion  of  insects  lay  them  in  the  hot  sun 
for  a day  or  two. 

There  are  innumerable  W'ays  of  keeping 
hams  after  they  are  cured ; the  best  and 
easiest  is  to  wrap  them  snugly  in  brown 
paper,  lay  them  in  a box,  and  fill  this  up 
with  wood  ashes.  They  may  be  kept  sweet 
and  tender  for  twenty  years  by  this  simple 
method.  Slaked  ashes  are  best,  as  they  will 
notact  on  the  meat,  even  when  they  come  in 
contact  with  it.  Another  good  plan  is  to 
wrap  them  in  paper,  sew  them  up  in  coarse 
cotton  bags,  whitewashed  on  the  outside,  and 
hang  them  near  the  roof  in  a garret. 

Baked  Ham. — Soak  over  night,  in  cold 
water  ; trim  away  the  rusty  part  from  the  under 
side  and  edges,  wipe  dry,  and  cover  the  bottom 
with  a paste  made  of  flour  and  hot  water ; lay 
it  upside  down  in  the  baking-pan,  with  enough 
water  to  keep  it  from  burning,  and  bake  till 
done — allow  ing  twenty-five  minutes  to  a pound. 
Baste  now  and  then,  to  prevent  the  crust  from 
scaling  off. 

Boiled  Ham. — Soak  over  night,  and  in  the 
morning  wash  hard  with  a coarse  cloth  or  stiff 
brush;  put  on  the  fire  in  cold  water,  and  boil  a 
common-sized  ham  four  or  five  hours — allowing 
a quarter  of  an  hour  to  a pound  ; then  skin  it, 
and  set  it  in  the  oven  for  half  an  hour;  then 
cover  it  thickly  with  fine  bread-crumbs,  and  set 
it  back  in  the  oven  for  half  an  hour. 

Broiled  Ham.— Cut  the  ham  in  thin  slices, 
and  broil  quickly  over  a brisk  fire ; then  spread 
on  some  butter  shake  a little  pepper  over  it;  and 
add  a spoonful  or  two  of  vinegar. 

Eggs  with  Ham. — Fry  the  ham  as  directed, 
having  the  slices  as  nearly  as  possible  of  a uni- 
form size  suitable  for  serving.  Break  the  eggs 
carefully,  and  drop  them  one  at  a time  into  tire 
hot  fat;  have  a large  pan  for  this  purpose 


HAM 


HARE 


259 


so  that  they  will  not  touch.  Fry  them  until 
the  white  is  set,  then  lift  them  out  without 
breaking,  and  lay  one  on  each  slice  of  ham, 
which  should  have  been  kept  hot  meanwhile. 
Serve  at  once,  without  the  gravy. 

Fried  Ham. — Cut  as  for  broiling,  soak  the 
slices  for  half  an  hour  in  hot  water,  and  fry  brisk- 
ly over  a hot  fire.  Remove  the  meat,  add  a little 
cream  to  the  gravy  and  thicken  with  flour,  boil 
up  once  and  turn  over  the  ham.  Or  serve  the 
ham  without  gravy,  as  some  prefer  it  thus. 

Glazed  Ham. — Take  a cold  boiled  ham, 
from  which  the  skin  has  been  removed,  and 
brush  it  all  over  with  beaten  egg.  To  a cup  of 
powdered  cracker  allow  enough  rich  milk  or 
cream  to  make  into  a thick  paste,  salt,  and 
work  in  a teaspoonful  of  butter;  spread  this 
evenly  a quarter  of  an  inch  thick  over  the  ham, 
and  brown  in  a moderate  oven. 

Grated  Ham. — Take  the  lean  parts  of  cold 
boiled  ham,  and  grate  it  up  like  cheese ; keep 
in  a stone  jar.  This  makes  excellent  sand- 
wiches, and  seasoning,  or  may  be  eaten  so. 

Potted  Ham. — Take  a pound  of  cold  boiled 
ham  (lean  only),  which  should  be  weighed  after 
every  morsel  of  skin  and  fibre  has  been  re- 
moved ; and  six  ounces  of  cold  roast  veal  pre- 
pared with  equal  nicety.  Mince  these  as  fine  as 
possible  with  a sharp  knife,  taking  care  to  cut 
through  the  meat,  and  not  to  tear  the  fibre,  as 
on  this  much  of  the  excellence  of  the  prepara- 
tion depends.  Next  put  it  into  a mortar  and 
pound  it  to  a smooth  paste  with  eight  ounces 
of  butter,  which  must  be  added  gradually. 
When  beaten  smooth,  add  a teaspoonful  of 
freshly-pounded  mace,  half  a large  or  the  whole 
of  a small  nutmeg,  and  the  third  of  a teaspoon- 
ful of  cayenne  well  mixed  together.  After  the 
spice  is  added,  keep  the  meat  turned  from  the 
sides  to  the  middle  of  the  mortar,  so  that  it  may 
be  seasoned  equally  in  every  part.  When 
perfectly  mixed,  press  it  into  small  potting-pans, 
and  pour  melted  butter  (lukewarm,  not  hot)  over 
the  top.  If  kept  in  a cool  and  dry  place,  this 
meat  will  remain  good  for  a fortnight  or  more. 

Roast  Ham. — Soak  the  ham  for  twenty-four 
hours  and  then  wash  it  hard  with  a coarse  cloth 
or  stiff  brush.  Spit  it  like  a fowl ; set  it  before 
a moderate  fire  and  roast  about  two  hours ; 
then  take  it  up  on  a dish  and  peel  off  the  rind ; 
scrape  all  the  fat  out  of  the  roaster,  and  put  the 
ham  to  the  fire  to  roast  about  two  hours  longer, 
basting  it  frequently  in  the  same  way  as  beef. 
To  make  the  gravy,  put  the  dripping  from  the 
roaster  into  a sauce-pan,  add  a teaspoonful  of 
water,  and  a little  flour,  and  give  it  one  boil ; 
serve  in  a sauce-boat.  This  is  an  excellent 
method  of  cooking  a ham. 

Steamed  Ham. — This  is  by  far  the  best  way 
of  cooking  a ham — especially  if  the  “Warren’s 
Patent  Steam  Cooker,”  which  really  prevents 
all  contact  either  with  the  fire  or  with  the  water, 
be  used.  Prepare  the  ham  as  for  boiling ; 
keep  the  water  under  the  steamer  at  a hard 
boil,  and  allow  twenty  minutes  to  a pound  for 
the  cooking.  When  done,  brown  slightly  in  the 
baking-oven. 


HAND. — Such  excessive  care  is  now  be- 
stowed upon  the  hands  by  some  persons,  that 
it  would  seem  as  if  it  was  not  supposed  that 
they  were  made  to  be  used  ; nevertheless,  it 
is  essential  in  good  society  to  have  them  in 
good  condition.  * When  any  sort  of  work  is  to 
be  done  which  will  injure  them,  it  is  best  to 
wear  gloves.  Further  than  that,  and  washing 
them  frequently  with  soap  and  water,  and  a soft 
brush,  more  attention  is  not  necessary,  except 
in  the  case  of  the  nails  (see  Finger-Nail). 
Few  things  are  more  injurious  to  the  beauty  and 
usefulness  of  the  hands  than  the  practice  of 
wearing  tight  gloves.  Kid  gloves,  as  generally 
worn  by  ladies,  are  not  only  extremely  uncom- 
fortable, especially  in  cold  weather,  but  they 
permanently  deform  the  hand  by  destroying  its 
proportion ; and  nothing  could  be  uglier. 
Artists  have  such  a horror  of  them  that  they 
avail  themselves  of  every  pretext  to  keep  them 
out  of  the  pictures  of  their  female  sitters. 

There  is  a not  uncommon  affection  of  the 
hands  which  is  a serious  annoyance  to  those 
afflicted  with  it.  This  is  a moist  condition, 
which  resists  all  the  ordinary  efforts  of  absorp- 
tion. Such  hands  are  so  constantly  humid  that 
everything  they  wear  or  touch  becomes  satura- 
ted; the  glove  shows  the  effect  at  once  in  ugly 
stains,  and  the  bare  hand  leaves  a blur  of 
dampness  on  every  surface  with  which  it  may 
come  in  contact.  This  infirmity  is  not  seldom 
constitutional,  and  though  difficult  of  eradica- 
tion, may  be  gently  relieved  by  whatever  tends 
to  strengthen  the  constitution  and  invigorate 
the  body.  Exercise  in  the  open  air,  cold  bath- 
ing, a generous  but  not  too  stimulating  diet, 
and  a daily  draught  of  some  mineral  water  or 
medicine  containing  iron,  are  the  best  general 
means  of  treatment.  The  most  effective  local 
applications  are  the  juice  of  the  lemon  and 
starch  powder. 

The  practice  of  “ snapping  the  knuckles,”  as 
it  is  called,  is  fatal  to  the  beauty  of  the  fingers. 
It  stretches  and  weakens  the  ligaments,  and  so 
enlarges  the  knuckles  and  joints  that  the  whole 
hand  becomes  knotty  and  of  a very  unsightly 
appearance. 

HARE. — No  genuine  hares  have  been  found 
in  the  United  States  except  in  California. 
Those  in  the  Eastern  markets  come  either  from 
Canada  or  Europe.  The  Canadian  hares  are 
very  inferior  in  quality,  and  when  old  are  tough, 
dry,  and  insipid;  the  leveret,  or  young  one, 
when  in  good  condition,  is  very  fair  eating, 
though  not  so  good  as  the  rabbit.  They  are 
found  in  the  markets  during  November,  Decem- 
ber, and  January,  but  are  good  until  March. 
The  Gray  hare , as  it  is  called,  is  not  a hare 
but  a rabbit.  (See  Rabbit.) 

Fried,  or  Fricasseed  Hare.  — Same  as 
Chicken. 

Roast  Hare  (English  Receipt). — After  the 
hare  has  been  skinned,  wash  it  thoroughly  in 
cold  water,  and  afterwards  in  warm.  If  in  any 
degree  spoilt  or  musty  on  the  outside,  use 
vinegar  or  the  pyroligneous  acid,  well  diluted, 
to  render  it  sweet ; then  wash  it  again  in 


200 


HAZLENUT 


HEALTH 


clean  water,  that  it  may  retain  no  taste  of  the 
acid.  Pierce  with  the  point  of  a knife  any 
parts  in  which  the  blood  appears  to  have  set- 
tled, and  soak  them  in  tepid  water,  that  it 
maybe  well  drawn  out.  Wipe  the  hare  dry, 
fill  it  with  forcemeat,  made  according  to  taste, 
sew  it  up,  truss  and  spit  it  firmly ; baste  it  for 
the  first  ten  minutes  with  lukewarm  water  con- 
taining a little  salt;  throw  this  away,  and  put 
into  the  pan  a quart  of  new  milk;  ladle  it  con- 
tinually over  the  hare  until  it  is  nearly  dried 
up,  then  add  a large  lump  of  butter ; continue 
the  basting  steadily  until  the  hare  is  well 
browned ; for,  unless  this  be  done,  and  the 
roast  kept  at  a proper  distance  from  the  fire, 
the  outside  will  become  so  dry  and  hard  as 
to  be  quite  uneatable.  Serve  the  hare  with 
good  brown  gravy  (of  which  a little  should  be 
poured  round  it  on  the  dish),  and  with  red 
currant  jelly.  This  is  an  improved  English 
method  of  dressing  hare,  but  we  would  rec- 
ommend in  preference  that  it  should  be 
basted  plentifully  with  butter  or  beef-drip- 
pings from  the  beginning,  and  that  the  salt 
and  water  should  be  altogether  omitted.  It 
takes  from  an  hour  to  an  hour  and  a half  to 
roast  a hare. 

Stewed  Hare. — Wash  and  soak  the  hare 
thoroughly,  wipe  it  perfectly  dry,  cut  it  down 
into  joints,  dividing  the  largest ; flour  these, 
and  brown  them  slightly  in  butter  with  some 
bits  of  lean  ham ; pour  to  them  by  degrees  a 
pint  and  a half  of  gravy,  and  stew  very 
gently  from  an  hour  and  a half  to  two  hours  ; 
when  it  is  about  one-third  done  add  the  very 
thin  rind  of  half  a lemon,  and  ten  minutes  be- 
fore it  is  served  stir  to  it  a large  dessert- 
spoonful of  rice-flour,  smoothly  mixed  with 
two  tablespoonfuls  of  mushroom  catsup,  a quar- 
ter teaspoonful  of  mace,  and  a small  pinch  of 
cayenne.  This  is  an  excellent  plain  recipe 
for  stewing  a hare ; but  the  dish  may  be  en- 
livened with  forcemeat,  rolled  into  small  balls 
and  simmered  for  ten  minutes  in  the  stew,  or 
fried  and  added  to  it  after  it  is  dished. 

HARTSHORN.  (See  Ammonia.) 

HAZLENUT. — These  are  also  called  wild 
filberts.  They  are  of  almost  the  same  shape 
and  color  as  the  filbert,  but  smaller,  with  a 
thicker  shell,  and  better  flavored.  They  grow 
in  clusters  on  bushes  along  the  borders  of 
woods  and  fences  ; the  husks  are  frizzled,  and 
when  they  begin  to  open  and  show  the  end  of 
the  nut,  then  the  nuts  are  fit  to  eat.  Hazle- 
nuts  usually  appear  in  the  markets  in  August 
and  September. 

HEADACHE. — There  are  so  many  causes 
of  headache,  that  it  is  impossible  to  make  any 
suggestions  which  will  invariably  apply.  The 
great  majority  of  cases  arise  from  indigestion. 
Then  there  is  apt  to  be  a feeling  of  nausea ; 
the  tongue  is  white,  and  the  mouth  parched 
and  clammy.  The  remedy  is  a dose  of  some 
aperient  medicine,  and  such  attention  to  cliqt 
subsequently  as  will  keep  the  bowels  in  good 
order.  (See  Indigestion.)  Intense  head- 
ache proceeding  from  no  apparent  cause  is  an 


indication  either  of  nervous  irritation  or  nerv- 
ous exhaustion,  and  the  most  effective  cure  is 
rest  and  perfect  quiet.  Many  persons  experi- 
ence relief  from  Guarana,  the  product  of  the 
Paullinia  sorbilis,  either  as  a powder  or  an 
elixir.  With  the  first  symptoms  of  headache, 
a teaspoonful  of  the  latter  or  fifteen  grains  of  the 
former  should  be  taken  and  repeated  at  half 
hour  intervals  until  three  doses  have  been  swal- 
lowed. More  is  unnecessary.  The  elixir  Gel- 
semirens  compound  just  introduced  by  F.  V. 
Rush  ton,  of  New  York,  has  also  made  some 
wonderful  cures.  Directions  accompany  it. 
Habitual  sufferers  from  headache  would  do 
well  to  try  these  remedies.  Bandages,  sat- 
urated with  vinegar,  and  applied  to  the  tem- 
ples and  forehead,  will  often  give  great  relief  ; 
or,  moisten  a linen  rag  with  sulphuric  ether,  ap- 
ply it  to  the  forehead,  and  prevent  evaporation 
by  covering  it  with  a piece  of  oiled  silk.  When 
headache  arises  from  an  overloaded  condition 
of  the  blood-vessels  of  the  brain,  there  is  usu- 
ally a bloated  countenance,  a full  red  eye,  with 
a dull,  inanimate  expression.  Cold  applications 
to  the  head,  and  leeches  to  the  temple,  or  cup- 
ping on  the  back  of  the  neck,  and  30-gr.  doses 
of  bromide  of  potassium  are  the  proper  means 
to  be  adopted  in  this  case.  In  rheumatic  head- 
ache the  pain  is  of  an  intermittent,  shifting 
nature,  shooting  from  point  to  point,  and  is  felt 
most  at  night  when  the  patient  is  warm  in  bed. 
For  treatment,  see  Rheumatism. 

HEAD-CHEESE. — Take  : Pig’s  head,  feet 
and  ears,  7 lbs ; salt,  1 teaspoonful ; black 
pepper,  ]/>  teaspoonful ; cayenne,  y2  teaspoon- 
ful ; mace,  '/2  teaspoonful  ; a small  onion 
minced  fine. 

Put  on  the  meat  in  enough  cold  water 
to  cover  it,  and  boil  till  the  meat  is  ready 
to  drop  from  the  bones  ; remove  these,  and 
chop  the  meat  up  fine  while  it  is  hot;  add 
the  seasonings  to  the  liquor,  mix  the  meat  in, 
and  while  hot  tie  all  in  a strong  bag,  and  keep 
a heavy  stone  upon  it  until  quite  cold.  A tin 
mould  in  the  shape  of  a boar’s  head,  will  give 
a fine  appearance  to  the  cheese  ; the  mould 
should  be  wetted  with  cold  water  and  the 
cheese  poured  -in  hot. 

HEALTH. — A moment’s  reflection  will 
show  how  wide  is  the  subject  of  health,  for  it 
not  only  embraces  the  structures  and  func- 
tions of  the  body,  but  all  the  influences  which 
act  upon  it  from  without.  To  cover  it  with 
anything  like  completeness  would  require  a 
treatise  on  physiology  and  hygiene,  and  would 
be  out  of  place  of  course  in  a book  like  this; 
but  there  are  certain  essentials  to  the  preser- 
vation of  health,  of  which  every  housekeeper, 
at  least,  both  can  and  should  have  practical 
knowledge,  and  these  are  treated  of  in  the 
articles  on  Air,  Baths,  Clothing,  Diet, 
Digestion,  Exercise,  House,  Sleep,  Ven- 
tilation and  Warming.  Attention  to  the 
principles  laid  down  in  these  various  articles 
will  ensure  good  health  so  far  as  it  is  de- 
pendent upon  bodily  conditions  ; and  any  de- 
clension from  it  into  actual  disease  is  treated 


HELIOTROPE 


HEPATICA 


261 


of  under  the  various  diseases.  There  is  such 
intimate  connection,  however,  between  the 
body  and  mind,  that  the  health  of  one  cannot 
be  preserved  without  a proper  care  of  the 
other.  It  is  from  a neglect  of  this  principle 
that  some  of  the  most  exemplary  persons  in 
the  world  suffer  a thousand  mental  agonies 
from  a diseased  state  of  the  body,  while  others 
ruin  the  health  of  the  body  by  neglecting  the 
proper  care  of  the  mind.  One  of  the  most 
common  mental  causes  of  ill-health  is  the  ex- 
cessive exercise  of  intellect  and  feelings.  Men- 
tal occupation,  and  in  a variety  of  forms,  is  not 
only  healthful,  but  necessary,  as  Dr.  Combe 
says:  “ Inactivity  of  the  intellect  and  of  feeling 
is  a very  frequent  predisposing  cause  of  every 
form  of  nervous  disease.  But  mental  work, 
like  bodily  work,  must  be  done  within  wise 
limitations,  and  must  neither  be  excessive  in 
amount  nor  monotonous  in  kind.”  General 
remarks  of  this  character,  however,  though 
their  importance  may  be  recognized,  are  sel- 
dom of  any  practical  use  ; and  we  will  close  by 
quoting  a paragraph  from  Dr.  Edward  Smith’s 
treatise  on  “ Health.”  According  to  him  the 
“cardinal  rules  of  health”  for  students  and 
brain  workers — for  all  workers  in  fact — are  : 

(i.)  Work  in  the  early,  rather  than  in  the 
later  part  of  the  day,  and  do  not  rob  yourself  of 
sleep  before  midnight.  (2.)  Alternate  your 
mental  work  with  bodily  recreation,  and  make 
as  much  use  of  the  latter  as  the  time  will  allow. 
Gymnastics  which  expand  the  chest,  singing, 
shouting,  running,  jumping  and  walking  are 
proper  kinds  of  relaxation.  (3.)  Limit  your 
mental  toil  to  that  number  of  hours  which  will 
enable  you  to  work  well  with  the  mind,  and 
to  obtain  proper  recreation  for  it  and  the  body. 

HEARTBURN.  {See  Dyspepsia.) 

HEARTH  {To  clean).  {See  Cleaning.) 

HEATING.  {See  Warming.) 

HELIOTROPE.  — This  is  an  excellent 
plant,  either  for  indoor  or  garden  culture,  be- 
ing delightfully  fragrant,  and  giving  a plentiful 
supply  of  flowers  from  June  to  October.  Plants 
of  any  of  the  numerous  varieties  can  be  pro- 
cured of  the  florists,  and  after  that  it  is  propa- 
gated from  cuttings  with  great  ease.  A cut- 
ting the  first  year  will  grow  very  rank,  but  if 
cut  back  and  pruned  into  one  stem  it  becomes 
woody,  and  will  make  a fine  shrub.  The  helio- 
trope is  generally  seen  as  a low  bush,  but  it 
makes  a very  fine  standard,  if  trained  on  a 
single  stem,  from  one  to  four  feet  high,  with  a 
head  several  feet  in  diameter.  Train  the  main 
stem  of  the  plant  to  a trellis,  or  against  the 
fence,  and  let  the  branches  drop  naturally,  as 
they  will  gracefully.  The  plant  bears  the  knife 
well,  and  breaks  freely,  so  it  can  be  trained  to 
any  shape.  The  older  the  plant  the  more 
profuse  are  its  clusters  of  fragrant  flowers. 
In  the  garden  the  heliotrope  will  grow  vigor- 
ously if  planted  in  the  early  Spring  in  any 
kind  of  rich,  loamy  soil.  In  pot-culture  the 
soil  should  be  strong  loam,  with  a little  sand 
and  manure.  It  should  have  frequent  re-pot- 
tings,  and  be  allowed  to  grow  large. 


The  florists’  catalogues  contain  many  varie- 
ties of  the  heliotrope.  The  following  are 
among  the  best : Beauty  of  the  Boudoir,  dark  ; 
Due  de  Lavendry,  rich  blue,  with  a dark  eye  ; 
Etoile  de  Marseilles,  deep  violet,  with  white 
centre ; Flore,  violet,  light  centge ; Garibaldi, 
nearly  white  ; Incomparable,  bluish  lilac ; Jean 
Mesmer,  light  bluish;  La  Petite  Negress,  very 
dark,  dwarf;  Leopold  1st,  deep  violet  blue; 
Madame  Farilon,  violet  tint ; Malulatie,  deli- 
cate lilac;  Miss  Nightingale,  deep  violet; 
Peine  des  Heliotropes,  violet  and  lilac. 

HEMORRHAGE.  {See  Bleeding.) 

HEMP. — A plant,  the  fibres  of  which  are 
coarser  and  stronger  than  those  of  flax.  It 
grows  well  in  any  soil  which  has  a rich,  loamy 
surface  and  good  under-drainage  ; but,  though 
there  are  many  portions  of  the  Western  States 
exactly  adapted  to  its  culture,  by  far  the  larger 
part  is  imported  from  Russia.  It  is  used  for 
making  sail-cloth,  and  a kind  of  coarse  canvas 
adapted  for  common  clothing,  tents,  bags,  etc., 
and  also  in  making  cords,  twine  and  ropes. 
Buckram  is  a kind  of  coarse  hempen  cloth, 
woven  very  open,  and  stiffened  with  gum. 
The  sap  of  the  hemp  plant  contains  a resinous 
substance  which  is  a very  powerful  narcotic, 
and  is  much  used  in  medicine.  The  extract 
made  in  India  and  imported  has  been  found  to 
be  much  stronger  than  that  made  in  this 
country. 

HENBANE. — The  common  henbane  is  a 
native  of  Europe,  and  grows  on  waste  grounds, 
banks  and  commons.  Two  varieties,  the  an- 
nual and  the  bienfiial,  are  cultivated  here,  the 
latter  being  generally  regarded  as  the  most 
active  in  its  properties.  The  henbane  is  gland- 
ular and  viscid,  and  exhales  a peculiar  and 
disgusting  odor.  The  entire  plant  possesses 
narcotic  properties,  and  has  been  employed 
medicinally  from  the  earliest  times  as  a nar- 
cotic, anodyne,  and  soporific.  It  is  sometimes 
used  by  oculists  in  place  of  belladonna  to  di- 
late the  pupil.  When  swallowed  in  sufficient 
quantity,  it  is  said  to  cause  loss  of  speech,  dis- 
turbance of  vision,  distortion  of  face,  coma, 
delirium,  and  paralysis.  No  antidote  is  known , 
but  powerful  emetics  may  be  given  if  an  over- 
dose is  suspected.  The  leaves  only  are  used 
in  regular  practice.  They  are  given  internally 
in  the  form  of  powders,  or  in  extract  or  tinc- 
ture, and  applied  externally  in  fomentations 
and  cataplasms.  It  should  never  be  used  in 
any  way,  except  under  medical  advice.  The 
fumes  of  the  seeds  of  henbane,  heated  in  the 
bowl  of  a tobacco-pipe,  and  inhaled,  are  said  to 
allay  the  toothache. 

HEPATICA. — Popularly  known  as  “ Squir- 
rel Cups.”  This  is  a hardy,  herbaceous  plant, 
and  is  the  first  of  the  Spring  flowers  to  open 
after  the  snow-drop  and  crocus,  usually  ex- 
panding about  the  first  week  in  April.  The 
leaves  are  evergreen  and  the  flowers  double 
and  single,  white,  blue,  rose  and  red,  and  very 
profuse  in  bloom.  The  plant  may  be  raised 
from  seeds  (plant  in  the  Autumn  or  in  the  very 
I early  Spring),  or  obtained  ready  started  from 


262 


HERBS 


HERRING 


the  florist.  It  flourishes  best  in  a moderately 
rich,  loamy  soil,  and  in  sunny  spots  of  the 
garden.  Some  of  the  double  varieties  are 
among  the  most  desirable  flowers  for  forcing, 
a pot  of  any  of  them  being  a mass  of  bloom 
for  several  weeks. 

HERBS. — The  vegetables  comprising  the 
group  of  what  are  called  “sweet  herbs  ” are 
not  eaten  as  a dish  by  themselves,  but  enter 
into  other  dishes  as  seasoning,  flavor,  etc.,  and 
are  also  used  to  some  extent  in  perfumery. 
Those  usually  employed  in  cookery  in  this 
country  are  balm,  basil,  fennel,  lavender,  mar- 
jorum,  mint,  parsley,  rosemary,  sage,  tansy, 
tarragon  and  thyme.  Each  of  them  is  treated 
of  in  its  appropriate  place,  and  we  shall  only 
make  room  here  for  a few  suggestions  about 
gathering  and  preserving  them.  Sweet  herbs 
that  are  to  be  dried  for  use  should  be  gathered 
early  in  the  morning  at  the  season  when  they 
are  just  beginning  to  flower.  The  dust  should 
be  washed  or  brushed  off  them,  and  they 
should  then  be  dried  by  a gentle  heat  as  quick- 
ly as  possible.  The  stalks  should  be  picked 
out  and  thrown  away  and  the  leaves  and  small 
twigs  put  into  corked,  large-mouth  bottles,  or 
tin  boxes  closely  covered.  When  dried  and 
pressed  into  cakes,  and  wrapped  in  paper  (the 
form  in  which  they  are  usually  sold  in  the 
stores),  herbs  may  be  kept  two  or  three  years  ; 
but  when  hung  up  in  loose  bundles,  they  soon 
lose  their  flavor. 

Drinks  (Herb). — Balm  tea  is  often  relished 
by  the  sick,  and  sage,  and  pennyroyal,  and 
tansy  tea  have  excellent  medicinal  effects. 
Balm,  sage  and  sorrel,  mixed  in  equal  propor- 
tions with  sliced  lemon,  and  boiling  water 
poured  on,  and  then  sweetened,  is  a fine  drink. 
Herb  drinks  must  be  made  in  small  quantities 
and  renewed  often,  as  they  become  insipid  by 
standing. 

Mixture  (Herb). — For  general  cooking  pur- 
poses the  following  is  a good  mixture  : Equal 
proportions  of  sweet  marjorum  and  winter 
savory,  with  half  the  quantity  of  basil,  thyme 
and  tarragon.  Rub  to  a powder,  mixing  well 
together,  and  keep  in  a bottle  closely  corked. 

Powder  (Herb). — Take  equal  quantities  of 
dried  parsley,  savory,  sweet  marjorum,  and 
thyme ; half  the  quantity  of  basil,  and  a few 
drops  of  essence  of  lemon ; warm  them  in  a 
moderately  hot  oven,  and  pound  them  in  a 
mortar ; sift  the  powder  and  keep  it  closely 
stopped.  This  is  useful  to  flavor  sauces,  soups, 
and  forcemeats,  but  the  flavor  of  fresh  herbs 
is  finer. 

HERNIA. — A general  term  applied  to  any 
protrusion  of  any  inner  organ,  or  intestine,  from 
its  natural  cavity.  In  a more  restricted  sense, 
however,  and  as  generally  used,  the  word  only 
signifies  a protrusion  of  the  abdominal  viscera. 
Children  and  old  people  are  most  liable  to  this 
disease.  In  the  former  it  is  generally  caused 
by  excessive  crying,  coughing,  vomiting  and 
the  like ; in  the  latter  it  usually  results  from 
blows  or  violent  exertions  of  the  strength,  as 
leaping,  carrying  heavy  weights,  etc.  In  both, 


a relaxed  habit,  indolence,  and  an  oily  diet, 
dispose  the  body  to  the  disease.  A rupture 
sometimes  proves  fatal  before  it  is  discovered. 
Whenever  sickness,  vomiting,  or  obstinate 
costiveness  gives  reason  to  suspect  an  obstruc- 
tion of  the  bowels,  all  those  places  where 
ruptures  usually  happen  (the  umbilicus  and 
the  inguinal  and  femoral  canals'),  ought  to  be 
carefully  examined.  The  protrusion  of  a very 
small  part  of  the  intestines  will  occasion  all 
these  symptoms,  and,  if  not  returned  in  due 
time,  may  prove  fatal. 

Treatment. — On  the  first  appearance  of 
rupture  in  an  infant,  it  ought  to  be  laid  upon  its 
back  with  its  head  very  low.  While  in  this 
posture,  if  the  gut  does  not  return  of  itself,  it 
may  easily  be  put  up  by  gentle  pressure.  After 
it  is  returned,  a piece  of  sticking  plaster  may 
be  put  on  over  the  part,  and  a proper  truss  or 
bandage  must  be  constantly  worn  for  a consid- 
erable time.  The  child  must,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, be  kept  from  crying  and  from  all  violent 
exertions,  until  the  rupture  is  cured. 

In  adults,  when  the  intestine  has  been  forced 
down  with  great  violence,  or  happens  from  any 
cause  to  be  inflamed,  there  is  often  great  dif- 
ficulty in  returning  it,  and  sometimes  the  thing 
is  quite  impracticable  without  a surgical  opera- 
tion— a description  of  which  is  foreign  to  our 
purpose.  When  the  rapture  is  discovered,  lay 
the  patient  on  his  back,  with  his  head  very  low, 
and  his  back  raised  high  with  pillows.  In  this 
situation,  flannel  cloths  wrung  out  in  a decoc- 
tion of  camomile  flowers,  or  simply  in  warm 
water,  must  be  applied  for  a considerable  time. 
If  these  should  not  prove  successful,  recourse 
must  be  had  to  pressure.  If  the  tumor  be  very 
hard,  considerable  force  will  be  necessary ; but 
it  is  not  force  alone  which  succeeds  here.  The 
operator,  at  the  same  time  he  makes  a pressure 
with  the  palms  of  his  hands,  must  with  his 
fingers  artfully  conduct  the  intestine  in  by  the 
same  aperture  through  which  it  came  out. 
There  is  reason  to  believe  that  by  persisting  in 
the  use  of  these,  and  such  other  means  as  the 
circumstances  of  the  case  may  suggest,  most 
hernias  ought  to  be  cured  without  an  operation, 
Sometimes,  however,  the  surgeon’s  help  is  the 
only  chance,  and  must  be  sought  without  delay. 
An  adult,  after  his  intestine  has  been  return- 
ed, must  wear  a proper  truss.  Such  bandages 
are  generally  annoying  to  the  wearer  at  first, 
but  by  custom  they  become  quite  easy.  No 
person  who  has  had  a rupture  after  arriving  at 
man’s  estate  should  be  without  one  of  these 
trusses.  Persons  who  have  a rapture  ought 
carefully  to  avoid  all  violent  exercise,  such  as 
leaping,  running,  and  the  like ; they  should 
abstain  from  strong  liquors,  and  should  guard 
carefully  against  catching  cold. 

HERRING. — There  are  five  or  six  different 
species  of  fish  which  pass  in  our  market  under 
this  name;  but  only  one  is  abundant,  and  that 
is  the  common  herring  (known  as  “white  her- 
ring ” in  England),  which  is  caught  in  vast  num- 
bers on  our  coasts  and  passes  into  commerce 
as  salted  or  smoked  herring.  Herrings  may 


HICCOUGH 


HODGE-PODGE 


263 


be  obtained  in  a fresh  state  during  the  months 
of  February,  March,  and  April ; their  usual 
weight  is  almost  half  a pound.  Red  herring 
derive  their  appellation  from  the  brownish,  red 
color  given  to  them  by  smoke  after  they  have 
been  salted..  As  food,  fresh  herring,  though 
rather  oily,  are  healthful,  if  used  moderately. 
Red  herrings  are  less  a food  than  a luxury ; 
they  excite  thirst,  and  tend  to  create  fever. 

Broiled  Herring — Cut  oft  the  tip  of  their 
heads  immediately  behind  the  eyes  ; split  down 
the  back  ; remove  the  bone  and  entrails  ; lay  on 
a deep  dish,  with  oil,  vinegar,  pepper  and  salt ; 
turn  often  to  absorb  well  the  flavor  of  the  mar- 
inade. Broil  on  a clear  fire,  and  serve  with 
Dutch  sauce,  separately  in  tureen. 

Red  Herrings. — I.  This  fish  is  rendered 
much  more  delicate  by  pouring  boiling  water 
on  it  before  it  is  dressed,  and  leaving  it  to  soak 
for  half  an  hour  or  more,  should  it  be  highly 
dried.  Cut  off  the  heads  and  tails,  open  the 
herrings  at  the  back,  and  warm  them  through 
before  the  fire  or  upon  the  gridiron.  They 
may  be  ruobed  with  a bit  of  cold  butter,  and 
seasoned  with  a slight  sprinkling  of  pepper  or 
cayenne,  when  these  are  liked,  or  served  quite 
plain. 

IL  Take  off  the  heads,  open  the  backs  of 
the  fish,  and  remove  the  backbones ; soak  the 
herrings  for  two  or  three  hours  in  warm  milk 
and  water;  drain  and  wipe  them.  Melt  a tea- 
spoonful of  butter  and  mix  it  with  the  beaten 
yolks  of  two  eggs  and  some  savory  herbs 
minced  fine;  dip  the  fish  into  this  mixture  and 
spread  them  thickly  with  fine  bread-crumbs; 
broil  them  to  a light  brown  over  a moderate  fire, 
and  serve  them  on  hot  buttered  toast,  sprinkled 
with  a little  cayenne. 

HICCOUGH.  — This  is  generally  called 
“hiccup.”  It  is  a spasmodic  or  convulsive  af- 
fection of  the  diaphragm,  often  arising  from 
some  cause  that  irritates  the  nerves  of  the 
stomach.  It  may  come  from  excess  in  eat- 
ing or  drinking,  from  external  injury  to 
the  stomach,  from  poison,  from  inflamma- 
tion or  tumors  in  the  stomach  or  any  of 
the  viscera.  In  gangrenes,  and  acute  and  ma- 
lignant fevers,  a hiccough  is  often  the  fore- 
runner of  death.  The  common  hiccough  may 
generally  be  removed  by  drinking  off  a glass  of 
cold  water  rapidly,  or  by  taking  a pinch  of 
snuff  or  anything  that  will  cause  sneezing; 
quite  troublesome  cases  are  frequently  cured 
by  swallowing  quickly  a glass  of  strong  soda 
water  in  a state  of  brisk  effervescence.  When 
the  hiccough  proceeds  from  indigestion,  a 
draught  of  generous  wine  or  of  any  spirituous 
liquor  will  generally  remove  it.  When  a sick 
person  has  the  hiccoughs,  and  a sudden  ejacu- 
lation or  diversion  of  the  patient’s  mind  fails 
to  remove  it,  give  twenty  drops  of  sal-volatile 
and  fifteen  drops  of  ether  in  a wineglass  of 
camphor-water ; or  in  severe  cases,  give  thirty 
drops  of  laudanum. 

HICKORY-NUTS. — There  are  several  va- 
rieties of  hickory-nuts,  which  are  very  different 
from  each  other  in  quality,  and  it  requires 


some  knowledge  to  select  the  best.  Those 
known  as  “ shell-barks  ” or  “ shag-barks  ” are 
the  choicest.  They  grow  in  shaggy-bodied 
trees,  are  flatter  than  the  ordinary  kind,  have 
a thin  shell,  easily  cracked,  and  a full  kernel  of 
large,  proportionate  size.  They  ripen  in  Octo- 
ber, and  are  found  in  market  all  winter.  The 
next  best  kind  are  the  “ mocker-nuts”  or  thick- 
shelled  hickories.  These  are  both  larger  and 
rounder  than  the  shag-barks,  and  have  a very 
thick  shell,  with  a small  but  sweet  kernel.  The 
“ pig-nuts  ” are  small,  pear-shaped  and  smooth, 
and  are  very  inferior — being  sometimes  unfit 
to  eat.  The  “ hog-nuts  ” or  “ swamp-hick- 
ories ” are  the  poorest  of  all  the  varieties, 
the  kernel  being  hard  and  bitter.  All  the  va- 
rieties ripen  in  October. 

HOARHOUND. — A perennial  plant  grow- 
ing wild  in  many  portions  of  the  country,  and 
also  cultivated  for  its  medicinal  virtues.  Large 
quantities  of  the  parts  used  are  gathered  and 
prepared  for  the  market,  and  may  usually  be 
obtained  at  the  herb-stands  and  at  drug  stores. 
It  has  an  aromatic  smell  and  a bitter  taste.  A 
strong  decoction  of  hoarhound,  sweetened,  and 
drunk  cold,  is  excellent  for  coughs  or  weak 
lungs.  The  well-known  hoarhound  candy  is 
good  for  the  same  purposes ; dissolved  slowly 
in  the  mouth  and  swallowed,  it  relieves  that 
titillation  in  the  throat  which  is  one  of  the 
most  irritating  features  of  a cough,  and  also 
exerts  a soothing  influence.  (See  Candy.) 

HOARSENESS. — In  general,  hoarseness  is 
a symptom  of  a severe  cold,  and  may  be  re- 
moved by  alleviating  the  latter.  For  a sudden 
hoarseness,  where  the  throat  alone  seems  to 
be  affected,  take  a teaspoonful  of  sweet  spirits 
of  nitre  in  a wineglassful  of  water  two  or  three 
times  a day.  When  the  voice  has  become 
hoarse  by  loud  speaking,  it  may  be  restored 
usually  by  simply  eating  a piece  of  anchovy. 
Borax,  however,  as  has  recently  been  discov- 
ered, is  the  sovereign  remedy  for  hoarseness 
of  any  kind.  Dissolve  a piece  of  the  size  of  a 
pea  slowly  in  the  mouth,  and  swallow  the 
saliva.  The  effect  is  like  magic. 

HOCK. — One  of  the  favorites  among  the 
Rhenish  wines.  The  true  Hock  is  so  called 
from  the  vineyards  of  Hochheim,  a little  town, 
not  on  the  Rhine,  but  on  the  Maine,  a few 
miles  from  its  junction  with  the  former  river; 
but  it  is  always  classed  with  the  Rhenish  or 
Rhine  wines,  being  of  nearly  the  same  excel- 
lence. With  us,  not  only  the  wines  made  near 
Hochheim  receive,  in  general,  the  name  of 
Hock,  but  likewise  those  of  the  Rhine,  the 
Maine,  the  Nabe,  and  even  the  Moselle  : 
though  the  character  of  these  sometimes  varies 
considerably.  Hock  has  all  the  characteristic 
qualities  of  the  Rhine  wines.  When  old, 
though  generous  and  durable,  it  is  considered 
as  less  heating,  and  more  exhilarating  than 
many  other  wines,  and  is  consequently  excel- 
lent for  invalids  requiring  a stimulant.  Drink 
a little  cooler  than  the  room. 

HODGE-PODGE.  — This  is  a genuine 
Scotch  recipe  : — Put  as  much  water  into  a 


2G4 


HOE-CAKE 


HOMINY 


large  sauce-pan  as  will  make  two  days’  supply 
of  soup  for  a family  of  six  or  eight,  three  hours 
before  dinner  ; add  two  pounds  of  leg  of  beef, 
half  a pound  of  dried  peas,  one  dozen  carrots 
cut  in  small  pieces,  and  four  onions,  also 
minced ; let  this  boil  an  hour  and  a half,  and 
then  add  another  half  pound  of  peas  and  two 
pounds  of  mutton  chops.  When  it  has  all 
boiled  for  three  hours,  take  out  the  beef,  and 
serve  the  hodge-podge  with  the  mutton  chops. 
It  should  be  as  thick  as  porridge  nearly;  a 
few  beans  and  turnips  can  be  added,  but  the 
turnips  are  apt  to  sour  it ; yet  when  peas  are 
scarce  and  young,  it  is  necessary  to  use  tur- 
nips in  order  to  make  it  thick  enough.  The 
dish  is  considered  best  the  second  day  after 
making. 

HOE-CAKE. — A kind  of  bread  made  of  In- 
dian meal,  which  is  very  popular  in  the  South. 
Take  a quart  of  Indian  meal,  and  mix  it  with 
enough  boiling  water  to  make  a thick  batter  ; 
stir  in  two  tablespoonfuls  of  butter  and  two  tea- 
spoonfuls of  salt ; turn  it  into  a buttered  pan, 
flatten  to  one-third  of  an  inch,  and  bake  half 
an  hour  in  a moderate  oven.  Eat  hot,  with 
butter. 

HOG.  (See  Pork.) 

HOLLANDS.  (See  Gin.) 

HOLLYHOCK.— This  is  a tall  flowering 
plant,  of  the  genus  Althea , cultivated  exten- 
sively in  gardens.  When  grown  amongst 
shrubs  in  situations  moderately  sheltered,  few 
plants  produce  a finer  floral  display  during  the 
autumn  months.  The  great  drawback  to  its 
cultivation  is  the  liability  of  the  plants  to  get 
broken  by  the  wind ; but  if  secured  when  eigh- 
teen inches  high,  to  suitable  stakes,  this  can 
easily  be  obviated.  Procure  the  plant  from  a 
florist  (or  raise  from  seed  in  a hot-bed),  and 
set  them  out  when  all  danger  from  frost  is  pass- 
ed, say  at  the  end  of  April.  Give  each  plant  a 
few  spadefuls  of  rotten  manure ; press  the 
earth  firmly  around  the  roots  ; and  if  the  ground 
is  dry,  give  a good  watering.  In  due  time, 
stake  each  plant,  and  as  the  stems  advance  in 
growth  secure  them  to  it  with  strong  but  soft 
cord  or  strips  of  cloth.  Let  only  one  stem  rise 
from  a plant,  and  nip  out  all  the  laterals  as 
they  appear.  Never  allow  the  plants  to  suffer 
from  want  of  water ; and  as  soon  as  flower-buds 
are  formed,  dig  in  a little  more  well-rotted  ma- 
nure. In  most  instances,  two  flower-buds  will 
start  from  the  axil  of  each  leaf ; nip  out  the 
smaller  of  the  two,  and  in  any  case  of  crowding, 
thin  to  the  requisite  number. 

HOMEOPATHY. — A system  of  medical 
practice,  of  which  the  fundamental  principle  is 
the  treatment  of  diseases  by  the  administration 
of  such  remedies  as,  when  given  to  a healthy 
man,  will  produce,  it  is  claimed,  symptoms  simi- 
lar to  those  from  which  the  patient  is  suffering. 
The  magnitude  of  the  dose  has  no  connection 
with  the  principle  (“like  cures  like,”)  but  is 
determined,  as  in  all  modes  of  practice,  by  the 
circumstance  of  each  case.  It  must  be  said, 
however,  that  in  homeopathic  practice  much 
smaller  doses  are  generally  used  than  by  the 


Regular  School  of  physicians,  on  the  theory  that 
the  remedies  are  claimed  to  act  specifically  and 
directly  on  the  diseased  part,  which  is  assumed 
to  be  more  sensitive  than  in  health,  and  conse- 
quently will  not  tolerate  as  large  doses  as  might 
be  prescribed  under  other  and  more  indirect 
modes  of  treatment.  The  chief  merit  of  Ho- 
meopathy, according  to  its  leading  advocates, 
does  not  consist  in  its  discovery  of  the  efficacy 
of  small  doses,  but  in  the  principle  that  mala- 
dies can  best  be  cured  by  impressing  diseased 
tissue  with  medicines  which  operate  specifically 
upon  these  tissues  themselves,  rather  than  on 
distant  parts. 

A s nearly  every  household  in  which  Homeo- 
pathy is  practiced  has  its  “ book and  case  of 
medicines , no  Homeopathic  prescriptio7is  are 
given  in  this  volume. 

HOMERIA. — A fine  plant  for  window  cul- 
ture, belonging  to  the  class*  known  as  “ Cape 
Bulbs.”  It  will  not  grow  out  of  doors  in  our 
climate  ; but  our  winter  suns  bring  them  to  per- 
fection at  a time  when  other  flowers  are  rare 
and  when  out-door  gardening  is  impossible. 
The  proper  soil  for  the  Ilomeria  is  equal  parts 
of  loam,  leaf-mould,  and  sand.  The  bulbs 
should  be  treated  like  the  Ixia  as  to  potting, 
watering,  and  the  rest.  They  flower  from 
April  to  June,  and  should  then  be  allowed  to 
rest  till  October.  The  principal  species  are  : 
homeria  lineata , with  long  and  stiff  leaves, 
marked  with  white  and  green  lines,  small  bulbs, 
flower-stem  about  one  and  a half  feet  long,  pro- 
ducing copper-colored  flowers  ; single  blooms 
are  transient,  but  many  are  produced  in  succes- 
sion, and  the  plants  are  thus  in  flower  for  a 
long  time.  It  is  a showy  plant,  and  blooms 
about  the  middle  of  April.  A number  of  bulbs 
should  be  planted  in  one  pot  to  produce  a fine 
effect ; and  as  the  roots  grow,  the  plants  should 
be  repotted,  for  the  growth  of  the  roots  is  so 
strong  as  often  to  break  the  pot  if  it  is  not 
large  enough.  Be  careful  in  repotting  not  to 
break  the  ball  of  earth,  and  to  disturb  the  roots 
as  little  as  possible.  The  homeria  spicata,  is 
a beautiful  plant  producing  an  abundance  of 
red  and  yellow  flowers.  Homeria  Collina  has 
orange  and  scarlet  flowers. 

HOMINY. — A preparation  of  Indian  corn, 
called  large  or  small  hominy  according  to  the 
grinding.  To  cook  the  large:  Wash,  and 

add  twice  its  depth  of  cold  water ; cover  and 
let  it  cook  very  slowly  for  seven  or  eight  hours ; 
as  the  water  boils  away,  add  from  the  teaket- 
tle ; when  tender,  add'salt  to  the  taste,  and 
when  the  water  is  absorbed,  serve.  Small 
hominy  requires  but  from  one  to  two  hours. 
To  prepare  the  cold  large  hominy  for  break- 
fast: Drop  a bit  of  butter  in  a small, 

deep,  frying-pan ; when  hot  fill  it  evenly  with 
hominy,  let  it  heat  and  brown  ; serve  upside 
down  on  a dinner  plate.  The  small  hom- 
iny may  be  sliced  and  browned.  “ Hulled 
corn  ” is  boiled  in  lye  (made  by  boiling  two 
handfuls  of  hard  wood  ashes  in  two  quarts 
of  water  for  twenty  minutes  until  the  hull 
loosens,  washed,  and  rubbed  through  several 


HONEY 


IIORSE 


265 


waters  to  remove  the  hull,  and  the  taste  of  lye ; 
then  boiled  in  clear  water  until  tender. 

HONEY. — The  natural  sugar  collected  by  I 
bees  from  flowers  and  the  leaves  of  certain 
plants.  It  cannot  in  any  way  serve  as  a sub- 
stitute for  sugar  ; but  may  be  used  with  cau- 
tion in  various  ways,  both  as  food  and  as  a 
medicine.  Honey  varies  greatly  in  color 
and  in  taste  according  to  the  locality  of  its  pro- 
duction. New  honey  is  a transparent  syrup, 
varying  considerably  in  color  from  nearly 
white  to  a yellowish  brown,  intensely  sweet 
to  the  taste,  with  a sharp  acidulous  flavor, 
and  an  aromatic  odor ; by  keeping  the  color 
becomes  deepened  and  the  taste  acquires  more 
sharpness.  After  a few  weeks,  it  generally 
grows  thick  from  the  formation  of'  small, 
crystalline  grains,  which  remain  mixed  with 
the  fluid  parts  ; the  same  effect  is  produced 
by  a cold  temperature.  The  lighter  colored 
honeys  are  most  liable  to  granulate.  Honey 
is  laxative,  and  when  eaten  freely  as  food 
is  liable  to  produce  colic  or  even  diarrhoea. 
It  is  generally  abundant  in  the  markets  in 
the  summer  and  fall  months  ; it  is  estimated 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  flower  from 
which  it  was  taken.  The  best  comes  in 
small  boxes  (showing  one  or  two  sides  with 
glass),  the  comb  well  filled  with  nearly 
white  honey  which  is  supposed  to  be  made 
principally  from  the  white  clover.  The  buck- 
wheat honey  is  darker,  but  very  sweet.  Large 
hives  of  honey  are  also  found,  but  it  is  gen- 
erally inferior  to  the  other  kinds.  Strained 
honey  is  looked  upon  with  suspicion,  and  is 
seldom  found  as  pure  as  the  bees  made  it. 
When  adulterated  with  sulphate  of  lime,  it  may 
be  detected  by  being  insoluble  in  water.  {See 
Bee-Keeping.) 

Clarified  Honey. — Honey  is  clarified  by 
melting  the  best  kind  with  water  over  a water- 
bath,  adding  the  white  of  egg,  and  boiling  it  to 
throw  up  the  scum ; when  the  scum  has  been 
carefully  removed,  the  water  must  be  evapor- 
ated, and  the  honey  brought  to  its  former  con- 
sistence. 

Honey  Cakes.  ( See  Cake.) 

Honey  Water. — Take  a pint  of  proof  spirits 
of  wine,  and  three  drachms  of  essence  of 
ambergris  ; put  them  into  a bottle,  shake  it 
daily  for  a month,  and  then  draw  off  into  small 
bottles. 

HONEY-SUCKLE.- One  of  the  most  de- 
sirable of  the  ornamental  climbing  vines.  It 
grows  rapidly  in  any  good  garden  soil,  is  very 
easily  raised,  has  highly  ornamental  foliage, 
and  bears  a profusion  of  flowers  which  are 
generally  of  the  most  delicious  fragrance. 
There  are  numerous  varieties  of  the  honey- 
suckle, of  which  the  most  desirable  are  the 
Scarlet  and  Yellow  Trumpet , Dutch  Monthly , 
and  Japan  Twining.  Of  late  years  some  fine 
varieties  have  been  imported  from  China,  and 
Japan.  Among  the  Chinese  the  Golden-leaved 
Lonicera  is  one  of  the  best ; it  is  a rapid 
grower,  with  small  wiry  stems,  the  foliage  is 
netted  with  gold,  and  the  flowers  are  white  and  [ 


very  fragrant.  Lonicera  Halliana  is  evergreen ; 

I perfectly  hardy,  and  flowering  monthly  in  pro- 
| fuse  clusters ; its  flowers  pure  white  turning 
to  yellow.  Lonicera  brachypoda , or  Japan 
Honey-suckle,  is  a very  beautiful  vine ; its 
flowers  are  of  delicious  fragrance ; the  leaves 
are  evergreen  and  very  glossy.  No  hardy  vine 
can  excel  it. 

Tartarian  Honey-suckles  are  large  shrubs 
of  much  beauty,  whether  covered  with  their 
pink  or  white  flowers,  or  with  scarlet  berries. 
They  will  grow  from  cuttings  or  seeds,  are 
entirely  hardy,  and  require  little  care. 

HOOPING-COUGH.  ( See  Whooping- 

Cough). 

HOPS.— Hops  are  the  flowers  of  the  hop 
plant,  which  is  extensively  cultivated  in  many 
parts  of  the  United  States,  in  England,  in  Can- 
ada, and  in  Belgium.  A particularly  rich  and 
loamy  clay  soil  is  required  for  the  successful 
growth  of  this  plant,  which  also  demands  liber- 
al supplies  of  animal  manure  in  a highly  concen- 
trated form.  The  young  shoots  are  good  for 
the  table,  when  cut  in  the  Spring,  when  not 
more  than  five  or  six  inches  high  ; they  are  eat- 
en as  salad,  or  boiled  and  served  as  asparagus, 
which  they  resemble.  The  flowers  or  hops 
should  be  gathered  in  August ; after  which, 
when  dried  and  closely  packed  in  “ pockets  ” or 
bags,  they  become  a solid  mass,  of  a bright  or 
greenish  yellow  color,  with  a fine  dust  permea- 
ting it  in  which  the  principal  flavoring  matter  re- 
sides. The  best  hops  are  of  a bright  color,  be- 
tween yellow  and  green  ; if  they  are  very  green 
they  were  gathered  too  young  ; if  very  brown, 
they  were  allowed  to  ripen  too  long  on  the  vines, 
or  they  have  been  over-dried  and  have  lost  their 
peculiar  flavor.  They  should  have  a powerful 
aromatic  flavor,  particularly  when  rubbed  be- 
tween the  fingers  ; should  feel  sticky  to  the 
hand  ; and  should  contain  much  of  the  yellow 
powder  above  mentioned.  Porter  brewers  pre- 
fer hops  of  a rather  brown  color ; but  ale  and 
table-beer  brewers  use  pale  hops. 

New  hops  are  reckoned  as  one-fourth  or  fifth 
stronger  than  old  ones.  When  one  year  old, 
hops  have  not  lost  much  of  their  strength  ; but 
after  that  every  successive  year  takes  away 
from  their  value,  and  after  three  or  four  years 
they  are  comparatively  worthless.  Hops  must 
be  closely  packed  in  stout  bags  ; otherwise  they 
will  attract  damp  and  become  mouldy  and  use- 
less. 

HORSE. — The  only  kind  of  horses  which  we 
have  reference  to  in  the  following  remarks  are 
those  used  for  ordinary  domestic  purposes. 
The  selection  of  a horse  is  about  as  delicate  a 
task  as  one' can  undertake,  a mistake  being 
very  easy  to  make  and  very  difficult  to  rectify. 
The  best  policy  for  the  purchaser  (unless  an 
expert)  is  to  distrust  his  own  judgment  entire- 
ly and  take  the  advice  of  some  one  on  whom 
he  can  rely  and  who  has  a special  knowledge 
of  the  subject.  As  this  is  not  always  practica- 
ble, however,  a few  rules,  such  as  the  best  au- 
thorities agree  upon,  may  be  of  service.  The 
first  step  is  to  ascertain  the  age  of  the  horse, 


266 


HORSE 


which  is  best  clone  by  examining  his  teeth. 
The  complete  dentition  of  the  horse  can  be  ex- 
pressed as  follows: — Incisors  or  nippers  $. 
Canine  or  tushes  Molars  or  grinders 
A horse  has  two  sets  of  incisor  teeth,  and  as 
the  temporary  incisor  or  milk  teeth  are  shed 
and  replaced  by  permanent  teeth  at  regular  in- 
tervals, by  carefully  noticing  the  size  and  ap- 
pearance of  the  teeth  we  can  generally  arrive 
at  the  true  age  of  the  horse.  The  temporary 
grinders  so  closely  resemble  the  permanent 
that  no  notice  is  taken  of  them  by  horsemen. 
It  is  important  clearly  to  note  the  difference 
between  permanent  and  milk  teeth.  The  latter 
are  much  smaller;  are  what  is  called  constrict- 
ed, that  is,  narrower  near  the  gums  than  on  the 
cutting  surface.  All  teeth  have  on  the  upper 
surface  an  indentation  which  is  called  the 
“ mark.”  This  “ mark  ” is  much  more  evident 
in  the  permanent  than  in  the  milk  teeth.  This 
mark  is  finally  worn  out  and  disappears  after 
the  animal  is  nine  years  old.  At  a year  old,  the 
colt  has  cut  all  his  milk  teeth ; the  twelve  in- 
cisor teeth  are  all  full  grown  and  the  marks  are 
clearly  seen.  These  teeth  appear  through  the 
gums  as  follows  : — The  four  central  ones  at 
ten  days  ; the  four  middle  at  about  two  months  ; 
the  four  corner  teeth,  as  they  are  called,  at 
about  seven  months.  At  two  years  old  the 
colt’s  mouth  is  changed  considerably.  The 
teeth  are  much  worn  down,  presenting  a smooth 
surface,  the  marks  are  hardly  distinguishable 
on  the  central  or  middle  teeth.  One  of  the 
differences  between  the  permanent  and  milk 
teeth  can  be  now  seen.  The  permanent  teeth 
as  they  are  worn  grow  out  again,  while  milk 
teeth  become  smaller.  The  horse  loses  his  in- 
cisors in  the  same  order  that  he  cuts  them — the 
central  ones  drop  out  at  two  years  and  six 
months  and  are  replaced  by  the  permanent.  At 
three  years  old  the  central  permanent  incisors 
are  full  grown,  the  “ marks  ” or  black  spots 
on  the  top,  are  on  them,  and  have  disappeared 
from  the  “ middle  ” teeth.  These  drop  out  at 
three  years  and  a half,  and  at  four  years  old 
the  horse’s  mouth  presents  the  following  ap- 
pearance : — The  central  and  middle  permanent 
incisors  are  in  their  place,  while  the  marks  are 
obliterated  from  the  corner  milk  teeth.  The 
tushes  or  canine  teeth  are  now  just  showing 
through  the  gums.  These  teeth  are  not  found 
in  the  mare.  At  four  years  and  six  months  the 
corner  incisors  drop  out ; at  five  years  old  all 
the  teeth  are  present,  and  from  that  date  no 
further  shedding  is  seen.  The  marks  on  the 
central  incisors  disappear  at  six  years  old.  At 
seven  years  old  the  middle  lose  theirs,  and  a 
small  protuberance  is  seen  on  the  outer  edge  of 
the  corner  teeth.  These  lose  their  marks  at 
eight  years  old,  and  from  that  date  no  great  re- 
liance can  be  put  in  ascertaining  the  exact  age. 
The  gums  fall  away  from  the  teeth,  their  upper 
surfaces  are  worn  smooth,  black  streaks  appear 
running  up  and  down,  covering  the  front  of  the 
teeth  at  about  twelve  or  thirteen.  Now  it 
should  be  remembered  that  a horse  is  consider- 
ed to  be  at  his  prime  at  five  years  old.  Hence, 


dishonest  dealers  resort  to  various  expedients 
to  cause  horses,  either  older  or  younger,  to 
show  an  apparently  five  year  old  mouth. 


Points  of  Hors?. 


1.  Muzzle.— 2.  Face.— 3.  Forehead.— 4.  Poll.— 5.  CreS.— 6. 
Withers.— 7.  Back  — 8.  Loins.— 9.  Hip.— 10.  Croup.— 11.  Dock.— 
12.  Quarter.— 13.  Thigh,  or  Gaskin.— 14.  Ham-string.— 15.  Point 
of  tne  Hock.— 16.  Cannon.— 17.  Fetlock.— 18.  Pasterns.— 19. 
Coronet.— 20.  Ham.  or  Hock.— 21  Sheath.— 22.  Flank.— 23.  Girth. 
—24.  Elbow.— 25  Heel.— 26.  Hoof.— 27.  Fetlock.— 28.  Cannon.— 
29.  Knee.— 30.  Arm.— 31.  Breast  or  Bosom.— 32.  Point  of  the 
Shoulder.— 33.  Windpipe.— 34.  Gullet.— 35  Jowl. 

“Points.” — We  shall  not  attempt  here  to  go 
fully  into  all  the  points  for  which  the  various 
breeds  of  horses  are  noted,  but  only  to  state 
those  which  should  be  found  in  any  horse  re- 
quired to  do  good  service.  See  that  the  nos- 
trils are  large,  round,  well  formed ; that  there 
may  be  no  impediment  to  the  breath.  Let  the 
eye  be  full,  showing  little  or  no  white.  Do  not 
let  the  throat  be  too  narrow.  See  that  the 
head  hangs  well  out  from  the  chest  and  there 
will  be  less  chance  of  the  animal  roaring.  The 
shoulder  is  a part  of  great  consequence.  If 
speed  is  required,  a sloping  shoulder  is  essen- 
tial, but  an  upright  shoulder  is  better  in  a draft 
horse,  as  it  gives  the  animal  more  power  and 
more  readily  adjusts  itself  to  the  collar.  Let 
the  fore-arm  be  long,  the  knee  flat  and  large. 
Consider  it  as  a safe  rule  that  all  bones  above 
the  knee  are  better  long,  those  below  short ; 
hence,  short  cannon  and  pasterns  are  desirable. 
Look  out  for  splints ; (which  see  below). 
Let  the  walls  of  the  hoof  be  well  shapen, 
not  scaly  but  firm  and  smooth;  look  out  for  corns 
on  the  sole  ; let  the  frog  be  large.  In  farm  horses 
large  flat  feet  are  looked  for.  In  higher  bred 
animals  the  feet  should  be  small,  the  toes  if 
anything  pointing  a little  in.  Let  the  chest, 
unless  speed  is  desired,  be  wide  and  full,  the 
ribs  well  sprung — the  deep  chest  of  the  race 
horse  being  unsuited  to  the  continued  strain  re- 
quired for  farm  work.  See  that  the  abdomen 
is  not  too  prominent,  but  well  rounded,  taper- 
ing off  towards  the  thigh  joint,  firm  under  pres- 
sure. The  back  should  be  well  shaped,  not 
camel-backed,  as  it  interferes  with  the  action 
of  the  animal,  nor  too  high  at  the  withers.  Let 
the  loins  be  well  rounded  to  give  speed,  not 
too  much  “ hog-backed,”  as  it  hurts  the  gait. 


HORSE 


267 


Now  examine  the  hind  quarters.  Lookout 
for  spavin.  See  •'  Diseases  ” below,  for  symp- 
toms of  Spavin.  The  hocks,  fetlocks,  and 
quarters,  should  be  on  a straight  line.  As  in 
the  front  legs,  all  the  bones  about  the  hock 
should  be  as  long  as  possible,  those  below  the 
hock  as  short. 

When  a horse  is  to  be  purchased,  examine 
the  eyes  at  the  stable-door,  before  he  is 
brought  out;  the  light  coming  upon  them  in 
that  situation  will  enable  you  to  discover  any 
defect  that  may  exist.  Both  eyes  must  be 
in  an  equal  degree  of  light;  and  if  they  are 
not  alike,  one  must  be  diseased.  Weeping, 
cloudy,  dull-looking  eyes,  are  unsound  ; and 
if  the  eye  be  at  all  diseased,  do  not  pur- 
chase. 

Now  take  him  out  of  his  stall  and  run  him 
down  slowly  on  a rough  or  stony  descent,  at 
the  end  of  a halter,  his  head  unsupported, 
and  no  whip  near  him.  If  he  go  boldly,  with 
his  knees  bent,  and  his  foot  flat  and  firm  to 
the  ground,  without  dropping  his  head,  his 
soundness  before  may  be  calculated  upon  ; 
and  if,  on  running  him  up  hill,  he  go  with  his 
hocks  regularly  together,  and  not  dragging 
the  toe,  nor  dropping  from  the  hip,  he  is  free 
from  lameness.  Pottering  on  the  toe,  and 
feeling,  denotes  that  he  is  not  sound.  The 
horse  should  be  shown  quietly,  because,  when 
he  is  agitated,  a slight  lameness  may  be  over- 
looked ; and  always  see  him  ridden,  for  many 
horses  are  pleasant  to  ride  that  are  unpleas- 
ant to  look  at  when  ridden.  When  brought 
out,  let  the  horse  be  placed  with  his  fore-legs 
up  hill:  then,  if  his  joints  be  at  all  bent  over, 
or  his  legs  shaken,  you  will  best  discover  it. 

Never  agree  to  take  a horse  before  you 
have  tried  him,  and  had  him  examined  by  a 
veterinary  surgeon. 

FOOD  AND  MANAGEMENT. 

Food.  — When  the  horse  is  engaged  in 
work,  grain  of  some  kind  ought  always  to  ac- 
company the  hay.  While  he  is  working  mode- 
rately four  quarts  of  oats  is  an  average  " feed.” 
Under  hard  work  he  may  go  up  to  six,  or  in 
exceptional  cases,  even  eight,  at  his  third 
meal,  or  possibly  his  second.  Half  the  quan- 
tity of  old  corn  is  considered  equivalent. 
After  a heavy  feed  a horse  should  not  be 
worked  hard  under  an  hour,  or  under  half 
an  hour  after  a light  one. 

Never  feed  a horse  after  hard  work  until 
he  is  cooled  off.  He  maybe  permitted,  how- 
ever, to  have  a small  forkful  of  hay  upon 
going  into  the  stable.  Oats  are  the  best  grain, 
barley  next.  Wheat  and  Indian  corn  are  less 
suitable  ; the  former  being  too  concentrated, 
and  the  latter  too  heating.  Grain  is  always 
fed  more  advantageously  when  ground  or 
crushed,  and  wet  some  time  previous  to  eat- 
ing. Corn-meal  put  upon  cut  hay,  wet  and 
well  mixed,  is  good  steady  feed  for  slow 
working  horses,  if  not  fed  in  too  large  quan- 
tities. Four  quarts  a day  may  be  fed  un- 


mixed with  other  grain ; but  if  the  horse  be 
hard  worked  and  needs  more,  mix  the  meal 
with  oats,  wheat,  bran,  or  linseed-oil  meal ; or, 
use  corn  and  oats  ground  together.  When 
confined  to  dry  food,  roots  or  apples  given  once 
a day  are  excellent,  being  both  wholesome  and 
very  nutritious.  Carrots  are  the  best  of  the 
roots,  as,  besides  giving  muscle  and  working 
power,  they  improve  the  wind  and  prevent  all 
tendency  to  “heaves.”  They  have  even  been 
found  effectual  in  removing  an  obstinate  cough. 
Potatoes,  parsnips,  beets,  and  turnips,  in  the 
order  named,  are  next  to  be  preferred.  The 
potatoes  are  improved  by  cooking.  Mixtures 
of  food  are  best,  as  of  cut  hay,  meal,  and  roots. 
Old  horses,  or  such  as  are  worked  hard,  will 
thrive  much  better  if  their  food  be  given  in 
the  form  easiest  of  digestion,  as  cut  and 
steamed.  Much  vital  power  is  exhausted  in 
digesting  dry,  raw  food. 

Do  not  feed  one  kind  of  food  too  much. 
Mix  a little  bran  with  oats.  Bran  cannot  be 
swallowed  until  thoroughly  moistened,  and  this 
requires  considerable  mastication,  in  which 
the  oats  become  well  ground  and  mixed  with 
saliva.  If  these  latter  are  crushed,  a great 
saving  will  be  effected,  as  horses  are  apt  to 
bolt  their  food  without  sufficient  mastication, 
and  much  nourishment  passes  out  in  the  foeces. 

Horses  should  be  fed  regularly  and  at  stated 
times.  If  their  food  is  given  at  the  proper 
time,  and  they  are  allowed  to  finish  it  at  once 
without  expecting  more,  they  will  lie  down 
quietly  and  digest  it.  This  will  be  much  more 
refreshing  to  them  than  to  stand  at  the  rack  or 
trough,  nibbling  continually  at  hay  or  oats. 
What  remains  when  a horse  is  done  feeding 
should  be  at  once  withdrawn. 

Water  should  be  given  three  times  in  sum- 
mer, and  in  winter  twice  a day.  Soft  or  run- 
ning water  is  much  the  best.  While  working 
they  may  have  it  as  often  as  they  desire ; but 
they  should  neither  be  fed  nor  watered  when 
heated ; nor  driven  immediately  afterwards. 
At  the  trough,  on  the  road,  &c.,  give  but  a few 
swallows. 

Salt. — A piece  of  rock-salt  should  always  be 
within  a horse’s  reach. 

Regulating  Bowels. — An  old  custom,  and 
one  not  to  be  followed,  is  giving  a ball  to  a 
horse  in  the  spring  of  the  year.  Never  give 
balls,  nor  strong  medicines  of  any  sort,  unless 
absolutely  required.  A bran  mash  with  a few 
handfuls  of  flax-seed  mixed  in  with  it,  is  often 
far  better  than  expensive  and  dangerous  doses. 
It  is  an  excellent  plan  to  give  every  Saturday 
night,  six  or  eight  quarts  of  bran,  mixed  up 
with  hot  water,  with  a tablespoonful  of  salt  and 
a pinch  of  sulphur  added. 

The  Hoof. — A sponge  moistened  with  water 
and  Castile  soap,  may,  with  advantage,  be  used 
to  clean  out  the  hoof  itself,  taking  care  not  to 
moisten  the  coronet.  Another  very  common 
practice,  in  many  parts  of  the  country  is  to  fill 
the  hoof  of  the  horses  every  night  with  cow- 
dung,  or  with  Indian  corn  meal.  Now,  what  is 
desired  by  stuffing  horses  hoofs  is  to  keep 


2G8 


HORSE 


them  soft,  to  prevent  the  horn  becoming  dry, 
and  to  promote  its  healthy  growth.  The  dan- 
ger of  too  often  stuffing  the  hoofs  is,  that  the 
horn  becoming  too  soft  from  too  much  moist- 
ure is  apt  to  decompose  rapidly  and  a bad  case 
of  Thrush  to  result.  The  very  best  stuffing 
in  the  world  is  a mixture  of  cow-dung  and  stiff 
clay — equal  parts  of  each.  Apply  only  to  the 
fore  feet  not  oftener  than  threo  times  a week, 
and  only  then  when  the  horse  is  kept  in  the 
stable. 

Grooming. — Thorough  grooming  is  not  less 
essential  to  the  health  of  a horse  than  proper 
food.  Especial  care  should  be  taken  of  the 
legs  and  fetlocks  that  no  dirt  remain  to  cause 
that  distressing  disease  grease  or  scratches, 
which  comes  from  filthy  fetlocks  and  standing 
in  dirty  stables.  When  a horse  comes  in  from 
work  on  muddy  roads  with  dirty  legs,  the  dirt 
should  be  dried  and  then  brushed  off,  then  rub- 
bed with  straw ; then,  if  very  dirty,  washed 
clean  with  lukewarm  water  and  rubbed  dry 
with  a piece  of  sacking.  If  not  thoroughly 
dried  they  had  better  not  have  been  washed. 
If  the  mud  has  been  splashed  thickly  on  the 
horse’s  belly  and  sides,  these  should  be  cleaned 
in  the  same  way.  If  sweaty  or  warm  from  work 
the  horse  should  be  blanketed,  if  he  is  to  stand 
a minute  in  the  winter  air.  If  put  at  once  into 
the  stable,  he  should  be  stripped  and  rubbed 
vigorously  with  straw  for  five  minutes  or  more 
and  then  blanketed  ; the  blanket  must  be  re- 
moved in  an  hour,  and  the  horse  given  water 
and  feed  if  it  is  the  proper  time.  It  will  not 
hurt  him  to  eat  hay  when  hot,  unless  he  is  tho- 
roughly exhausted,  in  which  case  all  food 
should  be  withheld  for  a while.  A horse  should 
never  stand  in  a draught  of  cold  air,  if  he  can- 
not turn  and  put  his  back  to  it.  He  should 
never  be  turned  into  a yard  to  “cool  off”  even 
in  summer ; neither  should  he  be  turned  out 
to  pasture  until  quite  cool. 

Exercise. — When  a horse  is  not  worked,  he 
should  be  exercised  morning  and  evening — a 
brisk  trot  of  three  miles  is  not  too  much. 

A horse  should  be  always  driven  gently 
when  he  is  first  taken  out. 

DISEASES  AND  ACCIDENTS. 

Nearly  all  the  diseases  of  horses  can  be 
traced  to  improper  food,  air,  or  treatment. 
Some  few  are  obscure  in  their  origin  and  many 
are  set  down  as  contagious,  when  the  disease 
springs  from  the  same  cause  attacking  all  the 
animals  at  once.  We  emphatically  caution 
against  use  of  medicine  by  the  inexperienced, 
except  where  the  case  is  unmistakable  or  ex- 
perience is  not  to  be  had. 

Bots  see  Worms. 

Blind  Staggers,  see  Staggers. 

Broken  Knees  see  Knees. 

Canker,  see  Thrush. 

Catarrh,  see  Colds. 

Chapped  Heels,  see  Scratches. 

Colds  in  themselves  are  very  simple  things, 
though  often  the  symptoms  of  graver  disor- 
ders. Horses  badly  blanketed  in  spring  and 


fall  are  very  liable.  The  treatment  is  simple 
— give  a warm  bran  mash  with  half  an  ounce 
of  nitre  twice  a day,  and  keep  the  animal  bet- 
ter housed.  Remember  that  success  in  treat- 
ing colds  depends  upon  keeping  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  animal  equal,  day  and  night.  Give 
no  corn,  and  plenty  of  water.  When  colds 
increase  in  intensity,  and  we  get  the  running 
of  matter  from  the  nose,  we  give  the  name 
Catarrh  to  the  disease.  Now  it  is  as  well  to 
state,  that  in  all  disorders  of  the  air  passa- 
ges, the  animal  should  never  be  bled  or  receive 
medicine  in  the  shape  of  balls.  Catarrh  is 
often  a fatal  disease  from  mismanagement. 
Treat  very  simply  with  mashes  and  nitre  ; rely 
on  fresh  air;  should  the  glands  of  the  neck  be 
much  enlarged,  apply  a stimulating  liniment  as 
gin,  vinegar,  and  water.  In  troublesome  cases 
mix  two  drachms  of  camphor,  the  same  amount 
of  belladonna,  with  molasses,  and  put  it  on  the 
back  of  the  horse’s  tongue — a little  sulphur 
burnt  in  the  manger  does  good.  Horses  are 
liable  to  other  diseases  of  the  air  passages,  as 
pleurisy,  pneumonia,  (or  lung  fever),  bronchitis 
etc.,  but  the  sketch  of  the  treatment  we  have 
given  for  catarrh  covers  all  we  can  really  do — 
these  cases  must  be  left  to  nature,  assisted 
by  plenty  of  fresh  air,  warm  clothing,  and 
careful  nursing.  Do  not  give  drugs  at  all,  nor 
bleed,  nor  blister.  If  the  animal  is  very  rest- 
ive give  ten  drops  of  aconite  as  a sedative.  If 
the  animal  is  left  unmolested,  these  trouble- 
some diseases  easily  run  their  course  and  dis- 
appear— none  of  them  are  contagious  at  all. 

Colic  is  the  irritation  of  the  coat  of  the 
small  intestines,  caused  always  by  an  active 
irritant  interfering  with  proper  functions  of 
the  stomach  and  bowels.  Symptoms  are  strong 
contraction  of  the  intestines — the  animal 
throws  itself  down,  jerking  its  legs,  trying  to 
ease  the  pain — is  then  better  for  a little — 
another  spasm  comes  on,  all  symptoms  repeat- 
ed. In  flatulent  colic,  when  the  intestines  are 
inflated  with  wind,  the  symptoms  are  similar. 
Purge  well — give  clysters  of  warm  soap  suds — 
where  much  pain  is  evident,  an  ounce  and  a 
half  of  opium.  For  the  “ Flatulent”  give  three 
drachms  of  carbonate  of  ammonia  in  a quart 
of  cold  water,  and  opium  as  above.  Keep  the 
animal  well  tied  up  and  in  a narrow  stall. 

Corns  should  be  cut  out  and  the  shoes 
changed.  They  arise  from  improper  shoeing. 

Diarrhoea  is  due  to  a derangement  of  the  in- 
testines from  the  presence  of  an  irritant  caus- 
ing an  increased  secretion — may  arise  from 
sudden  chills  acting  on  the  blood — wet  grasses 
— bad  food — is  often  the  symptom  of  other 
diseases.  The  best  treatment  is,  when  produced 
by  an  irritant,  to  remove  it  by  giving  purga- 
tive No.  2,  under  Remedies  below,  or  three 
or  four  ounces  of  castor  oil.  Nurse  well  and 
give  warm  bran  mashes.  When  due  to.  sud- 
den chills,  give  half  an  ounce  of  opium — injec- 
tions of  warm  water  and  salts.  When  the 
evacuations  are  very  offensive,  give  carbolic 
acid,  one  to  25  of  water.  A good  astringent 
for  diarrhoea — not  to  be  given  too  soon — is 


HORSE 


20!) 


powdered  opium,  I drachm;  tincture  of  cate- 
chu, ounce  ; chalk  mixture,  i pint ; give  as 
a drench. 

Dysentery  is  the  inflammation  and  ulcera- 
tion of  the  large  intestine — generally  follows  bad 
cases  of  diarrhoea.  Treat  with  oils,  in  two 
ounce  doses.  In  bad  cases,  when  straining  is 
evident,  give  a quart  of  rice  milk,  with  one  or 
two  ounces  of  laudanum.  Rely  on  careful  nurs- 
ing and  carbolic  acid,  as  in  diarrhoea,  to  check 
decomposition.  Ipecacuanha  in  two-drachm 
doses  is  good. 

Founder,  or  Fever  in  the  Feet,  perhaps  the 
most  frequent  cause  of  lameness,  results  from 
over  driving  on  hard  roads,  stones,  pricks,  or  to 
bad  shoeing.  Also  may  arise  from  causes  other 
than  local — may  be  a symptom  of  a feverish 
condition  of  the  system.  The  symptoms  are 
great  heat  and  tenderness  of  the  feet,  especially 
about  the  coronet,  throbbing  of  the  arteries, 
great  lameness.  The  best  treatment  is  sys- 
temic. Remove  the  shoes  and  give  a mild 
laxative  (No.  2,  under  Remedies  below),  to  be 
followed  by  febrifuges,  such  as  nitre,  half 
an  ounce  ; opium,  one  ounce  ; or  ten  drops  of 
aconite,  camphor,  two  or  three  drachms. 
Bleeding  from  the  foot  should  be  resorted  to 
only  in  extreme  cases. 

Glanders,  a fatal  disease,  arises  from  dirty 
stables — a specific  poison,  causing  the  forma- 
tion of  ulcers  in  the  nose,  with  a great  dis- 
charge— generally  from  the  left  nostril — and  a 
lump  firmly  attached  to  the  lower  jaw — these 
symptoms  appearing,  immediately  slaughter  the 
animal — there  is  no  cure,  and  the  disease  is 
very  contagious,  endangering  even  man. 

Grease.  ( See  Scratches.) 

Inflammation  of  Kidneys  (Nephritis),  a 
common  disorder,  resulting  from  bad  food,  colds, 
over-exertion,  etc.  The  urine  is  very  scanty 
and  dark-colored.  Do  not  give  aloes,  as  it  acts 
on  the  kidneys ; but  treat  with  oil  and  opium 
and  calomel,  as  in  liver  disorders.  Hand-rub 
the  animal  well  over  to  promote  circulation. 
Put  a mustard  poultice  on  the  loins,  keep  warm, 
and  feed  with  mashes.  • 

Lice. — Rub  white  precipitate  well  into  the 
hair,  being  careful  not  to  sweat  the  animal — or 
a weak  solution  of  carbolic  acid  and  water. 

Liver  Diseases — shown  by  clayey  and  offen- 
sive evacuations — are  often  difficult  to  detect. 
The  animal  appears  heavy,  sleepy,  feverish, 
poor  appetite,  tenderness  on  the  off  side.  The 
treatment  for  diseases  of  the  liver  is  : Give  one 
drachm  of  calomel,  one  drachm  of  opium,  and 
linseed  meal  to  form  a ball,  every  night — with 
a pint  of  oil  in  the  morning. 

Broken  Knees. — Broken  knees  if  neglected 
often  result  in  permanent  lameness.  Cleanse 
thoroughly  with  warm  water,  put  on  a bran 
poultice,  warmed,  for  twenty-four  hours  till  the 
inflammation  is  somewhat  lessened  ; then  hav- 
ing removed  the  poultice,  bandage  tight  with 
water,  with  a few  drops  of  carbolic  acid  in  it. 
Should  the  place  become  too  dry,  grease  a very 
little.  Unless  the  case  is  very  bad,  walk  the 
animal  a little  twice  a day. 


Lameness. — Any  irregularity  in  the  move- 
ment of  the  horse  is  always  sufficient  to  con- 
demn the  animal  as  unsound.  (See  Founder, 
Knees,  Quittor,  Ringbone,  Sand-crack, 
Scratches,  Shoulder-slip,  Spavin, 
Splints,  Sprains.) 

Lung  Fever.  (See  Colds.) 

Pleurisy.  (See  Colds.) 

Pneumonia.  (See  Colds.) 

Side  Bones.  (See  Ring  Bones.) 

Quittor,  a very  offensive  disease  of  the  inte- 
rior of  the  hoof,  results  from  careless  treat- 
ment of  the  thrush.  Inject  zinc  or  acetate  of 
lead,  or  any  strong  caustic.  This  is  a very  dan- 
gerous disorder.  Use  the  following  wash" ; but 
if  possible  consult  a veterinary  surgeon  : 
Corrosive  sublimate — half  an  ounce. 
Hydrochloric  acid — ten  drops. 

Methylated  spirit — four  ounces. 

Ring  Bones  and  Side  Bones  are  bony 
growths  on  the  long  or  short  pastern,  generally 
noticed  by  the  horse  going  lame  only  when  first 
taken  out  of  the  stable.  Light  cases  will  yield 
to  blistering,  but  more  severe  cases  require  fir- 
ing. (See  Remedies  below.) 

Sand  Crack  is  a separation  (generally  me- 
chanical), of  the  horny  fibres  of  the  foot. 
Drive  a fine  nail  through  the  crust  of  the  hoof, 
allowing  it  to  project  on  either  side,  and  bind 
up  with  wire.  Allow  perfect  rest. 

“Scratches”  or  “Chapped  Heels”  gener- 
ally arise  from  allowing  the  feet  to  remain  wet 
over  night.  The  skin  over  the  heel  cracks  and 
causes  great  pain.  The  best  cure  is  prevention. 
Do  not  wash  horses  legs ; or  if  you  do,  wipe 
them  dry.  If  noticed  early,  apply  glycerine  with 
a soft  brush  twice  a day.  Worse  cases  should  be 
first  treated  with  mild  astringents.  Scratches, 
if  neglected,  are  apt  to  turn  into  that  trouble- 
some disorder  termed  by  horsemen  “grease.” 
A filthy  discharge  sets  in  from  the  heel.  If 
this  is  neglected,  a red  fungoid  growth  sets  in, 
emitting  an  unmistakable  odor.  Grease  must 
be  treated  as  scratches,  viz. : With  glycerine 
and  a weak  solution  of  chloride  of  zinc ; 30 
grains  to  a pint  of  water,  painted  on.  When 
the  fungoid  growths  appear  they  must  be  cut 
off  and  carbolic  acid  applied.  Build  up  the  sys- 
tem and  keep  your  stables  in  better  order. 

Shoulder  Slip  is  the  strain  of  the  muscles 
of  the  shoulder— commonest  in  young  draught 
horses — from  sudden  jerks  at  the  plough.  The 
animal  very  lame,  will  drag  his  foot  round, 
throwing  out  the  toe  with  much  effort.  Give 
a month’s  rest.  Rub  the  shoulder  with  stimu- 
lating liniment,  and  give  a mild  laxative. 

Spavin  is  a bony  growth  on  the  inner  sur- 
face of  the  hock  joint,  giving  a stiff  motion  of 
the  hind  leg,  and  making  the  animal  tread  on 
its  toe  in  trotting.  Fire  and  blister  early . (See 
Remedies  below.)  If  neglected,  a spavin, 
though  not  materially  injuring  the  animal’s 
usefulness,  will  destroy  his  gait. 

Splints. — Long  growths  on  the  small  cannon 
bones.  Often  they  do  not  interfere  with  the 
movement  of  the  animal  and  had  better  be  dis- 
regarded. Veterinarians  differ  as  to  the  cause 


270 


HORSE 


of  these  growths,  but  they  probably  arise  from  I 
some  injury  to  the  covering  of  the  bones  them- 
selves. They  are  often  very  persistent,  and 
yield  only  to  the  hot  iron.  Blister  No.  I, 
given  below,  is  sometimes  useful. 

Sprain  of  the  Back  Tendon,  just  above  the 
hoof,  is  a common  form  of  lameness,  attended 
with  much  heat  and  swelling.  Cut  the  hair  as 
closely  as  possible,  then  should  there  be  any  dan- 
ger of  a blister  touching  the  hoof,  anoint  the 
hoof  with  lard.  Then  rub  in  blister  No.  2,  given 
below,  with  the  hand  thoroughly,  leaving  plenty 
on  the  surface.  Tie  the  animal’s  head  well  up, 
or  better  still,  put  on  a cradle.  Do  not  bed  with 
straw,  as  it  will  cause  useless  irritation  to  the 
animal,  but  put  down  sawdust,  as  the  pain  is 
apt  to  cause  the  animal  to  stamp  his  feet.  Af- 
ter a week  rub  a little  neatsfoot  oil  over  the 
place  with  a feather,  to  soften  it. 

The  animal  refuses  to  walk,  trembles,  and  is 
apt  soon  to  fall. 

Staggers. — Stomach  Staggers  are  caused  by 
over  distention  of  the  stomach  with  food,  and 
must  be  distinguished  from  Simple  Staggers 
which  arise  from  pressure  of  blood  on  the 
brain,  caused  by  too  tight  a check  rein  or 
throat  lash.  May  take  three  forms  : — I.  Sleepy 
Staggers:  Give  purgative  No.  1 below. — II.  De- 
lirious or  Blind  Staggers  : Bleed  till  the  animal 
drops;  then  give  a mild  purgative.  III.  Para- 
lytic Staggers  is  rarer,  blister  well  (with  blister 
No.  2,  below)  along  the  spine,  and  then  purge. 

Thrush  and  Canker  are  the  ulceration  of 
the  frog  and  the  sole.  They  are  often  found 
separately.  They  arise  from  too  much  mois- 
ture affecting  the  horn,  which  decomposes  with 
a very  offensive  odor.  Remove  the  cause — 
generally  improper  stuffing — treat  with  a so- 
lution of  five  grains  of  zinc  chloride  to  an 
ounce  of  water,  and  stuff  the  feet  at  night  with 
tow  moistened  with  a weak  solution  of  carbolic 
acid,  a tablespoonful  to  a quart  of  water. 

Worms.  I.—  Bots  are  the  larvae  of  a species 
of  gadfly,  which  find  their  way  into  the  stom- 
ach of  the  horse  while  turned  out  to  grass. 
They  are  from  half  an  inch  to  three-quar- 
ters in  length,  of  a dark  red  color,  some- 
what pointed  at  either  end.  They  attach 
themselves  to  the  wall  of  the  stomach,  and 
when  the  time  comes  will  all  pass  away  in  the 
faeces.  It  has  been  positively  ascertained  that 
they  do  no  harm  whatever  to  the  horse,  nor  is 
there  any  remedy  known  to  veterinarians  which 
will  remove  them  without  injury  to  the  animal. 

Worms.  II. — Thread  Worm.  A much 
smaller  species  of  worm  is  found  in  the  rec- 
tum. This  pest,  though  not  interfering  with 
the  condition  of  the  animal  as  much  as  the 
former,  causes  much  more  uneasiness.  The 
animal  becomes  very  restive,  stamping  his  hind 
legs,  often  throwing  his  heels  above  his  head 
from  the  severe  itching  caused  by  the  thread 
worm  depositing  its  eggs,  which  it  invariably 
does,  on  the  delicate  skin,  immediately  outside 
the  rectum.  If  the  anus  of  a horse  afflicted 
with  thread  worms,  be  kept  constantly  well 
greased,  these  eggs  will  drop  off  when  laid, 


and  the  supply  of  young  worms  thus  being  cut 
off,  the  disorder  will  cease.  But  it  is  most  im- 
portant to  keep  grease  always  applied  to  the 
anus,  as  otherwise  the  worms,  which  hatch  out 
in  a few  hours,  will  find  their  way  back  into 
the  rectum.  In  addition  to  this,  a strong  in- 
jection, made  from  boiling  tobacco  in  water, 
alternated  with  linseed  oil  will  prove  efficacious 
in  allaying  the  irritation. 

Worms.  III. — White  Worms  are  found 

in  the  small  intestines.  They  are  of  a pale 
pink  color,  about  six  inches  in  length,  shaped 
not  unlike  the  earth  worm.  Symptoms,  a hide- 
bound, stiff  coat,  large  appetite  and  poor  condi- 
tion. Considerable  mucus  is  voided,  and  gen- 
erally dries  round  the  anus.  Several  worms  pass 
with  the  faeces.  Give  a drachm  of  tartar  emetic 
in  a bran  mash  every  night  for  a week  and  then 
administer  a good  purgative  ball,  to  be  followed 
by  a pint  of  linseed  oil.  After  which  give  a 
drachm  of  sulphate  of  iron  mixed  with  the  oats 
once  a day  for  three  days.  Ordinary  vermi- 
fuges as  sold  by  veterinarians  contain  calomel 
and  other  preparations  of  mercury,  and  are  apt 
seriously  to  injure  the  horse. 

GENERAL  REMEDIES. 

We  repeat  the  caution  that  the  inexperienced 
should  never  give  strong  medicines,  or  weak 
ones,  except  in  the  most  obvious  cases. 

Aconite . — Ordinary  dose  5 to  15  drops  in  a quart  of  water. 

Ball. — A simple  condition  ball,  or  gentle  tonic,  powdered 
caraway  seeds,  6 drachms  ; ginger,  2 drachms  ; with  20  drops 
of  oil  of  cloves — with  meal. 

Bleeding. — In  the  roof  of  the  mouth  in  the  second  wrinkle 
behind  the  front  tooth  ; or,  if  much  blood  is  to  be  drawn,  in 
the  third  wrinkle.  In  bleeding  elsewhere  professional  advice 
is  necessary. 

Blister.  No.  1. — A strong  sweating  blister  for  splints, 
spavins,  ring  bones,  etc. 

Biniodide  of  Mercury,  1 drachm  ; Lard,  1 ounce. 

After  applying,  wash  with  arnica  water  for  several  days. 

No.  2.  — Powdered  cantharides,  1 part ; Lard,  6 parts. 

Calomel , ordinary  dose,  1 drachm. 

Carbolic  acid , ordinary  dose,  1 teaspoonful  in  ^ pint  water. 

Castor  oil,  ordinary  dose,  3 ounces  to  a pint. 

Chalk  mixture. — Take  of  prepared  chalk  1 troy  ounce  ; gly- 
cerine, 1 fluid  ounce;  gum  arabic,  fine  powder,  240  grams; 
cinnamon  water,  water,  each  8 fluid  ounces.  Rub  them 
together  till  they  are  thoroughly  mixed.  Dose,  1 pint. 

Drench. — A good  cooling  drench  when  horses  arc  in  too 
good  condition,  is ; 

Nitre 1 ounce 

Sweet  spirits  of  nitre  ....  2 ounces 

Tincture  of  digitalis  ....  2 drachms 

Whey 1 pint. 

Firing. — The  application  of  a hot  iron  to  promote  the  ab- 
sorption of  a morbid  growth.  No  one  should  use  it  before  act- 
ually witnessing  the  operation. 

Laudanum , ordinary  dose,  1 to  3 grains.  Large  doses  of 
laudanum  or  opium  should  not  be  repeated  more  than  once  in 
four  hours  without  experienced  advice. 

Nitre,  ordinary  dose,  x/2  oz. 

Opium,  " “ oz.  to  \y2  oz. 

Purgatives. — No.  1 Mild.  Barbadoes  aloes,  eight  drachms; 
nux  vomica,  one  drachm  ; carbonate  of  soda,  one  drachm  ; and 
ginger,  3 drachms ; make  it  into  a ball  with  honey  or  soap. 

No.  2 Strong.  Barbadoes  aloes,  three  drachms  ; powdered 
rhubarb,  two  drachms ; ginger,  one  drachm  ; and  caraway 
oil,  15  drops ; made  into  a ball. 

To  give  liquid  medicine. — Use  a clean  horn  with  one  end 
open.  To  do  this  properly  one  person  should  raise  the  horse’s 
head  as  high  as  possible,  and  another  seize  the  tongue  with  his 
left  hand,  and  draw  it  as  far  as  he  can  out  of  the  right  side  of 
the  mouth  ; then  insert  the  small  end  of  the  horn  to  the  roots 
of  the  tongue,  pour  in  the  medicine  slowly,  releasing  the  tongue 
at  intervals,  to  let  him  swallow.  Some  horses  will  swallow  a 
large  quantity  at  once  ; others  seem  unable  to  manage  more 
than  a tablcspoonful  at  a time. 


HORSE  RADISH 


HOUSE 


271 


HORSE  RADISH. — This  plant  grows  wild 
in  wet  ground,  but  the  kinds  used  as  a condi- 
ment are  cultivated  in  gardens.  Plant  same  as 
common  radish  in  a damp  shady  spot.  The 
tops  when  young  are  sometimes  used  as  greens, 
but  generally  only  the  large  white  sorts  are 
used.  These  are  ground,  or  cut  into  very  small 
pieces,  and  used  as  a sauce  for  roast  beef  and 
other  meats.  When  finely  ground  the  flavor  is 
agreeable  and  very  pungent,  but  this  is  soon 
lost  on  exposure  to  the  air,  and  hence  it  should 
never  be  prepared  until  just  before  using. 
Horse  radish  is  always  in  season,  but  it  may 
be  preserved  by  keeping  moist  and  cold  through 
burying  in  wet  sand.  ( See  Sauces.) 

HOSIERY. — All  hosiery  is  to  be  judged  by 
the  fineness  of  the  thread  and  the  closeness  of 
the  texture,  which,  in  the  case  of  stockings  es- 
pecially, may  be  partly  appreciated  by  weighing, 
as  it  were,  the  articles  in  the  hand.  In  ribbed 
hosiery,  a deception  is  sometimes  practised 
against  which  it  is  necessary  to  guard.  The 
spaces  between  the  ribs,  which  ought  to  be 
formed  by  an  inversion  of  the  stitch,  contain  no 
stitch  at  all,  but  an  open  range  of  threads,  per- 
vious to  the  weather  and  utterly  destitute  of 
durability.  As  the  ribs  of  hosiery  exposed  for 
sale  are  necessarily  almost  in  contact,  the  fault 
cannot  be  detected  without  introducing  the 
hand  and  opening  the  tissue,  when  it  will  in- 
stantly be  apparent — exactly  resembling  the 
flaw  caused  by  a dropped  stitch  in  a stocking 
in  wear.  In  cheap  cotton  stockings  the  feet 
are  often  cut  out  and  sewed  together  ; but  the 
seams  invariably  hurt  the  foot.  Concerning 
the  different  materials  of  which  hosiery  is  com- 
posed, the  same  principles  apply  as  are  laid 
down  in  the  article  on  Clothing. 

HOT-BED. — A hot-bed  which  will  serve  for 
either  flower  or  garden  seeds  may  be  made  as 
follows  : — Make  a frame,  say,  six  feet  long,  five 
feet  wide,  and  two  feet  high  at  the  back,  and 
fifteen  inches  at  the  front ; the  sides  must  slope 
from  the  back  to  the  front.  Let  these  be  cleated 
so  as  to  prevent  warping,  and  fasten  them  to- 
gether at  the  corners  with  hasps.  The  whole 
structure,  inside  and  out,  including  the  sash- 
bars,  should  have  two  good  coats  of  coarse 
paint,  which  will  be  most  serviceable  in  pro- 
tecting it  from  the  weather.  Make  or  purchase 
two  sashes,  each  three  feet  by  five, with  the  panes 
of  glass  lapping  like  shingles,  instead  of  being 
fastened  with  putty  to  cross-bars.  Then  dig  a 
pit  of  the  same  size  as  the  frame,  and  thirty 
inches  deep  ; set  the  frame  over  it  and  fill  the 
pit  with  fresh  horse-dung  which  has  not  lain 
long,  nor  been  sodden  by  water ; beat  it  well 
down  with  the  fork,  but  do  not  tread  it  down. 
Put  in  the  sashes  and  let  it  stand  three  or  four 
days;  after  which,  put  light  and  very  rich  soil 
into  the  frame  six  or  eight  inches  deep.  Cover 
this  again  with  the  sashes  and  let  it  stand  two 
or  three  days,  until  the  heat  begins- to  subside, 
when  it  will  be  ready  for  use.  Stir  the  surface 
of  soil  and  sow  the  seeds  in  shallow  drills.  In 
a hot-bed  designed  exclusively  for  flowers,  the 
soil  may  be  composed  of  alternate  layers  of 


manure  and  tan-bark,  or  decayed  chips  or 
leaves,  with  the  latter  on  top.  Put  no  soil  over 
this  at  all,  but  plant  the  seeds  in  pots  in  mellow 
earth,  and  sink  the  pots  to  the  rim  in  the  tan. 
The  bottom  heat  will  soon  start  the  seeds  into 
growth. 

The  care  of  the  hot-bed  involves  constant 
watchfulness.  The  frames  must  be  kept  cov- 
ered with  the  glass  sashes  whenever  it  is  cold 
enough  to  chill  the  plants  ; at  all  other  times, 
fresh  air,  which  is  indispensable  to  their  health, 
must  be  freely  but  very  cautiously  admitted. 
When  the  sun  is  quite  warm,  raise  the  sashes 
enough  to  admit  air,  and  cover  them  with  mat- 
ting or  blankets,  else  the  sun  may  kill  the  ten- 
der young  plants.  If  there  be  too  much  bottom 
heat  in  the  bed,  so  as  to  scorch  or  wither  the 
plants,  lift  the  sashes,  water  freely,  shade  by 
day,  and  make  deep  holes  in  the  beds  with 
stakes  for  the  easier  escape  of  the  heat,  filling 
them  up  again  when  the  heat  is  reduced.  Water 
the  bed  at  evening  with  water  which  has  stood 
in  the  warm  sun  all  day,  or,  if  it  be  freshly  drawn, 
or  the  weather  cold,  add  a little  warm  water. 
On  very  cold  nights,  cover  the  sashes  and 
frames  with  straw  mats.  After  the  Spring’s 
work  is  done,  take  up  the  frames  and  store 
them  away  in  a dry  place  for  another  season. 

HOUR-GLASS. — One  which  will  serve  all 
practical  purposes  may  be  made  thus : Fit  a 
cork  into  the  necks  of  two  oil  flasks,  and  make 
a hole  through  it  with  a round  file.  In  the 
middle  of  this  hole  fasten  a bead,  or  piece  of 
tobacco  pipe  a quarter  of  an  inch  long.  Dry 
some  sand  over  the  fire,  and  sift  it  finely ; fill 
one  of  the  flasks  with  it,  fit  in  the  cork,  and 
invert  it  over  a pan;  let  it  run  for  an  hour; 
collect  the  sand  that  has  passed,  and  pour  the 
rest  away ; return  the  sand  to  the  flask,  and  fit 
in  the  other.  Place  the  whole  in  a wooden 
frame.  Egg-glasses,  to  run  three  minutes,  may 
be  made  with^small  phials.  The  flasks  should 
be  cleaned  and  dried,  and  the  cork  sealed  in. 

HOT-WATER  BAG. — A very  great  conve- 
nience in  the  sick  room.  A rubber  bag,  with 
a funnel  closing  by  a metal  screw.  While 
more  yielding  than  the  bottles  or  soap-stones, 
ordinarily  used  to  apply  heat  to  the  body,  it  re- 
tains heat  as  long  and  can  be  applied  anywhere. 
Rubber  and  drug  stores  usually  have  them. 

HOUSE — § I.  The  planning  of  a dwelling 
is  not  apt  to  be  accomplished  in  a way 
that  will  give  satisfaction  without  much 
previous  deliberation.  The  particulars  of 
style  and  arrangement  are  so  numerous  that 
much  may  be  gained  by  considering  a state- 
ment of  the  most  important  of  them.  This 
may  do  something  toward  preventing,  when 
the  thing  is  done,  a frequent  recurrence,  in 
regard  to  some  later  suggestion, of  “If  I had 
only  thought  of  that.”  Of  course  where  a 
somewhat  elaborate  house  is  in  contemplation, 
special  books  will  be  consulted  and  interviews 
held  with  a skilled  architect ; we  hope,  how- 
ever, that,  even  in  such  cases,  the  following 
article  will  not  prove  valueless  as  an  introduc- 
tion to  the  subject,  and  that  regarding  the 


272 


HOUSE 


average  run  of  comfortable  homes,  it  may 
enable  the  reader  to  clearly  and  fully  decide 
what  he  wants,  so  as  to  start  the  builder  readily 
and  intelligently. 

§2.  At  the  outset,  it  is  best  to  arrange  to 
spend  no  more  than  three  quarters  of  what  you 
can  spare  for  the  purpose,  as  during  the  pro- 
gress of  the  work,  new  features  enough  to  use 
up  the  remainder  will  be  sure  to  suggest  them- 
selves. 

SITUATION  AND  SURROUNDINGS. 

§3.  In  cities  the  ground  should  be  high,  if  it 
can  be  had  ; but  if  it  be  too  high,  the  water 
may  not  rise  to  the  upper  stories.  Nearness 
to  old  water  courses  is  to  be  carefully  avoided, 
as  they,  when  covered  over  or  choked  up,  are 
sources  of  bad  odors  and  disease.  One  of  the 
finest  houses  on  Fifth  Avenue  is  reported  to 
be  almost  untenable  on  this  account. 

§4.  In  the  country  many  things  go  to  the 
making  of  a thoroughly  suitable  site,  but  the 
FIRST  CONSIDERATION  SHOULD  BE  FOR  THE 
drainage,  and  for  this  reason  both  the  soil 
and  the  subsoil  should  be  carefully  examined. 
If  the  subsoil  be  hard  and  impervious  to  water, 
no  matter  how  gravelly  and  porous  the  soil 
itself  may  be,  the  situation  will  be  damp,  ma- 
larious and  unhealthy.  This  is  not  of  so  much 
consequence  in  the  very  few  cities  where  a 
thorough  system  of  drainage  has  been  esta- 
blished ; but  in  the  country,  or  in  towns  where 
each  house  is  supposed  to  provide  for  its  own 
drainage,  a soil  that  holds  water  and  that  is 
not  dry  for  at  least  ten  feet  below  the  founda- 
tions cf  the  house  or  that  has  not  sufficient 
slope  to  allow  the  rain-fall  to  run  off  rapidly, 
is  utterly  unfit  for  the  site  of  a dwelling-house. 
Next  in  importance  is  a supply  of  water  for 
domestic  use.  In  the  country,  especially, 
this  is  a vital  consideration ; and  it  is  better 
to  incur  the  expense  of  bringing  water  from 
a distance  either  by  gravitation  or  forcing 
power,  such  as  the  hydraulic  ram,  or  a pipe 
from  a distant  spring,  than  to  sacrifice  health 
to  the  economical  convenience  of  a well  at 
the  back-door,  unless  precautions  are  taken 
to  prevent  ingress  of  surface  water  and  drain- 
age. Health  and  convenience  depend  so  much 
on  the  water  being  abundant  that  especial 
care  should  be  bestowed  on  this  point.  Anv 
system  of  house  drainage  largely  depends  for 
its  effectiveness,  on  the  supply  of  water  and 
without  efficient  drainage  the  best  situated  of 
houses  will  become  unhealthy.  A quickly 
running  stream,  so  long  as  it  is  not  subject  to 
extensive  floods,  is  an  advantage,  and  may  be 
the  means  of  carrying  off  the  unhealthy  ac- 
cumulations of  a country  residence ; but 
dammed  up  waters  of  all  kinds,  unless  there 
is  a good  stream  through  them,  and  especially 
stagnant  ponds,  however  ornamental,  should 
be  carefully  avoided  near  a house.  If  there  is 
enough  water  to  maintain  a minimum  depth  of 
six  feet  over  at  least  two  acres,  it  will  not 
stagnate.  , Flooded  meadows  also  are  by  no 
means  desirable,  and  especially  such  as  re- 


main wet  for  a long  time  after  being  sub- 
merged. No  spot  is  so  well  suited  for  a house 
as  a slight  rise  or  knoll,  which  looks  down  on 
all  the  surrounding  land;  and  from  which  the 
surface  waters  run  off  easily  and  quickly. 

§5.  Exposure  has  much  influence  on  gen- 
eral comfort.  In  this  particular,  two  things 
are  to  be  considered,  the  prevailing  objection- 
able wind,  and  the  sun.  In  cities,  other  things 
even,  streets  running  North  and  South  are  to 
be  preferred,  as  then  all  the  rooms  have  the 
sun  during  either  morning  or  afternoon  ; but 
generally  on  the  North  Atlantic  coast,  the 
windows  of  houses  so  situated  do  not  get  the 
sea-breezes  of  summer,  and  in  New  York  they 
do  get  the  cold  North-westers  of  winter.  Where 
the  street  runs  East  and  West,  the  North  side 
should  be  chosen  when  the  front  rooms  are  to 
be  occupied  rfiost  constantly,  and  the  South 
side  when  the  back  rooms  are  preferred  or 
when  it  is  desired  to  have  sunny  back  yards. 
The  morning  sitting-rooms  and  especially  the 
NURSERY  SHOULD  FACE  THE  MORNING  SUN. 

§6.  In  this  climate,  the  particular  wind 
which  most  of  us  wish  to  avoid  is  that  from 
the  East  or  North,  sometimes  the  one  and 
sometimes  the  other  being  the  worse  according 
to  surroundings.  There  should  face  the  objec- 
tionable quarter,  one  of  the  sides  in  which 
there  need  be  but  few  openings.  The  kitchen 

ANDLARDERS  HAD  BEST  FACE  THE  COLD  WIND, 

as  the  kitchen  is  always  heated  and  it  is  best 
to  keep  the  larders  as  cool  as  possible.  As  the 
house  should  have  plenty  of  sun,  especially 
in  the  morning,  a northern  exposure  for  the 
rooms  most  used  is  not  desirable.  At  the 
same  time  it  is  thought  by  some  that  a south- 
western aspect  should  be  avoided,  because  with 
that  exposure  the  sun  is  very  powerful.  This 
depends,  of  course,  upon  what  rooms  are  to  be 
most  used  and  at  what  seasons.  Most  of  the 
average  American’s  waking  hours  at  home  are 
spent  in  his  dining  room,  and  this  should  be 
the  favored  room  if  his  wife  cares  to  make  the 
best  of  home  for  him.  A summer-house  on  the 
coast  should,  of  course,  have  its  openings  well 
exposed  to  the  sea-breeze.  The  south  side 
of  a gentle  eminence,  with  the  house  fronting 
to  the  south-east,  is  generally  the  best  situa- 
tion, in  most  places  where  this  book  is  apt  to 
be  read. 

§7.  Trees. — There  is,  perhaps,  nothing 
which  conduces  more  to  the  comfort  of  a 
house  than  the  shade  and  protection  of  trees  ; 
and  yet  very  often  the  first  thing  done  after 
the  site  of  a house  is  selected  is  to  cut  down 
all  the  trees  for  convenience  in  building.  It 
is  considered  so  easy  to  plant  out  young  trees  ; 
but  it  takes  a long  lime  for  trees  to  grow,  and 
it  is  quite  worth  while  to  go  a little  out  of  the 
way  to  find  a spot  where  there  are  oaks,  ma- 
ples, etc.,  for  shade,  and  cedars  and  other 
evergreens  for  protection  against  the  blasts  of 
winter.  If  they  cannot  be  found  already 
growing,  they  should  be  planted  at  once.  At 
the  same  time  it  is  not  desirable  to  have  trees 
very  near  the  house  itself.  If  too  tall  or  too 
close  together,  they  obstruct  the  light,  prevent 


HOUSE 


273 


the  free  circulation  of  air,  and  render  the 
ground  damp ; moreover,  the  decaying  of  the 
leaves  in  autumn,  and  the  imperfect  vegetation 
under  the  branches,  sometimes  give  rise  to  un- 
wholesome exhalations. 

INTERIOR  ARRANGEMENT. 

§ 8.  Most  of  what  we  have  to  say  will  refer 
to  the  lower  floor,  because  as  most  of  the 
working  hours  are  spent  on  that  floor,  the 
ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  OTHER  FLOORS 
SHOULD  BE  SUBORDINATED  TO  MAKING  THE 
LOWER  FLOOR  AS  CONVENIENT  AS  POSSIBLE, 
and  when  it  is  determined  upon,  the  other 
floors  will  necessarily  adapt  themselves  to 
it.  Do  not  adopt  "any  feature  solely  be- 
cause you  have  admired  it  in  another  person’s 
establishment.  It  may  be  very  consistent 
with  his  needs  and  very  inconsistent  with 
yours.  A person’s  house  should  be  as  much 
a growth  from  his  individuality  as  a snail’s 
shell,  and  people  are  not  as  nearly  alike  as 
snails.  Ask  yourself  what  rooms  and  features 
in  rooms  you  and  your  family  use  most,  and 
arrange  with  reference  to  that. 

.§9.  To  begin  at  the  beginning;  here  are 
two  ways  of  treating  a house  containing  but  a 
single  room. 


In  Fig.  1,  “the  door  opens  immediately  op- 
posite the  fire-place ; a cold  draught  is  likely, 
therefore,  to  be  constantly  traversing  the  whole 
length  of  the  floor*  and  as  the  chimney  is 
placed  in  the  outer  wall,  a great  deal  of  heat 
will  be  lost.  Moreover,  the  bed  C and  the 
sink  S,  are  entirely  exposed  to  view,  and  thus 
privacy  and  cleanliness  are  scarcely  possible. 
Now  a man  may,  with  comfort  and  decency, 
make  his  kitchen  his  living  room  but  he  will 


, find  it  disagreeable  if  he  has  in  addition  to  use 
it  as  a bedroom  and  a sink  room.” 

§ 10.  Now  consider  Figure  2.  Here  the 
door  and  chimney  are  so  placed  as  to  oc- 
casion the  minimum  of  draught,  and  the  chim- 
ney being  placed  in  the  body  of  the  house,  as 
much  heat  as  possible  is  saved.  A few  feet 
of  board  partition  at  the  back  of  the  chimney 
makes  a recess  for  the  bed  and  also  an  en- 
trance lobby  with  room  for  the  sink,  both  of 
which  may  be  curtained  off  as  shown  by  the 
dotted  lines.  The  two  closets  are  placed  at 
the  other  end  of  the  room,  so  that  a window 
seat,  which  may  also  serve  as  a locker  for  coal 
or  anything  else,  may  be  placed  between 
them."  This  plan  would  probably'  cost  $10 
more  than  the  other,  the  interest  on  which 
would  be  about  one-third  of  a cent  a day, 
paid  for  the  difference  in  comfort  and  decency. 
This  illustrates  the  difference  between  an  ill- 
considered — or  rather  a not-considered — and  a 
well-considered  way  of  doing  the  simplest 
thing,  and  it  illustrates  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples of  domestic  architecture. 

§11.  Of  course  a house  is  primarily  to  beslept 
in  ; but  as  this  can  be  done  in  any  room,  the  first 
distinct  necessity  is  a place  to  cook  in,  and  the 
second  step  is  to  separate  the  place  where  are 
performed  the  ungraceful  operationsincident  to 
care  of  food  and  the  person — the  sink  room. 
Next  naturally  comes  a separate  place  to 
sleep,  next  a “ living-room,”  a place  to  live 
as  human  beings,  distinct  from  the  opera- 
tions we  perform  in  common  with  the  beasts. 
To  this  room  will  naturally  be  transferred  the 
dining  table  as  man  tries  to  elevate  the  taking 
of  food  from  a purely 
animal  process  into  a 
social  and  intellectual 
enjoyment,  and  the 
higher  man  rises,  the 
more  he  tries  to  ele- 
vate this  function.  We 
now  get  to  something 
like  this — a plan  for  a 
pioneer’s  log-house  of 
one  story. 


274 


HOUSE 


In  this  plan,  there  is  a choice  between 
having  a draft  across  the  foot  of  the  bed 
in  the  farther  bed-room,  or  breaking  up  the 
symmetry  of  the  living-room  by  moving  the 
door  of  that  bed-room  further  forward. 

ji  12.  If  the  person  building  in  the  countiy  is 
able  to  spread  himself  into  all  sorts  of  conve- 
niences for  stowing  fuel  and  food,  and  for 
preparing  the  latter  and 
taking  care  of  his  clothes 
and  person,  he  is  apt,  for 
his  principal  floor,  to  come 
to  something  like  this. 

On  a hill  - side  in  the 
country  or  in  a densely 
packed  city,  the  back  part 
of  this  plan  will  go  into 
his  basement,  his  bed- 
rooms will  all  be  up  stairs, 
and  his  principal  floor  is 
apt  to  be  something  like 
Fig.  7. 

It  is  always  cheaper  to 
use  only  the  foundation 
and  roof  necessary  for  one 
half  or  one-third  of  the 
floor-room,  by  building  his 
house  in  two  or  three  sto- 


PRINCIPAL  FLOOR  PLAN. 

Fig.  5. 


floor,  only  with  a number  of  closets  between 
the  lanre  rooms,  one  of  which  has  a sink.  The 


BED  ROOM 

150  X 15  O 


BED  ROOM 
j5-0  X 15-0 


F 


the  small  back  one 
tubs  for  a laundry. 


f 


2 


I 


Fi3-  b.  (Perspective  for  Fig.  5.) 

$13.  Before  going  further  let  us  emphasize 
the  fact  that  THE  WIDTH  OF  A ROOM  FROmI 
WASHBOARD  TO  WASHBOARD  SHOULD  ALWAYS, 
BE  THE  WIDTH  OF  A DEFINITE  NUMBER  OF 
BREADTHS  OF  CARPET.  (See  CARPET.)  This 
saves  waste  in  cutting.  If  a number  of  rooms 
are  ot  exactly  the  same  size,  the  carpet,  as  it 
wears,  can  be  moved  from  the  more  important 
room  to  the  less  important. 

$ 14.  The  principal  floor  plans  Figs.  5 and  7 
have  a grave  but  frequent  fault,  in  not  leaving 
two  rooms,  at  least,  connecting  by  a very  wide 
door.  But  with  this  exception,  the  latter  is 
the  plan,  of  all  yet  discovered,  which  suits 
everybody  from  poor  to  rich,  and  from  city  to 
country.  The  small  farmer  perhaps  builds  a 
one-story  wooden  house  18  x 25,  does  without 
any  basement,  uses  the  front  room  in  Fig.  7 for 
kitchen  and  living  room,  the  large  back-room 
for  a bed-room,  and  stows  away  a child  or  two 
or  a lot  of  miscellaneous  traps  in  the  small  back 
room.  The  man  on  Fifth  Avenue  builds  25  x 65, 
and  has  a basement  arranged  just  like  the  first 


Fig.  9. 


PLAN  OF  CHAMBERS. 

Fig.  8. 


front  basement  room  he  uses  for  a billiard 
room,  the  large  back  one  for  a kitchen,  and. 

is  fitted  with  stationary 
The  principal  floor  he 
modifies  like  Fig  9.  by  put- 
ting sliding  doors  bet- 
ween the  large  rooms,  in 
place  of  the  chimneys, 
and  puts  a chimney  in 
place  of  each  side  window 
given  in  Fig.  7.  This  he 
can  do  because  his  house 
is  against  his  left  hand 
neighbor’s  and  his  right 
hand  neighbor’s  house  is 
. - agains't  his,  so  they  all 

keep  each  other  warm 
and  need  not  be  as  parti- 
cular about  heat  as  the 
poor  fellow  living  in  the 
Vestibule.-o Water-Closet  one  room  in  our  Fig.  2. 
and  Lavatory.  He  also  puts  a double 

door  from  his  front  parlor  into  his  hall.  The 
small  room  on  his  principal  floor,  the  million- 
aire has  provided  with  a door  opening  into  the 
dining-room,  and  fitted  up  for  his  waiter,  with 
china  closets,  a sink,  and  a lift  communicating 
with  the  basement.  The  front  room  he  uses 
as  a parlor.  If  his  father  was  as  rich  as  he  is 
— or  rich  enough,  at  least,  and  sensible  enough 
to  refine  the  son,  the  son,  in  nine  cases  out  of 
ten,  uses  the  back  room  for  a library,  and  as  a 
dining-room  during  the  few  hours  when  meals 
would  prevent  his  using  his  books  anyhow. 
In  the  tenth  case,  the  refined  man  uses  his 
front  basement  room  for  a dining-room,  and 
vulgar  men  frequently  do,  and  have  their 
billiard-rooms  in  the  top  of  the  house  so  that 
the  players  clattering  down  stairs  late  at  night 
can  wake  up  the  children.  We  have  said  that 
the  rich  man  dining  in  his  basement  is  not 
always  vulgar,  and  we  have  not  said  that  he 


Parlor. — 2 Li- 
brary and  Dining-Room 
combined. — 3 Pantry. — 4 
Dumb-waiter. — 5 Hall. — 6 


HOUSE 


275 


Fig.  io*  i Parlor. — 2 
Library  and  Dining- 
Room. — 3 Dumb-Waiter. 
— 4 Recess  for  sideboard. 
— 5 Closet  with  sink. — 6 
Hall. — 7 Vestibule. 


always  is  if  he  has  his  billiard-room  up  stairs. 
The  "poor  man,  no  matter  how  refined,  has  to 
do  the  best  he  can.  Neither  have  we  said 
that  all  millionaires  in  New  York  live  in  just 
such  houses,  or  that  millionaires  are  the  only 
people  living  in  just  such 
houses.  On  the  contrary, 
such  houses  are  the  pre- 
vailing type  in  New  York 
and,  for  good  reasons 
which  we  shall  soon  ex- 
plain, seem  to  be  making 
their  way  in  other  cities. 
On  narrower  lots  the 
back  room  extends  across 
the  house,  and  at  the  end 
toward  the  hall  has  two 
closets  (one  containing 
the  dumb-waiter  from 
the  basement)  with  an 
arched  recess  between 
them  in  which  the  buffet 
stands.  (Fig.  io.) 

§15.  The  second  story 
is  generally  like  this, 
though  the  principal  bed- 
room is  also  some  times 
carried  across  the  whole 
house,  the  stairs  of 
course  being  carried 
farther  back  than  in  the 
plan.  A small-room  on 
the  second  floor  is,  nat- 
urally, used  as  a bath 
room.  Space  is  frequently 
found  for  a closet  at  each 
& 8,  Bed-  encl  of  the  stairway  be- 
tween it  and  the  so  called 
Bath-room.— 6 Hall.  ’ “ hall-rooms.”  Such  a 

closet  is , generally  fitted  as  a water-closet, 
instead  of  having  the  apparatus  in  the  bath- 
room. Likewise  on  the  first  floor,  room  is 
often  found  for  a watercloset  with  wash-basin 
between  the  stairs  and  butler’s  pantry.  The 
third  floor  is  like  the  second,  and  the  fourth 
divided  into  more  small  rooms.  Between 
the  bedrooms,  the  closets  are  generally  larger 
than  represented  in  Fig.  8,  more  as  in  Fig. 
ii. 

The  only  direct  communication  between  the 
rooms  is  through  the  closets.  Each  room 
having  two,  one  is  provided  with  marble  wash- 
basins and  not  unfrequently  with  bath-tub  for 
feet,  or  even  made  into  a regular  bath-room, 
and  ventilated  through  a well  communicating 


rooms — 2 Wash-closets. — 
4 Hanging-Closets.  — 5 


with  the  roof. 

§16.  Residents  of  New  York  will  proba- 
bly feel  amused  at  finding  so  minute  a descrip- 
tion of  this  . simple*  and  commonplace  plan. 
Persons  not  familiar  with  New  York  may  ex- 
perience something  of  the  same  feeling,  and 
are  more  apt  to  have  it  mingled  with  surprise 
that  people  of  wealth  anywhere  get  along  with 
two  rooms  on  their  principal  floor,  and  dine  in 
one  also  used  for  other  purposes.  Such 
however  is  the  fact,  although  extension  rooms 
are  coming  more  into  vogue,  and  the  front 


room  has  frequently  been  divided  by  pillars  or 
an  arch,  or  even  two  rooms  made  of  it.  Un- 
less the  house  is  on  a corner,  however,  the 
middle  room  (unless  arranged  as  below)  is  dark, 
and  of  questionable  desirability.  We  have 
enlarged  on  this  plan,  because,  for  several 
reasons,  after  considerable  experience  in  other 
cities,  we  believe  it,  as  used  in  New  York,  to 
be  not  only  the  best  plan,  on  the  whole,  for  an 
average  city  house,  but  to  contain  many  essen- 
tial features  of  all  good  plans. 

§17.  Its  simplicity  is  in  its  favor.  The 
plans  in  vogue  in  several  other  cities,  accom- 
plish no  more,  and  make  much  more  fuss  and 
expense  about  it.  It  provides  what  every 
WELL  PLANNED  HOUSE  MUST  HAVE,  and  what 
most  houses  do  not  have,  although  they  might 
as  well  as  not,  viz. : two  large  rooms  that 
CAN  BE  VIRTUALLY  MADE  ONE  AND  WIDE 
DOORS  WHEREVER  THEY  CAN  BE  USED.  The 
reasons  for  having  such  rooms  are,  I.  to 
secure  a reasonable  feeling  of  breadth  and 
openness  in  the  house.  It  cramps  character 
to  be  shut  up  in  narrow  spaces.  II.  To  in 
crease  the  amount  ot  air  ordinarily  available 
for  breathing  and  withstanding  the  deleterious 
influences  of  gas-light,  furnace-heat,  &c.  I II. 
To  give  an  available  space  for  social  diver- 
sions, music,  recitations,  acting,  and  the  cir- 
culation of  people  at  parties.  It  is  surprising 
how  many  palatial  residences  ire  scattered 
over  the  country,  in  which  a large  party  is 
reduced  to  a knot  of  small  ones,  where  the 
guests  cannot  find  each  other  out,  where  two 
couples  cannot  get  through  a door  at  once,  and 
where  music  played  in  one  room,  cannot  be 
heard  or  danced  to  in  another.  One  reproach 
justly  cast  upon  America  by  Continental  ob- 
servers— that  we  are  so  sad  in  our  amusements, 
and  have  so  little  social  entertainment  but 
eating  and  drinking,  will  perhaps  be  quicker 
removed  if  our  homes  are  made  more  generally 
available  for  sprightly  and  intellectual  diver- 
sions. 

§18.  If  a lot  is  too  narrow 
to  admit  of  even  the  plan  of  F:g. 
10,  do  not  on  that  account  give 
up  the  advantages  of  rooms  en 
suite, and,  above  all,  do  not  dine 
in  your  cellar,  but  submit  at  once 
to  the  English  basement  plan, 
and  have  your  principal  floor  up 
stairs,  and  arranged  somewhat 
like  Fig.  12.  Have  a dumb-waiter 
come  up  two  stories  from  the 
basement  kitchen. 

§ 1 9.  Before  leaving  this  subject 
of  rooms  cn  suite , let  us  consider 
a moment  the  chimney  question 
1 Parlor.  — 2 as  illustrated  in  Figs.  2 and’  7, 
Dining  - Room  where  the  chimney  is  put  in  the 
and  Library.-— 3 ^iddle  of  the  house  to  Save 
Closet. — 4 Hall.  * . . 

--5  Dumb-waiter  llC3t  j 3.11(1  in  3 TTlUCn  CXpOSCu. 

in  closet.  This  house  in  the  country,  such  an 
infront  ofR.Sin  arrangement  is  desirable  ; but  it 
is  a pity  to  spoil  the  rooms.  Why 
not  arrange  like  Fig.  13,  though  for  our  part,  we 


Fig.  12. 


HOUSE 


27G 


i Parlor. — 2 Library  and 
Dining-room. — 3 Pantry. 
— 4 Dumb-waiter. — 5 Wa- 
ter-Closet. — 6 Hall.  — 7 
Vestibule. 


Room. — 3 Library,  (best 
put  here  for  seclusion) — 4 
Pantry. — 5 Water-Closet 
and  Lavatory. — 6 Dumb- 
waiter— 7 Hail. — 8 Vesti- 
bule. 


would  put  the  chimney 
on  the  outside,  just  as  is 
done  in  the  city  house, 
especially  as  it  is  much 
handier  for  the  up  stairs 
rooms.  It  will  be  ob- 
served that  the  arrange- 
ment in  Fig.  7 not  only 
does  such  fatal  damage 
down  stairs,  but  cuts  the 
closet  accommodation  up 
stairs  down  to  a mini- 
mum. For  the  sake  of 
thus  getting  their  chim 
neys  into  the  middle  of 
the  house,  and  making 
as  few  of  them  as  pos- 
sible, architects  are  con- 


Fig.  15. 

i Parlor. — 2 Dining- 
Room. — 3 Rear  Hall. — 4 
Well  for  light. — 5 Library. 
— 6 Pantry.  — 7 Water- 
Closet  and  Lavatory. 


stantly  sacrificing  the  important  considerations 
we  have  named  in-§  17. 

$ 20.  Two  rooms,  so  arranged,  being  pro- 
vided, add  what  else  you  please.  For  three 
rooms  in  the  midst  of  a city  block,  Fig.  14 
seems  the  best  arrangement,  though  Fig.  15  is 
used  a good  deal  for  narrow  houses.  The 
PANTRY  IN  EITHER  FIGURE  SHOULD  BE  LIGHT- 
ED FROM  THE  CEILING  BY  A WELL  1 8 inches 
wide,  extending  the  length  of  the  ceiling  and 
following  the  outer  wall  to  the  roof.  By  putting 
the  bath-rooms  of  the  successive  floors  over  this 
pantry  and  the  water-closets  over  the  one  on 
the  first  floor,  windows  from  all  can  open  into 
this  well.  Its  opening  through  the  roof  should 
be  arranged  as  in  Fig.  2 of  our  article  on  Ven- 
tilation. The  kitchen  range  should  be  un- 
der the  pantry,  and  its  Hue  in  the  wall  behind 
the  well  will  create  an  upward  current  that 
will  ventilate  all  the  bath-rooms  and  closets. 

1 21.  Back  stairs,  at  least  from  the 
Kitchen  to  the  Second  Floor,  are  very 
desirable.  In  houses  of  fair  depth  provision 
can  be  made  for  them  at  the  rear  of  the  pantry. 

§ 22.  In  the  country  the  other  rooms  can 
be  added  on  in  a variety  of  ways.  We  append 
a few  designs,  and  will  treat  some  generalities 
of  the  exterior  in  connection  with  them. 


Fig.  16. 


Fig.  17.  (Perspective  of  Fig.  16.) 


HOUSE 


277 


Fig.  18. 

We  annex  above,  the  chamber  and  attic  plans 
for  Figs.  16  & 17,  as  their  arrangement  varies 
so  materially  from  that  of  the  principal  floor. 


§ 23.  Fig.  20  is  for  a basement  Kitchen 


Fig.  21  is  the  same  thing  as  Fig.  20  with 


kitchen  added,  veranda  in  place  of  reception 
room,  and  the  whole  thing  changed  from  right 
to  left. 

§ 24.  On  a hill-side,  or  when  there  is  no 
room  for  kitchen,  &c.,  on  the  principal  floor,  the 
outbuildings  of  Figs.  20  and  21  could  be  dis- 
pensed with,  and  P'ig.  22  used.  A lift  would 
be  needed  in  the  dining  room,  and  it  should 
be  arranged  somewhat  as  in  Fig.  10. 

§ 25.  The  dimensions  of  Figs.  20,  21  and 
22.  differ  so,  that  we  append,  in  order,  chamber 
floor  plans  for  each. 


r>\  AN  OF  CHAMBERS 


Fig.  25. 

§ 26.  For  either  Fig.  20,  21  or  22,  an  exte- 
rior could  be  had  with  a little  ingenuity  from 
either  of  the  following  figures. 


278 


HOUSE 


Fig.  26.  (Perspective  for  Figs.  20  and  23.) 


Fig  27.  (Perspective  for  Figs.  21  and  24  ) 


Fig.  28.  (Perspective  for  Figs.  22  and  25.) 


HOUSE. 


279 


The  exteriors  Figs.  26,  27,  and  28  were 
for  the  three  designs  Figs.  20,  21  and  22  in  the 
order  named.  We  have  purposely  kept  them 
separate  from  the  plans,  to  illustrate  to  what 
a variety  of  exteriors  the  (virtually)  same  floor 
plan  may  be  adapted  ; and  also  to  impress  the 


Fig.  3o. 


Figs.  30  and  31  are  regarded  as  excelling 
in  effect  and  picturesqueness,  most  designs  for 
houses  of  the  size. 


contradiction  of  the  notion  sometimes  held, 
that  a square  house  cannot  be  made  into  a 
picturesque  house. 

Fig.  29  illustrates  the  same  thing.  It  will 
apply  to  all  the  designs  from  Fig.  7 to  Fig.  11 
inclusive. 


Fig.  29.  (Perspective  for  any  Fig.  from  7 to  n.) 


Fig.  31.  (Perspective  for  Fig.  30.) 


280 


HOUSE 


Fig.  33.  (Perspecti 

§ 28.  Figs.  32,  32a  and  33  show  more  elab- 
orate design,  with  suggestions  for  a large 
number  of  “conveniences  on  one  floor. 

Figs.  34,  35  and  36  show  a house  something 
of  the  same  character,  where  the  kitchen, 
laundry,  &c.,  are  to  go  in  the  basement.  (The 
hints  for  these  drawings  were  found  in  a house 
by  Mr.  J.  C.  Cady.) 

One  of  the  good  features  in  Figs.  31  and  34 
is,  that  the  billiard  table  does  not  impede  the 
free  movement  of  people  between  any  parts  of 
the  floor  outside  of  the  billiard  room. 

§ 29.  We  have  so  far,  considered  gener- 
alities of  interior  arrangement.  We  now  pro- 
ceed to  some  details. 

The  rooms  most  used  should,  of  course,  be 
put  where  the  finest  views  are  to  be  had,  and 
pantrys,  closets,  etc.,  should  not  be  placed 
where  some  other  room  might  command  an 
improved  outlook. 

§ 30.  Where  there  is  room  enough  it  is 
well  to  have  doors  and  windows  placed  sym- 
metrically; but  they  should  always  be  carefully 
located  with  reference  to  the  furniture,  by  draw- 
ing the  positions  and  dimensions  of  the  furni- 
ture on  the  plan.  Special  care  should  be  taken 


for  Figs.  31  and  32  ) 


1 Vestibule* — 2 Hall. — 3 Parlor. — 4 
Dining-Room. — 5 Staircase  hall* — 6 
Pantry. — 7 Gentlemens’  dressing- 
room* — 8 Hilliard  room. — 9 Library. 

so  to  place  windows  and  doors,  that  drafts  can 
be  had  without  going  over  beds  and  other  fur- 
niture whose  occupants  would  be  exposed. 
(See  §§  9&  it).  Moreover,  it  is  well  to  carefully 
indicate  on  the  plan  (bearing  in  mind  the  con- 
siderations just  mentioned)  the  way  each  door 
is  to  swing,  as  is  done  in  Figs.  9,  10  & 11. 


HOUSE 


281 


Fig*  35*  (Perspective  for  Fig.  34.) 


31.  The  hall.  Let  the  doors  be  symme- 
trically arranged  and  as  large  as  possible,  try 
to  use  folding  doors  into  the  parlor  at  least. 
For  the  reasons  see  § 17.  A retrograde  move- 
ment has  been  made  and  it  is  an  exceedingly 
good  one  by  which  the  Hall,  as  of  old,  forms 


one  of  the  finest  and,  on  occasions  of  ceremony, 
most  useful  rooms  in  the  house,  connecting, 
as  it  should,  all  of  the  principal  rooms.  Its 
necessary  height  (if  advantage  be  taken  of  its 
upper  stories  galleried)  its  stained  glass  in  stair- 
case windows  and  others,  its  open  fire  with  ingle- 


r"'- 


[mTrTrrr 


UlAA/'-AUl 


Mas 


S.E..FULLE3.SC 


Fig.  36.  (Hall  for  Figs.  34  & 35.) 


282 


HOUSE 


side,  (see  § 36)  so  much  read  of  but  of  late  so 
little  seen,  its  high  clock  and  comfortable  settles 
with  high  backs,  sure  preventative  of  draughts, 
all  tend  to  weave  around  it  the  glamor  of 
poetry  until  it  becomes  by  its  associations  the 


one  room,  the  first  and  last  tie  of  home  when 
the  cares  and  vicissitudes  of  life  necessitate  a 
separation. 

Fig.  34  contains  ground  plan  for  Fig.  36. 


Fig-  37- 


§ 32.  The  staircase  should  usually  be  en- 
tered under  an  arch  or  arcade  as  in  Fig. 
36  and  not  run  into  the  hall.  The  arrange- 
ment of  Hall  and  staircase,  here  suggested, 
may  appear  extravagant,  but  in  a well  considered 
plan  is  not  so,  as  the  pantry,  china  closets,  etc., 
can  generally  be  placed  under  the  landing  or 
immediately  off  it  and  a bed  room  can  open 
from  the  landing,  as  a high  ceiling  to  these 
generally  small  offices  is  not  desirable.  Again 
by  the  use  of  a galleried  Hall  and  properly 
grouping  the  rooms  around  it,  advantage  is 


taken  of  floor  space  that  is  lost  in  a badly  con- 
sidered plan  by  useless  passages  often  dark. 

§ 33.  A massive  staircase  going  up  in  a 
large  bold  curve  or  as  in  Fig.  37,  around  two  or 
three  sides  of  a rectangle,  with  landings,  is  a 
fine  thing  and  can  be  made  of  great  effect.  But 
a plain  staircase  at  the  end  of  a hall  or  in  a niche 
at  the  side  is  not  a pleasing  object  and  much 
will  be  gained  by  placing  before  it  a screen. 

Fig.  38  is  a suggestion,  though  it  is  too  heavy 
for  a moderate  sized  house. 


Fig.  38. 


Fig.  39- 


HOUSE 


283 


Fig.  39  is  better  for  most  places  where  it  is 
apt  to  be  called  for. 

§ 34.  Staircases  should  always  be  of  ample 
width  with  broad  treads  and  low  risers  approach- 
ing to  the  inclined  plane  as  near  as  possible; 
the  treads  may  be  of  stone,  marble,  brick  or  tile 
and  these  should  never  be  covered  with  carpet. 
Wooden  ones  may  be,  and  padded  to  prevent 
noise.  The  handrail  should  be  on  both  sides 
broad  and  moulded  to  accommodate  itself  to 
the  hand  and  of  convenient  height,  filled  in 
with  turned  balausters  and  intermediate  strings 
or  they  may  be  panelled.  It  is  always  desira- 
ble to  keep  the  lower  portion  of  handrails 
solid  or  with  only  a few  ornamental  perfora- 
tions which  help  the  sweeping.  They  are  more 
pleasant  for,  ladies  using  them,  and  oftentimes 
prevents  accidents  to  children.  The  landings 
should  be  frequent  and  ample,  and  the  handrails 
always  kept  at  the  same  level,  even  if  newel 
posts  occur  at  landings,  on  which  they 
should  always  be  placed,  and  not  rest  on 
the  steps.  Good  effects  may  be  obtained 
from  windows  having  stained-glass  being 
placed  on  first  landing  as  in  Fig.  36  or  by 
arcades  opening  into  conservatories  etc. 

Gas  fixtures  may  be  sometimes  introduc- 
ed on  the  newel  post  at  foot  of  or  on 
landings,  but  is  generally  to  be  avoided 
as  it  is  liable  to  give  a contracted  look 
to  the  staircase.  Turned  pendants  and  p 
strings  continued  4 in  ches  underneath 
stairs  and  formed  into  panels  as  a margin 
for  plastering  are  good,  preventing  the 
bungling  of  the  plaster  cornice  of  the  hall,  and 
the  plaster  from  falling  off  as  it  is  apt  to, 
sepecially  at  the  junction  with  the  outer  edge 
of  the  wooden  string.  See  the  underside  of 
the  stairs  in  Figs.  36  and  37.  The  staircase 
of  the  second  floor  may,  as  before  suggested, 
oftentimes  be  embodied  in  the  design  of  a 
galleried  hall,  so  as  to  be  seen  as  a prominent 
feature  from  the  hall  on  the  ground  floor. 

§ 35-  Fireplaces.  Of  late  years  the  open  fire- 
place has  entered  largely  into  the  living  rooms 
of  American  houses.  They  are  always  cheer- 
ful-looking, and  serve  as  good  ventilators. 

They  should  never  be  relied  on  to  sufficient- 
ly heat  a large  room  in  an  exposed  situation. 
Avoid  fireplaces  in  corners  of  living  rooms, 
they  are  ungenerous,  as  few  can  sit  around 
them ; and  where  it  is  possible,  have  your  fire- 
place large  and  high,  so  as  to  be  able  to  burn 
wood.  On  no  account  use  the  imitation  of 
wood  by  burning  gas,  if  (not  to  speak  of 
honesty)  you  value  your  health,  and  care  for 
the  delicate  colors  of  your  furniture.  Wood 
is  always  quickly  lighted,  cheerful,  healthful, 
and  if  cedar  is  burned,  aromatic,  and  has 
everything  in  its  favor,  providing  the  fireplace 
is  large  enough.  Hearths  should  never  rest 
on  floor  beams,  but  be  carried  on  brick  or  tile 
trimmer  arches,  properly  supported,  and  bedded 
in  mortar,  to  guard  against  fire,  the  joists  being 
stopped  short  of  the  chimney  breast,  and 


carried  on  heavier  beams  past  the  flues  at  side 
of  fireplace  opening. 

§ 36.  Ingleside.  The  proper  way  to  tho- 
roughly enjoy  a wood  fire  is  to  re-establish  the 
ingleside,  which  has  of  late  justly  found  favor. 
It  is  a nook,  large  bay,  or  arched  recess  in  the 
side  of  the  room,  capable  of  receiving  a hooded 
fireplace,  of  size  ample  enough  to  receive  the 
fire-dogs,  back  and  other  logs,  on  a hearth 
raised  four  inches  from  the  floor.  Over  the 
opening  should  be  a shew-board  for  plate,  and 
at  either  side  of  the  recess  proper,  a seat  or 
high-backed  settle,  lit  by  small  windows  partly 
filled  with  stained  glass.  See  Fig.  61. 

§ 36.  Bay  windows  are  generally  desir- 
able, especially  in  exposures  adapted  to  cli- 
mate and  scenery.  In  the  bed-rooms,  deep 
window  recesses  made  by  closets  on  each  side 
and  provided  with  seats  are  to  be  specially 
recommended. 


Fig.40. 

Fig.  40  is  for  a flat  window. 


Fig.  41. 

Fig.  41  can  be  used  in  connection  with  either 
a plain  window  or  a bay. 

§ 37.  Kitchen.  Don’t  have  it  so  big  that 
everything  will  be  out  of  cook’s  reach,  and  that 
she  will  make  it  a store  room  ; don’t  have  it 
below  ground  if  you  can  help  it,  because  it  is 
difficult  to  supervise. 

§ 38.  Attic  bedrooms  may  be  made  very 
valuable  in  country  houses.  They  generally 
command  the  best  view.  A higli  pitched  roof 
with  a flat  on  top,  leaves  but  little  of  the  ceil- 
ing exposed  to  the  sun,  and  provides  a good 
garret  for  storage.  See  Fig.  42. 

§39.  Angles.  Keep  the  house  as  free  from 
angles  as  possible,  each  indentation  or  corner 
on  the  foundation  plan,  always  occasions  the 
builder  to  add  appreciably  to  his  estimate. 

Most  of  the  hints  that  we  find  it  practicable 
to  give  for  the  other  rooms  are  elsewhere  in 
this  article,  or  in  the  articles  on  Decora- 


HOUSE. 


284 

tion,  Furnishing,  Warming  and  Venti- 
lation. 


So  much  for  the  general  interior  arrangement. 
The  details  of  interior  finish,  we  leave  till  we 
come  to  speak  of  construction,  and  now  pro- 
ceed to 

EXTERIOR  ARRANGEMENT. 

§ 40.  It  has  seemed  best  to  give  designs 
of  exteriors  in  connection  with  their  respective 
plans,  but  we  can  readily  refer  back  to  them. 
As  the  details  of  a house  depend  so  much  on 
each  other,  they,  of  course,  cannot  be  very 
strictly  classified.  If  it  is  to  be  among  other 
houses,  its  proportions  can  be  high  without 
looking  stilted.  We  have  not  attempted  and 
shall  not  attempt  to  give  many  hints  regarding 
the  exterior  of  city  houses,  beyond  suggesting 
the  absence  of  all  ornament  made  up  of  purely 
architectural  objects  that  have  no  use,  and  ad- 
vising the  application,  so  far  as  appropriate,  of 
the  principles  given  in  the  article  on  Decora- 
tion. Even  where  good  architects  have  at- 
tempted wide  departures  from  the  stereotyped 
city  house,  the  result  has  often  been  question- 
able, and  it  is  dangerous  for  novelty  to  be  at- 
tempted by  any  but  the  most  competent  taste.* 

§ 41.  Style.  To  persons  about  building  a 
house,  almost  the  first  subject  considered  is  ; 
“In  what  style  shall  I build  ? ” The  question 
of  the  so-called  styles  is  fostered  largely  by 
the  books  likely  to  be  conned  as  an  aid,  and  also 
by  the  press  in  its  descriptions  of  building  lately 
executed;  and  this  question  of  style  and  the  en- 
deavor to  embody  the  remains  of  a bygone  age, 
in  which  ail  the  necessary  requirements  of 
modern  life  and  climate  were  wanting,  often 
lead  not  alone  to  incongruity,  but  to  bad  plan- 
ning and  a positive  dislike  to  the  house  as  an 
inconvenient  home  after  it  is  supposed  to  be 
complete.  For  instance,  a window  the  same  in 
size  and  character  as  those  lighting  principal 
rooms  is  seen  lighting  and  almost  occupying 

* Accordingly  as  our  treatment  relates  so  largely  to  country 
houses  many  of  the  designs  and  ideas  needed  in  this  article 
have  been  found  in  “ Villas  and  Cottages,”  bv  Calvert  Vaux, 
(New  York,  Harper  & brothers)  from  which  by  the  courtesy 
of  the  Author  and  Publishers,  thsy  have  been  taken.  Figs- 
29,  34>  35i  36  and  51  to  60  inclusive  are  by  Mr.  Wisedell  who 
is  the  author  of  most  of  the  matter  on  Halls,  Staircases, 
Fireplaces , Ingle  sides,  Chimneys , Roofs,  JVindoivs,  and  the 
entire  department  of  Construction.  His  counsel,  given  at 
Mr.  Vaux’s  suggestion,  has  been  a greet  source  of  “aid  and 
comfort”  in  the  preparation  of  this  articla.  Figs.  37  and  61 
are  from  English  sources.  The  rest  of  the  figures  (except  9 to 
15  inclusive')  are  by  Mr-  Vaux. 


a small  closet ; or  because  general  features  of 
houses  made  a century  or  two  ago  were  good 
enough  to  be  revived,  some  architects  revive 
with  them  the  tiny  panes  of  glass  which  were 
71  ever  a matter  of  choice,  but  were  merely  the 
largest  they  could  make  at  the  time.  Style  (in 
the  sense  used  above)  never  had  an  existence. 
All  we  see  of  the  ancients  speaks  of  progress  in 
civilization  and  adornment  and  why  we"  of  the 
nineteenth  century  should  go  backward  to  any 
epoch  and  forget  utility,  and  that  too  in  pro- 
gressive America,  is  a mystery. 

§ 42.  The  position  a house  has  to  occupy,  be 
it  city  or  village,  hill  side,  valley  or  rock 
in  the  mountain,  each  requires  a different  and 
distinct  character  in  their  several  designs ; 
blending  them,  as  it  were,  into  the  scenery  or 
locality  that  they  are  to  occupy  and  taking  ad- 
vantage of  their  best  outlooks  as  regards  the 
scenery  and,  in  cities,  of  the  position  for  cli- 
matic influences. 

On  a level  piece  of  land  near  the  sea  a far 
better  horizon  view  is  obtained  by  elevating 
the  living  rooms  4 or  5 feet,  whereas  on  the 
hillside  among  trees,  the  lower  the  house  is  kept, 
(after  attendingto  the  ventilation  of  cellar)  the 
more  will  it  appear  to  grow  into  its  surround- 
ings. 

We  now  consider  alphabetically  the  princi- 
pal details  of  the  exterior,  in  order  that  the 
reader  contemplating  building  may  be  guarded 
against  overlooking  any  that  he  may  care  for. 

§ 43.  Arcade.— -A  recess  on  the  outside  of 
a building  enclosed  by  arches  and  railings. 


Fig-  43- 

Where  but  a. single  arch  is  needed,  it  is  called 
a recessed  arch.  Fig.  44. 

Arcades  and  recessed  arches,  if  wisely  in- 


HOUSE 


285 


traduced,  always  produce  effective  contrasts  of 
light  and  shade.  These  arrangements  are  to 
be  distinguished  from  porches  and  verandas, 
both  of  which  project. 


Fig.  44. 


the  front  door  in  Fig.  27,  over  verandas  in 
Figs.  26  and  31,  and  over  the  porch,  veranda 
and  bays  in  Fig.  33.  A balcony  is  frequently 
supported  like  the  one  over  the  door  in  Fig. 
27,  on  brackets  from  the  wall  instead  of  sup- 
ports from  the  ground. 

Carriage  Porch. — See  Porch. 

§ 46.  Chimneys  may  be  made  effective. 
Those  in  Figs.  28,  29  and  35  are  worth  noticing. 


Fig.  46 


Being  protected  on  three  sides,  they  are 
preferable,  in  much  exposed  situations,  to 
porches  and  verandas,  except  where  breezes 
are  more  important  in  warm  weather  than 
protection  in  cold.  Arcades  provided  with 
glass  frames  for  winter,  make  well-protected 
conservatories.  The  sashes  could  be  made 
portable. 

§ 44.  Bay  windows  are  well  illustrated  in 
most  of  the  exteriors  already  given.  Fig.  45 
shows  a good  arrangement  for  a bay  window 
with  a balcony  on  top. 


Fig.  45- 


The  balcony  could  be  fitted  with  sashes 
to  protect  plants. 

§ 45.  Balcony.— A projecting  platform 
from  a door  or  window  above  the  ground 
floor,  illustrated  over  the  bay  in  Fig.  17,  over 


Those  in  Fig.  46,  are  arranged  for  respec- 
tively, six  and  five  flues. 


The  one  in  Fig.  47,  has  ventilating  flues 
on  the  sides. 

Chimneys  should  be  carried  well  out  from 
the  ridge  of  roof.but  seldom  intermediate  be- 
tween eaves  and  ridge.  They  admit  of  good 
treatment  if  placed  in  outer  walls.  All  chimneys 
in  such  positions  should  have  gables  or  ridges 
carried  behind  them  so  as  to  prevent  the  ac- 
cumulation of  snow,  (see  back  of  chimney  in 
fig.  29),  and  this  should  be  well  studied  in 
designing  all  roofs. 

All  chimneys  that  occur  in  outer  walls  should 
be  built  with  an  air  chamber  or  space  between 
flue  and  outer  walls  similarly  to  the  hollow 
walls  (see  § 75  ).  If  this  is  done,  the  flue  will 
not  become  chilled  and  no  difficulty  will  be  ex- 
perienced in  causing  it  to  draw,  and  the  heat  will 
be  retained.  All  flues  should  be  built  square 
12  inches  by  12  inches,  so  that  a circular  flue 
pipe  of  galvanized  iron  or  baked  clay  may  be 


HOUSE 


280 

used  to  carry  off  the  products  of  combustion 
and  the  angles  in  the  left  Hue  may  be  used  as  a 
ventilating  flue  from  the  several  rooms  contain- 
ing fire  places.  Openings  for  this  purpose 
should  be  made  into  the  flue  near  the  ceilingand 
covered  with  a wire  guard.  (The  ordinary  re- 
gister fronts  are  bad  for  the  reason  that  they 
have  too  much  iron  in  comparison  with  the  open- 
ing and  are  consequently  large  and  unsightly). 
A heated  flue  forms  the  best  known  and  most 
reliable  ventilator,  still  no  two  rooms  should 
have  openings  into  the  same  flue  on  account 
of  probable  difference  of  temperature  in  the 
two  rooms  and  consequent  drawing  in  from 
one  of  them  of  the  deleterious  gases  that  it  is 
desirable  to  be  rid  of. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  any  timbers 
from  being  built  into  flues  and  ordinary  flues 
used  for  smoke  should  be  pargetted  and  cored, 
i.  e.  plastered  with  a tenacious  cement  and  the 
angles  rounded  off  so  as  assist  the  exit  of  the 
smoke  and  prevent  the  accumulation  of  soot. 

§ 47.  Cupola,  or  observatory  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  31. 
Taste  and  convenience  both  urge  placing  one 
on  a tower  where  practicable,  rather  than  raising 
it  from  the  inside  of  the  house. 

On  cupolas,  exposed  balconies  in  connection 
with  a smoking  room,  tea  room,  or  it  may  be 
a study,  often  add  much  to  the  exterior  effect 
of  a house,  as  well  as  being  a convenience. 
This  provided  the  house  is  sufficiently  large  to 
warrant  it ; as  if  not,  it  may  become  all  tower 
and  no  house.  Many  very  charming  treatments 
of  these  features  may  be  accomplished  by  the 
proper  use  of  tiles  or  shingles. 

§ 48.  Dormers  are  windows  projecting  from 
the  roof.  See  Figs.  26,  28  and  35.  They  are 
always  picturesque  when  properly  introduced. 

§ 49.  Finials  are  upright  decorations  in 
wood,  iron  or  terra  cotta  surmounting  the 
gables  of  either  roofs,  dormers,  or  porches. 
Sometimes  their  pattern  is  made  continuous 
with  that  of  the  verge-board.  They  are  illus- 
trated in  their  more  recent  treatment  in  figs. 
29  and  35. 

§ 50.  Hoods  over  doors  and  windows  area 
great  protection  from  the  rays  of  the  sun  and 
from  storms.  With  a hood,  the  top  sash  can 


be  lowered  several  inches  without  rain,  beating 
in.  They  algo  are  very  decorative  if  judiciously 
used.  1 n Fig.  3 1 , note  the  great  hood  over  the 
balcony  which  surmounts  the  porch,  also  the 
one  over  the  large  window  in  Fig.  35.  In  a 
plain  house,  a hood  over  the  door,  with  sidings 
running  to  the  steps,  is  effective.  See  Fig.  48. 

§ 51.  Ombras  or  upper  logias  opening  off 
one  or  at  most  two  of  the  principal  bedrooms 
are  very  convenient  as  they  give  effective 
shadows  for  exterior  effects.  See  Fig.  35. 
under  right-hand  gable.  They  should  always 
be  covered  by  the  main  roof.  A similar  effect 
may  sometimes  be  accomplished  by  an  open 
balcony  over  a bay  window  or  under  the  pro- 
jecting gable  of  a house.  All  these  effects 
require  very  careful  design  or  they  may  prove 
inconvenient  and  unsightly. 

§ 52.  Porch  is  often  confused  with  arcade, 
balcony,  ombraand  veranda.  It  properly  desig- 
nates a covered  approach  to  a door.  For  il- 
lustrations see  Figs.  17,  26,  28  and  33.  The 
latter  has  a carriage-porch — such  a convenience 
at  night  and  in  wet  weather  that  it  is  surprising 
not  to  find  in  more  general  use. 

§ 53.  Roofs,  it  need  hardly  be  explained, 
are  very  important  features,  both  in  effect  and 
convenience.  There  is  great  latitude  for  pic- 
turesque effects  which  are  often  marred  by  the 
attempt  to  create  too  many  features  or  breaks, 
which  tend  to  give  a straggling  and  weak  effect, 
as  though  they  were  simply  a collection  of  roofs 
instead  of  a roof.  Harmony  of  detail  and  as 
far  as  possible  continuity  of  eaves-line,  except 
it  is  broken  by  large  gables  or  a tower,  will  pre- 
vent this.  For  the  better  shedding  of  driving 
storms,  roofs  should  be  always  steeper  than  an 
angle  of  45  degrees  (see  Figs.  29  and  35  and 
study  the  roofs  and  gables  in  the  other  de- 
signs.) Note,  too,  the  fact  that  in  Figs.  26  and 
28,  the  principal  difference  between  two  houses 
of  essentially  the  same  ground-plan  is  in  the 
roofs.  This  feature  is  more  seen  (certainly  in 
approaching)  than  any  other  outside  of  a house. 

A roof  with  the  gable  cut  off  (see  Fig.  6) 
is  called  “ hipped.”  See  verge-board  below. 

Shutters.  [See  under  g 107.) 

| 54.  Ventilators  are  always  desirable  and 
may  often  be  introduced  with  great  effect. 


Fig.  48. 


2. 

Fig.  49- 


Fig.  50. 


HOUSE 


287 


For  a dwelling,  they  look  better  rather 
nearer  the  gable-end  of  a roof  than  at  the  cen- 
tre. In  a stable,  they  are  better  where  the 
ridgepoles  join  toward  the  centre  of  the  build- 
ing. The  designs  we  have  given  or  similar 
ones  can  be  adapted  to  the  plan  in  the  article 
on  Ventilation,  which  see. 

§ 55.  Veranda  is  often  confused  with 
Arcade,  Balcony,  Ombra  and  Porch.  It  is  a 
covered  balcony  on  the  first  floor,  and  is  il- 
lustrated at  the  front  in  Fig.  6 & 35,  at  the 
side  in  Fig.  33,  and  in  the  rear  in  most  of  the 
other  exterior  views. 

It  should  never  be  forgotten  that  the  roof 
of  a veranda  inevitably  excludes  some  light 
from  windows.  It  is  therefore  undesirable, 
ordinarily,  to  have  a veranda  extend  entirely 
around  a room,  and,  much  more,  around  a 
house.  Sometimes  this  difficulty  has  been  re- 
medied by  persons  wishing  the  veranda  to  sur- 
round a house,  by  having  the  veranda  and, 
consequently,  its  roof,  made  narrow.  This 
remedy  is,  if  anything,  worse  than  the  main 
difficulty.  If  a veranda  is  worth  having  at 
all,  it  is  worth  having  so  wide  that  a group 
sitting  need  not  be  disturbed  by  a group  walk- 
ing, and  that  a hammock  need  not  take  up  the 
whole  of  it.  Sometimes  the  difficulty  is  re- 
medied as  to  the  lower  rooms,  by  having  the 
veranda  roof  start  from  a floor  higher  than 
the  second.  In  crowded  buildings  like  sum- 
mer hotels,  where  much  veranda  room  is 
needed,  this  seems  the  best  plan,  on  the  whole, 
especially  as  during  the  summer  season,  what 
light  (and  heat)  this  arrangement  would  exclude 
from  sleeping  rooms,  can  well  be  spared. 

The  veranda  of  a private  house  should  not 
be  less  than  ten  feet  wide,  and  in  many  cases 
had  better  be  thirteen — the  usual  length  of 
floor-planking. 

§ 56.  Verge-board. — A decorated  board 
under  the  end  of  a gable.  See  Figs.  17,  28 & 35. 

§ 57.  Windows  seldom  receive  the  at- 
tention in  design  that  they  deserve,  and  are 
generally  designed  as  though  it  was  necessary 
to  keep  them  all  alike,  both  in  size  and  detail. 
This  is  a most  fatal  error,  not  alone  for  pictu- 
resque considerations,  but  for  convenience  and 
economy  of  space.  Windows  should  always 
be  adapted  to  the  size  and  position  of  rooms, 
and  ingenuity  and  circumstances  will  suggest 
many  special  arrangements.  Windows  in  most 
living  rooms,  unless  carried  to  the  floor,  should 
have  sills  of  the  right  height  to  hold  a book  or 
work-basket,  and  should  go  up  to  within  at  least 
eight  inches  of  the  ceiling,  so  that  the  upper 
sash  may  serve  as  a ventilator,  and  an  expan- 
sive airiness  may  be  given  to  the  room ; but 
from  the  general  clearness  of  the  air  and 
brightness  of  the  sun,  it  is  frequently  objec- 
tionable to  have  them  filled  entirely  with  plate 
or  other  clear  glass.  Hence  the  prevalent 
custom  of  closing  blinds. 

§ 58.  A much  better  method  is  to  have 
clear  large  glass  in  lower  sashes  up  to  7 feet 
from  the  floor,  and  the  upper  portion  of  glass 
slightly  tinted,  cut  and  formed  with  lead  bands 


into  designs  and  emblazoned  with  crests,  or 
figure  subjects.  Too  much  color  should  always 
be  avoided  or  they  will  appear  tawdry.  The  de- 
sign may  be  carried  also  down  the  sides  of  plate 
glass,  but  not  at  the  top  and  bottom,  on  ac- 
count of  its  weight  needing  the  sash  frame 
for  security.  These  points  are  illustrated  in 
T ig-  51,  which  is  a suggestion  for  an  ordinary 


Fig.  51. 

window  with  a mullion.  (Of  course  this  un- 
symmetrical  design  is  not  intended  for  an 
actual  window,  but  merely  to  illustrate  the 
points  under  consideration.)  The  upper  sashes, 
protected  by  the  hood,  are  intended  to  be  hung 
on  centres  ; the  lower  sashes  (one  shown  with 
lead  ornament  at  sides,  the  other  without)  are 
arranged  with  weights  and  sash  cords,  all  on 
one  side,  so  as  to  keep  the  mullions  thin. 
Other  forms  of  windows  will  be  found  in  the 
accompanying  perspectives  of  houses,  adjusted 
to  suit  varying  conditions.  (See  especially 


Figs.  6,  17,  29,  35  and  the  bay  in  61.)  It  will 
be  noted  that  very  few  of  these  windows  are 
of  the  same  size  or  design. 

§ 59.  Double  glass  may  be  used  in  a single 
sash,  if  it  is  rabetted  on  both  sides  (Fig.  53); 
this  forms  an  air-space,  valuable  for  deadening 
street  noises  ; also  preventing  loss  of  heat. 

§ 60.  When  windows  open  on  to  lawns 
or  balconies  and  are  used  for  egress,  good 
head  room  should  always  be  allowed  by  using 


288 


HOUSE 


a travelling  head  in  the  sash  frame ; but  in  , 
positions  where  this  is  not  practicable,  French  [ 
casement  windows  should  be  used,  their  sashes 
being  hung  similarly  to  doors;  and  if  the  pre- 
cautions are  taken  in  the  make  of  frame  and 
sash  that  are  taken  in  France  and  Canada,  the 
ill  name  they  have  would  speedily  vanish.  In 
Montreal  and  Quebec,  where  the  seasons  are 
far  more  severe  than  here,  they  are  generally 
used,  but  always  have  a small  groove  in  the 
frame  and  centre  of  sash  going  all  round ; 


thus,  if  water  should  drive 
in,  it  will  find  a channel 
prepared  to  carry  it  away, 
— this  is  also  well  to  do 
in  the  bottoms  of  sashes 
that  are  hung,  and  in  the 
sills.  If  this  is  done,  no 
more  complaints  will  be 
heard  of  wet  driving  in. 
Outer  sills,  too,  should  be 
grooved,  to  prevent  the 
mass  of  water  falling  on 
windows  running  down  and  streaking  the 
paint. 

§ 61.  Another  form  of  window,  executed 
ia  the  Brooklyn  Park,  is  one  with  large 
sashes,  from  6 to  io  feet  long  horizontally, 
filled  with  glass,  leaded  in  or  stained  or  with 
figure  subjects,  arranged  with  wheels  and 
balanced  so  as  to  travel  easily  in  the  frame. 
The  blind  is  arranged  in  a similar  manner ; 
these  slide  either  down  below  the  sill  or  up 
into  the  head.  The  space  occupied  by  such 
a long  window  should  be  divided  by  turned 
columns,  with  cap-banc!  and  base ; thus  an 
appearance  of  freedom  is  given  to  "a  room, 
and  such  a window  is  very  desirable  in  loca- 
tions where  good  scenery  is  to  be  had. 

§ 62.  If  extensive  views  are  to  be  had  in 
positions  where  it  is  not  desirable  to  have 
windows,  from  proximity  to  the  necessary 
offices,  or  for  lack  of  furniture  space,  a window 
or  panel  formed  of  one  clear  sheet  of  glass, 
and  arranged  with  a frame  similar  to  a picture 
gives  a pleasant  effect.  By  its  means  an  ever- 
changing  landscape  may  be  obtained.  This 
should  never  be  attempted  except  the  scene 
be  free  from  active  life. 

§ 63.  Sashes  can  be  arranged  on  centers,  to 
swing  horizontally  or  vertically.  The  horizontal 
is  a good  method  when  applied  to  the  small  upper 
sashes  of  mullioncd  windows.  (Fig.  51.)  They 
serve  as  ventilators,  and  should  be  arranged  so 
as  to  open  with  the  bottom  out,  to  prevent  the 


•Fig.  54- 

Section  of  French  Win- 
dow. 


rain  driving  in.  The  vertical  method  can  be 
used  occasionally  in  sheltered  positions,  as 
almost  the  whole  of  the  window  may  be  thrown 
open,  but  this  is  fatal  to  any  arrangement  of 
blinds  except  when  the  walls  are  very  thick. 

CONSTRUCTION. 

I.  Stone  and  Brick  houses. 

§ 64.  Getting  a dry  foundation. — After 

tae  site  of  a house  has  been  chosen  and  the 
p.ar,  determined  on,  before  a foundation  stone 
is  laid  the  whole  area  and  one  foot  outside  the 
extreme  limits  of  the  walls  should  be  excavated 
(whether  there  is  to  be  there  a cellar  or  not)  to  a 
depth  of  12  inches  below  the  bottom  of  the 
intended  foundation  and  the  whole  area  cover- 
ed with  a good  concrete  formed  of  2 parts  of 
sand,  4 of  broken  stone  in  about  inch  cub::.;, 
and  1 of  good  cement,  with  sufficient  water  ad- 
ded to  make  it  a fluid  mass.  This  is  to  be 
evenly  spread  over  the  whole  area  and  trowel- 
led off  with  good  cement.  Where  cellars  are 
desired,  this  will  form  a good  floor. 

§ 65.  Sub-Drain.  Should  the  subsoil  show 
any  signs  of  saturation,  or  be  filled  in,  it  is 
well  to  lay  a course  of  agricultural  tile  of  2 
inch  diameter  under  the  concrete  before  it  is 
spread.  (If  the  house  is  over  30  feet  wide  2 
lines  should  be  laid.)  These  should  be  laid  to 
a fall  and  connected  with  the  drainage  system. 
Where  the  houses  have  a sandy  or  gravelly 
subsoil  these  should  be  invariably  laid.  This, 
if  properly  done,  will  prevent  dampness  and 
the  deleterious  effects  of  surface  water  or 
drainage  from  being  sucked  under  the  house 
as  is  often  the  case  when  it  is  heated.  It  has 
been  the  cause  of  houses  being  unhealthy, 
especially  in  cities  where  noxious  exhalations 
from  gas  and  sewer  pipes  are  continually  being 
drawn  in. 

§ 66.  Foundation  walls. — After  laying  the 
concrete  under  the  whole  area,  the  foundation 
course  of  good  size,  and  spreading  at  least  6 
inches  on  either  side  of  wail,  is  to  be  laid  of 
large  stones  well  bedded.  On  this  the  wall  below 
ground  level  is  to  be  built  of  fairly  squared  stone 
well  primed  up  with  small  pieces  of  stone  and 
well  grouted  with  liquid  mortar  so  as  to  make  a 
solid  wall.  The  outer  face  of  the  wall  against 
which  the  earth  will  be  filled  in  should  be  trow- 
elled with  good  hard  cement  inch  thick  and 
it  should  be  allowed  to  set  hard  before  the 
earth  is  filled  in.  By  these  means,  and  reason- 
able? ventilation,  a perfectly  dry  cellar  will  be 
obtained. 

g 67.  Damp-course — At  the  level  of  the 
ground  or  just  underfloor  joists,  either  a course 
of  slate  laid  as  if  on  a roof,  breaking  joint  and 
bedded  in  cement,  or  a layer  of  asphalt  or 
some  one  of  the  several  vitrified  damp-proof 
courses  should  be  used.  This  will  prevent  the 
moisture  rising  up  into  the  walls  by  capillary 
attraction,  rotting  the  floor  joists,  etc.,  and  en- 
gendering the  growth  of  wet  rot.  (See  Fig.  58.) 

§68.  Cellar  under  Hall.  In  extremely  cold 


HOUSE 


289 


places  it  is  well  not  to  have  a cellar  under  the 
main  hall  of  the  house,  but  an  arrangement  of 
flues  conveying  the  smoke  ancl  lost  heat  from 
the  furnace  under  the  floor,  and  in  brick  or 
stone  houses  3 feet  up  the  side  walls,  of  the 
hall.  The  floor  being  of  tile  will  become 
gently  heated.  If  a cellar  is  desirable  under 
the  hall,  the  flues  may  be  formed  of  concrete 
or  Tiel  lime  patent  blocks,  carried  on  rolled 
iron  beams.  This  method  of  heating  has  been 
found  in  the  northern  countries  of  Europe 
in  all  the  remains  of  villas  where  the  Romans 
founded  settlements  after  the  conquest.  If 
the  hall  is  warmed,  from  its  generally  central 
position  most  of  the  house  will  be  benefitted. 

§ 69.  Laying  stone. — In  cities  the  use  of 
stones  for  face  work,  base  course,  sills,  jambs, 
window  and  door  heads,  and  ornamentation, 
is  very  desirable,  providing  the  stones  are  laid 
on  their  quarry  beds  (*.  e.,  with  the  grain  run- 
ning horizontally),  and  are  of  good  size  in  the 
wall.  The  pernicious  effect  of  standing  thin 
4 inch  stones  on  end  is  already  seen  in  many 
brown  stone  fronts  in  New  York  and  in  cities 
where  it  has  been  done,  and  in  a few  years  will 
be  still  more  apparent  from  the  frost  entering 
the  stone  and  throwing  off  the  laminated  sur- 
face and  from  the  erosions  of  the  elements  ; 
for  if  water  will  carve  its  way  through  masses 
of  stone  laid  as  nature  formed  them,  how  much 
sooner  must  we  expect  to  see  its  effects  from 
a defiance  of  natural  laws. 

§ 70.  In  the  country,  it  is  generally  found 
possible,  either  from  boulders  or  from  local 
quarries,  to  obtain  a good  enduring  stone  for 
walls.  The  rougher  uneven  colored  parts  of 
this  may  be  used  for  the  foundation  and  wall- 
ing up  to  ground  level,  and  the  picked  stone  of 
even  color  and  texture  can  be  reserved  for  the 
portions  above  the  ground  or  up  to  the  second 
floor  which  may  be  wood  or  shingled  similarly 
to  that  shown  at  fig.  29  the  lower  part  of  which 
is  supposed  to  be  built  of  brick. 

§ 71.  Base-course.  About  12  or  18  inches 
above  the  first  floor  joists,  it  is  generally  better 
to  set  the  wall  back  2 or  3 inches  as  a plinth  or 
base  course.  This  may  be  formed  with  a row  of 
bricks  set  on  edge  with  the  outer  angle  splayed 
or  chamfered  off  or  it  may  be  of  stone  similarly 
worked  and  bedded  with  equal  beds  in  long 
lengths.  (See  Fig.  58)  • 

§ 72.  Walls  are  generally  erected  20 
inches  thick  and  they  should  be  built  of  stone 
picked  of  an  even  color  laid  either  with  ran- 
dom joints  or  coursed  rough  ashlar  or  with 
angular  beds.  This  last  is  the  most  expensive, 
although  if  stones  of  another  color  and  of  suffi- 
cient size  be  used  for  door,  window,  jambs, 
and  at  the  corners  in  angular  bedding,  it  has  a 
very  good  effect,  otherwise  it  will  look  weak 
and  unstable.  All  stone  used  for  face  work 
should  be  left  free  from  tool  or  drill  marks 
which  destroy  the  evenness  of  surface  and 
color,  and  should  not  be  too  evenly  trimmed 
on  the  surface,  as  the  rougher  the  face,  if  free 
from  tool  marks,  the  greater  the  diversity  of  tints 
value  from  the  shadow  creating.  If  the  stone 
19 


be  dark  grey,  red  bricks  may  be  used  as  a trim- 


Fig.  55- 

Random  Rubble  Ashlar  with  brick  quoins. 


ming  in  a variety  of  ways,  at  all  the  openings 
and  angles.  Strings  (2.  e.  horizontal  lines)  of 


Fig.  56- 

Coursed  rough  ashlar. 


brick  either  laid  flat  or  vertically  (See  Fig.  55) 
may  connect  windows,  &c.,  and  so  bind  the  work 


Irregular  Ashlar.  Coursed  quoins.  Corner  in  angulai 
bedding. 


290 


HOUSE 


together  ; for  if  a different  material  without 
strings  be  used  as  a trimming,  the  effect  of 
windows  and  doors  is  likely  to  be  lonely  and 
spotty. 

§ 73.  On  houses  of  this  character,  where  the 
winter  is  not  too  severe,  ivy  may  be  introduced 
and  is  desirable.  Its  glossy  foliage  climbing 
over  the  roughened  surface  of  the  stone  softens 
it,  and  makes  a beautiful  contrast  with  the  grey 
and  red  of  the  stone  and  brick. 

§ 74.  Brick  walls . — -A  house  can  be  built  in 
cities  generally  of  a good,  local,  sound  and  hard, 
well  burnt  brick  picked  for  face  work  so  as  to 
obtain  an  even  color;  or  if  a finer  face  is  de- 
sired, either  Baltimore  or  Philadelphia  pres- 
sed brick  for  red,  or  Milwaukee  brick  for  yel- 
low, may  be  used ; and  it  is  hoped  that  where 
they  are  used  in  houses  built  to  remain,  the 
pernicious  use  of  half  bricks  as  a fronting  and 
the  loss  of  bond  (i.  e.  mutual  support  by  inter- 
lacing) occasioned  thereby  will  not  be  allowed. 
It  should  be  abandoned,  if  not  for  honesty’s 
sake,  at  least  on  account  of  the  future.  Brick 
walls  for  external  use  should  never  be  less 
than  12  inches  thick. 

§ 75.  Hollow  Walls  should  be  8 inches 
of  outer  wall,  3 inches  space  and  lastly  4 inches 


Fig.  58. 

Section  showing  proper  arrangement  of*  Hollow  Wall  etc. 


of  brick,  well  tied  together  with  purposely  made 
tarred  or  galvanized  iron  ties  higher  in  the 
centre  so  that  the  water  may  not  be  able  to  find 
its  way  from  wall  to  wall  over  the  ties  ; for  this 
reason  slate  ties  or  brick  laid  as  ties  are  objec- 
tionable and  should  never  be  used.  If  from 
motives  of  economy  it  is  undesirable  to  build  a 
hollow  wall  all  around  the  house  it  should  be  at 
least  on  the  side  most  exposed  to  storms. 

§ 76.  In  building  hollow  walls,  care  should 
be  taken  to  leave  openings  in  the  base  of  the 
walls  so  that  the  air  chamber  may  be  cleared  of 
the  refuse  mortar  that  is  likely  to  fall  in  during 
the  building  of  wall,  or  it  may  otherwise  become 
a reservoir  of  dampness.  After  they  have  been 
throughly  cleared,  the  openings  should  be  built 
up  to  prevent  the  ingress  of  vermin 


§ 77-  Furring  Walls. — Brick  or  stone 
walls  of  houses  are  better  conductors  of 
heat  than  wood,  and  are,  if  permanently  oc- 
cupied, cooler  in  summer  and  warmer  in  winter. 
Outer  stone  walls  with  interior  plaster  directly 
on,  have,  however,  the  disadvantage  that  they 
collect  the  humidity  from  the  atmosphere 
which  is  condensed  on  the  inner  face  of  the 
wall,  rendering  the  rooms  unhealthy,  and 
damaging  the  furniture  and  paper  hang- 
ings. Hence  the  necessity  of  hollow  walls 
and  also  for  furring  out  or  leaving  a ventilating 
space  between  wall  and  plaster.  This  is 
generally  done  by  nailing  strips  2 in.  by  1 on 
wooden  bricks  or  plugs  built  in  the  wall,  and 
laying  the  lathing  for  plastering  on  these. 


§ 78.  Ornamental  brick  work. — Good 
effects  in  city  buildings  may  be  had  by  brick 
corbeling  out  and  the  use  of  moulded  bricks  in 
strings,  lintels,  jambs  of  doors  and  windows,  cor- 
nices, chimneys,  etc.,  and  some  good,  evenly.well 
burnt  bricks  such  as  the  Collamore  brick  may 
be  carved  and  in  panels  and  strings  will  have  an 
exceedingly  harmonious  contrast  if  nothing 


HOUSE 


291 


but  brick  be  used.  This  is  now  being  done 
largely  in  England.  The  carving  has  to  be 
well  studied  in  low  relief  to  adapt  itself  to  the 
material,  the  brickwork  being  built  up  with 
ordinary  jointing  like  the  other  work,  and 
carved  when  the  mortar  has  set. 

This  carved  brickwork  may  be  seen  on  a 
house  by  Mr.  Wheeler  Smith  in  57th  St. 
between  5th  and  6th  Avenues,  New  York, 
and  some  other  good  use  of  brick  on  a Mis- 
sion building  (also  by  him)  on  35th  between 
1st  and  2cl  Avenues.  There  should  be 
more  of  it.  Its  beauty  is  in  its  shades  and 
color,  which  the  woodcut  cannot  give. 

§ 79.  Pointing  up  of  all  brickwork  should 
be  with  a neat  trowel-struck  joint  while 
it  is  being  built , because  of  the  mortar  going 
the  whole  depth  of  brick.  (See  Fig.  58  at 
right  upper  corner).  It  is  the  stronger  and 
more  weather-proof  joint,  for  if  the  joints  are 
raked  out  in  the  usual  manner  and  pointed 
up  after  the  walls  are  all  built,  and  it  is  not 
very  carefully  done  (which  is  almost  an  impos- 
sibility) the  frost  is  likely  to  get  in  any  cavity 
that  may  be  left  and  throw  or  loosen  the  sham 
pointing.  Moisture  is  then  allowed  to  creep 
into  the  wall  and  slowly  but  surely  ruins  it, 
causing  in  some  cases  the  disintegration  of 
the  face  of  brick.  White  tuck  pointing  and 
other  fancy  jointing  which  protrudes  beyond 
the  face  of  the  brick  should  never  be  used  as 
it  will  not  stand  the  frosts  prevalent  in  the 
Northern  States. 

§ 80.  Cement  in  pointing  red  brick  is  most 
desirable  of  a dark  color,  and  may  be  readily 
formed  either  with  black  Munich  cement  or 
Indian  red  pigment  mixed  with  ordinary  mor- 
tar. Also  the  dark  moulding  sand  obtained  from 
iron  founders,  if  mixed  with  a good  cement,  pro- 
duces a very  pleasing,  dark  colored,  durable 
mortar  that  harmonizes  well  with  most  of  the 
red  bricks  used. 

§ 81 . Stone  courses,  jambs,  etc.  Good 
effects  can  be  had  from  bands  of  colored  stone 
in  base  courses,  cornices,  moulded  strings, 
jambs,  and  window  and  door  heads  built  in 
with  the  bricks,  the  several  features  being  de- 
signed to  accommodate  themselves  to  the 
heights  of  certain  courses  of  brickwork  so 
that  they  may  be  discontinued,  if  thought  de- 
sirable, without  interfering  with  the  bond  of 
'brickwork.  In  the  use  of  brick  and  stone, 
glaring  contrasts  of  color  should  be  avoided, 
as  they  tend  to  divide  the  building  into  smali 
layers,  or  panels  as  the  case  may  be.  Blue 
stone,  brown  stone,  and  often  times  local  rough 
stones  will  blend  in  with  the  color  of  the 
bricks,  and  a modest  and  unpretending  result 
will  be  attained  In  large  pretentious  build- 
ings, stone  as  light  as  Ohio  may  be  blended 
with  brick.  With  good  judgment  and  proper 
massing  it  will  be  satisfactory,  but  it  should 
never  be  attempted  in  a small  house. 

§ 82.  Pipes,  doors,  etc.,  in  walls.  In  a 
brick  or  stone  house,  provision  should  be  made 
for  all  gas  and  water  pipes  by  leaving  a 
chase  or  channel  in  the  wall,  and  if  the  house 


is  at  all  large,  they  should  be  provided  with  a 
proper  shaft  so  that  they  may  be  readily  at- 
tended to,  without  tearing  up  wood  work  to 
hunt  for  a difficulty.  In  all  cases  where 
pipes  are  exposed  to  danger  of  freezing  they 
should  be  either  boxed  up  with  sawdust  or 
covered  with  inc^nbustible  felt.  Sliding  or 
boxing  shutters  and  doors  should  also  have 
their  proper  provision  in  the  walls  ; a want  of 
thought  in  these  small  particulars  not  only 
creates  considerable  cost  but  mars  the  best 
rooms  in  the  house. 

II.  Wooden  Houses. 

§ 83.  The  same  general  principles  of  ex- 
terior apply  to  all  wooden  houses,  however 
great  may  be  the  apparent  difference  in  out- 
ward design  at  their  completion.  A much 
greater  freedom  of  grouping  and  massing  of 
features  may  be  attempted  than  in  building 
with  stone  or  bricks. 

§ 84.  Foundation  and  base.  After  the 
excavation  and  preparation  of  a concrete  bed 
as  before  described  in  § 64,  the  foundation 
and  cellar  walls  are  built  to  the  height  above 
the  proposed  finished  grade  line  that  the  posi- 
tion or  site  of  the  future  house  demands.  A 
damp-course  (§  67)  of  slate  or  asphalt  is  laid 
under  the  ground  floor  joists  and  they  are  well 
pinned  up  level,  and  the  spaces  between  built 
up  with  stone  to  the  floor  line,  so  as  to  prevent 
vibration  of  the  whole  frame,  which  is  often 
occasioned  from  a want  of  this  precaution. 

§ 85.  Frame.  On  the  joists  go  the  chesnut 
or  pine  sills,  carrying  the  pine  corner  posts. 
These  are  the  full  width  of  sill  and  are  ten- 
noned  in  and  pinned  with  hard  wood.  These 
corner  posts  receive  the  plates  or  heavy  beams 
carrying  the  upper  floors  and  roof,  with  filling 
in  studs  for  outer  walls  and  partitions,  which 
should  be  of  pine,  but  may  be  of  spruce,  and 
are  also  framed  or  notched  into  the  sill  and 
plate.  These  are  diagonally  braced,  and  if  the 
floors  are  high  they  are  also  strutted  with  short 
pieces  put  between  studs  horizontally.  All  the 
necessary  openings  for  doors,  windows,  &c., 
are  left  with  double  studs  where  large  timbers 
are  not  required. 

§ 86.  Covering.  The  outside  of  the  frame 
is  first  covered  with  inch  boarding  laid  diag- 
onally, and  on  this  is  put  felt,  paper  or  other 
waterproof  material.  Sometimes  cleats  are 
nailed  midway  between  the  studs  and  inner 
laths,  and  plastered  one  good  coat.  This 
method  is  more  expensive,  but  is  very  desirable 
on  account  of  the  two  air  spaces,  which  con- 
duce largely  to  the  warmth  of  the  house.  Then 
comes  the  false  frame  forming  the  finished 
corners  and  defining  windows  and  other  fea- 
tures of  the  design.  This  .should  never  be 
less  than  5 inches  wide.  The  spaces  left  may 
be  covered  with  tiles;  cut  and  plain  shingles 
of  cypress,  cedar  or  pine  soaked  in  oil  slightly 
stained  ; or  with  weather  boarding  not  over  5 
inches  wide,  it  being  desirable  to  obtain  as 


292 


HOUSE 


Fig.  60. 

Framing  and  various  styles  of  covering  for  wooden  houses. 


many  horizontal  lines  as  possible  in  a building 
without  giving  it  a weak  or  wiry  effect. 

There  are  other  methods  of  covering  the 
outsides  of  houses,  such  as  the  four  following  : 

#87.  Concrete  slabs  with  moulded  orna- 
ments, which  may  be  had  in  a variety  of  colors, 
and  good  combinations  obtained.  They  are 
screwed  directly  on  to  the  studs.  In  the  gen- 
eral plan,  the  dimensions  of  the  slabs  must  be 
considered.  Examples  of  this  work  were  on  the 
New  Jersey  buildings  at  the  Centennial  Ex- 
hibition. 

$88.  Brickwork  filling,  in  patterns,  may  be 
employed  between  the  timbers.  In  this 
case  the  timbers  should  be  of  hard  wood 
and  grooved  to  receive  the  bricks.  This 
filling  is  not  to  be  recommended  in  positions 
much  exposed  to  moisture,  as  the  bricks  are 
apt  to  absorb  it  and  rot  the  timbers. 

$89.  Plaster  filling  can  be  spread  on  a 
background  of  reeds,  or  “ wattles,”  which 
should  have  the  bark  ou , so  that  the  moisture 
from  the  plaster  will  not  expand  the  wood 
and  throw  things  out  of  shape.  This  filling 
is  best  in  coves  and  other  positions  not  much 
exposed.  Intaglio  decorations  may  be  scraped 
in  the  plaster,  as  shown  in  the  cut,  and 


afterwards  colored.  Very  pretty  effects  can 
be  had  by  sticking  necks  and  bottoms  of 
bottles  into  the  datnp  plaster  so  as  to  form 
patterns.  These  can  be  arranged  either  in  arbi- 
trary patterns  or  to  represent  flowers  or  plants 
cut  in  the  plaster.  The  play  of  light  on  many- 
colored  glass  so  exposed  is  often  very  beautiful. 

$90.  Sgraffito  is  a modification  of  plaster-fill- 
ing, where  layers  of  different  colors  are 
put  on,  and  the  scratching  made  deep  enough 
to  reach  the  various  colors  as  desired,  just 
as  cameos  are  engraved.  Specimens  of  this, 
centuries  old  and  still  in  good  condition,  are 
to  be  seen  in  Italy. 

$91.  The  two  foregoing  methods  are  almost 
untried  in  this  country.  But  they  are  suc- 
cessfully used  in  England,  and  there  is  no 
reason  why  they  should  not  be  here. 

$92.  Rough-cast — plaster  with  gravel  thrown 
on  it,  is  not  unknown  here,  but  it  is  generally 
used  to  cover  the  entire  walls  of  inferior 
buildings.  Tastefully  introduced  in  panels, 
it  could  be  advantageously  used  in  good 
houses.  It  should  not  come  near  to  the 
ground,  as  it  would  soak  up  moisture. 

$93.  Roofs  may  be  covered  with  flat  tiles 
nailed  or  plugged  on  battens,  and  well  plas- 


HOUSE 


293 


tered  on  the  underside  in  lime  and  hair  to  keep 
out  weather.  Slates,  if  of  good  quality  and 
color,  such  as  Pennsylvania  black,  or  Vermont 
green  or  red,  are  pleasing.  They  should  be  of 
small  size  and  to  be  waterproof,  laid  with  a lap 
of  at  least  3 inches  of  the  first  slate  under  the 
third,  and  secured  by  copper  or  composition 
nails.  Slates  of  different  colors  in  bands  or 
diamonds,  and  all  fancy  slating  should  be  care- 
fully and  judiciously  used,  as  they  generally 
give  an  effect  of  the  ro'of  being  in  layers  or 
parts  and  destroy  unity  which  is  the  first  neces- 
sity of  a roof.  For  this  reason,  if  any  decoration 
be  desired,  slates  of  similar  color  cut  to  an 
agreable  form  will  be  found  decoration  enough. 
Slates  should  not  be  used  on  frame  houses 
as  they  are  apt  to  give  them  a stiff  look  and 
seem  out  of  place ; a cedar  or  cypress  shingled 
roof  (painted  if  preferred)  will  last  longer  than 
poor  slate  and  can  be  made  more  effective. 

$94.  Painting  of  a wooden  house  is  of 
great  importance.  Every  country  house 
should  have  at  least  three  tints.  This  variety 
costs  but  little  more  than  monotony.  The 
trimmings  of  the  roof  and  openings,  and  the 
verandas,  etc.,  should  be  of  a color  or  shade 
gently  contrasting  with  the  main  walls.  The 
solid  parts  of  the  shutters  should  be  of  a third 
tint  not  widely  different  from  the  first  two, 
and  the  movable  slats  of  a fourth,  much  darker 
than  any  of  the  others,  as  the  effect  of  the 
openings  they  cover  is  always  dark,  at  a little 
distance,  and  if  it  be  covered  by  a lightly 
tinted  shutter,  the  house  will  produce  a feel- 
ing as  if  it  were  without  windows.  ( See 
Painting  and  Pigments.) 

INTERIOR  FINISH  AND  DETAILS. 

1 95.  Floors.  Floor  joists  should  always 
be  of  the  proper  size  to  span  the  floor  space, 
with  larger  turning  joists  at  all  openings,  and 
double  under  all  unsupported  partitions.  They 
should  be  strongly  cross-braced  with  2 inch 
by  2 inch  stuff  every  five  feet  to  make  them 
rigid.  After  this  has  been  done,  cleats  are 
nailed  on  the  joists  3 inches  below  the  floor  line, 
rough  boarding  is  laid,  and  on  this,  deafening 
formed  of  concrete  or  clay  is  laid.  Hard 
wood  floors  should  always  be  of  narrow  boards 
j to  1 inch  thick  and  arranged  with  a square 
border  accentuated  in  design  at  prominent 
points  around  the  room ; and  the  spaces  oc- 
cupied by  doors,  windows  etc.,  should  have 
separate  designs  and  the'border  should  not  be 
run  into  a' bay.  The  centre  space  may  be  filled 
in  with  flooring  laid  diagonal  and  square  in  dif- 
ferent compartments,  the  whole  making  a 
design.  (See  Fig.  36.)  It  should  always  be 
considered  as  being  covered  with  a rug  on  ac- 
count of  the  difficulties  of  keeping  floors  in 
good  order,  clean  and  bright.  Great  difficulty 
will  be  found  if  proper  provision  is  not  made 
in  laying  the  floor  for  expansion  and  contrac- 
tion, as  during  the  summer  the  joints  will  be 
crowded  up  and  irregular  on  the  surface, 
while  during  the  winter  from  furnace  heat 
they  will  be  wide  open. 


$96.  Ceilings  should  always  be  cross- 
furred  before  lathing,  largely  preventing  the 
cracking  and  displacement  of  plaster ; and 
side  walls  are  usually  furred  off  for  lath  and 
plaster. 

In  the  country  and  in  small  or  cheap  houses 
avoid  high  ceilings  and  instead  of  the  bare  and 
cold  plaster  expose  the  floor  beams  which 
should  be  more  carefully  finished,  allowing  the 
cleats  and  boarding  supporting  deafening  to 
be  seen.  In  such  cases  use  a large  beam  to  carry 
the  general  floor  beams,  instead  of  cross  brac- 
ing. 

$97.  Plastering  a house  always  requires 
the  most  careful  supervision  both  in  the  pre- 
paration and  quality  of  the  materials  used  and 
in  the  lathing  which  is  generally  not  sufficiently 
supported  or  nailed  and  is  often  the  cause  of 
cracks.  The  less  hard  finish  on  walls,  the 
better,  and  especially  for  surface  decoration 
the  walls  should  be  sand  finished,  which  gives 
texture  to  the  work  just  as  rough  paper  does 
to  a water  color  drawing. 

$98.  Doors  at  the  entrance  should  be  of 
liberal  width,  and  are  generally  better  if  formed 
of  two  leaves  or  doors.  If  it  is  possible,  have 
inner  or  vestibule  doors,  so  that  the  outer  door 
may  form  a storm  door,  and  fold  back  into  a 
panel  arranged  to  receive  it.  The  outer  door 
should  always  have  small  glass  lunettes,  to 
light  the  vestibule,  of  a decorative  form,  pro- 
tected by  bronze  or  other  screens.  The  door 
of  the  vestibule  should  be  treated  as  a screen, 
and  be  almost  all  glass.  Sometimes  they  are 
protected  with  bronze  or  iron  guards  ; though 
not  usually. 

1 99.  Generally,  doors  leading  to  the  principal 
rooms  are  made  too  small.  They  should,  if 
hinged,  never  be  less  than  4 feet  wide,  in  two 
leaves,  so  as  to  admit  two  persons  comfortably 
on  festive  occasions  ; if  sliding  doors,  never 
less  than  6 feet  wide.  Bed-room  doors  should 
always  be  large  enough  to  allow  furniture  to  be 
easily  received  into  the  rooms. 

§ 100.  In  th*  designs  for  doors  there  is  great 
room  for  improvement,  by  the  introduction  of 
more  panelling  and  surface  carving  in  the  solid 
wood,  and  less  of  the  objectionable,  cheap,  ap- 
plied ornament  stuck  on  to  simple  forms.  Large 
panels  formed  of  thin  veneer,  arranged  so  as 
to  similate  expensive  woods,  with  poor  mould- 
ings and  carving  stuck  on,  are  disagreeable 
not  alone  as  shams,  but  from  their  tendency  to 
destroy  proportion.  If  reed  mouldings  or  other 
small  ones  are  worked  the  entire  length  of  the 
style  in  the  wood  itself,  and  arranged  with 
butt  joints  (not  mitred),  a pleasing  effect  may 
be  gained.  These  are  not  any  more  expensive 
than  the  mouldings  generally  in  use,  as  the 
mouldings  may  be  machine-run.  Panels,  if  in 
one  piece,  should  never  be  secured  by  nails  in 
door-frames,  but  allowed  to  have  freedom  for 
expansion  and  contraction  of  fibre.  In  the  so- 
called  hard  wood  doors,  it  is  better  with  most 
woods  to  make  them  of  two  thicknesses  over 
a pine  core ; this  prevents  the  buckling  and 
twisting  of  the  door-frame. 


294 


HOUSE 


$ ioi  . Cabinets  or  book-cases  may  sometimes 
be  placed  on  wheels  between  rooms,  and  serve 
as  folding  doors.  In  a crowded  library,  for  in- 
stance, such  an  arrangement  can  be  of  great 
service.  The  rolling  book-cases  would  project 
their  own  depth  beyond  those  at  each  side, 
and  in  folding  back  against  them  make  an  even 
surface. 

$102.  Sliding  doors  should  be  used  where 
doors  are  too  wide  to  fold  without  using  valuable 
space  in  the  room.  They  should  have  the  best 
fixtures  that  can  be  obtained,  and  be  hung  from 
above  on  friction  rollers,  to  relieve  the  rolling- 
ways  in  the  floor.  This  method  of  fixing  may 
be  more  expensive  at  first,  but  is  reliable,  and 
will  be  found  in  the  end  the  cheapest. 

$ 103.  In  the  matter  of  ironmongery  of  doors, 
good  effects  can  be  had,  and  strength  added 
to  the  doors,  if  strap  hinges  of  wrought  iron 
be  used,  as  they  admit  of  much  good  decora- 
tive treatment.  (See  Fig.  36. ) Locks,  bolts  and 
escutcheons  are  all  necessities,  and  this -being 
the  case,  why  should  they  be  hidden  instead  of 
being  made  valuable  constructional  ornaments? 
Some  improvement  has  been  made  in  the 
bronze-work  of  late,  but  from  the  want  of  plain 
surface  it  appears  cheap,  suffering  from  the  at- 
tempt to  obtain  more  ornament  from  a small 
object  than  it  is  capable  of  properly  giving. 

§ 104.  Cornices  should  be  always  formed 
of  small  mouldings  and  be  free  from  applied 
stucco  ornaments.  Ribs  on  the  ceiling,  if 
introduced,  should  be  kept  very  flat  and  be 
continuous  with  the  cornices,  so  as  to  appear 
to  belong  to  it,  and  where  centre  ornaments  are 
used  let  them  be  small,  shallow  and  circular,  or 
square,  plain  and  free  from  leaf  ornament  so 
as  to  form  the  nucleus  of  color  decoration  if 
any  is  to  be  used.  See  Fig.  36. 

$ 105.  Blinds  and  shutters  may  be  comforts 
but  are  frequently  made  a discomfort.  Their 
arrangement  and  material  should  be  studied  to 
meet  varied  requirements.  Outside  window- 
blinds  are  usually  made  light,  and  fall  back  on 
the  wall.  For  this  reason  they  are  very  weak 
if  not  tied  at  the  angles  with  strap  hinges  or 
angle-pieces.  They  should  always  be  provided 
for  in  the  exterior  designs,  and  this  can  be 
readily  done  (see  fig.  51)  with  little  extra 
expense,  preventing  their  slamming  and  des- 
truction. In  the  figure,  the  blind  (thrown 
open ) lies  in  an  extension  of  the  false  window- 
frame,  and  flush  with  it,  so  that  the  wind  can- 
not get  between  it  and  the  house,  to  slam  it 
to,  and  the  weight  rests  on  the  sill. 

$ 106.  They  are  often  arranged  inside,  hinged 
in  two  heights  and  folding  into  boxes  arranged 
to  receive  them.  1 1 is  generally  well  to  have  the 
portion  exposed  to  the  room  when  shut,  panelled 
so  as  to  form  part  of  the  design  of  the  window- 
frame,  unless  the  whole  blind  is  needed  to  be 
slatted.  Blinds  or  shutters  may  also  be  arranged 
as  on  plan,  Fig.  52,  in  which  they  are  shown 
hung  with  cords  and  weights,  like  sashes,  and 
going  down  below  the  sill  in  two  or  three 
heights  ; after  they  are  down,  they  are  covered 
by  a flap,  and  a small  panel,  the  height  of  the 


window,  swings  around  and  covers  up  the  sash, 
cords,  &c.  They  may  be  similarly  arranged 
to  slide  up  into  the  head ; they  may  also  slide 
sidewise  into  pockets  formed  in  the  furring 
off,  or  thickness  of  the  walls,  in  a like  manner 
to  sliding  doors.  In  large  houses,  they  may  be 
arranged  to  form  a design,  or  have  large 
mirrors,  and  all  the  shutters  in  a room  may 
be  arranged  so  as  to  close  or  open  simultan- 
eously. In  large  rooms  used  for  ceremony  or 
public  halls,  this  is  sometimes  desirable. 

$107.  A movable  shutter,  either  outside  or 
inside,  may  be  formed  of  steel,  iron  or  wood 
slats,  arranged  to  coil  up  over  the  head  of  the 
sash-frame.  This  is  sometimes  advantageous, 
as  they  may  be  formed  into  hoods  by  the  use 
of  a stay-bar. 

$ 108.  The  iron-work  of  sashes  and  blinds 
should  be  the  best  the  market  affords,  as  this 
first  expense  will  often  prevent  a great  deal  of 
annoyance  and  ultimately  greater  expense. 

$ 109.  Awnings  of  striped  canvas  are  desira- 
ble in  some  positions,  and  often  add  much  to  the 
cozy  look  of  a house.  They  should  always  be 
provided  for  in  the  design  by  pockets  in  the 
head  of  the  window,  or  they  will  have  a dis- 
agreeable look  when  not  in  use,  and  soon  be 
destroyed  for  want  of  protection. 

$ 1 10.  Screens.  Japanese  bamboo  or  wire- 
gauze  screens,  both  of  which  can  be  seen 
through  from  the  room  but  not  from  the  outside, 
unless  the  light  inside  should  be  greater,  are 
sometimes  desirable.  The  sash-frame  should 
also  be  arranged  for  them.  A pleasant  screen, 
and  one  that  admits  of  good  treatment,  may  be 
formed  of  alternate  turned  and  square  strips 
of  wood,  with  turned  filling-in  pieces  between 
forming  a series  of  small  square  openings. 
These  can  be  inserted  during  the  summer 
months,  and  are  used  in  most  of  the  cities  of 
eastern  Europe  instead  of  sashes.  They  give 
air,  and,  if  formed  of  hard  wood,  partial  pro- 
tection to  the  room.  The  wood  being  thick, 
they  cannot  be  seen  through  unless  the  ob- 
server is  directly  opposite  and  on  the  same 
level. 

§111.  Wood  finish.  In  the  interior  of  a 
country  house,  it  will  generally  be  found 
cheaper  to  trim  the  rooms  with  the  white  and 
red  pine,  well  seasoned  and  free  from  sap 
(i.  e.  dark  bluish  stains)  not  on  account  of  actual 
cost  of  hard  wood  but  of  the  fancy  price  that 
is  generally  associated  with  it  in  the  minds  of 
builders.  These  afe  the  most  reliable  woods 
we  have  in  the  market ; standing  changes  of 
moisture  and  temperature  better  than  any  of 
the  others.  They  however  should  seldom  be 
painted  and  never  white \ painting  destroys 
the  beauty  of  the  grain,  which  can  be  well 
brought  out  with  shellac  and  copal  varnish,  or 
it  may  be  slighty  stained  and  varnished.  If 
not  varnished,  it  soils  very  easily  and  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  clean.  External  work  should  be 
painted  and  never  be  varnished,  as  varnish 
will  not  stand  a season  exposed. 

$112.  In  the  general  design  of  mouldings, 
care  should  always  be  taken  to  adapt  them  to 


HOUSE 


295 


Fig.  61. 

An  English  Dining-Room. 


the  nature  of  the  wood  so  as  to  bring  out  its 
Color  and  beauties  of  grain  and  this  will  usually 
be  accomplished  by  keeping  them  small  and  flat, 
and  grouping  them  so  as  to  allow  aplain  surface 
for  better  display  of  the  wood.  All  mouldings 
should  have  continuity  and  either  lie  against 
or  be  received  on  wood.  In  general,  avoid 
shewing  the  end  sections  of  mouldings  as  it  will 
appear  cheap  if  not  carefully  done.  Do  not 
make  the  trimming  thin,  as  it  is  apt  to  look  weak 
and  wiry.  Veneers  of  precious  woods  should 
be  used  sparingly  and  as  a background  for  the 
general  trim,  in  the  same  manner  that  you  find 
gold  back  grounds  used  in  the  paintings  by  the 
old  masters.  Never  use  them  as  a ground  for 
carving  in  relief  or  it  will  appear  stuck  on 
and  lonely. 

§ 1 13-  Most  of  the  hard  wood  in  the  market, 
owing  to  rapid  growth  and  consequent  open 
grain,  is  very  apt  to  twist  and  be  difficult  to 
keep  in  place ; hence,  all  mouldings  should  be 
formed  of  small  separate  members,  of  even 
grain,  with  a softer  wood  introduced  to  relieve 
it.  If  this  is  not  properly  attended  to,  the 
finish  of  rooms  is  apt  to  be  a source  of  trouble 
and  annoyance  from  the  shrinking,  swelling, 
splitting  or  chipping  of  the  wood,  no  matter 
how  much  care  has  been  taken  in  the  seasoning 
and  drying. 

2114.  The  best  seasoning  that  timber  which 
is  to  be  used  for  joining  can  have,  is  to  be  well 
water-soaked  and  then  sun-dried,  the  timber 
standing  with  its  grain  vertical ; and  it  is  well  not 
to  rely  on  kiln-dried  timber,  in  which  the  sap  is 
only  dried  up,  and  will  surely  swell  and  cause  a 
great  deal  of  trouble  as  soon  as  the  work  is 
affected  by  the  change  of  climate. 


? 1 15.  Inlays  are  always  appropriate  and  can 
be  readily  done  mechanically  by  any  country 
carpenter  with  a fret  saw.  The  design  should 
be  well  massed  and  on  thin  paper  which  can  be 
pasted  on  a series  of  veneers  of  alternate  color- 
ed wood  each  with  paper  pasted  on  to  stiffen 
it.  The  design  is  sawn  out  and  the  pieces 
counter  changed  and  applied  to  panels  or 
where  it  is  desired. 

§116.  In  hard  wood  there  is  a great  diversity 
of  colors,  quality  of  grain  and  strength,  and  it  is 
advisable  at  the  outset  to  form  some  plan  by 
which  a variety  may  be  introduced  into  the 
living  rooms  without  creating  too  sudden  a 
contrast.  The  following  has  been  found  desira- 
ble. The  vestibule  and  entrance  doors  of  oak 
relieved  with  wall  panels  of  majolica  tiles  and 
tiled  floor.  The  hall  staircase  and  gentleman’s 
room  of  black  walnut  carried  to  ceiling  forming, 
plaster  panels  for  decoration,  with  floor  of 
cherry  and  black  walnut.  The  library  of  oak  and 
black  walnut  in  equal  proportions,  with  floor  of 
maple  and  black  walnut.  The  drawing  room 
of  oak  and  root  of  ash,  with  black  walnut 
sparingly  used  and  ebony  columns,  narrow 
pine  floor  for  carpet.  The  dining  room  and  its 
floor  of  oak  with  stone  fireplace  for  wood  fire. 

§117.  Fixed  furniture.  It  is  very  desirable 
to  cover  as  much  as  possible  of  the  wall  space 
and  introduce  in  the  general  design  of  room 
as  much  of  the  fixed  furniture  as  possible,  so  as 
to  leave  little  for  the  decorator  and  upholsterer 
to  mar  by  incongruous  details.  The  following 
particulars  may  sometimes  be  left  to  the  archi- 
tect with  more  confidence  than  to  the  average 
furniture  maker.  In  the  vestibule,  a seat,  and 
provision  for  the  doors  etc.,  can  be  arranged 


296 


HOUSE 


HUNG 


N WINE 


and  the  ceiling  should  be  of  wood,  the  frost 
having  great  effect  on  hard  finished  plaster. 
In  the  hall,  provision  should  be  made  for  wrap 
chest,  hats  and  coats,  umbrellas  and  seats,  not 
forgetting  the  fireplace  and  a place  for  the 
big  clock.  (See  Figs.  36and  37).  In  the  gentle- 
man’s room,  the  necessary  provision  for 
adjusting  the  toilet.  The  butler’s  pantry  should 
be  provided  with  a hot  plate,  “ a register  or 
steam  coil  under  a slate  or  marble  slab,”  and  in 
large  houses  should  have  the  butler’s  bedroom 
with  plate  safe  near  at  hand.  The  dining- 
room may  properly  have  a high  wainscot  with 
buffet  arranged  for  plate  and  wine  coolers 
designed  to  form  a part  of  it,  the  upper 
portion  of  wall  panelled  with  a frieze  of 
wood  designed  to  receive  tapestry  or  hanging. 
A large  open  fireplace  may  also  form  a striking 
feature  in  this  room  as  well  as  in  .the  hall. 
Proper  provision  should  be  made  in  the 
woodwork  of  all  rooms  for  gas  brackets,  etc. 
In  the  library,  bookcases  with  provision  for 
handling  every  daybooks,  books  of  reference, 
desk,  print  drawers  and  pamphlet  closets.  The 
space  over  and  out  of  reach  may  be  for  objets 
d’art,  and  any  convenient  wall  space  for  maps, 
which  may  be  on  spring  rollers.  Let  there 
be  an  open  fireplace.  The  drawing  room 
has  generally  to  be  given  to  the  decorator  and 
upholsterer,  although  by  the  proper  introduc- 
tion of  such  features  as  wood  mantels  and 
chimney  glass,  arches  at  bay  window  and  the 
general  arrangement  of  trimming  around  win- 
dows and  doors,  the  conventional  decorator  may 
find  some  general  leading  lines  defined,  should 
the  architect  not  be  employed  in  this  very 
essential  particular. 

§118.  Houses  upon  which  thought  has 
been  bestowed  in  their  several  details,  have 
been  too  often  marred  by  the  fashions  of 
the  moment  introduced  in  the  decoration  and 
furnituije,  by  panderers  to  the  prevailing  taste. 
One  of  the  outgrowths  of  this  is  the  mis- 
named “ hard  wood  finish  ” in  houses  built  to 
sell,  where  the  necessary  and  unavoidable  trim- 
mings of  doors  and  windows,  together  with 
often  one  side  of  a door  and  the  exposed  sides 
of  shutters  have  been  executed  in  a wood 
costing  a few  cents  a foot  more  than  pine  (pine 
costs  6 cents : black  walnut  8 or  9 cents  but 
the  latter  is  a little  harder  to  work,l  and  in 
mouldings  and  applied  ornament  that  do  not- 
properly  bring  out  the  beauties  of  the  wood. 

ADVICE-  TO  PERSONS  ABOUT  TAKING  A HOUSE. 

$119.  Before  taking  a house,  it  is  always  well 
to  get  the  best  professional  advice  obtainable 
regarding  its  condition  and  value.  Especially 
is  this  the  case  where  the  house  is  a new  one, 
as  such  are  so  often  built  only  to  sell,  and  the 
bad  construction  and  materials  are  hidden 
under  a mask  of  fresh  paint  and  meretricious 
ornament,  the  newness  of  which  soon  wears  off, 
exposing  its  shams  and  entailing  frequent  ex- 
pense and  disturbance. 

§ 120.  Houses  that  have  been  occupied 


for  a season,  if  built  with  poor  unseasoned 
material  and  bad  workmanship,  tell  their  own 
story  from  the  shrinking  of  floor  boards,  im- 
proper closing  of  doors,  windows,  etc.,  separa- 
tion of  door  and  window-frames  from  plaster, 
sagging  or  sinking  of  floors  and  separation  of 
surbase,  cracked  plaster  on  walls  and  ceilings, 
and  general  bad  ironmongery,  together  with 
the  offensive  odors  escaping  from  the  bad 
plumbing. 

?I2I.  All  these  points  are  readily  seen  by 
an  ordinary  observer,  but  the  hidden  difficulties, 
such  as  insufficient  depth  and  number  of 
floor  beams,  the  want  of  constructional  tim- 
ber, and  faults  in  the  general  method  of  build- 
ing require  a practiced  eye  to  detect  them, 
and  for  this  reason  a written  report  from  an 
architect  thoroughly  describing  the  condition 
of  the  house  may  cause  a reduction  in  the  price, 
should  the  would-be  purchaser,  for  especial 
reasons,  still  entertain  the  thought  of  buying. 

Unhealthiness  of  New  Houses. — The 
coincidence  of  moving  into  a new  house  and 
soon  having  a doctor’s  bill  to  pay  has  frequently 
been  a subject  of  remark  ; the  cause  often  is 
that  the  house  is  moved  into  before  the  walls  are 
dried.  It  has  been  estimated  that  30,000  gallons 
of  wa.ter  are  consumed  in  raising  a medium-sized 
three-story  brick-house;  and  this  can  only  be 
gotten  rid  of  by  slow  evaporation.  A house 
should  never  be  occupied  in  less  than  three 
months  after  the  plaster  is  on  and  after  fires 
have  been  going  steadily  for  a week,  with  ample 
ventilation  by  doors  and  windows.  No  water 
for  drinking  or  cooking  should  be  used  from 
new  lead  pipes,  for  at  least  one  month  after 
the  water  has  been  otherwise  used  daily. 
Even  when  pipes  have  been  long  in  use  water 
that  has  been  standing  had  better  be  run  off  be- 
fore any  is  used  for  drinking  or  cooking.  See 
Brick;  Chimney;  Drain;  Earth-Closet; 
Fire-Place;  Flue;  Gutter;  Lightning- 
Rod;  Sewer;  Ventilation;  and  Warming. 

HUCKABACK — A coarse  linen  fabric  orna- 
mented with  raised  figures,  and  much  used  for 
towels,  etc.  It  has  little  beauty,  but  answers 
very  well  for  common  household  wear. 

HUCKLEBERRY.— The  best  variety  is 
called  the  swamp  huckleberry  or  blueberry ; it 
is  large,  purplish-black,  subacid,  rich  and  juicy. 
The  comulon  or  high-bush  huckleberry  is  also 
fine.  The  common  low-bush  huckleberries  are 
called  “ cracker-berries  ” by  Jersey  pickers  be- 
cause when  eaten  they  crack  in  the  mouth,  on 
account  of  their  tough  skin.  They  are  smooth, 
quite  black,  full  of  seeds,  and  acid.  A better 
variety  of  the  low-bush  is  the  sugar-berry  ; it  is 
sweet,  bluish  and  has  very  small  seeds. 

HUNGARIAN  WINE.— Hungary’s  rela- 
tive facilities  for  wine-growing  far  exceed  those 
of  any  country  in  Europe.  On  an  area  of 
125,000  square  miles,  Hungary  annually  pro- 
duces (on  an  average)  500  millions  of  gallons, 
whereas  France,  on  an  area  of  204,000,  reaches 
about  700  millions  of  gallons. 

These  wines  are  grown  under  so  many  vastly 
different  conditions  of  soil,  latitude,  altitude 


HUNGARIAN  WINE 


HYACINTHE 


297 


and  attendance  that  the  result  is  a variety  of 
brands,  unattainable  by  either  France,  Spain, 
Italy  or  Greece.  A distinct  feature  of  the 
wines  of  Hungary  is  their  positiveness , their 
body,  bouquet  and  aftertaste,  impossible  to  pro- 
duce artificially.  Of  the  several  hundred  dis- 
tinct brands,  we  give  a general  classification 
and  a short  description  of  those  commercially 
most  important. 

Hungarians  rarely  mix  their  wine  with  water, 
but  rather  drink  wine  and  water  alternately 
from  two  glasses. 

I.  Red  wine  : 

1.  Baltazeker. — A healthy  table  wine  of 
medium  strength,  (for  a Hungarian  wine)  fine 
taste  and  bouquet. 

2.  Budai,  — (grown  round  Buda).  The 
Adelsberger  or  Budai-cream  is  warming  (as 
most  Hungarian  wines  are)  vigorous,  slightly 
astringent,  with  a deep,  aromatic,  extremely 
grateful  after-taste.  Indisputably  a tonic. 

3.  Egri. — (German  Erlauer)a  fiery,  gene- 
rous very  astringent  wine,  often  recommended 
in  gastric  disorders ; the  highest  quality  is  so 
vigorous,  that  its  effect  reaches  the  pores  in 
less  than  two  hours ; also  a tonic.  Of  this 
wine,  there  is  also  an  “ aszu,”  for  explanation 
of  which  term,  see  under  Tokay  below. 

4.  Karlovai. — (Carlowitzer)  grown  in  that 
portion  of  Slavonia,  between  the  Save  and 
Drave  rivers,  which  the  Romans  called  Syrmium 
on  hills  that  were  first  planted  with  vines  by 
the  soldiers  of  Aurelius  Probus.  Rich,  gene- 
rous, warming  and  aromatic  to  a degree.  The 
finest  grapes  are  selected  and  left  on  the  vines 
or  when  culled,  exposed  to  the  sun  until  they 
wrinkle,  then  hung  over  tubs  until  the  juice 
bursts  the  skin  of  the  grape  and  this  juice,  ob- 
tained thus  without  pressing,  is  collected  and 
boiled  with  wormwood  [absinthe)  and  is  sold  as 
“ Carlowitzer  Tropfwermutho” — a nectar  that 
Bulwer  praises  in  one  of  his  novels. 

5.  Matrai. — A heavy,  rich  wine,  grown  in 
Northern  Hungary  round  the  Matra  hills,  very 
much  like  good  Port  or  Cyprus  wine. 

6.  Szegszardi,  grown  in  the  triangle  formed 
by  the  confluence  of  the  rivers  Danube  and 
Drave,  on  land  abounding  in  iron  ore.  It  has  a 
slightly  mineral  taste,  and  is  recommended  as 
a tonic  all  over  the  country,  agreeable  in  flavor 
and  of  moderate  strength. 

7.  Tetenyi  (Tettinger)  grown  near  Buda, 
partaking  of  the  qualities  of  Budai,  (which  see.) 

8.  Villanyi,  not  as  hot  as  some  other  red 
wines  of  Hungary,  of  a most  refined,  insi- 
dious taste,  quite  apt  to  ensnare  the  unwary. 

9.  Visontai,  just  astringent  enough  to  make 
it  a piqiiant,  delightful  beverage,  strong  and 
warming,  and  a first  class  tonic.  A white  wine  is 
raised  in  the  same  locality,  which  is  made  of 
Muscat-grapes  ; this  brand  is  very  high-flavored 
and  seems  to  be  liquid  fragrance  : It  is  sold 
under  the  name  of  “ Visontai  Muscatel.” 

II.  White  wine  : 

1.  Magyarati,  a very  healthy  and  agreeable 
brand,  much  like  St.  Gyorgy. 


2.  Menesi. — A brand  of  amber-color,  neither 
red,  nor  white,  grown  near  the  boundary  of 
Transylvania,  on  a stratum  of  aluminium,  which 
imparts  to  it  a delicious  tartness  ; the  Menesi 
Aszu  is  a delicious  sweet  wine  with  just  enough 
tartness  to  make  it  piquant.  It  is  very  heady. 

3.  Neszmelyi.— (Germ.  Nessmiiller)  is  a 
lighter  brand  than  any  mentioned  here,  of 
remarkably  fine  bouquet  and  taste.  It  is  grown 
just  South  of  the  Danube  between  Gran  and 
Comorn. 

4.  Ruszti,  grown  about  seven  English  miles 
north  of  Soprony ; (Oedenburg)  dry  Ruszti  is 
one  of  the  noblest  brands  of  white  wine.  Some 
think  it  superior  to  the  finest  Burgundy,  red 
or  white.  These  grapes  are  also  made  into 
Aszu,  of  a dark  amber-color. 

5.  St.  Gyorgy  (St.  George)  grown  near 
the  boundary  of  Austria,  about  13  English 
miles  from  the  battle-field  of  Wagram,  is  a 
beautiful  white  table-wine  of  moderate  strength; 
there  is  also  Aszu  made  of  this  wine. 

6.  Somlai  (Schomlauer)  is  a superior  white 
wine,  full  of  fire,  bouquet  and  body. 

7.  Sopronyi  (Germ  : Oedenburger)  grown 
near  the  boundary  of  Austria,  40  English  miles 

S.  E.  of  Vienna  near  the  left  shore  of  the  lake 
of  Neusiedel ; a delicate  dry  wine,  hot,  rich  and 
with  an  aftertaste,  such  as  grapes,  or  pears 
will  leave  on  the  palate,  and  so  intense,  that  it 
lasts  until  some  other  drink  or  food  dispels  it. 
From  select  grapes  of  the  Muscat  vine  planted 
in  this  vicinity,  the  Sopronyi  Muscatel  Aszu 
(see  Tokay)  is  made,  which  is  quite  sweet,  with 
just  the  least  touch  of  fruity  acidity  and  a 
delightful  bouquet. 

8.  Szamarodner. — In  nearly  every  feature  a 
relative  to  the  Tokay ; valued  as  a dessert-wine. 

9.  Tokay. — Of  all  dry  wines  the  richest  and 
noblest.  Grown  near  the  Tibisc  river  on  the 
left  bank,  rather  North.  The  finest  grapes  are 
left  to  become  wrinkled,  and  a bucket  or  more 
are  then  pressed  with  the  common  grapes,  thus 
making  the  “ aszu,”  which  is  of  surpassingly 
pleasant  taste,  rather  sweet,  generous,  very 
strong  and  soporific,  an  excellent  tonic  for 
those  convalescing  from  typhoid  fever  and 
kindred  diseases.  As  an  indication  of  the 
body  of  this  “ king  of  wines  f it  may  be 
stated  that  the  first  dose  is  a teaspoo7iful. 
According  to  the  number  of  buckets  of  select 
grapes  used,  the  “Aszu” is  called  einbitttig, 
zweibuttig,  dreibuttig  or  vierbuttig,  the  last 
kind  being  the  highest.  When  these  grapes 
are  hung  over  tubs,  until  the  juice  bursts  the  skin 
(as  in  Karlovai  above)  the  result  is  the  celebra- 
ted “ Essenz  Tokay”  or  essence  of  Tokay. 

HUNGARY-WATER.— To  one  pint  of 
proof  spirits  of  wine  put  one  ounce  of  oil  of 
rosemary,  and  two  drachms  of  essence  of 
ambergris  ; shake  the  bottle  well  several  times, 
then  let  the  cork  remain  out  twenty-four  hours, 
after  which  stop  it  up  tight.  After  a month, 
during  which  time  it  should  be  shaken  daily, 
put  the  water  into  small  bottles. 

HYACINTHE. — This  is  the  most  popular 
of  all  the  garden-bulbs,  and  richly  repays  culti- 


298 


HYACINTHE 


HYDROPATHY 


vation  either  in  or  out  of  doors.  All  new 
varieties  are  raised  from  seed,  but  much  care 
and  patience  are  required,  and  often  not  more 
than  six  fine  flowers  will  be  found  in  a thousand 
seedlings ; so  it  is  best  to  raise  them  from  the 
bulbs,  which  can  be  obtained  in  countless  vari- 
eties at  the  florist’s.  In  the  selection  of  bulbs, 
choose  those  that  are  hard,  and  solid,  and  sound 
at  the  base.  Size  is  no  criterion,  some  of  the 
finest  kinds  being  always  large,  and  others  al- 
ways small,  nor  can  any  rule  be  given  as  to 
the  shape,  some  being  quite  conical  at  all  times, 
and  others  always  spherical  or  flat.  As  a gen- 
eral rule,  choose  medium-sized,  hard,  heavy 
bulbs  ; and  avoid  those  which  have  the  appear- 
ance of  throwing  out  many  offsets.  All  hya- 
cinths multiply  rapidly  by  offsets ; and  these 
offsets  should  be  planted  by  themselves  in  a 
dry,  sunny  location.  If  they  attempt  to  flower 
the  first  spring,  pick  off  the  buds,  for  the  root 
needs  all  its  strength  ; but  the  next  spring  they 
will  flower  well,  and  after  that  they  can  be 
treated  like  grown-up  bulbs. 

In  planting  hyacinths,  select  a warm,  sunny 
spot  in  the  garden,  where  the  drainage  is  good  ; 
trench  this  about  eighteen  inches  deep,  digging 
in  a liberal  quantity  of  well-rotted  cow  manure, 
and  enough  pure  sand  to  make  the  soil  rather 
loose.  This  being  done,  about  the  first  of  Oc- 
tober plant  the  bulbs  in  lines  or  circles,  as  may 
suit  the  fancy.  The  usual  mistake  in  planting 
bulbs  is  not  setting  them  deep  enough  ; they 
are  often  thrown  out  by  the  frost.  Hyacinths 
should  be  planted  at  least  four  inches  deep. 
A good  covering  of  coarse  manure  and  straw 
should  be  laid  over  the  bed  about  the  first  of 
December,  or  just  before  the  ground  freezes 
up.  In  the  spring,  about  the  first  of  April, 
rake  off  the  straw.  The  bulbs  will  be  found 
already  up ; the  blanched  stalks  will  soon  turn 
green,  and  an  abundance  of  bloom  will  follow. 
After  the  leaves  have  died  down,  if  you  have 
fine  varieties,  it  is  best  to  take  them  up  and 
keep  them  in  a dry  place  until  the  season  for 
planting  comes  again.  The  general  practice, 
however,  is  to  allow  the  bulbs  to  remain  in  the 
ground,  where,  if  undisturbed,  they  will  bloom 
year  after  year. 

In  growing  the  hyacinthe  for  winter  bloom 
in  the  house,  a succession  may  be  maintained 
by  planting  a few  bulbs  every  week  from  No- 
vember until  Christmas.  Those  first  planted 
will  bloom  soon  after  New  Year’s,  and  a con- 
tinuous bloom  may  be  had  until  the  flowers 
bloom  in  April  in  the  open  air.  They  should 
be  planted  in  deep  pots  filled  with  a compost 
made  of  one  half  coarse  sand,  one  fourth  rich 
yellow  loam,  and  one  fourth  well-rotted  cow- 
manure.  Set  the  bulbs  in  this,  leaving  the 
crown  about  half  an  inch  above  the  surface  of 
the  soil ; press  the  earth  around  the  bulb,  and 
settle  all  by  a good  watering.  Then  set  the 
pots  away  in  a warm,  dark  place,  keeping  the 
soil  moderately  damp  until  the  pot  is  filled  with 
roots,  which  may  be  ascertained  by  carefully 
turning  out  the  contents.  Then  bring  them  to 
the  light.  The  shoot  will  probably  be  an  inch 


high  and  pure  white,  but  in  a few  days  it  will 
become  green,  and  grow  with  great  rapidity, 
the  full  bloom  appearing  in  a few  weeks. 
Water  liberally  after  the  bulbs  are  brought  to 
the  light.  If  a few  drops  of  hartshorn  are 
added  to  the  water  it  will  assist  a full  develop- 
ment of  foliage  and  flowers;  bone  shavings  or 
horn  scrapings  will  have  the  same  effect, “and 
small  bits  of  powdered  charcoal  mixed  withthe 
earth  will  impart  great  depth  and  brilliancy  of 
color  to  the  flowers  and  a rich  green  to  the 
foliage.  Hyacinths  may  also  be  grown  in  pure 
silver  sand,  in  moss,  or  even  in  clear  rain-water. 
Of  the  numberless  varieties  of  the  hyacinthe 
the  following  are  among  the  best : Double  Blue: 
Argus,  Bonaparte,  Envoye,  Grand  Vedette,  La 
Majesteuse,  Laurens  Koster,  Lord  Wellington, 
and  Orondatus.  Single  Blue:  Amicus,  Argus, 
Baron  Von  Tuyll,  Emilius,  L’amie  du  Coeur, 
Prince  Albert,  Orondatus,  and  Robert  Peel. 
Double  Red : Acteur,  Bouquet  Tendre,  Groot- 
verst,  Hecla,  Josephine,  Panorama,  Rex  Rub- 
rorum,  and  Sans  Souci.  Single  Red:  Amy, 
Charles  Dickens,  Mrs.  Beecher  Stowe,  and 
Porcelain  Sceptre.  Double  White:  A Ih  Mode, 
Anna  Maria,  Gloria  Florum,  Grand  Monarque, 
Miss  Kitty,  Sultan  Achmet,  Triomphe  Blandina, 
and  Violette  Superbe.  Single  White:  Anna 
Paulovna,  Blandine,  Elfrida,  General  Cavaig- 
nac,  Mont  Blanc,  Paix  de  l’Europe,  Victoria 
Regina,  and  Voltaire.  Double  Yellow : Bou- 
quet d’Orange,  Croesus,  Due  de  Berry  d’Or, 
Goethe,  Heroine,  Louis  d’Or,  and  Ophir.  Sin- 
gle Yellow:  Alida,  Jacoba,  Aurora,  Fleur 
d’Or,  Heroine,  Lion  d’Or,  Prince  of  Orange, 
Soliel  d’Or,  and  Victor  Hugo. 

HYDRANGEA. — A genus  of  shrubby  plant, 
so  called  from  their  predilection  for  water  ancl 
from  the  calyx  of  some  species  resembling  a 
cup.  One  variety  of  the  hydrangea  grows  wild 
throughout  Georgia  and  the  Carolinas,  and 
others  from  Pennsylvania  to  Virginia;  but  the 
H.  Hortensius  (with  pink  flowers)  is  the  vari- 
ety usually  cultivated.  This  is  not  hardy,  and 
consequently  must  be  grown  in  tubs  and  win- 
tered in  the  cellar.  The  soil  should  consist  of 
one  part  loam,  one  part  manure,  and  one  part 
peat.  One  requisite  for  its  successful  culture 
is  shade  ; if  grown  in  the  sun,  the  leaves  become 
burned  and  the  plant  does  poorly.  While  grow- 
ing, the  plants  must  have  a liberal  supply  of 
water,  and  will  wither  at  once  if  it  is  withheld. 
The  flowers  are  produced  on  the  shoots  of  the 
previous  year.  To  flower  profusely,  it  requires 
to  be  well  grown,  and  the  leaves  on  young  plants 
are  larger  than  those  on  plants  three  or  four 
years  old.  Cuttings  of  the  wood  or  of  the  grow- 
ing stems  will  root  without  difficulty;  those  of 
the  latter  make  roots  soonest,  and  if  they  are 
then  potted  in  rich  soil  they  will  grow  very  rap- 
idly. Besides  the  Hortensius , the  //.  Japonica , 
with  blue  and  white  flowers,  is  desirable. 

HYDROPATHY. — A system  of  treatment 
of  disease  mainly  or  exclusively  by  the  applica- 
tion of  water.  Many  of  the  advantages  claimed 
for  the  system  by  its  advocates  are  purely  im- 
aginary, but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  is  of 


HYDROPHOBIA 


HYDROPHOBIA 


299 


the  greatest  benefit  in  a large  number  of  cases. 
It  gives  a healthy  stimulus  to  the  nerves,  brac- 
ing them,  and  acting  like  a tonic  and  soother  to 
the  whole  system.  It  is  likewise  invaluable  in 
cases  where  the  circulation  of  the  blood  is  im- 
paired ; and  it  is  nearly  always  beneficial  in 
cases  of  indigestion,  nervousness,  an  impaired 
constitution,  a too  full  habit,  or  where  the  pa- 
tient has  been  living  too  freely  without  taking 
much  exercise.  Having,  under  the  head  of 
Bath,  already  noticed  at  length  the  different 
forms  of  baths,  and  the  great  importance  of 
bathing,  it  only  remains  here  to  mention  briefly 
some  of  the  forms  in  which  it  is  employed  as 
a remedial  agent.  These  are  various.  Besides 
the  ordinary  bath  and  the  shower  bath,  one  of 
the  most  common  is  the  douche  bath , in  which 
a single  jet  of  water,  varying  in  size  from  that 
of  a quill  pen  to  the  thickness  of  a man’s  arm, 
is  projected  with  great  force,  either  from 
above,  below,  or  on  one  side,  upon  a particular 
part  of  the  body.  The  sits  bath  is  taken  sit- 
ting. Besides  these  there  are  the  foot  bath, 
hand  bath,  etc.  Sometimes  when  the  patient 
is  sitting  in  a warm  or  tepid  bath,  cold  water 
is  poured  over  the  head  and  upper  part  of  the 
person.  Pieces  of  coarse  linen,  saturated  with 
cold  water,  are  also  applied  to  the  skin,  and 
covered  over  with  dry  cloths,  and  usually  re- 
moistened several  times  a day.  The  wet- 
sheet  packing  is  one  of  the  characteristic  fea- 
tures of  the  system ; it  consists  in  enveloping 
the  patient  in  a sheet  wrung  out  in  cold  water, 
and  then  covering  him  over  with  dry  blankets. 
The  system  of  dietary  and  exercise  that  are 
kept  up  at  the  water-cure  establishments  is 
probably  even  more  conducive  to  health  than 
the  baths  themselves. 

HYDROPHOBIA. — This  appalling  disease 
is  caused  by  the  bite  of  some  rabid  animal, 
usually  a dog  or  a wolf,  though  instances  of  its 
communication  by  a cat  or  a horse  have  occurred. 
It  would  be  useless  to  dwell  on  the  symptoms 
of  the  disease,  because  when  once  it  is  devel- 
oped there  is  no  known  cure ; by  the  use  of 
chloroform  and  narcotics  we  may  mitigate  the 
agony  of  the  patient,  but  that  is  all.  The  great 
thing  is  to  remove  the  poison  before  it  has 
extended  itself  into  the  system.  This  is  best 
done  by  excision  of  the  wounded  part,  care 
being  taken  that  every  portion  of  it  is  removed. 
When  it  is  impossible  to  use  the  knife  effec- 
tually, a powerful  caustic  (nitric  acid,  or  strong 
liquid  ammonia)  should  be  applied  freely  over 
the  whole  surface  of  the  wound,  so  as  to  destroy 
the  effects  of  the  poison.  As  the  poison  is  not 
very  active,  these  means  are  usually  effective 
even  when  employed  some  time  after  the  receipt 
of  the  wound;  but  of  course  all  due  haste 
should  be  made,  and  it  is  well  to  keep  washing 
the  wound  with  tepid  water  until  medical  aid 
arrives. 

It  is  now  conceded  by  all  medical  authorities 
that  many  cases  of  so-called  hydrophobia  are 
purely  hysterical,  being  caused  by  the  operation 
of  dread  on  a sensitive  organization ; so  it  is  im- 
portant to  know  that  not  more  than  one  case  in 


thirty  of  bites  by  mad  dogs  results  in  hydror 
phobia,  even  when  the  dog  was  unmistakably 
rabid. 

Hydrophobia  in  the  Dog. — The  symptoms 
are  usually  as  follows  : — The  first,  according  to 
Youatt,  is  a marked  change  of  temper;  the 
naturally  cheerful  dog  becoming  waspish  and 
morose,  and  the  bold  fondling  pet  retreating 
from  his  master’s  hand  as  if  it  were  that  of  a 
stranger.  On  the  other  hand,  the  shy  dog 
becomes  bold  ; but  in  almost  every  case  there 
is  a total  change  of  manner  for  several  days 
before  the  absolute  outbreak  of  the  attack, 
which  is  indicated  by  a kind  of  delirious  watch- 
ing of  imaginary  objects,  the  dog  snapping  at 
the  wall,  or,  if  anything  comes  in  his  way, 
tearing  it  to  pieces  with  savage  fury.  With 
this  there  is  constant  watchfulness,  and  some- 
times a peculiarly  hollow  howl,  while  at  others 
no  sound  whatever  is  given,  the  case  being 
then  described  as  “ dumb  madness.”  Fever  is 
always  present,  but  it  is  difficult  to  ascertain 
its  extent,  on  account  of  the  danger  of  approach- 
ing the  patient;  and  with  this  (in  contradic- 
tion to  the  name  hydrophobia)  there  is  invaria- 
bly an  urgent  thirst,  which  the  dog  is  in  such 
a hurry  to  gratify  that  he  generally  upsets  the 
vessel  containing  the  water.  There  is  also  an 
increased  secretion  of  saliva,  which  becomes 
thick,  viscid,  adhesive,  and  glutinous,  and 
clings  to  the  corners  of  the  mouth,  whence  the 
dog  makes  furious  attempts  to  detach  it.  This 
is  an  early  symptom  in  the  dog,  and  can  scarcely 
be  mistaken ; as  soon  as  it  appears  he  should 
be  shot,  before  the  rabid  stage  is  reached.  It 
is  now  a thoroughly  established  fact  that 
hydrophobia  has  no  relation  to  the  weather ; 
that,  in  fact,  more  cases  occur  in  winter  than 
in  summer. 

Dr.  John  C.  Dalton,  of  the  New  York  Board 
of  Health,  furnishes  the  following  practical 
rules  which  should  be  carefully  attended  to : — 

1.  A dog  that  is  sick  from  any  cause  should 
be  watched  and  treated  carefully  until  his  re- 
covery. 

2.  A dog  that  is  sick  and  restless  is  an  ob- 
ject of  suspicion.  This  is  the  earliest  peculiar 
symptom  of  hydrophobia. 

3.  A dog  that  is  sick  and  restless  and  has  a 
depraved  appetite,  gnawing  and  swallowing 
bits  of  cloth,  wood,  coal,  brick,  mortar,  or  his 
own  dung,  is  a dangerous  animal.  He  should 
be  at  once  chained  up  and  kept  in  confinement 
until  his  condition  be  clearly  ascertained. 

4.  If,  in  addition  to  any  or  all  of  the  fore- 
going symptoms,  the  dog  has  delusion  of  the 
senses,  appearing  to  see  or  hear  imaginary 
sights  or  sounds,  trying  to  pass  through  a 
closed  door,  catching  at  flies  in  the  air  where 
there  are  none,  or  searching  for  something 
which  does  not  exist,  there  is  great  probability 
that  he  is,  or  is  becoming,  hydrophobic.  He 
should  be  secured  and  confined  without  de- 
lay. 

5.  In  case  any  one  is  bitten  by  a dog  whose 
condition  is  suspicious,  the  most  effective  and 
beneficial  treatment  is  to  cauterize  the  wound 


300 


HYPOCHONDRIA 


HYSTERICAL  FITS 


at  once  with  a stick  of  silver  nitrate,  commonly 
called  “ lunar  caustic.”  The  stick  of  caustic 
should  be  sharpened  to  a pencil  point,  intro- 
duced quite  to  the  bottom  of  the  wound,  and 
held  in  contact  with  every  part  of  the  wounded 
surface  until  it  is  thoroughly  cauterized  and 
insensible.  This  destroys  the  virus  by  which 
the  disease  would  be  communicated. 

HYGIENE.  (See  Health.) 

HYPOCHONDRIA.— A disease  character- 
ized by  extreme  sensibility  of  the  nervous  sys- 
tem, and  bordering  very  closely  on  insanity,  to 
which  it  sometimes  leads.  The  patient’s  ideas 
are  often  of  the  most  extravagant  character, 
and  he  generally  believes  himself  to  be  suffer- 
ing from  some  terrible  and  imaginary  disease, 
or  to  be  much  worse  than  he  really  is.  He 
may  fancy  that  he  is  immensely  tall  or  inordi- 
nately small ; that  he  is  heavy  as  lead  or  light 
as  a feather  ; that  he  is  composed  of  glass  or  a 
lump  of  butter.  Hypochondriacs  are  all  ex- 
tremely timid,  and  their  fears  are  exercised 
upon  trifles,  or  are  altogether  groundless.  They 
dwell  constantly  upon  their  own  sufferings, 
and  are  usually  morose,  peevish,  suspicious, 
and  frequently  believe  their  dearest  friends 
to  have  designs  upon  their  life.  If  not  arrest- 
ed, the  disease  becomes  organic,  and  in  many 
cases  developes  into  acute  insanity  with  suicidal 
mania.  The  causes  of  hypochondria  are  va- 
rious, arising  usually  from  an  impaired  condi- 
tion of  the  nervous  system,  and  especially  from 
derangement  of  the  digestive  functions.  Men 
of  letters,  overtasked  students,  and  men  of 
business,  and  those  whose  naturally  delicate 
constitutions  and  ardent  imaginative  minds 
have  been  abnormally  stimulated,  are  the  most 
frequent  subjects  of  hypochondria ; but  it  may 
arise  in  the  strongest  persons,  after  profound 
grief  or  other  moral  emotion,  debilitating  ex- 
cesses of  any  kind,  or  the  sudden  suppression 
of  any  habitual  discharge.  Those,  too,  who, 
from  want  of  occupation  and  a due  amount  of 
exercise,  acquire  a luxurious  habit,  often  fall  a 
prey  to  it. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  must  of  course 
vary  somewhat  according  to  the  origin  and  na- 
ture of  the  disease.  In  general,  the  important 
thing  is  to  withdraw  the  patient’s  mind  as  much 
as  possible  from  himself ; and  for  this  purpose 
change  of  scene  and  cheerful  society  should  be 
sought.  The  system  should  also  be  strengthen- 
ed by  tonics,  and  exercise  in  the  open  air.  If 
the  disease  arise  from  idleness  and  luxury, 
then  plenty  of  active  exercise  and  a spare  diet 
are  the  proper  mode  of  treatment.  In  all  cases 
the  state  of  the  digestive  organs  should  be  at- 
tended to,  and  the  bowels  kept  in  a strictly 
normal  condition. 

HYSTERICAL  FITS.— An  hysterical  fit, 
though  generally  a very  innocent  thing  in  its 
effects,  is  yet  sufficiently  alarming  when  seen 
for  the  first  time.  Though  most  common  in 
women  of  an  excitable  and  ill-regulated  mind, 
it  may  occur  in  the  most  sensible  and  calm- 
judging  persons  under  sudden  shocks,  fright, 
great  mental  emotions,  grief,  joy,  or  anger. 


The  fit  is  often  preceded  by  a feeling  of  faint- 
ness and  of  choking,  as  if  a ball  were  rising  in 
the  throat,  interfering  with  swallowing,  and 
even  with  speech.  Then  comes  on  a violent 
fit  of  screaming  and  sobbing,  mingled  with 
bursts  of  laughter ; the  eyes  are  closed,  the 
breath  is  drawn  with  difficulty,  the  face  becomes 
red,  and  the  limbs,  perhaps,  convulsed ; the 
throat  is  grasped  violently,  or  the  hair  is  torn, 
or  the  hands  or  feet  are  beaten  violently  against 
the  ground.  In  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  the 
fit  goes  off,  and  the  patient  comes  to  herself, 
having  been  more  or  less  unconscious  while  it 
lasted.  When  a paroxysm  threatens,  loosen 
each  article  of  dress,  lay  the  patient  on  the 
floor  without  a carpet,  and  dash  large  quantities 
of  cold  water  into  the  face,  to  the  extent  of  two 
or  three  pailfuls  if  need  be.  A little  water 
merely  sprinkled  into  the  face  only  increases 
the  disorder,  while  large  quantities,  strongly 
dashed,  cut  it  short.  No  harm  results,  how- 
ever, if  no  treatment  is  employed.  A dose  of 
valerian  is  a popular  and  excellent  remedy. 

Hysteria,  of  which  the  fits  are  merely  a 
transient  paroxysm,  is,  as  its  name  implies, 
very  frequently  symptomatic  of  some  irregular- 
ity in  the  function  peculiar  to  the  womb,  the 
periodical  secretion  from  that  organ  being 
either  deficient  or  in  excess,  irregular  in  its 
recurrence,  attended  with  difficulty  and  pain, 
or,  as  in  many  cases,  morbid  in  its  quality. 
To  some  of  these  conditions  the  severe,  pro- 
tracted or  repeated  attacks  of  hysteria  are 
generally  to  be  ascribed;  but  it  may  also  be 
caused  by  nervous  irritability,  vivid  moral  emo- 
tions, anythingwhich  excites  the  imagination, 
especially  disappointed  love,  jealousy,  and  vari- 
ous excesses  of  body  and  mind.  In  very  many 
cases  it  is  partly- a desire  of  the  mind,  brought 
on  by  improper  self-abandonment  to  the  power 
of  the  emotions,  and  especially  to  feelings  of  a 
painful  character  or  of  sexual  tendency. 

Treatment. — The  principles  of  treating  hys- 
teria are  threefold  : i,  to  improve  the  nutrition 
of  the  nervous  system  by  bringing  the  blood 
up  to  its  healthy  standard,  by  a strengthening 
diet,  hygienic  means,  and  the  judicious  employ- 
ment of  tonics  ; 2,  to  remove  all  irregularities 
in  the  menstrual  or  other  functions,  when  they 
are  evident  exciting  causes  ; 3,  to  act  upon  the 
mind,  by  leading  the  patient  to  repress  the  first 
emotional  excitement  by  the  force  of  will,  and 
to  direct  the  attention  to  a different  class  of 
objects,  substituting  a pleasant  for  a disagreea- 
ble train  of  thought.  After  a paroxysm,  tran- 
quility of  mind  and  habits  of  self-control  are 
the  best  means  of  preventing  a return ; any 
disappointment,  whether  in  love,  business,  or 
other  affairs  of  life,  should,  if  possible,  be  re- 
moved by  the  realization  of  the  hopes.  If  mar- 
riage be  unattainable,  the  tendency  to  hysterical 
attacks  will  often  be  removed  by  the  change  of 
air  and  scene  and  habits  resulting  from  a dis- 
tant journey ; and  a similar  course  is  useful  to 
distract  the  attention  from  other  consuming 
cares  and  persons  which  may  act  as  predis- 
posing causes. 


ICE 


ICE-CREAM 


301 


I 


ICE. — Ice  is  usually  kept  for  immediate 
family  use,  in  refrigerators,  which  it  is  cheapest 
to  buy  good.  They  should  be  seldom  open- 
ed. Two  thicknesses  of  newspaper  wrapped 
around  the  ice  before  it  is  put  into  the  recep- 
tacle will  make  it  last  nearly  twice  as  long. 
Where  a refrigerator  is  not  at  hand,  ice  should 
be  wrapped  in  a thick  blanket  and  kept  in  a 
cool  place.  ( See  Coolers.) 

ICE  BAG. — A rubber  bag,  closed  with  a 
metal  clamp,  to  be  obtained  from  druggists  and 
rubber  stores.  It  is  of  the  greatest  convenience 
where  bruises,  or  any  other  ill,  call  for  the 
application  of  ice  to  the  surface  of  the  body. 

ICE-HOUSES.— Whether  dug  out  of  the 
side  of  a hill  or  in  level  ground,  require  protec- 
tion from  heat  transmitted  or  conducted  through 
the  atmosphere  or  through  the  soil.  To  protect 
them  from  the  heat  of  the  sun  they  should  al- 
ways be  dug  in  places  well  sheltered  by  trees  ; to 
protect  them  from  heated  winds  the  opening 
into  them  should  be  towards  the  north.  In  ail 
cases  their  entrances  should  be  closed  hermet- 
ically, and  at  all  times  when  the  temperature  is 
above  freezing-point.  An  ice-house  should 
never  be  dug  in  wet  soil,  or  near  a spring  ; and 
to  prevent  the  transmission  of  heat  through  the 
earth,  the  sides,  bottom,  and  top  should  be 
lined  with  masonry  and  cement,  thick  and  close 
enough  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  water.  A 
small-sized  ice-house,  cheap  and  simple,  may 
be  made  as  follows : Dig  a hole  in  the  north 
side  of  a hill,  about  six  and  a half  feet  in  diam- 
eter and  in  depth.  At  the  bottom  run  a small 
trench  through  to  the  outside,  for  carrying  off 
the  water  produced  by  the  melting  of  the  ice, 
the  bottom  and  sides  must  be  made  of  laths  or 
thin  planks  attached  to  girders  and  uprights  ; 
over  this  planking  must  be  placed  straw,  press- 
ed close,  and  forming  a layer  of  non-conducting 
material  about  half  an  inch  thick.  The  top  of 
the  pit  should  be  covered  with  a ceiling  of  wood, 
and  over  this  earth  should  be  heaped  to  a 
height  of  over  three  feet.  At  the  north  side  of 
the  pit  is  the  entrance,  a square-head  forming 
an  inclosure,  which  should  be  filled  with  straw. 
A few  steps  conduct  down  to  the  door  of  the 
ice-house,  which  must  be  closely  covered  with 
bundles  of  straw,  and  is  itself  made  of  wood 
with  straw  attached  to  its  inner  side.  An  ice- 
house of  this  size  will  hold  between  three  and 
four  tons  of  ice ; enough,  allowing  for  all  pro- 
bable -waste  by  melting,  to  last  the  largest 
household  through  the  season.  It  should  be 
entered  only  once  a day;  and  the  straw  which 
covers  the  entrance  should  not  be  removed  for 
a longer  time,  or  more,  than  is  necessary. 

It  is  necessary  to  trap  the  drain  by  which  the 
water  that  melts  from  the  ice  is  carried  away. 
If  this  be  not  done,  and  with  a trap  of  such  a 


nature  as  to  be  certain  to  remain  full  of  water, 
the  drain  will  act  as  an  inlet  of  warm  air,  and 
will  effectually  counteract  all  the  best  precau- 
tions of  other  sorts. 

ICE-CREAM. — If  ice-cream  is  to  be  made 
at  home,  it  is  best  (and  most  economical)  to  buy 
a patent  “freezer”  and  have  it  always  ready. 
There  are  a great  number  of  these  to  be  had, 
nearly  all  of  which  are  good  ; select  one  which 


Ice-pail  and  Freezer. 


is  simple  in  construction,  and  which  has  a 
space  of  about  five  inches  between  the  outer 
surface  of  the  “ form  ” and  the  inner  surface 
of  the  “ tub.”  This,  if  properly  managed,  will 
freeze  cream  in  half  an  hour.  In  preparing  for 
use,  break  the  ice  up  in  small  pieces  and  put  a 
layer  in  the  tub  about  three  inches  deep ; then 
put  in  a layer  of  salt  (rock  salt  is  best),  and 
then  more  ice,  etc.,  using  about  one-fourth  as 
much  salt  as  ice  and  having  a layer  of  ice  on 
top.  This  mixture  must  come  at  least  as  high 
up  on  the  outside  of  the  freezer  as  the  cream 
does  on  the  inside,  and  it  is  better  to  have 
it  reach  the  whole  height  of  the  freezer.  A 
hole  in  the  tub  to  let  off  the  water  as  the 
ice  melts  is  a great  advantage.  In  taking 
out  for  use,  first  wipe  off  every  particle  of 
the  ice  and  salt  from  the  freezer,  then  with 
a knife  loosen  the  sides,  then  invert  the  free- 
zer upon  the  dish  in  which  the  ice  is  to  be 
served,  and  apply  two  towels  wrung  out  in  hot 
water  to  the  bottom  part ; the  whole  will  soon 
slide  out  in  the  shape  of  a cylinder.  If  it  is 
desired  to  serve  the  cream  in  moulds,  pour  it 
into  them  when  it  is  frozen  sufficiently,  and 
then  cover  the  moulds  with  snow  and  salt  till 
they  are  wanted.  Dip  the  moulds  in  warm 
water  to  make  the  ice  slip  out  easily. 

Almond  Ice-cream. — Sweet  almonds,  3 oz  ; 
bitter  almonds,  1 oz ; cream,  3 pts ; sugar,  2 
teacupfuls ; arrow-root,  1 tablespoonful  wet  up 
with  cold  milk ; rose-water,  2 tablespoonfuls. 

Pound  the  almonds  to  a paste,  and  add  to 
them  the  rose-water ; heat  one  pint  of  the  cream 
almost  to  boiling;  stir  in  the  sugar,  and  when 
this  is  melted,  the  almonds  ; simmer  ten  min- 
utes, stirring  often  ; then  remove  from  the  fire 
and  let  it  stand  ten  minutes  longer  in  a cover- 


302 


ICE-CREAM 


ICES 


ed  vessel.  Strain  the  cream  pressing  the  bag 
hard  ; then  return  it  to  the  sauce-pan  and  stir 
in  the  arrowroot  until  the  cream  thickens — say 
five  minutes.  When  quite  cold,  beat  very 
light  with  an  egg-whip,  adding  gradually  the 
rest  of  the  cream  ; it  should  be  light  in  half  an 
hour.  Then  freeze. 

Chocolate  Ice-cream. — Take  /-Chocolate,  3 
dessert-spoonfuls ; cream,  1 pt ; milk,  pt ; 
sugar,  1 teacupful;  egg,  1. 

Beat  the  egg  very  light  and  mix  it  with  the 
sugar ; heat  the  milk  almost  to  boiling  and  add 
it  to  the  eggand  sugar  ; rub  the  chocolate  smooth 
in  a little  milk,  and  stir  it  in.  A little  vanilla 
may  be  added  if  the  flavor  is  liked.  Put  on  the 
fire  and  heat  until  it  thickens  well,  stirring  all 
the  time  ; then  set  aside  to  cool.  When  it  is 
cold,  beat  in  the  cream,  and  freeze. 

Coffee  Ice-cream.— Take  .-—Coffee,  1 cupful, 
strong  and  clear  ; cream,  3 pts  ; sugar,  3 cup- 
fuls ; arrowroot,  2 table-spoonfuls. 

Take  half  the  cream,  heat  it  nearly  to  boiling 
and  stir  in  the  sugar;  when  this  is  melted,  add 
the  coffee ; wet  up  the  arrowroot  with  a little 
cold  milk,  and  stir  that  in.  Boil  for  five  min- 
utes, stirring  constantly,  and  set  aside  to  cool. 
When  cold,  beat  in  the  rest  of  the  cream  by 
degrees  ; then  freeze. 

Fruit  Ice-cream.— Make  rich  boiled  custard, 
and  mash  into  it  the  soft  ripe  fruit,  or  the 
grated  or  cooked  hard  fruit,  or  grated  pineap- 
ple; rub  all  through  a sieve,  sweeten  it  very 
sweet,  and  freeze  it.  Apples,  pears,  peaches, 
quinces,  raspberries,  and  strawberries,  are  all 
good  for  this  purpose. 

Lemon  Ice-cream. — Take  .•—Lemons,  1 doz; 
cream,  3 qts  ; sugar. 

Squeeze  all  the  juice  from  the  lemons,  and 
stir  into  it  enough  of  sugar  to  make  it  thick ; 
then  add  gradually  the  cream,  flavored  with 
some  of  the  grated  rind,  and  freeze. 

Orange  Ice-Cream. — Made  same  as  lemon 
ice-cream.  Orange  requires  less  sugar. 

Orgeat  Ice-Cream. — Take  .--Sweet  almonds, 
I oz  ; bitter  almonds,  \ oz ; cream,  1 pt ; 
eggs,  yolks  of  8 ; sifted  sugar,  4 oz. 

Blanch  and  pound  the  almonds  with  a little 
orange-flower  water  (or  rose-water)  ; beat  the 
yolks  of  the  eggs,  add  the  sugar,  and  stir  all 

fently  into  the  cream ; put  the  whole  on  the 
re  and  stir  continually  till  it  begins  to  thicken. 
Take  it  off,  stir  till  cold,  and  then  put  it  into 
the  freezer. 

Philadelphia  Ice-cream. — Take  /-Cream  or 
milk,  2 qts ; sugar,  powdered,  1 lb  ; arrowroot, 
3 table-spoonfuls  ; eggs,  whites  of  8. 

Boil  the  milk  or  cream  (the  latter  is  best)  ; 
thicken  it  with  the  arrowroot ; add  the  sugar  ; 
and  pour  the  whole  upon  the  whites  of  the  eggs, 
which  should  previously  have  been  well  beaten 
up.  If  a flavor  of  vanilla  is  desired,  split  half 
a bean,  and  boil  it  in  the  milk.  When  all  the 
ingredients  are  stirred  together  thoroughly, 
freeze. 

Pineapple  Ice-cream. — Take  /-Pineapple,  J 
large  one ; cream,  1 qt ; powdered  sugar,  1 lb. 
Pare  the  pineapple,  slice  it  thin,  and  spread 


the  sugar  between  the  slices ; cover  it,  and  let 
it  stand  three  hours  ; then  chop  it  up  fine,  and 
strain  the  syrup  through  a sieve  ; beat  this  into 
the  cream,  and  freeze  at  once.  A few  slices  of 
the  pineapple  may  be  cut  into  bits,  unsugared, 
and  stirred  into  the  cream  when  it  is  half 
frozen. 

Peach  Ice-cream. — Make  same  as  pineap- 
ple ice-cream. 

Strawberry  or  raspberry  Ice-cream. — 

Take  /-Strawberries  or  raspberries,  1 pt ; cream, 
1 pt;  sugar;  juice  of  half  a lemon. 

Mash  the  berries  and  strain  off  the  juice  ; to 
this  add  sugar  enough  to  make  very  sweet,  and 
stir  in  the  cream  ; strain  in  the  juice  of  half  a 
lemon ; press  the  whole  through  a sieve,  and 
freeze.  Currants  may  be  worked  up  in  the  same 
way. 

If  raspberries  or  strawberries  are  not  in 
season,  take  a pound  of  the  juice  of  either  and 
add  the  juice  of  one  or  two  lemons,  half  a pint 
of  cream,  and  half  a pint  of  fresh  milk ; color 
with  a few  drops  of  tincture  of  cochineal,  and 
freeze. 

Vanilla  Ice-cream. — Make  same  as  Phila- 
delphia ice-cream,  first  boiling  a vanilla  bean  in 
the  milk  till  the  flavor  is  strong  enough.  Or, 
boil  a vanilla  bean,  well  scraped,  in  a quart  of 
milk,  until  flavored  ; beat  up  the  yolks  of  eight 
eggs  and  stir  them  in ; sweeten  well ; and  add 
the  whites  of  the  eggs,  whipped  to  a stiff 
froth.  Boil  till  it  begins  to  thicken,  stir  till 
cold,  and  then  freeze. 

ICES  (WATER',. — Omit  the  cream,  and  mix 
water  with  the  juices  of  the  fruit.  When  fro- 
zen they  should  be  perfectly  smooth,  and  soft 
enough  to  yield  easily  to  the  spoon.  If  brittle 
or  solid,  it  is  an  indication  that  too  much  water 
has  been  used. 

Cherry-water  Ice. — Take  /-Cherries,  1 qt ; 
lemons,  2 ; sugar,  1 pt ; water,  1 pt ; brandy,  1 
wineglassful. 

Bruise  the  cherries  and  half  the  stones  in  a 
mortar;  squeeze  them  through  a bag  over  the 
sugar ; add  the  water  and  the  brandy ; then 
freeze. 

Currant-water  Ice. — Take  /-Ripe,  red  cur- 
rants, and  granulated  sugar;  eggs,  whites  of  2. 

Squeeze  the  currants  through  a linen  bag, 
and  for  each  pint  of  the  juice  allow  a pound  of 
granulated  sugar  and  a pint  of  water;  and 
when  the  sugar  is  thoroughly  melted,  put  into 
the  freezer;  when  half  frozen,  add  the  whites 
of  two  eggs,  whipped  to  a stiff  froth. 

Gooseberry-water  Ice. — Stew  the  goose- 
berries until  they  are  soft,  and  then  squeeze 
out  the  juice  through  a linen  bag;  to  every  pint 
allow  a pound  of  granulated  sugar  and  a pint 
of  water  ; mix  well,  and  freeze;  eggs  as  above. 

Lemon-water  Ice. — To  one  pint  of  lemon 
juice,  add  one  quart  of  granulated  sugar  and 
one  quart  of  water,  in  which  the  grated  rind  of 
three  lemons  has  been  soaked,  until  highly 
flavored  ; when  partly  frozen,  add  the  whites  of 
four  eggs,  beaten  to  a stiff  froth. 

Orange-waterlce. — Take  /-Oranges,  6;  lem- 
ons, 2 ; sugar,  1 pt ; water,  1 pt ; eggs,  whites  of  2. 


ICING 


INFANT 


303 


Prepare  and  freeze  as  directed  for  Lemon- 
water  ice. 

Pineapple-water  Ice. — Take  .--Pineapples, 
2,  large  and  ripe ; water  i pt ; egg,  white  of  i ; 
sugar. 

Pare  the  pineapples,  remove  the  eyes,  grate, 
add  the  water  and  sufficient  sugar  to  make  it 
very  sweet ; pass  it  through  the  colander  and 
mix  it  little  by  little  with  the  white  of'theegg, 
beaten  to  a stiff  froth  ; then  freeze. 

Raspberry-water  Ice. — Make  as  directed  for 
strawberries. 

Strawberry-water  Ice. — Crush  two  quarts 
of  fresh  strawberries  with  two  pounds  of  granu- 
lated sugar  ; let  them  stand  an  hour  or  more ; 
squeeze  them  in  a straining  cloth,  pressing  out 
all  the  juice ; add  to  it  an  equal  measure  of 
water,  and  when  half  frozen  beat  in  the  whites 
of  three  eggs,  whisked  to  a stiff  froth. 

ICING-  (FOR  CAKE).— I.  Beat  the  whites 
of  three  eggs  to  a froth  only  (not  until  they 
are  white ) ; add  gradually  i lb  of  powdered 
sugar  while  you  continue  beating;  this  may  be 
done  in  five  minutes.  Flavor  with  lemon  or 
vanilla.  Beating  the  egg  stiff  before  the  sugar 
is  added  makes  the  icing  slow  in  drying.  Ice 
the  cake  as  soon  as  taken  from  the  oven. 

II.  Place  one  pound  of  sugar  ( double  re- 
fined) in  a bowl  with  a level  teaspoonful  of 
cream  tartar,  and  the  whites  of  three  eggs;  beat 
with  a wooden  spoon  20  minutes,  when  it  should 
be  very  white  and  light,  and  on  letting  it  run 
from  the  spoon,  preserve  its  thread-like  appear- 
ance 3 or  4 minutes.  Invert  the  cake  on  a 
mould  that  is  smaller  than  the  cake.  Ice  the 
sides  with  a broad-bladed  knife;  when  dry, turn 
the  cake  and  cover  the  top  by  slowly  pouring 
the  icing  on  the  center  of  the  cake. 

III.  (Almond.) — Blanch  fifteen  ounces  of  Jor- 
dan, and  1 oz  of  bitter  almonds;  pound  to  a 
smooth  fine  paste,  with  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
orange-flower  water;  then  add  ij  lb  sifted 
sugar,  and  4 whites  of  eggs.  Mix  and  pound 
well  for  eight  or  ten  minutes  ; take  it  up  in  a 
bowl.  Pass  a long  band  of  paper,  2\  inches 
wide,  around  the  sides  of  the  cake,  leaving  it 
1 inch  above  the  top;  then  make  a layer  of  the 
icing,  place  it  in  a slow  oven  35  minutes  with- 
out acquiring  any  color.  It  may  be  served  as 
it  is,  or  be  iced  as  above  over  it. 

IMPERIAL. — Scald  a jug,  and  put  into  it 
i to  £ oz  cream  of  tartar;  add  1 qt  of  boiling 
water,  flavor  with  lemon  peel  or  essence  of 
lemon,  sweeten  to  taste.  A refreshing  and 
mildly  stimulating  summer  beverage. 

INDIA-RUBBER.  — A cement  can  be 
bought  which  will  mend  articles  of  flexible 
rubber.  The  fact  that  some  soft-rubber  arti- 
cles can  be  stuck  together  when  heated  should 
not  lead  anybody  to  heat  hard  rubber  in  hopes 
of  repairing  it. 

The  elasticity  of  soft  rubber  articles  is  of 
rather  uncertain  duration,  manufacturers  do  not 
like  to  guarantee  it  for  more  than  three  months, 
though  it  generally  lasts  much  longer.  In  its 
pure  state  caoutchouc  is  nearly  colorless,  and 
the  dark  blue  which  most  of  it  has  in  the 


crude  state  is  produced  by  the  smoke  to  which 
it  is  subjected  in  the  East  Indies  in  the  process 
of  drying. 

INDIA  SHAWL.  (See  Shawls.) 

INDIGESTION.  (See  Dyspepsia.) 

INFANT. — The  period  of  infancy,  according 
to  the  division  usually  adopted  by  medical 
writers,  extends  to  the  time  of  changing  from 
fluid  to  solid  food,  or  say  the  end  of  the  second 
year  ; and  it  is  this  period  only  which  will  be 
treated  of  in  detail  here.  For  suggestions  con- 
cerning a later  stage  of  childhood,  see  article 
on  Children.* 

As  the  infant’s  life  is  for  the  most  part  passed 
in  the  same  room  with  its  mother,  it  is  not  ne- 
cessary to  dwell  upon  the  arrangement  and  care 
of  the  nursery.  The  essential  point  is  that  what- 
ever room  they  pass  the  time  in  should  be 
sufficiently  ventilated,  and  should  (especially 
during  the  first  month  or  two)  be  kept  at  a 
moderate  and  uniform  temperature,  say  from 
65°  to  70°.  If  artificial  heat  be  needed,  an 
open  fire  is  by  all  means  to  be  preferred  to  any 
other  method.  The  best  bed  for  an  infant  is 
the  ordinary  hair  mattress;  if  the  infant  be 
delicate,  or  while  it  is  very  young,  a folded  quilt 
may  be  laid  on  this  to  make  it  softer.  As  a 
general  thing  no  pillow  at  all  will  be  needed, 
but  if  any  is  used,  it  should  be  a very  thin  one, 
made  of  hair.  Blankets  of  a soft  and  fleecy 
texture,  and  not  too  heavy,  should  form  the 
only  covering,  especially  at  first.  Sheets,  when 
they  are  used  at  all,  are  better  of  cotton  than 
of  linen. 

Birth. — Usually  a birth  takes  place  in  the 
presence  of  a physician,  and  in  such  cases,  the 
management  of  all  the  details  is  left  to  him. 
Sometimes,  however,  in  spite  of  all  precautions, 
the  child  is  born  in  his  absence,  and  then  the 
life  of  both  mother  and  infant  depend  to  some 
extent  upon  prompt  and  intelligent  action. 
The  child  should  be  allowed  to  remain  upon 
the  bed,  protected  from  the  cold,  but  with  free 
access  of  the  air  to  the  mouth  in  order  that  it 
may  be  able  to  breathe.  The  attendant  should 
pinch  the  cord  which  goes  from  the  child’s  na- 
vel tightly  between  her  thumb  and  fingers,  so 
as  to  stop  the  beating  in  the  arteries  of  the  cord 
beyond  her  fingers ; she  may  take  hold  of  the 
cord  for  this  purpose  about  six  inches  from  the 
child’s  body.  If  the  physician  is  expected  to 
arrive  soon,  she  should  continue  thus  to  hold 
the  cord  till  he  comes.  If  he  cannot  be  pres- 
ent for  some  time,  she  may  tie  the  cord,  pro- 
ceeding in  this  way : take  a strong  string  (a 
piece  of  stout  saddler’s  silk  is  best)  twelve  or 
fifteen  inches  long,  and  put  it  round  the  cord 
two  inches  from  the  child's  body , tying  it  in  the 
usual  way  of  a single  knot.  Then  it  should  be 
drawn  tight,  so  as  entirely  to  stop  all  beating 
beyond  it,  care  being  taken  not  to  let  either 

*The  writer  has  endeavored  to  make  the  suggestions  embod- 
ied in  these  two  articles  full  enough  for  all  the  practical  purposes 
of  an  intelligent  mother  or  nurse  ; but  those  desiring  more  de- 
tailed information  on  these  and  other  points  should  procure  the 
excellent  work  from  which  a considerable  part  of  our  own  ma- 
terial was  drawn  : “ The  Handbook  for  Mothers,  by  Edward  E. 
Parker,  M.  D.,  New  York:  Hurd  & Houghton.” 


304 


INFANT 


hand  slip,  for  fear  the  umbilical  cord  should  be 
torn  away  from  the  body  of  the  child,  which  is 
a very  grave  accident.  Secure  the  knot  by 
another  tie — that  is,  make  it  a hard  knot ; 
but  the  ends  must  not  be  cut  off  yet.  Another 
similar  knot  must  be  tied  round  the  cord  about 
two  inches  farther  from  the  child  than  the  first 
one  ; then,  with  a sharp  pair  of  scissors,  the 
cord  may  be  cut  in  two.  All  this  should  be 
done  in  a good  light,  and  especial  care  taken 
that  nothing  is  in  the  way  of  the  scissors  so  as 
to  be  injured  by  them.  After  the  cord  is  di- 
vided, the  cut  end  next  the  child  should  be 
wiped  clear  of  blood  and  carefully  examined  to 
be  sure  there  is  no  bleeding  from  it.  If  it  does 
bleed,  the  cord  must  be  again  tied  a little  near- 
er the  child’s  body  than  the  first  string,  and 
with  the  same  precautions  as  before.  The  cord 
however  is  not  to  be  cut  again.  When  it  is  as- 
certained that  there  is  no  bleeding  from  the 
cord,  the  ends  of  the  string  should  be  cut  off 
within  an  inch  of  the  knot,  and  the  child  care- 
fully wrapped  in  a warm  and  soft  blanket  or 
sheet,  and  kept  from  all  exposure  to  cold,  air 
to  breathe  being  allowed  it.  If  the  child  does 
not  breathe  when  it  is  first  born,  its  naked  chest 
should  be  blown  upon,  with  short  but  vigorous 
and  repeated  puffs  from  the  mouth  ; its  chest 
may  be  rubbed  smartly  with  the  hand  or  a tow- 
el— with  alcohol  if  practicable — or  it  may  be 
sprinkled  smartly  with  cold  water  ; or  a little 
cold  water  or  alcohol  may  be  taken  in  the 
mouth  and  spurted  upon  the  chest  so  as  to  strike 
it  with  some  force.  If  these  fail,  the  nurse 
should  put  her  mouth  over  the  mouth  and  nose 
of  the  child  with  a view  of  blowing  up  its  lungs, 
at  the  same  time  that  the  other  means  continue 
to  be  used.  When  breathing  is  fairly  establish- 
ed, the  child  should  be  allowed  to  remain  with- 
out separation  of  the  cord  till  all  the  purple 
color  has  passed  off  from  the  face,  and  then 
proceed  as  before  directed. 

The  care  of  the  child  immediately  after  the 
birth  is  a matter  of  some  delicacy.  For  a time 
after  the  cord  has  been  cut,  it  should  be  laid 
in  a warm  place,  carefully  protected  from  cur- 
rents of  air  and  covered  with  light  clothing  to 
take  a little  rest.  When  nothing  is  more  im- 
perative, the  infant  should  then  be  washed, 
and  for  this  purpose  use  a hand-basin  of  good 
size,  or  a very  small  tub  half  filled  with  warm 
water.  To  use  cold  water  as  is  sometimes 
done  is  unjustifiable  ; for  although  a very  robust 
infant  may  not  suffer  from  it,  the  chances  are, 
at  the  best,  that  it  will  take  a violent  cold. 
Too  hot  water  is  also  to  be  avoided  ; the  prop- 
er temperature  is  a little  below  blood-heat. 
The  infant  may  be  washed  with  a soft  sponge 
as  it  lies  on  the  lap,  or  it  may  be  placed  in  the 
tub : the  former  is  preferable.  The  difficulty 
in  the  first  washing  is  to  remove  the  cheesy 
matter  on  the  surface.  Oil,  lard,  or  egg  are 
frequently  applied  before  the  washing  under 
the  impression  that  they  remove  this  cheesy 
matter  more  effectually  ; but  for  this  purpose 
soap,  which  should  be  delicate,  not  coarse,  is 
sufficient.  All  of  this  matter  must  be  carefully 


removed,  especial  pains  being  taken  with  any 
creases  that  may  be  found,  and  with  the  hair. 
If,  in  washing  the  child,  any  real  or  supposed 
deformity  is  found,  it  is  best  to  consult  the 
physician  at  once.  If  it  is  not  real,  it  will  be  a 
relief  to  the  parents  to  know  it ; if  it  needs  atten- 
tion, it  may  be  important  that  it  receive  it  at 
once.  After  the  washing  is  completed,  if  the 
child  is  cold,  it  had  better  be  wrapped  up  snug- 
ly in  a warm  and  very  soft  blanket,  and  allowed 
to  get  warm  before  the  dressing  is  proceeded 
with.  In  dressing,  the  first  thing  to  be  done 
is  to  dress  the  cord  of  the  navel.  For  this 
purpose,  take  a strip  of  old  and  soft  linen,  half 
an  inch  wide  and  six  inches  long,  and  wind  it 
round  the  cord  till  it  is  entirely  covered  ; then 
lay  the  cord  up  against  the  belly,  and  apply  the 
belly-band  over  it.  This  belly-band  should  be 
of  fine  and  soft,  but  strong  flannel,  about  four 
inches  wide  and  eighteen  inches  long,  and  cut 
straightway s of  the  cloth.  The  middle  of  the 
band  should  be  put  over  the  navel,  one  end 
lapped  over  the  other,  drawn  pretty  firmly,  and 
fastened  so  as  not  to  slip;  there  will  be  less 
danger  of  its  slipping  if  the  lower  edge  is 
drawn  a little  tighter  than  the  upper.  The 
rest  of  the  clothing  should  be  warm  and  very 
light,  and  should  be  put  on  so  as  to  fit  loosely. 

After  the  child  is  dressed,  it  should  be  laid 
on  a soft  pillow  and  allowed  to  sleep.  The 
fatigue  of  being  born,  and  then  washed  and 
dressed,  is  such  that  it  will  often  sleep  a long 
time;  which  it  should  be  allowed  to  do  without 
disturbance.  If  it  cries  and  will  not  be  paci- 
fied, it  should  then  be  allowed  to  nurse,  or  at 
any  rate  to  take  the  first  lesson  in  sucking.  If 
the  child  succeeds  in  drawing  the  breast,  it 
will  be  satisfied,  though  it  gets  but  very  little, 
and  it  should  then  be  allowed  to  go  to  sleep. 
In  two  hours,  if  it  is  awake,  and  cries  as  if  for 
food,  it  may  be  allowed  to  try  the  other  breast 
in  the  same  way.  It  is  very  desirable  that  the 
child  should  thus  get  the  fluid  in  the  breasts  ; 
not  only  is  it  natural  for  it  to  do  this,  but  this 
first  milk  differs  from  that  subsequently  pro- 
duced, in  that  it  has  a somewhat  cathartic  ef- 
fect, and  moves  from  the  bowels  the  secretions 
deposited  in  them  before  birth.  It  is  very  im- 
portant to  remember  this,  for  most  nurses  are 
bewitched  to  give  the  child  a teaspoonful  of 
molasses  and  water,  or  some  other  nauseous 
dose,  in  order,  as  they  say,  to  move  the  bowels. 
No  medicine  of  any  kind  should  be  permitted 
to  enter  the  infant's  lips.  Even  when  the 
mother’s  breast  yields  no  fluid  for  several  days, 
no  medicine  will  be  needed.  Sweetened  water, 
lukewarm,  will  be  all  that  is  required  for  the 
first  twenty-four  hours  ; afterwards,  the  addition 
of  one  part  of  boiled  and  skimmed  milk  to  four 
or  five  parts  of  sugar  water  is  to  be  given. 

The  habit  of  putting  the  child  to  the  breast 
every  time  it  cries,  should  be  shunned  for  the 
sake  of  the  mother  and  for  the  sake  of  the 
child  itself.  Once  in  two  hours  is  often  enough 
for  the  new-born  child  to  nurse  during  the  day, 
and  once  in  three  hours  during  the  night. 
With  the  increase  in  the  age  of  the  child,  the 


INFANT 


305 


intervals  between  meals  may  be  lengthened  so 
that  when  the  child  is  six  months  old,  it  should 
be  about  three  hours.  From  birth  too,  the 
infant  should  be  accustomed  to  go  to  sleep 
without  rocking,  walking,  or  trotting  it  on  the 
knee  ; it  is  astonishing  how  easily  good  or  bad 
habits  can  be  developed  at  this  time.  Every 
morning  the  child  should  be  put  into  a warm 
bath  (blood-heat  is  the  right  temperature), 
followed  by  a good  rubbing  with  the  soft  hand  ; 
it  should  then  be  dressed  and  allowed  to  nurse. 
After  the  first  month,  it  is  well,  if  the  weather 
be  mild,  to  accustom  the  infant  to  be  carried 
out  of  doors  by  its  nurse  every  day.  The 
dress,  of  course,  must  be  warm,  the  head  and 
chest  being  covered  and,  the  feet  being  pro- 
tected from  the  cold.  The  eyes  also  must  be 
protected  from  the  light ; but  the  utmost  care 
must  be  exercised  in  arranging  the  veil  or 
handkerchief  over  the  face,  for  it  is  the  easiest 
thing  imaginable  to  suffocate  a very  young 
child. 

Clothing  of  Infants. — As  regards  the  ma- 
terial of  infants’  clothing,  the  same  rule  applies 
as  to  the  clothing  of  adults  ( see  Clothing). 
Soft  flannel  or  woollen  garments  should  be 
worn  next  to  the  skin  for  the  greater  part 
of  the  year,  and  when  a change  is  made  to 
lighter  material,  it  should  be  done  with  great 
caution.  Dress  the  infant  so  that  it  will  be 
always  warm,  but  not  so  as  to  cause  perspira- 
tion. Be  sure  and  keep  its  feet  always  warm ; 
and  to  ensure  this,  warm  them  at  the  fire,  if 
they  seem  cold,  and  use  long  dresses.  Keep 
the  neck  and  arms  covered  ; for  this  purpose 
wrappers,  open  in  front,  and  made  high  in  the 
neck,  with  long  sleeves,  to  put  on  over  the 
dress  are  excellent.  It  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  the  tender  frame  of  the  infant  yields 
readily  to  pressure,  and  its  clothing  must  be 
large  and  loose,  so  that  no  part  of  its  form 
shall  be  prevented  from  moving  and  expanding 
with  all  the  freedom  of  nature.  Not  only  will 
tight  dressing  at  this  period  cause  permanent 
distortion,  and  thus  destroy  grace  and  beauty, 
but  it  will  sc  interfere  with  the  regular  course 
of  the  blood  and  action  of  the  various  organs 
as  to  produce  functional  derangement,  and 
probably  fatal  disease.  The  use  of  heavy 
diapers  may  have  a tendency  to  deform  the 
lower  limbs  of  an  infant.  If  not  entirely  dis- 
pensed with,  their  use  need  not  be  prolonged 
beyond  a very  few  months  of  infancy,  during 
which  the  natural  instincts  of  the  child  should 
be  made,  as  they  can  be  at  a very  early  period, 
to  assume  the  form  of  regular  habits.  The 
diaper,  moreover,  when  used,  should  be  very 
loosely  fitted  to  the  child,  so  as  not  to  bind  the 
thigh  and  prevent  the  free  action  of  its  muscles. 
The  substitution  of  short  dresses  for  long  ones 
may  take  place  when  the  child  is  about  four 
months  old,  if  the  weather  be  favorable,  and 
should  seldom  be  deferred  beyond  the  sixth 
month.  As  this  is  quite  a serious  change  in 
the  child’s  way  of  life,  it  should  be  carefully 
watched  for  a time  and  protected  against  cold  ; 
and,  whatever  the  season,  had  best  wear  light 
20 


woollen  socks  at  first.  Tight  shoes  as  well  as 
tight  dressing,  are  a domestic  torture  against 
which  the  infant  should  be  protected.  But  it 
is  not  so  much  small  shoes  as  ill-made  shoes 
that  produce  injury  to  young  feet.  Shoes  that 
do  not  fit  well  are  worn  down  at  the  heel  as 
soon  as  the  child  begins  to  walk;  the  ankle 
seems  to  give  way  also,  and  to  bend  towards 
the  defective  part  of  the  shoe ; and  the  child’s 
step  becomes  thus  both  unsafe  and  awkward. 
Caps  should  never  be  put  on  an  infant’s  head, 
except  when  it  is  sent  into  the  open  air. 

Diet  of  Infants.  The  mother’s  milk  is  the 
most  appropriate  food  for  an  infant  in  all  stages 
of  its  development ; but  it  happens  sometimes, 
that  the  mother  cannot  nurse  her  infant  or  that 
her  milk  is  insufficient,  and  in  such  cases  it  is 
necessary  to  find  a substitute.  This  providing 
of  artificial  food  is  the  most  delicate  and  im- 
portant point  in  the  raising  of  infants ; and  in 
the  suggestions  which  we  shall  offer  on  the 
subject  we  shall  follow  very  closely  the  rules 
laid  down  by  Dr.  Jacobi  in  his  address  to  the 
Public  Health  Association  of  New  York — pre- 
senting his  conclusions  as  far  as  possible,  but 
omitting  the  arguments  and  illustrations  by 
which  he  explains  and  enforces  them. 

Since  asses’  milk  cannot  be  procured  in  this 
country  the  choice  practically  lies  between  the 
milk  of  cows  and  that  of  goats.  In  goats’  milk 
the  percentage  of  solid  constituents  is  exces- 
sive, and  its  odor  is  frequently  so  disagreeable 
that  infants  will  refuse  to  take  it.  Cow’s  milk,  i 
therefore,  is  to  be  preferred  to  any  other.  But 
cow’s  milk  when  compared  with  human  milk,  is 
deficient  both  in  sugar  and  salt;  and  the 
former  has  to  be  made  up  by  the  addition  of  a 
little  loaf  sugar  (which  is  as  good  as  milk-sugar), 
and  the  latter  by  adding  an  alkaline  salt  (the 
carbonate  or  bicarbonate  of  potassa  or  soda). 
Whichever  of  these  may  be  selected  may  not 
make  a great  deal  of  difference  under  otherwise 
normal  circumstances  ; but  they  should  be  ad- 
ded at  once  when  the  milk  is  put  aside  for  the 
infant’s  use.  Common  salt  is  also  a very  ne- 
cessary addition  to  cow’s  milk,  especially  when 
the  milk  is  mixed  with  any  vegetable  substance. 
“ I add,”  says  Dr.  Jacobi,  “one  to  two  grains 
of  either  of  the  salts  to  every  meal  of  the  new- 
born, besides  a small  quantity  of  common  salt, 
— and  a larger  dose  in  proportion  to  age.”  But 
there  is  still  another  difficulty  to  be  overcome 
before  cow’s  milk  can  be  made  a perfectly  satis- 
factory substitute  for  the  mother’s  milk ; and 
that  is  the  greater  coagulability  of  its  caseine 
which  renders  it  comparatively  indigestible. 
The  remedy  of  this  is  as  follows:  Mix  quite 
thin  and  transparent  mucilage  (made  of  gum- 
arabic)  with  boiled  and  skimmed  milk,  and  add 
the  desirable  quantity  of  sugar  and  salt,  or  soda. 
This  acts  mechanically  only,  is  very  soothing  to 
the  bowels,  and  effectually  prevents  the  too  rapid 
coagulation  of  the  milk  in  the  infant’s  stomach. 
An  indifferent  substance  of  this  sort  will  gen- 
erally be  all  that  is  desired  for  very  young 
infants ; when  they  advance  in  weeks  and 
months,  they  require  a substance  which,  while 


306 


INFANT 


subserving  the  purposes  indicated  above,  will 
act  as  a nutriment  at  the  same  time.  Barley 
and  oatmeal  are  the  best  substances  for  this 
purpose, — better  than  wheat,  rye,  rice,  arrow- 
root,  or  any  other  of  the  cereals.  The  indica- 
tions for  the  use  of  one  or  the  other  lie  in  the 
condition  of  the  infant ; where  there  is  a de- 
cided tendency  to  constipation,  oatmeal  should 
be  used  ; where  there  is  no  such  tendency,  or 
the  bowels  are  inclined  to  be  loose,  barley 
should  be  employed.  The  “prepared  barley  ” 
is  a good  preparation  ; but  it  is  safer  to  buy  the 
grain  and  grind  it  in  a common  coffee-grinder; 
then  there  can  be  no  adulteration.  A teaspoon- 
ful of  either  should  be  boiled  in  from  three  to 
six  ounces  of  water,  with  some  salt,  for  twelve 
minutes, — the  decoction  to  be  quite  thin  for 
very  young  infants, — thicker  for  later  months — 
and  then  strained  through  a linen  cloth.  In- 
fants of  four  or  six  months  are  to  have  equal 
parts  of  this  decoction  (which  ought  to  be 
made  fresh  for  every  meal),  and  boiled  and 
skimmed  milk ; and  sugar  is  to  be  added.  At 
an  early  age  the  thin  decoction,  at  a later  the 
milk,  ought  to  prevail  in  the  mixture;  until  in- 
fants are  eight  or  ten  months  old,  it  should  be 
thin  enough  to  be  taken  through  a nursing-bot- 
tle. It  should  be  given  just  milk-warm;  and 
when  it  is,  a few  grains  of  bicarbonate  or  car- 
bonate of  potassa  or  soda  ought  to  be  added. 

To  keep  cow’s  milk  as  long  as  possible  with- 
out turning  sour,  it  should  be  boiled  at  once, 
and  set  in  a cool  place,  if  not  in  the  ice-box. 
Where  there  is  neither  a cool  place  nor  an  ice- 
box, the  following  plan  is  a good  one  : Pour  the 
whole  amount  of  boiled  or  skimmed  milk  the 
infant  is  to  have  during  the  day  into  a number 
of  two  or  four-ounce  bottles  ; fill  them  to  the 
neck,  and  then  cork  well.  Wrap  a wet  linen  or 
cotton  rag  around  the  bottles,  and  set  them  on 
a plate  half  filled  with  water ; keep  the  plate 
standing  in  the  airiest  place  to  be  found,  say 
between  door  and  window.  The  evaporation 
taking  place  from  the  moist  rag,  with  its  cool- 
ing effect,  will  prevent  early  decomposition. 

The  common  anxiety  to  procure  the  milk  of 
one  special  cow  for  infants  is  based  on  a mis- 
take. The  child  that  has  become  accustomed 
to  one,  will  suffer  from  the  abrupt  translation 
to  the  milk  of  another  animal — a transition 
which  is  often  inevitable  ; and,  besides  this,  the 
milk  of  a special  cow  may,  by  accidental  changes 
in  the  food,  undergo  frequent  and  unexpected 
changes.  The  plan  of  giving  the  average  milk 
of  a farm  is,  on  the  whole,  the  safest  that  can 
be  pursued. 

Condensed  milk  also  is  to  be  recommended, 
the  addition  of  loaf  sugar  that  is  made  in  the 
manufactories  being  rather  an  advantage  than 
otherwise.  When  used,  it  must  be  diluted  ac- 
cording to  the  degree  of  condensation,  which 
is  generally  from  four  or  five  to  one. 

In  summing  up  the  address  above  referred 
to,  Dr.  Jacobi  says  : “ If  I were  called  upon  to 
write  out  a few  brief  and  intelligible  rules  on 
the  feeding  of  infants  in  general,  they  would 
read  as  follows : 


“I.  About  Nursing  Babies: — Overfeeding 
does  more  harm  than  anything  else.  Nurse  a 
baby  of  a month  or  two  every  two  or  three 
hours.  Nurse  a baby  of  six  months  and  over, 
five  times  in  twenty-four  hours,  and  no  more. 
When  a baby  gets  thirsty  in  the  mean  time, 
give  it  a drink  of  water  or  barley  water.  No 
sugar.  In  hot  weather — but  in  the  hottest 
days  only — mix  a few  drops  of  brandy  or  whis- 
key with  either  water  or  food,  the  whiskey 
not  to  exceed  a teaspoonful  in  twenty-four 
hours. 

“II.  About  Feeding  Babies: — Boil  a tea- 
spoonful of  powdered  barley  (grind  it  in  a 
coffee-grinder),  and  a gill  of  water,  with  a 
little  salt,  for  fifteen  minutes ; strain  it  and 
mix  it  with  half  as  much  boiled  milk  and  a 
lump  of  white  sugar.  Give  it  lukewarm,  through 
a nursing-bottle.  Keep  bottle  and  mouthpiece 
in  a bowl  of  water  when  not  in  use.  Babies 
of  five  or  six  months,  half  barley  water  and 
half  boiled  milk,  with  salt  and  white  sugar. 
Older  babies,  more  milk  in  proportion.  When 
babies  are  very  costive,  use  oatmeal  instead 
of  barley;  cook  and  strain.  When  your  breast- 
milk  is  half  enough,  change  off  between  breast- 
milk  and  food  ” 

Diseases  of  Infants. — Most  of  the  diseases 
to  which  infants  are  liable,  such  as  chicken- 
pox,  croup,  cholera  infantum,  diarrhoea,  mea- 
sles, scarlet  fever,  thrush,  whooping-cough, 
etc.,  are  treated  of  under  their  several  heads. 
The  suggestions  given  in  the  article  on  Chil- 
dren concerning  the  “Signs  of  Disease  ” ap- 
ply equally  to  infants,  and  should  be  studied 
carefully  by  all  who  have  infants  in  charge. 
Fortunately,  if  proper  attention  be  given  to 
the  rules  of  health,  children  at  this  early  stage 
are  seldom  afflicted  with  any  diseases  beyond 
the  difficulties  which  will  be  mentioned  fur- 
ther along  under  “Teething,”  and  that  com- 
plaint which  makes  summer  a terror  to  most 
mothers. 

“ Summer  complaint”  comes  generally  from 
over-feeding,  and  hot  and  foul  air — never  from 
teething.  In  treating  it,  keep  the  doors  and 
windows  open,  so  as  to  ensure  abundance  of 
fresh  air.  Wash  the  child  with  cold  water  at 
least  twice  a day,  and  oftener  in  the  very  hot 
season.  When  there  is  vomiting  and  purging, 
give  no  milk  nor  anything  to  eat  or  drink  for 
four  or  six  hours,  but  all  the  fresh  air  possible  ; 
after  that  time  give  a few  drops  of  whiskey  in 
a teaspoonful  of  ice  water  every  ten  minutes, 
but  not  more,  until  the  doctor  comes.  If  the 
symptoms  continue,  and  medical  aid  is  not  at 
hand,  try  one  of  the  remedies  recommended  in 
article  on  cholera  infantum.  Give  no  lauda- 
num, or  paregoric,  or  soothing  syrup,  or  teas. 

Sleep  of  Infants. — It  is  a rule  which  should 
be  established  at  birth,  and  persisted  in  con- 
stantly, that  the  infant  should  not  sleep  with 
its  mother.  It  is  better  for  both  mother  and 
child  that  they  sleep  away  from  each  other;  and 
if  the  habit  is  never  formed,  no  difficulty  or  in- 
convenience will  accrue  from  it.  Another  rule 
which  ought  to  be  acted  on  is  to  accustom  the 


INFANT 


307 


child  to  going  to  sleep  at  the  proper  time  with- 
out rocking,  fondling,  walking  about,  or  trotting 
on  the  nurse’s  knees.  It  should  be  laid  on  the 
bed  or  in  its  crib  wide-awake,  and  left.  In 
most  cases,  if  if  has  not  previously  been  spoilt, 
it  will  go  quietly  to  sleep,  if  sleepy,  and  if  it  is 
not  sleepy,  it  had  better  remain  awake.  It  is 
astonishing  how  early  this  habit  may  be  form- 
ed, and  we  need  not  point  out  how  much 
trouble  and  annoyance  it  will  save  during  the 
first  three  or  four  years  of  the  child’s  life. 

The  sleep  required  by  a very  young  infant  is 
indefinitely  large,  and  its  instinctive  disposi- 
tion to  indulge  in  it  should  never  be  interfered 
with,  but,  on  the  contrary,  should  be  greatly 
encouraged.  Healthy  infants  will  and  should 
sleep  at  all  times,  and  a daily  slumber  in 
addition  to  the  nightly  one  is  required  by 
every  child  until  it  is  at  least  two  years  old. 
Sleeplessness  is  always  an  indication  of  de- 
rangement of  function,  or  of  organic  disease. 
For  the  first  three  or  four  months  of  in- 
fancy any  strict  regulation  as  to  habits  of 
sleeping  can  scarcely  be  carried  out ; but  by 
the  time  they  attain  their  third  some  steps 
may  be  taken  in  this  direction.  For  instance, 
young  infants  often  begin  their  lives  by  sleep- 
ing more  by  day  than  by  night — a very  troub- 
lesome and  inconvenient  habit,  but  one  diffi- 
cult to  alter ; yet,  as  soon  as  the  infant  be- 
gins to  take  notice,  his  nurse  should  endeavor 
to  keep  him  awake  as  the  evening  draws 
on,  by  arousing  his  attention  to  everything 
around,  and  by  fondling  him  actively  in  her 
arms.  Thus,  by  slight  fatigue  and  longer 
wakefulness,  she  will  be  preparing  him  to  settle 
down  quietly  later  in  the  evening.  As  soon  as 
possible,  suckling  or  feeding  a child  at  night 
ought  to  be  discontinued  ; after  the  first  month 
sleep  at  night  will  be  more  salutary  to  the  child 
than  food.  From  its  birth  to  the  age  of  six 
months  an  infant  should  have  two  sleeps  a 
day,  one  in  the  morning,  the  other  in  the  after- 
noon, each  of  an  hour’s  length.  After  the  sixth 
month  one  sleep  at  about  mid-day  will  be 
sufficient ; and  this  habit  should  be  continued 
until  the  end  of  the  third  year  of  the  child’s 
life,  and  even  to  a later  period  if  the  child  be 
weakly. 

In  rousing  young  children  from  sleep  the 
gentlest  means  should  be  employed,  not  vio- 
lent shaking  or  loud  speaking.  It  is  extremely 
hazardous  to  startle  or  shock  children  when 
they  are  awake ; but  to  rouse  them  from 
the  unconsciousness  of  sleep  into  a state  of 
terror  is  not  only  cruel,  but  may  cause  serious 
injury.  A boisterous,  rude,  or  harsh  nurse  may 
in  this  way  make  an  impression  of  horror  on  a 
child’s  mind  that  no  subsequent  gentleness  or 
kindness  can  efface.  It  is  best  under  all  cir- 
cumstances to  let  the  sleep  come  to  its  natural 
close. 

Teething. — The  first  set  of  teeth  (or  milk 
teeth)  usually  appear  in  the  following  order : — 
Two  front,  in  each  jaw  (incisors),  appear  about 
the  seventh  month — lower  teeth  first;  one  tooth 
next  to  each  of  the  preceding,  two  in  each  jaw 


(lateral  incisors),  from  the  seventh  tfl^he/tpn^h 
month — lower  teeth  first ; first  grincflffjsjAc^th/ 
(anterior  molars),  about  the  close  of  the  twmtte. 
month — irregular  in  their  order  ; stomach  and 
eye  teeth  (canines),  from  the  fourteenth  to  the 
twentieth  month — irregular  in  their  order; 
back  teeth  (posterior  molars),  from  the  eigh- 
teenth to  the  thirty-sixth  month — irregular  in 
their  order. 

A healthy  child  that  is  nursing  does  not 
usually  give  much  indication  of  disturbance  at 
the  time  of  teething,  except  by  an  excessive 
flow  of  saliva,  or,  as  it  is  commonly  called, 
“drooling.”  Perhaps  it  will  have  more  than 
the  customary  number  of  discharges  from  the 
bowels  in  the  twenty-four  hours,  and  it  may 
occasionally  be  a little  feverish  or  restless.  If 
the  gums  are  examined  at  this  time,  it  will  be 
found  that  the  ridge,  which  has  previously  been 
visible  along  the  edge  of  the  jaw,  has  entirely 
disappeared,  and  the  gum  is  full  and  rounded. 
After  a few  days,  the  point  of  a tooth  makes 
its  way  through  the  membrane  which  has 
covered  it,  and  the  remainder  of  its  crown 
soon  appears.  The  slight  disturbance  which 
has  previously  existed  then  disappears,  and 
returns  only  when  another  tooth  is  about  to 
come  through. 

This  is  the  healthy  and  natural  process  of 
teething,  which  is  but  rarely  interrupted  by 
accidents  or  mishaps  ; for,  indeed,  the  disturb- 
ances incident  to  the  period  are  too  frequently 
exaggerated.  When  the  child  keeps  perfectly 
well,  there  will  seldom  be  pain  produced  by 
the  pressure  of  the  tooth  on  the  gum,  which 
not  only  keeps  the  child  from  sleeping,  but 
from  obtaining  a moment’s  rest.  This  pain 
is  rarely  constant  and  severe.  When  the 
child’s  mouth  is  examined,  there  is  nothing 
found  in  most  cases  but  more  or  less  swelling 
of  the  gums.  When  the  tooth  is  near  cutting 
through,  a slight  depression  is  found  on  top. 
This  depression  results  from  gradual  decay  of 
the  tissue  under  which  the  tooth  is  gently 
pressing  upwards.  The  whole  process  is 
gradual  and  mild,  like  every  change  in  the  or- 
ganism, as  long  as  circumstances  are  favorable 
and  the  general  health  good.  Only  when  the 
gums  are  unusually  hard  or  inflamed  there  is 
some  danger  that,  by  the  exhaustion  and  irri- 
tation which  are  thus  produced,  the  nervous 
system  of  the  child  will  become  deranged,  and 
convulsions  follow.  To  avoid  this  danger,  the 
gum  should  be  divided  with  a lancet  so  as  to 
let  the  tooth  through.  When  the  gum  is  in 
the  condition  above  described,  no  harm  can 
possibly  result  from  its  division,  provided  it  is 
properly  done.  A cross  cut  (like  this,  X) 
should  be  made  directly  on  the  top  of  the  tooth 
and  down  to  it.  No  blood-vessel  can  be 
touched  in  this  way,  so  there  can  be  no  danger 
of  excessive  bleeding,  and  the  common  belief 
that  it  is  injurious  to  the  child  can  have  no 
foundation.  It  may,  perhaps,  be  best  to  add 
that  (/"there  is  much  bleeding  it  can  usually 
be  stopped  by  taking  a clean  and  soft  linen 
towel  and  pressing  it  with  the  finger  firmly 


308 


INFANT 


against  the  gum.  If  this  fails  to  stop  it,  a 
little  powdered  alum  may  be  put  on  the  finger 
and  pressed  against  it,  or  what  is  better, if  a drug- 
shop  is  near,  a little  tannin  may  be  gotten 
and  used  in  the  same  way.  In  the  country, 
when  neither  of  these  is  at  hand,  a strong  tea 
may  be  made  with  white  oak  or  hemlock  bark, 
and  a soft  piece  of  linen  saturated  with  it 
pressed  firmly  against  the  gum.  As  a rule, 
gentle  pressure  • with  two  fingers  is.  amply 
sufficient.  During  the  time  in  which  teeth  are 
pressing,  care  should  be  taken  that  the  child’s 
bowels  be  kept  open — that  is,  that  there  should 
be  at  least  one  good  movement  from  them 
every  day.  Two,  even,  may  be  allowed  to 
occur ; but  when  there  are  habitually  more 
than  this,  and  more  especially  when  these 
are  very  loose,  watery  and  offensive,  they 
should  be  checked  without  delay. 

In  some  cases  the  effects  of  the  growth  of 
the  teeth  are  manifested  not  on  the  bowels 
alone,  but  (either  with  or  without  diarrhoea)  on 
the  nervous  system,  and  we  have  restlessness, 
involuntary  twitchings  of  the  mouth,  starting 
during  sleep,  and  sometimes  even  a crying  out, 
as  if  from  fear.  When  these  symptoms  occur 
there  is  more  or  less  danger  of  convulsions, 
and  it  is  best,  therefore,  to  consult  a physician 
concerning  them.  In  this  case,  the  cause  of  the 
general  derangement  will  be  found  in  some  dis- 
ease which  has  nothing  to  do  with  teething.  It 
requires  the  knowledge  of  an  educated  physi- 
cian to  find  it  out.  A physician  who  is  always 
ready  to  explain  every  disease  or  disturbance 
in  a child  by  teething  ought  not  to  be  trusted. 
A warm  bath  may  be  given  to  the  child  just 
before  it  is  put  to  bed. 

Weaning. — The  change  from  milk  to  solid 
food  is  called  weaning,  and  is  a very  grave 
matter.  The  best  time  and  method  of  weaning 
a child  depend  upon  circumstances.  Of  these, 
the  season  of  the  year  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant. A child  that  may  properly  be  put 
on  solid  diet  in  October  could  not  be  so  in 
June  without  running  the  greatest  risk  of  being 
dangerously  sick  in  July  and  August.  If  the 
child  is  thriving,  gaining  rapidly  in  strength, 
and  contented  with  the  breast-milk,  it  will  be 
well  to  allow  him  to  continue  to  nurse  a month 
or  two  after  the  usual  time.  It  is  a great  mis- 
take to  believe  that  a child  will  thrive  better 
on  breast-milk  than  artificial  food  after  a cer- 
tain time.  When  two  or  four  teeth  are  through, 
the  time  for  gradual  weaning  has  arrived. 
This  will  usually  be  when  the  baby  is  eight  or 
ten  months  old.  When  the  child  has  no  tooth 
at  that  time,  there  is  something  wrong.  Usu- 
ally the  milk  of  the  mother  is  not  sufficient 
for  the  full  and  healthy  development  of  the 
child.  In  such  cases  the  weaning  of  the  child 
is  frequently  the  best  cure.  A physician  ought 
to  be  called  in  to  decide  the  question.  To 
defer  weaning  the  child  beyond  the  time  when 
six  or  eight  teeth  are  through  is  simply  crimi- 
nal. Many  diseases,  such  as  rickets  and  life- 
long debility,  and  lingering,  result  very  fre- 
quently from  nursing  which  is  continued  too 


long.  A selection  of  the  proper  articles  of 
food  for  children  may  be  made  from  those  ar- 
ticles of  food  which  will  be  mentioned  as 
fitted  for  weaned  children.  When  the  mother 
furnishes  an  insufficient  supply  of  milk  for  the 
child — which  may  be  known  by  its  constant 
hunger  and  the  inability  of  the  mother  to  sup- 
ply it — he  may,  if  two  or  four  are  through,  be 
either  entirely  or  partly  weaned,  even  though 
Summer  is  approaching.  If  no  teeth  are 
through,  he  should  be  partly  weaned — that  is, 
he  should  be  fed  in  part  and  nursed  in  part. 
Thus  he  may  be  allowed  to  nurse  two  or  three 
times  in  the  twenty-four  hours,  his  other  meals 
being  of  more  or  less  solid  food  and  milk. 
When  the  mother’s  milk  disagrees  with  the 
child,  as  it  sometimes  will,  there  of  course  re- 
mains no  choice,  except  between  weaning  and 
providing  a wet  nurse. 

Whatever  may  be  the  season,  it  is  better  to 
make  the  change  from  nursing  to  feeding  a 
gradual  rather  than  a sudden  one.  The  infant 
should  be  accustomed  to  nurse  at  longer  in- 
tervals, and,  the  number  of  times  being  re- 
duced to  one,  it  may  be  entirely  discontinued. 
If  there  is  any  trouble  in  mqking  the  child 
give  up  nursing,  a little  finely-powdered  Peru- 
vian bark  or  myrrh,  dusted  on  the  nipple  be- 
fore it  is  put  into  his  mouth,  will  give  him  a 
disgust  for  it  that  will  not  permit  him  to  take 
it  again. 

The  articles  of  diet  to  which  the  child  may 
be  gradually  accustomed  at  weaning  are  (be- 
sides milk)  bread,  butter,  which  must  be  en- 
tirely sweet  and  not  very  salt;  for  older  chil- 
dren only,  soft-boiled  eggs,  simple  broths,  and 
plain  roasted  or  boiled  meats.  Oysters  are 
nearly  as  easily  digested  as  meats,  but  not  all 
children  like  them,  and  it  must  be  remembered 
that  they  have  a tendency  to  open  the  bowels. 
Boiled  meats  are  not  so  good  as  roasted, 
the  former  containing  much  iess  of  the  nutri- 
ent materials  than  the  latter,  in  a less  desira- 
ble condition.  Broiled  meats  are  also  good, 
but  fried  are  to  be  avoided.  Fish  is  to  be 
shunned,  as  are  all  salted  meats.  Barley,  oat- 
meal, and  farina  are  the  best  possible  food  for 
a child,  well  cooked  and  mixed  with  milk,  or 
sometimes  beef  soup  or  beef  tea.  Baked  po- 
tatoes are  much  better  for  children  than 
boiled,  and  sweet  potatoes  are  more  Veadily  di- 
gested than  the  common  white  potato.  Which- 
ever is  used,  it  should  be  thoroughly  baked 
or  roasted,  the  skin  taken  off,  and  a little  milk 
or  cream  or  butter  put  on  it  after  it  is  mashed. 
Still,  potatoes  are  better  food  for  older  chil- 
dren, and  should  not  be  given  soon  after 
weaning.  Meats  should  be  thoroughly  cooked, 
but  not  done  very  hard;  a beefsteak  that  is 
still  red  in  the  inside  when  cut,  has  far  more 
nourishment  in  it  than  one  that  is  brown 
throughout. 

A little  milk  may  temporarily  soothe  thirst, 
but  is  not  the  proper  thing  for  it.  Tea  and 
coffee  are  injurious.  Cool  water  is  the  only 
thing  to  satisfy  thirst.  A thirsty  adult  does 
not  drink  beef  tea,  or  milk,  or  chocolate, 


INFLAMMATION 


INSANITY 


309 


but  water.  Milk  is  food  to  quench  hunger,  but 
not  the  common  beverage.  In  summer  time 
give  a child,  where  there  is  danger  of  diarrhoea, 
toast  water,  rice  water,  or  barley  water.  Sugar 
ought  not  to  be  mixed  with  a child’s  beverage. 
It  makes  him  drink  more  greedily  at  unneces- 
sary times,  and  sours  his  stomach. 

INFLAMMATION.  — External  inflamma- 
tion is  characterized  by  four  symptoms,  either 
of  which  occurs  by  itself  in  other  forms  of  dis- 
ease, but  not  grouped  together.  These  are : 
ist,  swelling j 2d,  pain  ; 3d,  redness  ; 4th, 
heat.  Whenever,  therefore,  these  four  symp- 
toms exist,  there  is  said  to  be  inflammation 
present ; when  they  are  severe  in  degree,  there 
is  always  fever  accompanying  them.  Internal 
inflammation  is  recognized  only  by  the  occur- 
rence of  pain  and  disturbance  of  function, 
generally  accompanied  with  acceleration  of  the 
pulse  and  with  fever  of  a kind  called  inflam- 
matory. In  either  case,  inflammation  is  rather 
a symptom  of  other  diseases  than  a disease  in 
itself,  and  cannot  be  treated  independently  of 
its  cause.  When  it  appears  on  the  surface  it 
may  generally  be  reduced  by  soothing  and 
cooling  applications,  especially  of  cold  water. 

INFLUENZA. — The  symptoms  of  influenza 
are  very  similar  to  those  of  a severe  cold.  The 
eyes  become  watery,  and  there  is  a persistent 
tendency  to  sneeze ; discharge  from  the  nose, 
cough,  fever,  and  oppression  at  the  chest  soon 
ensue.  But  the  distinctive  characteristics  of 
influenza  are  a dull  pain  in  the  forehead,  which 
is  very  oppressive,  and  extraordinary  prostra- 
tion of  strength,  with  mental  depression,  lan- 
gour,  and  utter  want  of  appetite.  The  skin 
is  generally  moist,  and  the  perspirations  which 
occur  are  not  critical,  as  they  seem  to  be  in  cer- 
tain cases  of  fever.  As  the  disease  advances, 
the  discharge  from  the  nose  irritates  the  upper 
lip,  so  as  to  make  it  red  and  tumid. 

Treatment. — Any  one  attacked  with  influ- 
enza should  give  up  at  once,  and  after  taking 
a warm  bath,  go  to  bed  and  remain  there  for 
two  or  three  days,  encouraging  perspiration 
by  every  means  in  his  power.  If  it  can  be 
had,  ten  grains  of  Dover’s  Powder  with  a 
little  sugar  should  be  taken,  and  repeated  if 
needful.  What  is  known  as  wine-whey  is  also 
very  useful  (to  make  it,  see  Wine-Whey.)  A 
wineglassful  of  this  may  be  taken  quite  fre- 
quently. Rest,  and  a liberal  but  not  stimula- 
ting diet,  will  soon  bring  about  a cure.  Take 
ten  grains  of  quinine  at  bed-time ; or  two,  re- 
peated, four  times  a day. 

INFUSION. — Infusions  are  made  by  pour- 
ing water,  either  boiling,  merely  warm,  or  even 
cold,  upon  some  vegetable  substance  and  let- 
ting it  stand  for  some  time  without  further 
boiling.  It  is  evident  that  the  water  here  can 
only  extract  such  matters  as  are  soluble  in 
that  fluid,  and  infusions  are  seldom  very  strong. 
The  beverage  called  tea  is  an  infusion  of  tea- 
leaves. 

INGRAFTING.  (See  Grafting.) 

INGROWING  NAIL.  (See  Toe-Nail.) 

INJECTIONS. — Injections  are  given  some- 


times to  move  the  bowels,  and  at  other  times  to 
check  them.  In  the  former  case  the  quantity 
of  fluid  is  the  chief  thing,  and  an  injection  of 
tepid  water  simply,  or  water  with  a little  soap 
in  it,  to  prevent  its  rapid  absorption  by  the 
bowels,  is  generally  the  most  effective  and 
always  the  most  harmless  way  of  bringing 
about  a discharge  from  the  bowels.  In  all 
cases  of  constipation,  in  young  children  espe- 
cially, the  effect  of  an  injection  should  be  tried 
before  any  medicine  is  given.  It  makes  little 
difference  what  kind  of  syringe  is  used,  but  it 
should  be  large  enough  to  hold  the  entire  quan- 
tity to  be  given  at  one  time.  Injections  for 
checking  the  bowels  always  contain  an  active 
drug,  and  should  never  be  given  except  under 
a physician’s  advice.  The  syringe  for  these 
should  be  smaller  than  for  the  other  kind  of 
injection. 

INK.  (Black). — A good  black  ink  can  be 
made  as  follows  : — Take  a gallon  of  rain  or  soft 
water,  and  three-quarters  of  a pound  of  blue- 
galls,  bruised  ; infuse  them  three  weeks,  stir- 
ring daily.  Then  add  four  ounces  each  of 
green  copperas  and  logwood  chips,  six  ounces 
of  gum  arabic,  and  a wineglassful  of  brandy. 

Marking  Ink.  To  make  a good  marking  ink 
take  of  lunar  caustic,  two  drachms ; gum  ara- 
bic, half  a drachm ; distilled  water,  two  drachms. 
To  be  well  mixed,  and  kept  in  a small  stopper- 
bottle,  and  in  a dark  place,  as  the  lunar  caustic 
loses  its  virtue  by  being  exposed  to  the  light. 
The  linen  to  be  marked  upon  must  be  pre- 
viously prepared  with  the  following  mixture  : — 
Sub-carbonate  of  soda,  half  an  ounce;  gum 
arabic,  one  scruple ; dissolved  in  one  ounce  of 
rain  water.  With  this  mixture  wet  as  much  of 
the  linen  as  is  to  be  written  on.  Let  it  become 
perfectly  dry.  Then  write  upon  it,  and  dry  the 
writing  in  the  sunshine  as  rapidly  as  possible. 

INK  STAINS. — Use  salts  of  lemon,  which 
is  a mixture  of  oxalic  and  citric  acid,  or  oxalic 
acid  maybe  used  alone.  Old  stains  maybe  re- 
moved by  a solution  containing  3 oz.  muriatic 
acid  with  3 oz.  of  tin-salt, — protochloride  of 
tin.  To  remove  ink  stains  from  delicate  col- 
ors, which  would  be  injured  by  the  above 
agents,  a solution  of  pyrophosphate  of  soda, 
prepared  by  calcining  ordinary  phosphate  of 
soda  for  half  an  hour,  will  after  a time  remove 
the  stain. 

Indelible  Ink  Stains,  or  those  caused  by 
nitrate  of  silver  (lunar  caustic),  may  be  re- 
moved by  applying  a solution  of  bleaching  pow- 
der, or  Javelle  water,  and  afterwards  washing 
with  ammonia.  Cyanide  of  potassium  may 
also  be  used,  but  is  so  poisonous  that  it  is  ad- 
visable to  avoid  its  use  if  possible. 

Ink  spots  on  floors  can  be  removed  by  scour- 
ing them  with  sand  wet  in  a mixture  of  water 
and  oil  of  vitrol.  Rinse  them,  when  the  ink  is 
extracted,  with  strong  pearl-ash  water. 

INSANITY.— The  causes  which  may  lead 
to  insanity,  particularly  in  those  whose  mental 
condition  is  weak,  are  very  numerous.  One  of 
the  most  fertile  causes  in  this  country  is  drunk- 
enness. Excessive  study,  strong  mental  ex- 


310 


INSANITY 


IRON-WARE 


citement,  grief,  jealousy,  love,  disappointment, 
also  lead  to  it,  and  religious  excitement  is  a 
not  unfrequent  cause.  In  many  cases  it  is 
hereditary,  and  this  is  one  of  the  most  terrible 
features  of  the  dreadful  disease.  It  is  .usual  to 
distinguish  insanity  under  different  kinds : — 
I.  Moral  insanity,  in  which  there  is  a morbid 
perversion  of  the  feelings,  affections,  and  ac- 
tive powers,  without  any  corresponding  defect 
in  the  understanding.  2.  Intellectual  insanity, 
affecting  the  reasoning  powers ; this  may  be 
either  general  or  partial — the  latter  is  called 
monomania.  3.  Mania,  or  raving  madness,  in 
which  the  mental  faculties  are  wholly  impaired, 
and  the  patient  gives  way  to  all  sorts  of  extrav- 
agances, frequently  doing  mischief  to  himself 
and  others.  4.  Dementia,  or  imbecility , when 
the  mental  powers  become  gradually  impaired, 
the  sensibilities  diminish,  and  at  length  the 
patient  becomes  callous  or  dead  to  all  that  is 
going  on  around  him.  Usually,  however,  two 
or  more  of  these  kinds  occur  together.  Moral 
insanity  frequently  manifests  itself  in  a desire 
to  steal.  In  monomania,  the  patient  reasons 
correctly  on  all  matters  except  one,  which  forms 
the  subject  of  his  insanity.  Imbecility  usually 
commences  with  the  loss  of  memory  and  the 
power  of  concentrating  the  attention,  for  any 
length  of  time,  on  one  subject ; then  all  control 
is  lost  over  the  thoughts,  and  the  mind  wan- 
ders meaninglessly  from  one  subject  to  another ; 
at  length  there  is  a heedlessness  of  all  that  is 
going  on  around,  and  life  becomes  a mere  ex- 
istence, the  mental  faculties  being  entirely 
lost. 

Sometimes  insanity  comes  on  quite  suddenly, 
without  any  warning  whatever ; at  other  times 
there  is  a previous  derangement  of  the  bodily 
functions,  loss  of  appetite,  restlessness,  and  in- 
ability to  sleep.  The  chance  of  recovery  de- 
pends largely  on  the  complication  or  otherwise 
of  insanity  with  other  diseases,  especially 
epilepsy  or  paralysis,  with  either  of  which  it  is 
nearly  hopeless.  It  is  also  influenced  by  the 
form  of  the  disease,  the  period  of  its  duration, 
the  age,  sex,  and  constitution  of  the  patient. 
The  mean  duration  of  cases  terminating  favor- 
ably is  from  five  to  ten  months;  after  the  latter 
period,  recovery  is  very  doubtful.  In  advanced 
life,  insanity  is  generally  permanent  and  imbe- 
cility is  very  rarely  curable. 

Upon  the  question  of  home  treatment  in  cases 
of  insanity,  there  must  always  be  a struggle  be- 
tween prudence  and  affection,  judgment  and 
feeling;  but  the  almost  universal  opinion  of 
the  medical  profession  is  in  favor  of  hospital 
treatment  for  all  recent  cases.  It  must  be  rec- 
ollected that  insane  asylums  are  very  different 
in  our  day  from  those  of  fifty  years  since ; and 
that,  though  still  fulfilling  the  function  of  asy- 
lums for  the  chronic  insane,  and  affording  pro- 
tection to  the  community  from  insane  violence, 
their  crowning  glory  is  the  humane  and  efficient 
treatment  they  afford.  It  is  well-nigh  impos- 
sible that  home  treatment  should  be  as  effect- 
ive as  that  given  by  experts  who  have  made 
insanity  a special  study,  and  in  dealing  with  it 


have  the  incalculable  advantage  of  experience ; 
and  in  point  of  fact  statistics  show  that  the 
chances  of  recovery  in  a hospital  are  about  five 
times  as  great  as  at  home.  If  this  is  not  con- 
clusive as  to  the  question  of  home  treatment, 
we  may  add  that  the  presence  of  friends  and 
relatives  seldom  fails  to  excite  and  exasperate 
the  patient ; they  have  rarely  the  moral  qual- 
ities necessary  for  the  care  of  an  insane  person, 
nor  have  they  the  assistance  and  appliances  at 
hand  to  enforce  control,  without  recourse  to  a 
degree  of  violence  which  must  prove  injurious  to 
the  sufferer.  There  is  a varying  period  at  the 
outset  of  mental  diseases,  during  which  the  ex- 
periment of  home  treatment  may  be  tried  under 
competent  medical  advice  ; but  this  period  must 
not  be  improperly  prolonged.  It  may  be  availed 
of  to  satisfy  both  the  patient  and  his  friends 
that  hospital  treatment  is  demanded;  and  when 
this  is  seen,  neglect  to  adopt  it  is  not  only  mis- 
taken but  criminal.  In  cases  manifestly  incur- 
able from  the  first,  home  treatment  may  be 
pursued  as  long  as  safety  will  permit,  or  the 
patient’s  means  allow ; and  there  are  certain 
forms  of  insanity, — such  as  general  paralysis, 
epileptic  mania,  hysterical  mania,  climacteric 
insanity,  etc., — in  which  it  may  be  best.  But 
in  all  cases,  and  at  the  earliest  symptoms,  the 
advice  of  a physician  should  be  sought. 

INSECTS. — See  Ants,  Bed-bugs,  Cock- 
roaches, Fleas,  Flies,  Mosquitoes,  Moth, 
and  Floriculture. 

INSPISSATION. — The  process  of  thicken- 
ing any  liquid  solution  by  evaporating  part 
of  the  water  over  a fire.  This  process,  with  most 
animal  and  vegetable  substances,  is  best  per- 
formed in  a water-bath,  to  prevent  burning.  It  is 
often  adopted  for  the  purpose  of  rendering  a 
solution  or  an  infusion  stronger. 

INTERMITTENT  FEVER.  ( See  Ague.) 

IRIS. — One  of  the  prettiest  of  the  early 
Spring  flowering  bulbs.  Its  culture  is  exactly 
the  same  as  that  of  the  hyacinth,  except  that 
in  planting  out  of  doors  the  bulbs  should  be 
set  three  inches  deep  instead  of  four.  Choice 
varieties  are : /.  Cristela,  light  blue,  in  May  ; 
/.  Florentina,  white,  in  June;  /.  Germa?iica, 
blue,  in  June;  /.  Pumila,  purple,  in  May. 

IRISH  STEW.  {See  under  Mutton.) 

IRON  {Polishing'). — Similar  to  a flat-iron. 
The  edge  and  point  are  rounded,  and  the 
whole  so  highly  polished  as  to  leave  a much 
smoother  surface  than  the  ordinary  iron. 

IRONING.  {See  Washing.) 

IRON-WARE. — Iron  rust  or  oxide  of  iron, 
so  far  from  being  hurtful,  is  frequently  pre- 
scribed as  a tonic ; and  the  only  inconve- 
nience arising  from  employing  the  metal 
in  its  pure  state  is  its  liability  to  rust,  thus 
wearing  into  holes ; and,  in  this  case,  it  is  also 
apt  to  tinge  the  color  of  food  prepared  in  it. 
On  this  account,  sauce-pans,  tea-kettles,  and 
other  utensils  made  of  iron,  should  be  tinned 
over  to  prevent  rusting.  Cast-iron  is  much  less 
apt  to  rust  than  hammered  or  rolled.  Iron 
kettles,  lined  with  porcelain,  are  best  for  pre- 
serves ; the  German  are  superior  to  many 


ISINGLASS 


IVORY 


311 


others.  Too  hot  a fire  will  crack  them;  but, 
with  care  in  this  respect,  they  will  last  for  many 
years.  There  is  one  method  by  which,  even 
without  tinning,  the  disagreeable  effect  pro- 
duced on  food  by  cast-iron  when  it  rusts  may 
be  almost  entirely  prevented.  If,  instead  of 
scouring  the  inside  of  boilers,  stew-pans,  etc., 
with  sand,  they  be  simply  washed  and  rinsed 
out  with  warm  water,  and  wiped  with  a soft 
cloth,  the  surface  of  the  metal  will  soon  become 
covered  with  a thin  crust  or  coating  of  a dark 
brown  color,  resembling  enamel ; this  enamel, 
if  it  be  suffered  to  remain  and  consolidate,  will 
at  last  become  so  hard  as  to  take  a very  good 
polish,  and  will  serve  very  efficaciously  to  de- 
fend the  surface  of  the  metal  from  corrosion, 
and,  consequently,  to  prevent  the  food  from 
acquiring  that  color  and  taste  which  iron  alone 
is  apt  to  impart  to  it. 

Polished  iron  may  be  preserved  from  rust 
by  going  slightly  over  it  with  copal  varnish, 
mixed  with  nearly  an  equal  quantify  of  spirits 
of  turpentine  and  as  much  sweet  oil  as  will  give 
the  mixture  a little  greasiness.  Lay  on  this 
mixture  with  a bristle  brush,  and  see  that  no 
dust  or  ashes  gets  to  it  while  drying. 

Iron  exposed  to  the  weather  may  be  pre- 
served as  follows  : — Boil  eight  pounds  of  hog’s 
fat,  cut  very  small,  in  a glazed  pot  or  pipkin, 
with  three  or  four  spoonfuls  of  water ; when 
melted,  strain  it  through  coarse  linen  ; then  set 
it  on  a slow  fire,  with  four  ounces  of  camphor 
broken  small,  allowing  it  to  boil  gently.  Take 
it  off,  and,  while  hot,  mix  it  with  as  much  black- 
lead  as  will  give  it  color  and  consistence,  and 
lay  it  on  hot.  This  will  not  only  protect  the 
iron  in  the  atmosphere  from  rust,  but  also 
whatever  portion  may  be  in  the  ground. 

ISINGLASS. — A very  fine  kind  of  gelatine, 
procured  from  the  swimming-bladder  of  the 
sturgeon.  There  are  inferior  kinds,  which  are 
taken  from  the  intestines  of  the  cod  and  other 
fish.  It  is  imported  from  Russia,  Brazil,  and 
the  West  Indies.  The  first  of  these  is  by  far 
the  best  in  quality,  while  that  from  Brazil  is 
very  impure,  and  scarcely  fitted  for  culinary 
purposes.  When  dry,  isinglass  is  semi-trans- 
parent ; but  on  contact  with  the  water  it  soon 
becomes  opaque  and  swells,  and  dissolves 
slowly,  leaving  a very  slight  residuum  of  cellu- 
lar membrane,  so  thin  as  not  to  be  perceptible 
without  a very  careful  examination.  If  there 
is  much  sediment  when  it  is  dissolved,  the 
isinglass  is  not  pure.  Russian  isinglass  makes 
a transparent  jelly  when  cold,  but  that  from 
Brazil  has  a somewhat  milky  hue.  Isinglass  is 
adulterated  by  substituting  the  inferior  quali- 
ties for  the  superior,  but  chiefly  by  selling  com- 
mon gelatine  as  isinglass.  To  distinguish  the 
one  from  the  other,  see  directions  given  under 
Gelatine. 

To  melt  a quarter  of  a pound  of  isinglass, 
take  a little  more  than  a pint  of  water,  into 
which  throw  the  twelfth  part  of  the  white  of  an 
egg  ; beat  the  water  well  till  it  becomes  white  ; 
then  put  the  isinglass  into  it,  and  set  it  over  a 
very  slow  fire.  If  it  is  kept  covered  it  will 


melt  more  easily.  Take  care  that  it  does  not 
brown,  as  in  that  case  it  can  never  be  made 
clear,  and  will  have  an  unpleasant  taste.  For 
a larger  quantity,  use  more  water,  but  not  more 
white  of  egg.  If  the  isinglass  is  required  to 
be  particularly  clear,  squeeze  into  it  the  juice  of 
a lemon. 

ITCH. — This  very  disagreeable  cutaneous 
disease  seldom  attacks  any  but  those  of  dirty 
habits  or  trade,  and  common  cleanliness  will 
generally  prevent  it;  but,  as  it  is  infectious 
under  certain  conditions,  it  sometimes  gets  into 
respectable  circles.  The  disease  is  known  by 
the  appearance  of  little  pimples  or  vesicles, 
filled  with  a watery  liquid,  which,  by  scratch- 
ing, acquire  little  black  heads.  These  pimples 
usually  exist  between  the  fingers  and  on  the 
wrists  and  inner  surfaces  of  the  elbows  when 
other  parts  of  the  body  are  affected  ; they  never 
appear  on  the  face.  The  itching  is  most  excru- 
ciating, and  is  generally  augmented  at  night  by 
the  warmth  of  the  bed. 

Treatment. — Sulphur  is  the  grand  specific 
for  itch.  It  does  little  good  taken  internally, 
but  the  ointment  (made  by  mixing  sulphur  and 
lard  together  in  about  equal  proportions)  should 
be  well  rubbed  over  the  entire  surface  of  the 
body  night  and  morning,  until  the  eruption  dis- 
appears. The  sulphur,  of  course,  has  a very 
disagreeable  smell,  but  this  may  be  disguised 
in  various  ways.  Another  remedy  is  a strong 
solution  of  the  iodide  of  potassium, which  should 
be  put  on  all  the  affected  parts  every  night  and 
left  to  dry  on.  This  has  the  advantage  of  having 
no  smell,  but  is  of  questionable  efficacy.  The 
bedding  used  by  a person  having  the  itcfi  must 
be  thoroughly  aired  and  fumigated,  and  the 
clothing  boiled  with  plenty  of  strong  soft  soap. 

IVORY — Is  obtained  from  the  tusk  of  the 
elephant,  and  the  teeth  of  the  hippopotamus 
and  walrus.  Until  seasoned  by  use,  it  cracks 
very  easily,  and  should  never  be  exposed  to 
sudden  changes  of  temperature.  Billiard 
balls,  for  instance,  if  taken  from  one  room  to 
another  of  very  different  temperature,  should 
not  be  used  till  they  have  had  time  to  gradu- 
ally change  their  temperature.  Ivory,  when 
wet,  should  always  be  promptly  wiped.  New 
ivory,  when  not  in  use,  may  be  advantageously 
kept  smeared  over  with  olive-oil,  the  absorp- 
tion of  which  closes  small  cracks. 

Carvings  in  ivory,  when  not  kept  under  glass, 
are  apt  to  become  covered  in  time  with  a mul- 
titude of  minute  cracks,  which  get  filled  with 
dust,  and  deface  them.  To  remove  these,  the 
ivory  should  be  washed  in  warm  water  with  soap 
and  a brush  until  the  cracks  disappear  ; after 
which  it  should  be  placed  under  glass  for  pres- 
ervation. Glass  not  only  protects  ivory,  but 
affords  the  means  of  bleaching  or  whitening 
that  which  has  been  discolored.  This  effect  is 
produced  by  exposing  it,  still  under  glass,  to 
the  sun’s  rays,  turning  each  side  in  succession 
to  the  sun. 

Ivory  may  be  silvered  in  the  following  man- 
ner:— Immerse  it  in  a weak  solution  of  nitrate 
of  silver,  and  let  it  remain  till  it  has  acquired  a 


312 


IVY 


JAM 


deep  yellow  color ; then  take  it  out,  wash  it  in 
clean  water,  and  expose  it  to  the  sun’s  rays, 
which  will  turn  it  black  in  about  three  hours. 
Upon  being  rubbed  briskly  with  a cloth,  the 
ivory  will  acquire  a silvery  lustre. 

IVY. — This  is  the  most  popular  of  the  orna- 
mental evergreen  vines,  and  is  equally  adapted 
for  garden  or  indoor  culture.  In  the  garden 
it  requires  a shady  spot,  where  the  soil  is 
moderately  rich,  and  especially  where  the  winter 
sun  will  not  strike  upon  it.  In  our  climate  it  is 
killed  far  more  often  by  this  latter  cause  than 
by  the  actual  cold  of  winter.  It  requires  a 
great  deal  of  moisture  in  order  to  flourish,  and 
in  fact  too  much  water  can  hardly  be  given  it 
during  the  hot  weather  of  summer.  It  should 
be  planted  near  some  wall,  or  fence,  or  house, 
so  as  to  get  support  as  it  grows. 

The  ease  of  its  culture,  its  beautiful  foliage, 
its  rapid  growth,  and  its  evergreen  character, 
all  combine  to  render  it  a popular  ornament  for 
the  parlor.  The  soil  for  its  growth  indoors 
should  be  a very  rich  loam ; and  here  also  a 
plentiful  supply  of  water  is  required,  though  it 
should  never  be  allowed  to  stand  at  the  roots. 
Slips  root  easily,  taken  off  at  any  leaf  joint,  and 
placed  either  in  earth  or  water ; in  the  latter 
they  will  soon  throw  out  roots,  and  may  then 
be  transferred  to  pots.  The  only  precaution  to 
be  taken  in  growing  ivy  is  to  keep  it  from  frost 
while  in  growth  ; and  if  it  be  frozen,  to  keep 
the  sun  away  from  it,  thawing  it  out  with  cold 
water. 

There  are  many  species  of  ivy,  of  which  the 
most  common  is  the  English  ivy  (Hedera 
Helix),  of  which  there  are  many  varieties.  The 
distinctions  between  these  lie  chiefly  in  the 
leaves,  which  vary  greatly  in  shape.  There  are 
two  very  beautiful  kinds,  the  silver  and  the 
golden,  the  foliage  being  beautifully  variegated 
with  white  and  gold.  The  Tree  Ivy  is  merely 
a form  of  the  common  ivy,  as  is  shown  by  its 
returning  to  its  primary  form,  not  infrequently. 
The  leaves  are  entire,  and  the  plant  often  re- 
tains its  arborescent  form  for  years.  In  the 
Irish  or  Giant  Ivy  (II.  Cannariensis),  the  leaves 
are  five  lobed,  and  larger  than  those  of  the 
common  ivy.  II.  Rocqueriana  is  a variety  with 
large  heart-shaped  leaves.  II.  digitata,  the 
hand-shaped  ivy,  is  a pretty  variety,  of  rapid 
growth,  the  leaves  are  small,  dark,  and  veined. 
The  Golden  Ivy  is  a splendid  plant ; when  the 


young  leaves  come  out  it  resembles  a mass  of 
yellow  flowers.  The  plant  commonly  called 
Gertnan  Ivy  is  notan  ivy,  but  it  is  deservedly 
popular  from  its  rapid  growth  and  its  freedom 
from  insects.  Five-leaved  Ivy  is  the  well- 
known  Virginia  Creeper  or  Woodbine. 

IXIA. — A variety  of  the  Cape  Bulbs,  re- 
markable for  the  brilliancy  of  its  flowers.  It 
is  of  easy  growth,  but  in  our  climate  it  can 
be  raised  only  in  the  greenhouse  or  in  the 
parlor,  as  the  least  frost  kills  it.  Plant  about 
the  latter  part  of  November  in  a compost  made 
of  one  part  sandy  loam  and  one  part  peaty 
earth,  with  a little  well-decomposed  dung,  in 
new  clean  pots ; fill  the  pots  about  an  inch 
deep  with  small  crocks  to  secure  good  drain- 
age, as  without  this  the  plants  will  not  thrive. 
Place  the  pots  in  a cool  place  till  the  plants 
begin  to  grow,  then  place  them  in  a strong 
light  on  a shelf  close  to  the  window  ; the  closer 
to  the  glass  the  better  for  the  plants.  The 
temperature  for  Ixias  is  about  forty  degrees  at 
night  to  sixty  by  day.  Five  or  six  bulbs  in  a ten- 
inch  pot  are  quite  sufficient,  but  never  mix  the 
varieties.  By  the  latter  part  of  January  the 
flower  stalks  will  begin  to  appear,  as  they  are 
very  slender  they  should  be  secured  to  neat 
stakes.  Soon  after  blooming,  the  leaves  begin 
to  turn  yellow,  and  the  plant  indicates  a desire 
to  rest.  Unless  it  is  desirable  to  ripen  seed, 
the  plants  should  be  allowed  to  dry  off  grad- 
ually, and  the  pots  then  placed  in  a dry  place 
till  next  autumn. 

Seedlings  may'  be  easily  raised.  Sow  the 
seeds  thinly,  about  the  first  of  October,  in  the 
same  soil  used  for  bulbs ; let  the  seedlings 
remain  in  the  pot  one  year ; then  transplant 
and  treat  as  old  bulbs ; they  will  bloom  the 
third  year  if  well  cared  for.  The  most  usual 
mode  of  propagation,  however,  is  by  offsets ; 
separate  these  before  potting,  and  they  will 
soon  make  flowering  plants. 

Among  the  choice  varieties  of  the  Ixia  are  : 
I.  A Iba  Oculata,  white  shading  to  yellow,  with 
dark  chocolate  eye,  very  fine ; I.  Capitata,  white 
and  black ; I.  Conica,  orange  ; I.  Conchijlora , 
buff  colored ; I.  Crispa,  blue ; /.  Crocata, 
orange-yellow,  very  fine ; I.  Cratenoidcs , dark 
yellow;  I.  E recta,  white  or  flesh-color;  I. 
Kermisiaha,  vermilion  ; I.  Squalida,  rosy  lilac ; 
I.  Viridiflora , variegated,  finest  of  all. 

IVY  (Poison).  See  POISON  PLANTS. 


J. 


JACKET.  (See  Sacque.) 

JACONET. — A light,  open  and  soft  cotton 
fabric,  stouter  than  muslin,  used  for  dresses, 
neckties,  etc.,  and  quite  durable.  It  comes 
in  pieces  a yard  wide,  and  should  be  shrunk 
thoroughly  before  using. 

JAM. — Jams  and  marmalades  arc  made  in 
the  same  way,  and  differ  little  from  each  other, 


except  that  the  latter  arc  made  of  the  firmer 
fruits,  as  pineapples,  peaches,  apricots,  etc., 
while  jams  are  made  of  the  more  juicy  berries, 
such  as  blackberries,  currants,  raspberries, 
strawberries,  etc.  They  both  require  great 
care  and  attention  in  boiling,  as  the  slighest 
degree  of  burning  communicates  a highly  dis- 
agreeable taste.  They  must  be  boiled  sufli- 


JAUNDICE 


313 


JAM 

ciently  and  must  have  plenty  of  sugar  or  they 
will  not  keep. 

Blackberry  Jam. — Put  the  fruit  on  alone, 
and  boil  for  half  an  hour,  mashing  and  stirring 
well ; then  add  three-quarters  of  a pound  of 
sugar  for  every  pound  of  the  berries,  and  cook 
twenty  minutes  longer.  Keep  in  small  jars, 
with  brandied  tissue  paper  over  the  top,  in  a 
cool  closet.  Blackberry  jam  is  very  wholesome 
for  children. 

Carrot  Jam. — Boil  some  carrots  till  quite 
tender,  mash  them  well,  and  rub  them  through 
a sieve.  To  each  pound  of  the  pulp,  add  three- 
quarters  of  a pound  of  sugar ; boil  it  to  a jam, 
and  when  nearly  cold  add  the  juice  and  grated 
rind  of  two  lemons,  and  half  a teaspoonful  of 
essence  of  cloves  or  nutmeg.  This  jam  is  not 
very  good  as  compared  to  some  others,  but  it 
is  better  than  nothing,  and  is  verv  wholesome. 

Currant  Jam.  I.  With  Black  Currants.— 
To  every  pound  of  blackcurrants  add  a pound 
and  a quarter  of  sugar;  boil  the  currants 
three-quarters  of  an  hour  gently  by  the  side 
of  the  fire ; then  add  the  sugar  and  boil  an 
hour  and  a quarter  longer,  taking  care  that 
it  does  not  burn.  This  is  one  of  the  best 
jams,  and  in  a cool,  dry  closet  will  keep  from 
eighteen  months  to  two  years.  It  is  much  im- 
proved by  adding  one  pound  each  of  red  and 
white  currants  to  four  pounds  of  black  cur- 
rants. 

II.  With  Green  Currants. — Weigh  a 
pound  of  sugar  to  every  pound  of  unripe  red 
currants ; set  the  currants  over  the  fire,  broken 
up  with  the  hands;  boil  carefully  half  an  hour, 
then  add  the  sugar  ; boil  one  hour,  carefully 
skimming  it  the  while. 

III.  With  Red  or  White  Curra7its. — Let 
the  fruit  be  very  ripe  ; break  it  up  ; to  every 
pound  weigh  fourteen  ounces  of  sugar  ; boil 
the  fruit  half  an  hour,  then  add  the  sugar, 
and  boil  it  about  an  hour  and  a half,  stirring 
it  constantly. 

Gooseberry  Jam. — Use  fruit  that  is  nearly 
ripe  ; pull  off  the  stems  and  withered  flowers, 
wash  in  cold  water ; heat  slowly  and  boil  until 
perfectly  soft ; add  a pound  of  sugar  to  every 
pound  of  fruit  and  boil  until  thick  and  clear. 

Greengage  Jam. — Take  off  the  stems  and 
wash  the  fruit ; heat  slowly  and  boil  in  its  own 
juice  until  perfectly  soft;  add  a pound  of  sugar 
to  every  pound  of  fruit,  and  boil  until  clear 
and  thick.  Put  it  up  in  large  tumblers  ; cover 
with  two  papers,  the  smaller  one  dipped  in 
alcohol  and  placed  on  the  fruit ; the  other 
pasted  over  the  top  of  the  tumbler. 

Raspberry  Jam. — This  is  very  nice  made  in 
the  same  way  as  blackberry  jam.  It  is  greatly 
improved,  however,  by  adding  a pint  of  currant- 
juice  to  every  four  pounds  of  raspberries. 

Rhubarb  Jam* — The  rhubarb  should  be 
wiped  not  washed,  and  it  should  be  fresh  and 
young ; peel  the  stalks,  and  cut  them  up  into 
half-inch  pieces  ; put  into  a preserving-pan  equal 
weights  of  rhubarb  and  loaf  sugar,  and  the 
juice  of  two  lemons  to  every  five  pounds  of 
rhubarb  and  sugar ; or  the  stalk  may  be  first 


boiled  with  half  the  quantity  of  sugar,  and  the 
other  half  added  ; boil  slowly,  constantly  stir- 
ring ; and  then  boil  three-quarters  of  an  hour, 
skimming  as  long  as  scum  rises,  or  till  it  be- 
comes a smooth  pulp,  and  a thick  jam,  which 
leaves  the  bottom  of  the  pan  when  stirred. 
The  grated  rind  of  one  lemon  may  be  added  to 
each  pound  of  rhubarb  and  sugar.  A less  ex- 
pensive jam  may  be  made  with  less  sugar  than 
the  above. 

Strawberry  Jam. — This  also  may  be  made 
like  blackberry  jam ; but  the  flavor  is  much 
finer  if  a pint  of  currant  juice  be  added  to 
every  four  pounds  of  strawberries.  Boil  the 
strawberries  in  the  currant  juice  for  half  an 
hour,  stirring  continually ; then  add  the  sugar 
(three-quarters  of  a pound  to  each  pound  of 
fruit),  and  boil  rapidly  for  twenty  minutes, 
skimming  carefully. 

JAPONICA. — This  is  the  scarlet-flowered 
Japan  Quince,  a well-known  shrub  which  should 
be  found  in  every  garden.  It  produces  quan- 
tities of  the  richest  scarlet  flowers  close  to  its 
branches,  and  is  very  easy  to  cultivate.  Cul- 
ture same  as  for  Lilac. 

JASMINE  or  JESSAMINE.— A favorite 
family  of  climbing  shrubs,  which  grows  wild 
in  the  southern  portions  of  the  United  States, 
and  further  north  is  very  desirable  for  window 
culture.  The  foliage  is  neat,  and  the  flowers 
white  or  yellow,  and  produced  from  February 
to  June;  they  are  extremely  fragrant.  The 
soil  should  be  equal  parts  of  loam  and  peat 
with  a slight  admixture  of  sand.  Water  should 
be  given  rather  freely.  The  plant  should  be 
trained  on  neat  trellises,  and  the  branches  al- 
lowed to  droop.  The  only  insect  attacking 
them  is  a scale,  which  a little  care  in  washing 
will  soon  remove. 

The  most  desirable  varieties  are  : J.  Azori- 
cum , white  flowers  in  summer ; J.  Multiflo- 
rum,  white  flowers  in  spring;  J.  Nudiflorum, 
yellow  flowers  in  spring ; J.  Odoratissimum,  yel- 
low flowers  in  spring. 

JAUNDICE. — A disease  characterized  by 
yellowness  of  the  skin,  and  eyes,  and  urine,  the 
discharges  from  the  bowels  being  of  a whitish 
or  clay  color.  It  is  caused  by  the  excretion  of 
bile  being  prevented  and  retained  in  the  blood, 
or  reabsorbed  and  diffused  through  the  system. 
It  depends  upon  various  and  different  internal 
causes.  Pregnant  women  frequently  suffer 
from  it.  Any  kind  of  pressure  upon  the  excre- 
tory ducts,  such  as  by  tumours,  etc.,  or  the  ducts 
being  filled  up  with  mucus,  inspissated  bile,  or 
biliary  calculus  will  occasion  it.  It  may  also 
occur  as  a symptom  of  chronic  or  acute  inflam- 
mation of  the  liver.  Fits  of  anger,  fear,  or 
alarm,  have  sometimes  been  directly  followed 
by  an  attack  of  jaundice.  And,  lastly,  certain 
forms  of  it  are  produced  occasionally  by  long- 
continued  hot  weather.  An  attack  of  the  jaun- 
dice is  usually  preceded  by  symptoms  of  a 
disordered  state  of  the  liver  and  digestive  or- 
gans, loss  of  appetite,  irregular  or  constipated 
bowels,  colic,  nausea,  headache,  languor,  etc. 
Sooner  or  later  the  yellow  color  begins  to  ap> 


JAUNE  MANGE 


3 U 

pear,  usually  first  in  the  eye,  then  in  the  face, 
then  on  the  chest,  and  finally  covering  the 
whole  body.  Sometimes  the  yellowness  is  the 
first  symptom ; and  again,  as  soon  as  the  yel- 
low stage  is  reached  many  of  the  preliminary 
symptoms  diminish.  The  shades  of  yellowness 
are  various,  from  a light  yellow  to  a deep  orange 
hue,  and  in  some  cases  of  a greenish,  or  even 
a blackish  color— in  the  latter  cases  it  is  known 
as  “black  jaundice.”  The  greenish  or  darkish 
varieties  are  considered  most  dangerous. 

Treatment.— Some  kinds  of  jaundice  are  ab- 
solutely irremediable,  while  others  will  pass  off 
without  any  treatment.  If  the  patient  be  young, 
and  the  disease  complicated  with  no  other  mal- 
ady, it  is  seldom  dangerous  ; but  in  old  people, 
where  it  continues  long,  returns  frequently  or 
is  complicated  with  dropsy  or  other  diseases, 
the  condition  upon  which  it  depends  generally 
leads  to  a fatal  result.  In  general,  the  obvious 
treatment  is  to  promote  secretion  of  the  bile 
and  to  favor  its  removal.  In  ordinary  cases,  a 
strong  infusion  of  rhubarb  root  taken  freely, 
so  as  to  keep  up  a laxative  action,  without  active 
purging  or  vomiting ; a cool,  light,  and  laxative 
diet  (such  as  ripe  fruits,  mild  vegetables,  chick- 
en and  veal  broth,  new  eggs,  stewed  prunes, 
and  buttermilk);  free  ventilation,  and  hot  fo- 
mentations, twice  a day  for  half  an  hour,  over 
the  liver  in  case  of  torpor  and  obstruction ; 
or  cold  cloths  in  case  of  excessive  production 
of  bile,  will  usually  effect  a cure.  As  much  ex- 
ercise should  be  taken  as  the  patient  can  stand ; 
and  if  there  be  any  spasmodic  pain  in  the  right 
side,  the  patient  should  sit  frequently  in  a 
warm  bath  up  to  his  shoulders.  Any  attack  of 
jaundice  may  turn  out  seriously,  and  therefore 
as  soon  as  the  symptoms  develope  themselves  a 
physician  should  be  sent  for.  Persons  subject 
to  jaundice  ought  to  take  as  much  active  exer- 
cise as  possible,  and  should  avoid  all  exhaust- 
ing food  and  stimulating  drinks. 

JAUNE  MANGE.— I.  Take  .--Isinglass,  ^ 
oz;  eggs,  6;  sherry  wine,  y2  pt ; boiling  water, 
Yz  pt ; sugar ; lemon,  i . 

Soak  the  isinglass  in  cold  water,  then  dis- 
solve it  in  boiling  water ; beat  the  yolks  of  the 
eggs,  and  mix  them  with  the  wine  and  the  juice 
of  the  lemon  ; sugar  to  taste  (some  of  the 
lumps  of  sugar  should  be  rubbed  with  the 
lemon  peel  so  as  to  extract  the  oil.)  Stir 
over  boiling  water  until  thickened.  Strain  ; 
when  nearly  cold  put  into  a mould  that  has  been 
first  dipped  in  cold  water. 

H.  Take  .--Gelatine,  Y oz  ; lemons,  2 ; brandy, 

1 wineglassful ; raisin  wine  or  sherry,  ^ pt ; 
eggs,  7 ; sugar ; water,  1 pt. 

Put  the  gelatine  into  the  water  the  night 
before  it  is  to  be  made,  adding  a few  bits  of 
lemon  peel ; next  day,  put  into  a pint  cup  the 
juice  of  the  two  lemons,  together  with  the 
brandy  and  the  wine ; pour  this  with  the  gela- 
tine solution  into  a sauce-pan,  and  add  the 
yolks  of  the  eggs  well-beaten,  with  sufficient 
lump  sugar  to  sweeten  it.  Set  it  over  a slow 
fire,  stirring  it  continually  till  it  thickens.  Then 
strain  it,  and  stir  it  occasionally  until  nearly 


JELLY 

cold,  when  it  should  be  put  into  the 
moulds. 

JEAN. — A twilled  cotton  cloth,  of  a rather 
firm  texture,  generally  white  but  sometimes 
striped.  It  comes  a yard  wide,  and  should  be 
shrunk  before  using.  Satin  Jean  is  woven 
with  a smooth  glossy  surface,  like  satin,  and 
is  much  superior  to  the  common  kind  for  cer- 
tain purposes. 

JELLY. — Jellies  are  made  by  boiling  a 
chicken,  knuckle  of  veal  or  calf’s  feet  in 
water,  slowly  and  for  a long  time.  They 


Jelly  Mould- 


were  formerly  supposed  to  be  particu- 
larly nutritive  and,  therefore,  an  excel- 
lent diet  for  invalids ; but  physicians  now 
appear  to  be  of  opinion  that  they  are  less  so 


Jelly  Mould. 


and  even  less  digestible,  than  the  flesh  or 
muscular  parts  of  animals,  poultry,  etc.  In 
making  fruit  jellies,  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
boil  them  too  long,  or  they  will  soon  spoil ; from 
fifteen  to  twenty  minutes  are  generally  sufficient 
after  the  sugar  has  been  added.  Jellies  should 
be  poured  into  the  pots  or  jars  as  soon  as  they 
are  taken  from  the  fire,  by  which  means  a sort 
of  skin  forms  upon  the  top  in  cooling,  which,  if 
unbroken,  will  keep  out  the  air.  They  should 
be  cooled  quickly,  and  kept  in  a dry  but  cool 
place.  Cover  the  jars  with  brandied  tissue- 
paper,  cut  so  as  to  fit  quite  close.  Towards 
the  end  of  summer,  jelly  made  during  the 
summer  should  be  examined,  and  if  there  is 
any  sign  of  fermentation,  it  must  be  re-boiled ; 
there  is  much  more  trouble  on  this  head  during 
some  seasons  (especially  rainy  ones)  than 
others. 

Fancy  dishes  made  of  jelly  of  two  or  more 
colors  are  very  ornamental  and  are  easily- 
made.  The  two  accompanying  engravings 
will  indicate  how  it  is  done,  but  with  care  more 
elaborate  combinations  can  be  effected. 


JELLY  315 


Apple  Jelly. — Take  the  apples  (pippins  are 
the  best),  wipe  them  clean  and  take  out  the 
stem  and  eye.  Cut  them  in  thin  slices,  without 
paring  or  coring;  put  them  in  a preserving- 


Jelly  of  Two  Colors. 


kettle,  add  just  enough  water  to  cover  them, 
and  boil  them  without  touching  until  perfectly 
soft ; put  them  away  in  the  kettle  if  it  is  porce- 
lain-lined ; otherwise,  slip  them  very  carefully 
into  a large  earthen  bowl,  and  leave  them  in  a 
cool  place  for  three  days.  At  the  end  of  that 
time,  drain  them  in  a straining-cloth,  without 
pressing ; add  a pound  of  granulated  sugar 
to  every  pint  of  juice,  and  boil  for  three-quar- 
ters of  an  hour ; pour  it  into  a pitcher,  fill  the 
glasses,  and  cover  with  one  paper  pasted  over 
the  top.  Do  not  move  the  glasses  until  the 
jelly  has  cooled,  as  it  is  apt  to  soil  the  pa- 
per. 

Arrowroot  Jelly. — Mix  a dessertspoonful  of 
arrowroot  with  enough  cold  water  to  make  it 
into  a stiff  paste ; then  pour  on  it  half  a pint 
of  boiling  water,  stirring  it  briskly,  and  boil 
five  or  six  minutes ; when  the  jelly  is  formed 
add  two  tablespoonfuls  of  any  white  wine,  a 
little  lemon-peel,  and  sugar.  If  for  young 
children,  milk  may  be  substituted  for  wine  and 
water. 

Aspic,  or  Savory  Jelly. — Boil  a couple  of 
calf’s  feet,  with  three  or  four  pounds  of  knuckle 
of  veal,  three-quarters  of  a pound  of  lean  ham, 
two  large  onions,  three  whole  carrots,  and  a 
large  bunch  of  herbs,  in  a gallon  of  water,  till 
it  is  reduced  more  than  half.  Strain  it  off ; 
when  perfectly  cold,  remove  every  particle  of 
fat  and  sediment,  and  put  the  jelly  into  a very 
clean  stew-pan,  with  four  whites  of  eggs  well 
beaten ; keep  it  stirred  until  it  is  nearly  boiling ; 
then  place  it  by  the  side  of  the  fire  to  simmer 
for  a quarter  of  an  hour.  Let  it  settle,  and 
pour  it  through  a jelly-bag  until  it  is  quite  clear. 
Add,  when  it  first  begins  to  boil,  three  blades 
of  mace,  a teaspoonful  of  white  peppercorns, 
and  sufficient  salt  to  flavor  it  properly,  allowing 
for  the  ham,  and  the  reduction.  French  cooks 
flavor  this  jelly  with  tarragon  vinegar  when  it 
is  clarified ; cold  poultry,  game,  fish,  plovers’ 
eggs,  truffles,  and  various  dressed  vegetables, 
with  many  other  things  often  elaborately  pre- 
pared, and  highly  ornamented,  are  moulded 
and  served  in  it,  especially  at  large  dejeuners 
and  similar  repasts.  It  is  also  much  used  to 


decorate  raised  pies,  and  hams  ; and  for  many 
other  purposes  of  the  table. 

Barberry  Jelly. — Strip  the  fruit  from  the 
stems,  wash  it  in  clean  water,  drain,  bruise 


slightly,  and  put  it  into  a stone  jar,  without 
any  water.  Place  the  jar  in  a pan  of  water, 
and  steam  the  berries  until  quite  tender ; this 
will  require  from  half  an  hour  to  an  hour. 
Pour  off  the  clear  juice,  strain,  weigh,  and  for 
every  pound  of  the  juice,  add  eighteen  ounces 
of  sugar;  boil  quickly  from  five  to  seven  min- 
utes. Unless  the  berries  are  quite  ripe  more 
sugar  will  be  required. 

Blackberry  Jelly. — Prepare  the  fruit  as  for 
barberry  jelly,  put  it  into  a stone  jar,  and  set 
it  on  the  fire  in  a pan  of  tepid  water ; cover  it 
closely,  and  let  it  boil  till  the  fruit  is  broken 
thoroughly  to  pieces;  then  strain  through  a 
coarse  bag,  squeezing  it  hard  so  as  to  extract 
all  the  juice.  To  each  pint  of  juice  allow  a 
pound  of  sugar.  Put  the  juice  on  to  boil  by 
itself,  and  while  it  is  warming  divide  the  sugar 
into  several  parts  and  put  it  into  the  oven  in 
shallow  pans  or  dishes  ; let  it  heat  in  these,  and 
stir  it  occasionally  to  prevent  scorching.  Boil 
the  juice  just  twenty  minutes,  and  then  add  the 
heated  sugar,  stirring  rapidly  all  the  while ; 
withdraw  the  spoon  as  soon  as  the  sugar  is 
dissolved.  Let  the  jelly  just  come  to  a boil, 
then  remove  at  once  from  the  fire,  and  pouf 
into  glasses  that  have  been  previously  dipped 
in  hot  water. 

Calf’s-foot  Jelly. — Put  four  split  calf’s  feet 
on  to  boil  in  a gallon  of  water,  and  continue 
boiling  gently  for  four  hours,  or  until  the  water 
is  reduced  to  half.  Then  strain  the  liquor 
through  a sieve,  and  when  cold  and  a firm  jelly, 
scrape  off  the  grease,  wash  the  surface  with  a 
little  scalding  water,  and  dry  it  with  a soft  hot 
cloth.  Then  put  the  jelly  into  a stew-pan,  with 
two  pounds  of  white  sugar,  the  juice  of  six 
lemons  and  the  rinds  of  four  (cut  fine),  a bruised 
stick  of  cinnamon,  and  twenty-four  coriander 
seeds.  Set  this  on  the  fire,  and  add  the  whites 
of  six  eggs  well  whipped,  with  half  a pint  of 
water,  and  continue  beating  the  jelly  on  the  fire 
until  it  boils  ; then  add  half  a pint  of  sherry  or 
Madeira,  and  simmer  gently  for  twenty  min- 
utes. Pass  it  through  a jelly-bag  into  a bowl, 
and  if  it  is  not  clear,  repeat  the  process.  The 
color  may  be  heightened  by  a few  drops  of 


316 


JELLY 


burnt  sugar.  In  cold  weather,  it  should  be 
strained  before  the  fire,  else  the  mixture  will 
jelly  before  it  has  run  through. 

For  invalids,  this  jelly  is  better  made  with 
brandy  than  with  wine.  Three  wineglassfuls 
of  brandy  to  two  quarts  of  jelly  will  be  the  prop- 
er proportion,  and  the  difference  should  be 
made  up  with  water.  Add  the  brandy,  when 
the  jelly  has  been  once  passed  through  the  bag. 

Calf  s-head  Jelly.  (See  Calf’s  Head.) 

Cherry  (Wild)  and  Currant  Jelly. — Take 
two  parts  of  wild  cherries  (stones  and  all)  and 
one  of  red  currants  ; to  a pint  of  juice  allow  a 
pound  of  sugar,  and  make  as  directed  for  black- 
berry jelly. 

Cider  Jelly. — Made  same  as  Wine  Jelly, 
below. 

Crab-apple  Jelly. — Put  the  apples  into  a 
kettle  with  just  enough  water  to  cover  them, 
and  let  them  boil  until  very  soft ; drain  them 
untouched  in  a straining  cloth.  Allow  a 
pound  of  sugar  to  each  pint  of  juice  ; boil  thirty 
minutes,  and  strain  through  a fine  sieve. 

Currant  (Black)  Jelly, — Boil  ripe  black  cur- 
rants with  a little  water  till  the  fruit  bursts, 
squeeze  it  through  a jelly-bag,  and  set  it  again 
over  the  fire  for  twenty  minutes  ; then  add 
half  a pound  of  sugar  for  each  pound  of  juice, 
and  boil  the  whole  ten  minutes  longer. 

Currant  (Red)  Jelly.— Make  as  directed  for 
blackberry  jelly. 

Four-Fruit  Jelly. — Take  equal  quantities  of 
ripe  strawberries,  raspberries,  currants  and  red 
cherries  ; all  should  be  fully  ripe,  and  the  cher- 
ries must  be  stoned,  taking  care  to  preserve 
the  juice  that  escapes  in  stoning  and  add  it  to 
the  rest.  Mix  the  fruit  together,  put  it  into  a 
linen  bag,  and  squeeze  it  thoroughly;  when  it 
has  ceased  to  drip,  measure  the  juice,  and  to 
every  pint  allow  a ound  and  two  ounces  of 
the  best  loaf  sugar,  n large  lumps.  Mix  the 
juice  and  sugar  together;  put  them  in  a por- 
celain-lined preserving-kettle;  and  boil  for  half 
an  hour,  skimming  frequently.  Try  the  jelly 
by  dipping  out  a spoonful,  and  holding  it  in  the' 
open  air;  if  it  congeals  readily,  it  is  sufficiently 
done.  This  jelly  is  very  Jine. 

Gooseberry  Jelly. — -Take  fine  gooseberries, 
not  too  ripe  ; wash  and  drain  them,  and  add  a 
pint  and  a half  of  cold  water  to  every  quart  of 
gooseberries.  Place  them  over  the  fire,  and 
boil  till  the  whole  becomes  a jam,  then  strain 
it  well  through  a jelly-bag.  Make  a rich  syrup 
by  mixing  a pound  of  loaf  sugar  with  a pint  of 
the  liquor  and  a little  water  in  which  the  re- 
mains of  the  strained  fruit  have  been  boiled. 
Boil  the  syrup  five  minutes,  add  it  to  the  juice, 
and  boil  them  together  for  a quarter  of  an  hour ; 
then  pour  off. 

Grape  Jelly. — Select  the  ripest  grapes  in 
bunches,  and  spread  them  on  clean  straw; 
after  two  or  three  days,  pick  them  from  the 
stalks,  and  warm  them  in  a stew-pan ; then 
squeeze  them  thoroughly,  and  pass  the  juice 
through  a sieve.  Add  a quarter  of  a pound  of 
loaf  sugar  to  each  pound  of  juice,  and  boil  half 
an  hour  ; set  to  cool,  and  in  twenty-four  hours 


it  will  be  a fine  jelly,  excellent  for  inva- 
lids. 

Guava  Jelly.  (See  Guava.) 

Lemon  Jelly. — Dissolve  an  ounce  of  isinglass 
in  a pint  of  water;  add  a pound  of  loaf  sugar, 
and  the  juice  and  rinds  of  two  lemons  ; boil  it 
ten  fninutes  and  strain  it  into  the  mould. 

Marbled  Jelly. — This  pretty  dish  consists  of 
various  fragments  united  by  a cement  of  a 
different  color.  It  maybe  made  either  with 
the  remains  left  after  a supper-party,  or  various 
kinds  of  jelly  and  blanc-mange,  or  firm  creams 
may  be  made  on  purpose  ; these  may  be  colored 
yellow  with  saffron,  turmeric,  or  egg-yolk,  green 
with  spinach-juice,  and  pink  with  cochineal  or 
beet-root-juice.  Blanc-mange  has  a very  good 
effect  for  veining,  but  any  other  jelly  will  do. 
Arrange  the  colors  in  layers  one  above  the  other 
according  to  fancy. 

Orange  Jelly. — Grate  the  rinds  of  foursweet 
oranges  and  two  lemons.  Take  the  juice  of 
three  of  each  ; add  half  a pound  of  sugar,  and 
half  a pint  of  water,  and  boil  all  together  till  it 
almost  candies.  Have  ready  a jelly  made  by 
boiling  two  ounces  of  isinglass  in  a pint  and  a 
half  of  water.  Add  this  to  the  syrup,  let  it 
boil  up  once,  and  then  strain  it.  Let  it  stand  a 
while  to  settle  before  pouring  it  into  the 
moulds. 

Peach  Jelly. — Pare,  stone,  and  slice  some 
ripe  peaches  and  put  them  into  a stone  jar; 
crack  one-third  of  the  kernels  and  put  them 
into  the  jar  with  the  peaches.  Set  in  a pan  of 
boiling  water,  and  stir  frequently  until  the 
fruit  is  well  broken  ; then  strain,  and  to  every 
pint  of  juice  add  the  juice  of  a lemon  and  set 
on  again  to  boil.  Allow  a pound  of  sugar  to 
each  pint  of  juice ; heat  it  as  directed  for 
blackberry  jelly,  and  add  it  after  the  juice  has 
boiled  twenty  minutes.  Let  it  come  to  a boil, 
and  then  remove  instantly  from  the  fire. 

Quince  Jelly. — Pare,  core  and  slice  the 
quinces,  and  for  every  five  pounds  of  the  fruit 
add  half  a pint  of  water  ; put  peelings,  cores, 
and  all  into  a stone  jar,  set  into  a pan  of  water, 
and  boil  until  quite  soft.  Strain  through  a fine 
sieve,  and  for  every  pint  of  juice  allow  a pound 
of  sugar  ; boil  almost  twenty-five  minutes,  and 
then  strain  into  the  tumblers. 

Rhubarb  Jelly. — Wash  the  stalks  well,  and 
cut  them  into  pieces  an  inch  or  so  long;  put 
them  into  a preserving-kettle  with  enough  water 
to  cover  them  and  boil  to  a soft  pulp  ; strain 
through  a jelly-bag.  To  each  pint  of  this 
juice  add  a pound  of  loaf  sugar;  boil  again  ; 
skimming  often,  and  when  it  jellies  on  the 
skimmer  remove  it  from  the  fire,  and  put  it 
into  the  jars. 

Raspberry  Jelly. — Make  as  directed  for 
Blackberry  jelly. 

Raspberry  and  Currant  Jelly. — Take  two 
parts  of  red  raspberries  and  one  of  red  cur- 
rants, and  proceed  as  for  other  berry  jellies. 
This  is  one  of  the  nicest  of  jellies. 

Rice  Jelly. — Boil  half  a pound  of  rice  and  a 
small  piece  of  cinnamon,  in  two  quarts  of  water 
for  an  hour ; pass  it  through  a sieve,  and  when 


JOHNNY  CAKES 

cold  it  will  be  a firm  jelly,  which,  when  warmed 
in  milk  and  sweetened,  will  be  very  nutritious. 
Add  one  pint  of  milk  to  the  rice  left  in  the 
sieve,  and  boil  it  for  a short  time,  stirring  con- 
tinually ; strain  it,  and  it  will  resemble  thick 
cream  if  eaten  warm. 

Sago  Jelly. — Soak  the  sago  about  an  hour  in 
cold  water,  and  wash  it ; then  put  a tabhespoon- 
ful  of  it  in  a quart  of  water,  and  simmer  till  the 
sago  is  entirely  dissolved,  and  the  liquid  re- 
sembles a thin  jelly.  Then  sweeten,  and  add 
nutmeg,  cinnamon,  or  lemon-peel,  and  red  or 
white  wine  to  taste. 

Strawberry  Jelly. — Make  as  directed  for 
Blackberry  jelly ; but  a little  lemon-juice  should 
be  added  to  that  of  the  fruit — say  a tablespoon- 
ful to  a quart. 

Tapioca  Jelly. — Wash  the  tapioca,  soak  it 
three  hours  in  cold  water,  in  which  simmer  it 
till  dissolved,  with  a pinch  of  salt  and  a few 
bits  of  fresh  lemon-peel ; then  sweeten,  add 
red  or  white  wine,  and  take  out  the  peel  before 
using. 

Wine  Jelly. — Soak  one  package  of  Coxe’s 
gelatine  in  a pint  of  cold  water  for  one  hour ; 
add  i pounds  of  sugar,  the  juice  of  two  lem- 
ons and  the  grated  peel  of  one,  and  an  inch  of 
stick  cinnamon  ; pour  over  all  three  pints 
of  boiling  water,  and  stir  until  the  gelatine  is 
thoroughly  dissolved.  Add  a pint  of  sherry  or 
white  wine  ; and  strain  through  a thick  flannel 
bag,  without  squeezing.  This  is  excellent  for 
invalids.  Cider  Jelly  may  be  made  in  the  same 
way,  by  using  cider  instead  of  wine. 

JOHN  DORY.  (See  Dory.) 

JOHNNY  CAKES.— I.  Mix  a quart  of  In- 
dian meal  with  enough  boiling  water  to  make 
a very  thick  batter.  Stir  in  two  or  three  tea- 
spoonfuls of  salt,  and  mould  the  dough  with 
the  hands  into  small  cakes  ; in  order  to  mould 
them  up  it  will  be  necessary  to  rub  a good  deal 
of  flour  on  the  hands  to  prevent  their  sticking. 
Fry  them  in  nearly  enough  fat  to  cover  them ; 
when  brown  on  the  under  side,  they  should  be 
turned.  It  takes  about  twenty  minutes  to  cook 
them.  When  cooked,  split  and  butter  them, 
and  serve  hot. 

n.  Mix  a quart  of  Indian  meal  as  before, 
with  enough  boiling  water  to  make  a stiff  bat- 
ter ; add  a teaspoonful  of  saleratus  and  a tea- 
spoonful of  salt  dissolved  in  a little  milk;  then 
stir  in  2 or  3 tablespoonfuls  of  flour  with  2 tea- 
spoonfuls of  cream-tartar.  Drop  the  batter  by 
the  large  spoonful  into  a frying-pan  containing 


KALE  317 

just  enough  fat  to  prevent  the  cakes  sticking  to 
it,  and  fry  as  before. 

JONQUIL. — This  favorite  Spring  flowering- 
bulb  should  be  cultivated  in  the  same  way  as 
already  described  for  Hyacinths.  The  bulbs, 
however,  should  be  planted  only  three  inches 
deep  instead  of  four.  The  double  varieties  of 
jonquils  are  very  fine,  but  are  seldom  so  fra- 
grant as  the  single. 

JULEP  (Mint.) — There  are  many  varieties 
of  mint  juleps,  and  they  may  be  made  of  claret, 
madeira,  gin,  brandy,  etc. ; brandy  is  generally 
considered  best.  In  making,  proceed  as  fol- 
lows : — Strip  the  tender  leaves  of  mint  into  a 
tumbler,  and  add  to  them  as  much  brandy  or 
wine  as  you  wish  to  take,  and  an  equal  quantity 
of  white  sugar.  Put  some  pounded  ice  into 
another  tumbler;  pour  this  on  the  mint  and 
brandy,  and  continue  to  pour  the  mixture  from 
one  tumbler  to  the  other  until  the  whole  is  suf- 
ficiently impregnated  with  the  flavor  of  the  mint. 
Then  as  the  ice  melts,  drink  either  through  a 
reed  or  from  the  tumbler.  This  is  perhaps  the 
most  delicious  of  all  summer  drinks.  For  Gin 
julep,  see  Gin. 

JUMBLES. — Take  /-Sugar,  i lb;  butter,  % 
lb  i eggs,  8 ; flour ; rose-water,  or  essence  of 
lemon.  , 

Stir  the  sugar  and  butter  together  till  they 
are  of  a light  color ; then  add  the  eggs,  beaten 
to  a froth,  and  flour  enough  to  make  the  mix- 
ture stiff  enough  to  roll  out.  Roll  the  dough 
out  in  powdered  sugar,  about  half  an  inch  thick, 
cut  it  into  strips  about  half  an  inch  wide 
and  four  inches  long,  join  the  ends  together  so 
as  to  form  rings,  lay  them  on  flat  tins  that  have 
been  buttered,  and  bake  in  a quick  oven.  They 
should  be  a light  brown,  but  perfectly  crisp. 

Almond  Jumbles. — Take  .-Almonds,  ^ lb  ; 
blanched  and  chopped  fine ; sugar,  i lb ; flour, 
i lb ; butter,  % lb ; sour  milk,  i teacupful ; 
eggs>  5 ! rose-water,  2 tablespoonfuls  ; soda,  )4 
teaspoonful  dissolved  in  a tablespoonful  of  boil- 
ing water. 

Stir  the  butter  and  sugar  to  a cream  ; add  the 
yolks  of  the  eggs  beaten  to  a froth,  the  flour, 
the  milk,  the  almonds,  the  soda,  and  the  rose- 
water ; lastly  the  whites  of  the  eggs  beaten  to 
a stiff  froth.  Stir  all  together  thoroughly,  and 
drop  by  spoonfuls  on  buttered  paper ; bake  in 
a quick  oven. 

Cocoanut  Jumbles. — Make  as  above,  using 
grated  cocoanut  instead  of  almonds,  and  add- 
ing a little  salt. 


K 


KALE. — Green  curled  kale  or  Borecole  is 
a fine  table  vegetable  of  which  there  are  several 
varieties.  It  must  be  well  frost-bitten  before  it 
is  fit  for  use  ; after  which  the  frost  should  be 
drawn  out  by  placing  it  in  a cool  cellar  or  in 
cold  water.  The  parts  used  are  the  tender  tops 


or  crown  of  the  plant,  with  the  side  sprouts, 
which  should  be  well-boiled,  so  as  to  be  tendei 
before  being  dressed  and  eaten.  Cook  and 
serve  the  same  as  cabbage.  Green  kale  is  in 
season  as  soon  as  the  frost  appears,  and  con- 
tinues good  nearly  all  winter.  (See  Sea-Kale.) 


318 


KALSOMINING 


KIDNEYS 


KALSOMINING. — The  first  requisite  in 
kalsominingis  to  have  the  walls  perfectly  clean ; 
if  there  be  grease  or  lime  on  any  part,  it  must 
be  scraped  off  and  made  smooth ; and  all 
imperfections,  such  as  cracks  or  nail  holes, 
filled  with  a putty  made  with  plaster  of  Paris 
or  whiting,  time  being  allowed  for  the  putty  to 
harden  before  laying  on  the  kalsomine.  Some- 
times it  may  be  found  expedient  to  coat  the 
walls  with  a thin  sizing  of  glue  before  applying 
the  kalsomine,  and  some  painters  prefer  a coat- 
ing of  good  oil  paint  to  prevent  dampness  from 
striking  out  and  discoloring  the  walls. 

In  preparing  the  kalsomine,  mix  ten  pounds 
of  zinc  white,  if  for  extra  fine  work,  or  the 
same  quantity  of  common  whiting  if  for  ordinary 
work,  to  a thick  cream  with  warm  water ; then 
add  half  a pound  of  dissolved  glue,  and  stir  all 
well  together.  If  for  side  walls,  more  glue 
(half  a pound)  will  have  to  be  added  to  insure 
it  from  rubbing  off.  A common  whitewash 
brush  will  answer  to  lay  it  on  with,  and  it  should 
be  applied  while  warm,  adding  hot  water,  to 
thin  it  if  found  too  thick  to  spread  easily.  It 
was  the  practice  of  painters  until  lately  to  lay 
kalsomine  evenly,  one  way  only,  as  in  oil  paint- 
ing ; but  the  better  method  is  to  pass  the  brush 
indiscriminately  in  every  direction,  leaving  it  in 
that  state  which  seems  to  give  it  the  most  solid 
appearance. 

As  the  charge  for  kalsomining,  and  in  fact 
for  all  similar  work,  is  out  of  all  proportion  to 
its  actual  cost,  it  may  be  useful  to  sum  up  here 
the  expense  in  the  way  of  material  attending  the 
kalsomining  of  a room  twelve  by  fifteen  feet : — 


V2  lb.  glue  at  25  cts  per  lb $0  12 

10  lbs  whiting  at  3 cts  “ o 30 

V2  lb  glue,  (extra  for  side  walls), o 12 

Total 54 


A whitewash  brush  will  cost  one  dollar  addi- 
tional, but  as  the  brush  will  be  uninjured  and 
can  be  used  very  frequently,  it  hardly  enters 
into  the  actual  cost  of  the  work.  Ten  cents 
worth  of  blue,  yellow,  red,  green,  etc.,  in  dry 
colors,  will  form  any  desired  tint. 

KEROSENE.— Kerosene  oil  is  a product  of 
the  distillation  of  bituminous  coal,  and  is  also 
made  from  crude  petroleum.  It  has  superseded 
nearly  all  other  oils  for  purposes  of  illumination 
mainly  on  account  of  its  cheapness,  and  when 
of  good  quality  produces  a bright  and  beautiful 
light,  inferior  only  to  gas.  In  selecting  kero- 
sene, attention  should  be  paid  to  two  points  : 
its  safety  and  its  light-giving  qualities.  Good 
kerosene  should  be  clear  in  color,  and  free 
from  all  matters  which  can  gum  up  the  wick 
and  thus  interfere  with  free  circulation  and 
combustion.  It  should  also  be  purified  from 
all  that  portion  which  boils  or  evaporates  at  a 
low  temperature ; for  it  is  the  production  of 
this  vapor,  and  its  mixture  with  atmospheric 
air,  that  gives  rise  to  those  terrible  explosions 
that  occur  when  a flame  is  brought  near  a can 
of  poor  oil.  To  test  the  oil  in  this  respect, 


pour  a small  quantity  into  an  iron  spoon,  and 
heat  it  over  a lamp  until  it  is  moderately  warm 
to  the  touch  ; if  the  oil  produces  a vapor  which 
can  be  set  on  fire  by  means  of  a flame  held  a 
short  distance  above  the  surface  of  the  liquid, 
it  is  bad.  Safe  oil  poured  into  a cup  or  on  the 
floor  does  not  easily  take  fire  when  a flame  is 
brought  in  contact  with  it.  Poor  oil  will  in- 
stantly ignite  under  the  same  circumstances, 
and  hence  the  breaking  of  a lamp  filled  with 
poor  oil,  or  the  use  of  poor  oil  in  any  way  about 
the  house,  is  fraught  with  terrible  peril  of  con- 
flagration. N ot  only  the  safety  but  the  light-giv- 
ing qualities  of  kerosene  are  greatly  increased  by 
the  removal  of  these  volatile  and  dangerous 
components  of  the  oil ; and  this  is  readily  done 
by  a process  of  refining  which  only  slightly 
increases  its  cost.  One  of  these  “refined” 
oils  should  always  be  chosen,  and  the  best  of 
them  is  the  Astral  Oil. 

Kerosene  should  be  kept  in  a cool,  dark 
place,  and  carefully  excluded  from  the  air.  It 
would  be  superfluous,  probably,  to  caution 
against  using  it  for  lighting  fires  and  the  like, 
since  those  who  do  such  things  must  be  fully 
aware  that  in  doing  so  they  are  subjecting 
themselves  and  their  property  to  the  deadliest 
peril. 

KERSEYMERE.  (See  Cassimere.) 

KETCHUP.  (See  Catsup.) 

KETTLE. — Kettles  are  usually  made  of  cast- 
iron,  though  not  infrequently  of  copper  or  tin. 
(See  Copper-ware,  Iron-ware,  and  Tin- 
ware.) In  boiling  a kettle  care  must  be  taken  to 
put  on  the  lid  closely , so  as  not  to  leave  the  small- 
est crevice.  If  the  lid  is  in  the  least  broken  or 
bent,  it  is  best  to  get  a new  one  ; otherwise  the 
water  is  very  likely  to  be  smoked  and  will  then 
communicate  a disagreeable  taste  to  whatever 
it  is  used  in  preparing. 

To  remove  fur  from  the  inside  of  a kettle, 
fill  it  with  water,  and  add  to  it  a drachm  of  sal- 
ammoniac  ; let  it  boil  for  an  hour,  and  the  fur 
or  incrustation  formed  on  the  metal  will  be 
dissolved  and  can  easily  be  removed. 

KID. — The  meat  of  the  kid  is  sometimes 
but  not  often  found  in  our  markets,  but  it  is 
considered  inferior  to  lamb,  and  can  scarcely 
be  numbered  among  the  edible  meats  in  this 
country.  (See  Goat’s  Flesh.)  Kid  is  pre- 
pared, dressed,  and  served  in  the  same  way  as 
Lamb. 

KIDNEYS. — These  are  obtained  from  cows, 
sheep,  or  pigs.  The  calves'  kidneys  are  best  of 
all,  and  are  usually  found  in  the  loins  of  veal,  but 
sometimes  they  are  taken  out  and  sold  sepa- 
rately. Lambs'  and  sheeps'  kidneys  are  very 
much  alike,  but  the  lambs’  are  considered 
most  delicate.  Pigs'  kidneys  are  also  best 
when  taken  from  the  young  pig  or  shoat.  No 
kidneys  should  be  used  for  cooking  purposes 
which  are  not  perfectly  fresh.  If  pigs’  kidneys 
have  any  disagreeable  smell  they  should  be 
thrown  away. 

Broiled  Kidneys. — Split  the  kidneys  into 
four  pieces,  skewer  them  apart,  cut  away  all 
the  skinny  or  membranous  portions,  sprinkle 


KITCHEN 


KNIFE 


319 


with  salt,  and  broil  over  a good  fire.  When 
brown  on  both  sides,  serve. 

Fried  Kidneys. — I.  Trim  and  cut  the  kid- 
ney into  slices ; season  them  with  salt  and 
pepper,  and  dredge  them  well  with  flour ; fry 
them  on  both  sides  until  they  are  nicely- 
browned  ; then  lift  them  out,  empty  the  pan, 
and  make  gravy  for  them  with  a teaspoonful 
of  butter,  a dessertspoonful  of  flour,  pepper 
and  salt,  and  a teacupful  of  boiling  water ; 
shake  them  round,  and  give  them  a minute’s 
simmering ; add  a little  mushroom  catsup, 
lemon-juice,  or  any  sauce  that  will  give  a good 
flavor.  Minced  herbs  are,  to  many  tastes,  an 
improvement  to  this  dish,  to  which  a small 
quantity  of  onion  cut  fine  can  be  added,  if  it  is 
liked. 

n.  Strip  off  the  skin  and  remove  the  fat,  and 
then  slice  the  kidney  rather  thin ; season  it 
with  salt,  pepper,  and  grated  nutmeg,  and 
sprinkle  over  with  plenty  of  minced  parsley,  or 
equal  parts  of  parsley  and  eschalots,  chopped 
very  small.  Fry  the  slices  over  a brisk  fire, 
and,  when  nicely  browned  on  both  sides,  stir 
amongst  them  a teaspoonful  of  flour,  and  pour 
in  by  degrees  a teacupful  of  gravy  and  a wine- 
glassful  of  white  wine ; bring  the  sauce  to  the 
point  of  boiling,  add  a morsel  of  butter  and  a 
tablespoonful  of  lemon-juice,  and  pour  the 
whole  into  a hot  dish,  garnished  with  fried 
bread.  This  is  a French  receipt,  and  an  excel- 
lent one. 

Stewed  Kidneys. — Cut  the  kidney  in  half, 
lengthwise,  and  soak  it  in  strong  salt  water  for 
twelve  hours  ; parboil  it  till  about  half  done  ; 
set  it  aside  till  cold,  and  then  cut  away  all  the 
tender  meat,  leaving  the  tendons  and  mem- 
branes unused ; put  these  bits  of  meat  into  a 
stew-pan,  with  about  two  teacupfuls  of  boiling 
water,  and  boil  till  very  tender ; then  add  a 
tablespoonful  of  butter,  season  to  taste  with 
pepper  and  salt,  thicken  with  a little  flour,  and 
boil  about  five  minutes  longer.  Have  ready 
a few  slices  of  crisp  toast,  pour  the  stew  over 
them  on  a dish,  and  serve  at  once,  garnished 
with  parsley. 

KING-FISH.  (See  Whiting.) 

KITCHEN. — In  city  houses  the  kitchens 
are  nearly  always  on  the  basement  floor,  while 
in  the  country  they  are  as  generally  either  sep- 
arate or  an  outlying  portion  of  the  main  build- 
ing. In  either  case  the  same  principles  of 
construction  should  be  observed.  A kitchen 
should  always,  if  possible,  be  entirely  above 
ground ; and  it  should  always  be  well-lighted 
and  thoroughly  ventilated.  These  points  are 
of  more  importance  than  is  generally  supposed, 
since  the  contentment  of  the  cook  and  the 
goodness  of  the  cookery  depend  upon  them  in 
a very  large  measure.  A whitewashed  wall  is 
best  for  a kitchen,  as  it  is  clean  and  neat,  and 
can  be  so  easily  whitewashed  afresh  whenever 
it  is  soiled.  The  whitewash  can  be  colored,  if 
desired ; this  makes  a prettier  wall,  but  has  the 
disadvantage  that,  whenever  any  place  becomes 
soiled,  a whitewasher  must  be  called  in  to  re- 
pair the  mischief,  whereas,  the  ordinary  white- 


wash can  be  prepared  and  applied  by  any  one. 
Both  ceiling  and  walls  should  be  whitewashed 
at  least  twice  a year.  Painted  wood-work  is 
not  desirable  in  a kitchen  ; it  soon  looks  dirty, 
unless  washed  very  frequently  with  soap,  and 
this  soon  wears  the  paint  off  in  spots.  The 
wood,  left  in  its  natural  state,  requires  a great 
deal  of  hard  scrubbing  ; but,  if  oiled  and  var- 
nished, or  simply  oiled,  will  keep  clean  a long 
time,  and  can  be  easily  and  quickly  wiped  off 
with  a little  water. 

If  the  flooring  is  smooth  and  evenly  laid,  the 
cleanest  and  least  troublesome  method  of  treat- 
ing is  to  oil  well  two  or  three  times  a year.  It 
does  not  soil  easily  then,  and  when  soiled  can 
be  washed  readily  and  without  scrubbing.  If 
it  is  not  in  proper  condition  for  oiling,  stain  it 
with  black  walnut  stain,  made  as  follows:  To 
one  gallon  of  turpentine  add  a quarter  of  a 
pound  of  asphaltum  and  half  a pound  of  com- 
mon beeswax.  If  found  too  thin,  add  bees- 
wax; if  too  light  in  color,  add  asphaltum, 
though  this  must  be  done  with  caution,  as  a 
very  little  will  make  a great  difference  in  the 
shade,  and  the  wood  should  not  be  black,  but  a 
rich,  dark  brown.  This  will  probably  have  to 
be  renewed  every  Spring  and  Fall,  but  it  is  not 
difficult  to  apply,  and  will  cost  less  than  fifty 
cents  for  each  application.  Carpets  should 
never  be  used  on  a kitchen  floor,  except  a rug 
here  and  there  in  Winter,  and  oil-cloth  is  both 
expensive  and  difficult  to  keep  clean.  If  any 
carpet  be  used  it  should  be  rag,  because  it  is 
thick  and  heavy.  This  should  be  tacked  down 
only  in  front  of  doors  and  places  where  it  is 
liable  to  trip  any  one  up.  Strips  of  zinc  may 
be  tacked  around  the  hearth  and  in  front  of  the 
sink,  and  are  admirable  arrangements  to  pre- 
vent dirt  and  wear. 

Every  kitchen  should  have  a large  sink,  with 
a drain  running  under  ground.  This  sink 
should  be  scalded  out  every  day,  and  occasion- 
ally with  hot  lye  ; and  care  should  be  taken 
that  no  tea  leaves  or  potato  peels  are  thrown 
into  it,  as  they  soon  obstruct  the  pipes. 

For  the  furniture  and  utensils  required  in  a 
kitchen,  see  Furniture. 

KNIFE — Table-knives  are  the  only  ones 
which  claim  our  attention  here,  and,  for  sug- 
gestions as  to  the  different  kinds  and  qualities, 
and  the  materials  of  which  they  are  made,  see 
Carving,  and  Fork.  The  best  steel  is  the 
cheapest  in  the  end,  and  will  give  most  satis- 
faction. The  finer  kinds  of  knives  have  the 
blades  plated  with  silver,  and  are  very  orna- 
mental ; but  it  must  be  recollected  that  these 
cannot  be  sharpened  when  they  become  blunt 
by  use,  as  they  soon  do. 

In  washing  knives  the  blades  only  should  be 
dipped  in  hot  water  and  wiped  immediately, 
taking  care  that  the  handles  are  not  wetted  ; 
they  should  then  be  cleaned  on  the  knife-board, 
or  with  the  patent  cleaner,  if  there  is  one  at 
hand.  To  preserve  knives  not  in  common  use, 
the  blades  should  either  be  rubbed  over  with 
' mutton  suet  or  they  should  be  kept  in  a wooden 
box  containing  sifted  quicklime,  care  being 


320 


LABURNUM 


LACKENALIA 


taken  that  the  blade  only  of  the  knives  touch 
the  lime. 

A very  simple  knife-cleaner  may  be  made  of 
two  boards,  twenty  inches  long,  six  inches 
broad,  and  one  inch  thick,  joined  together,  but 
not  quite  close,  by  a hinge  ; two  pieces  of  buff 
or  belt  leather  are  stretched  over  the  interior 
surfaces,  and  nailed  on  the  exterior  ones  ; and 
a handle  assists  in  holding  the  apparatus  steady. 
In  using  it,  lay  powdered  Bath  brick,  or  any 
similar  dust,  on  the  lower  leather;  shut  the 
boards  together,  lay  the  left  arm  on  the  upper 
board,  holding  the  handle ; put  the  knife,  well 
wiped  from  grease,  between  the  leathers,  and 
four  or  five  rubs  backwards,  not  sideways,  will 
produce  a beautiful  polish  on  both  sides.  The 
shoulders  and  back  may  be  polished  on  the 
leather  turned  over. 

Or,  cover  a smooth  board,  free  from  knots, 
with  thick  buff  leather,  on  which  spread,  about 


the  thickness  of  a penny,  the  following  paste : 
Emery,  one  part ; crocus,  three  parts ; mixed 
with  lard  or  sweet  oil.  This  composition  not 
only  gives  a superior  polish  to  knives,  but 
improves  their  edges. 

KOL-CANNON. — Mix,  in  about  equal  pro- 
portions, some  smoothly  mashed  cold  potatoes 
and  some  cabbage  or  greens  of  any  kind,  first 
boiled  quite  tender,  pressed  very  dry,  and 
chopped  a little,  if  needful.  Mash  up  the  whole 
well  together,  add  a seasoning  of  pepper  and 
salt,  a spoonful  of  butter,  and  a spoonful  or 
two  of  cream  or  milk;  put  a raw  onion  in  the 
middle  of  the  mass,  and  stir  it  over  a clear  fire 
till  it  is  very  hot  and  sufficiently  dry  to  be 
moulded  and  dished  like  dry  hash.  Take  out 
the  onion  before  the  Kol-cannon  is  served. 

In  Ireland  mashed  parsnips  and  potatoes  are 
mixed  in  the  same  way,  and  called  parsnip- 
ca,7inon. 


L 


LABURNUM. — The  common  laburnum, 
or  golden  chain,  is  a very  ornamental  shrub, 
common  in  gardens,  and  well  worthy  of  culti- 
vation. It  grows  in  any  moderately  rich  soil, 
requires  little  attention  when  once  planted,  and 
is  perfectly  hardy.  The  English  and  Scotch 
laburnum  are  somewhat  tender  in  the  Northern 
States ; they  will,  however,  flower  splendidly 
in  a slightly  sheltered  location,  and  their  golden 
chain  of  flowers  is  very  beautiful. 

The  seeds  of  the  laburnum,  which  it  bears  in 
profusion,  are  poisonous,  and  produce,  when 
eaten,  excessive  vomiting,  relaxation,  and 
cramps.  The  treatment  is  to  give  an  emetic  of 
anything  that  may  be  at  hand,  while  a dose  of 
white  vitriol  is  being  sent  for ; this  will  soon 
remove  them  from  the  stomach.  Afterwards 
the  body  must  be  supported  with  brandy  and 
cordials. 

LACE.  (To  clean.) — To  clean  white  lace 
edging , cover  a quart  bottle  with  linen  stitched 
smoothly  to  fit  the  shape ; begin  at  the  bottom 
and  wind  the  lace  round  it,  basting  it  fast  at 
both  edges  to  the  linen  ; soap  it  well  with  fine 
soap,  rinse  by  plunging  up  and  down  in  a pail 
of  clean  water, — put  it  into  a pot  and  boil  it  till 
white.  Then  set  in  the  sun  to  dry ; and,  when 
dry,  clip  the  basting  threads,  and  unwind  the 
lace.  If  it  has  been  carefully  basted  on,  it  re- 
quires no  ironing,  and  will  look  nearly  as  good 
as  new. 

To  wash  white  lace,  baste  each  piece  on  old 
muslin  ; soap  it  well  and  soak  in  soft  water 
over  night ; work  the  soap  out  by  squeezing  it 
occasionally,  dipping  and  squeezing  it  again. 
Change  the  water  two  or  three  times,  repeating 
the  dipping  and  squeezing;  put  it  (again  fresh 
soaped)  into  a saucepan  of  cold  water  to  simmer 
for  a quarter  of  an  hour  or  so ; boil  it  twice 
over  if  necessary,  and  if  the  color  is  still  bad, 


bleach  a little  on  the  grassBefore  finishing. 
Rinse  it  in  plenty  of  hard  water,  adding  a little 
blue  ; then  dissolve  twelve  lumps  of  white  sugar 
more  or  less  according  to  the  quality  of  the  lace 
in  a teacupful  of  hot-water,  pour  into  a large 
basin  and  add  a little  blue ; dip  each  piece  of 
lace  in  separately,  squeeze ; shake  out,  and 
spread  upon  a clean  cloth  ; roll  them  up  for  an 
hour  more,  then  put  them  in  a fresh  cloth,  to  lie 
rolled  up  till  nearly  dry.  Use  a cold  iron. 

Fine  lace  covered  with  powdered  French 
chalk  or  magnesia  and  so  left  for  a week  often 
comes  out  clean. 

To  clean  black  lace , squeeze  it  three  or  four 
times  through  a liquid  made  by  dissolving  a 
teaspoonful  of  spirits  of  wine,  and  a teaspoon- 
ful of  borax,  in  half  a teacupful  of  very  soft 
water  ; then  rinse  in  a cup  of  hot  water  in  which 
a black  kid  glove  has  been  boiled.  Pull  out  the 
edges  of  the  lace  until  nearly  dry  and  press 
for  two  days  in  a heavy  book. 

LACHENALIA. — One  of  the  Cape  bulbs, 
very  easy  of  culture,  and  making  extremely 
pretty  window  plants.  They  should  be  grown 
as  near  the  glass  as  possible.  Plant  in  Octo- 
ber, in  pots  filled  with  a rough,  peaty,  and 
sandy  soil ; they  require  very  little  water,  but 
after  starting  into  growth  should  never  be  al- 
lowed to  become  parched.  The  foliage  of  the 
lachenalia  is  prettily  variegated  with  black ; 
and  the  flowers,  which  are  in  bloom  from 
January  to  February,  arc  produced  in  up- 
right spikes,  and  are  pendulous,  high-colored 
tubes.  L.  pctuiula , with  red  and  yellow  flow- 
ers, is  the  most  common  species.  There  are 
many  species  with  pink,  purple,  red,  yellow, 
and  blue  flowers  ; among  the  choicest  of  which 
are:  L.  fragrans,  with  flowers  white  and  red  ; 
and  L.  quadricolor,  with  flowers  yellow,  red, 

I and  purple. 


. LACQUERING 


LAMB 


321 


LACQUERING. — A thin  varnish  given  to 
brass-work,  such  as  to  handles  of  locks,  door- 
plates, etc.,  to  prevent  their  tarnishing.  Brass- 
work  may  be  re-lacquered  in  the  following  man- 
ner: Put  an  ounce  of  turmeric,  two  drachms 
of  arnotto,  and  two  drachms  of  saffron,  into  a 
pint  of  alcohol;  shake  it  occasionlly  for  a week, 
and  then  filter  into  a clean  bottle ; add  three 
ounces  of  clean  seed  shellac,  and  shake  the 
bottle  now  and  then  for  a fortnight.  In  apply- 
ing it,  warm  the  metal  first,  and  lay  the  lacquer 
over  it  evenly  with  a soft  brush. 

A lacquer  to  give  tin,  or  silver-plated  articles 
the  appearance  of  brass,  may  be  made  thus : 
Melt,  in  separate  vessels,  two  ounces  of  shel- 
lac and  eight  ounces  of  amber  ; mix  them  well 
together,  and  add  half  a pint  of  drying  linseed 
oil.  Dissolve  in  a pint  bottle,  two  drachms  of 
saffron  in  half  a pint  of  oil  of  turpentine  ; strain 
this,  and  add  to  it  two  drachms  each  of  gum- 
tragacanth  and  arnotto  finely  powdered.  Mix 
both  these  compounds  together  and  shake  them 
well;  apply  as  before.  It  is  by  this  varnish 
that  leather  is  made  to  appear  as  if  gilded, 
after  it  has  been  covered  with  silver  leaf. 

LADY  SLIPPER.  ( See  Balsa»i.) 

LAGER  BEER. — This  term  is  properly  ap- 
plied only  to  those  beers  which  are  fermented 
in  cool  cellars  by  a slow  process  in  which  the 
yeast  settles  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessels.  In 
this  country  it  is  applied  indiscriminately  to 
the  light  kinds  of  beer  which  are  prepared  by 
the  slow  process  of  fermentation.  Much  of 
this  beverage,  however,  is  not  genuine  lager- 
beer,  for  it  has  not  lain  a sufficient  length  of 
time  in  the  cellar  to  acquire  that  title ; nor 
could  it  have  been  preserved  .in  casks  during 
the  time  required  by  lager-beer  in  ripening.  It 
is  more  technically  termed,  and  is  known  by 
the  brewers  as  Schenkbier,  or  draught-beer. 
It  contains  less  alcohol  than  the  genuine  lager, 
and  less  than  the  various  kinds  of  ripened  ales, 
and  corresponds  to  what  is  known  in  this 
country  as  “ present  use  ale,”  or  the  new  ale 
commonly  kept  in  the  ale-houses.  Lager  is  a 
light  and  pleasant  summer  beverage ; but  it 
has  neither  the  nutritive  nor  the  stimulating 
qualities  that  are  generally  claimed  for  it.  One 
advantage  is  that  it  costs  so  little  to  manufac- 
ture that  it  is  seldom  adulterated. 

LAMB. — The  young  sheep  is  usually  known 
among  butchers  as  “ lamb,”  until  it  arrives  at 
the  age  of  twelve  months,  when  it  is  termed 
yearling , though  still  in  many  cases  dressed 
and  sold  as  lamb.  The  Spring  lamb  is  a lux- 
ury prized  chiefly  for  its  unseasonableness  ; its 
flesh,  although  delicate  and  tender,  is  quite  in- 
sipid and  much  less  nourishing  than  good  mut- 
ton. Lamb  is  occasionally  sold  in  our  mar- 
kets as  early  as  March ; after  which  it  slowly 
increases  in  size  and.  plentifulness,  until  in  the 
months  of  June,  July,  and  August,  it  is  in  full 
season  and  of  fine  quality.  When  it  first  ap- 
pears, lamb  is  not  sold  in  less  quantity  than  a 
quarter,  its  weight  being  seldom  above  five  or 
six  pounds.  As  it  increases  in  size  the  lamb 
rapidly  increases  in  weight,  and  in  June  the 
21 


quarters  generally  weigh  from  eight  to  twelve 
pounds  each.  Later  in  the  season  the  quarters 
will  weigh  as  much  as  twenty-five  pounds 
each,  but  the  animal  is  then  cut  up  like  mut- 
ton, and  the  same  joints  can  be  procured. 

In  butchering,  the  carcass  of  lamb  is  first 
split  down  the  centre  of  the  back  and  neck  into 
two  sides,  which  are  quartered  by  leaving  two 
or  three  ribs  on  the  hmd-quarter.  When 
large  enough,  and  it  is  desired  by  the  pui- 
chaser  to  be  cut  or  divided,  the  leg  is  first  cut 
off  and  prepared  for  roasting  or  boiling,  or  is 
cut  into  chops.  The  fore-quarter  of  lamb  is 
smaller  than  the  same  joint  of  mutton,  and  the 
bones  are  of  a more  reddish  color.  The  fore- 
leg is  broken  off  immediately  above  the  joint 
of  the  foot,  which  connects  with  the  white 
joint  bone.  This  is  generally  considered  the 
choicest  part  of  the  lamb  on  account  of  the 
delicacy  of  the  ribs  and  breast  when  roasted. 
Removing  the  blacle-bone  greatly  assists  the 
carver.  The  loin  of  lamb  is  usually  cut  into 
chops,  or  cracked  for  roasting.  Separated  from 
the  shoulders,  the  neck  and  breast  broiled 
make  a choice  dish. 

In  choosing  lamb,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  this  meat  will  not  keep  long  after  the  ani- 
mal is  killed.  When  the  fore-quarter  is  fresh 
the  large  vein  in  the  neck  is  bluish  in  color ; 
when  it  is  becoming  stale  it  is  green.  In  the 
hind-quarter,  if  not  recently  killed,  the  fat  of 
the  kidney  will  have  a slight  smell,  and  the 
knuckle  will  have  lost  its  firmness.  Another 
testis  to  examine  the  fat  on  the  back  and  then 
that  on  the  kidneys,  both  of  which  should  be 
white,  hard,  and  of  the  same  color. 

Baked  Lamb. — Either  the  fore-quarter  or 
hind-quarter  may  be  used  for  this.  Put  the 
joint  in  a baking-pan,  the  bottom  of  which  is 
just  covered  with  cold  water;  spread  a little 
butter  on  it,  and  season  with  salt  and  pepper ; 
cover  it  with  a piece  of  buttered  paper,  and 
set  the  pan  in  a moderately  quick  oven  ; baste 
often  till  done.  If  the  paper  burns,  put  on 
another  piece.  Allow  about  ten  minutes  to  the 
pound,  and  in  order  to  ascertain  when  properly 
done  run  a small  knife  or  skewer  into  the 
meat ; it  should  enter  easily.  Serve  with  the 
gravy  only,  or  with  any  sauce  that  may  be  pre- 
ferred. 

Boiled  Lamb.  — Lamb  should  never  be 
boiled  except  in  stews ; it  becomes  tasteless 
and  sodden  on  account  of  its  immaturity,  and  if 
very  young  is  positively  unwholesome. 

Chops  (Lamb).— Prepare,  cook,  and  serve 
as  directed  for  mutton  chops.  They  should 
be  broiled,  never  fried,  as  they  are  already  suf- 
ficiently oily. 

Roast  Lamb. — Either  the  fore  or  hind- 
quarter  will  answer  for  this  ; but  the  fore-quar- 
ter is  generally  esteemed  choicest.  The  fire 
for  roasting  should  be  clear  and  brisk ; put  the 
meat  on  with  a little  water  in  the  dripping-pan, 
and  it  must  be  carefully  and  plentifully  basted 
from  the  time  it  becomes  warm  until  it  is  ready 
to  serve — first  with  salt  and  water,  and  after- 
wards with  the  gravy.  Though  it  requires 


322 


LAMPREY 


LAMPS 


quick  roasting,  it  must  i>ever  be  placed  suffi- 
ciently near  the  fire  to  endanger  the  fat,  which 
is  very  liable  to  scorch  or  burn.  Allow  about 
ten  minutes  to  the  pound  for  a fore-quarter; 
eight  minutes  for  a leg  ; and  six  for  a shoulder. 
Lamb  should  always  be  well  done.  Serve  with 
the  sauce  given  below ; or,  skim  the  gravy 
well,  thicken  with  brown  flour,  and  serve  with 
that. 

Sauce  for  Lamb. — The  mint  for  this  sauce 
should  be  fr'esh  and  young.  Strip  the  leaves 
from  the  stem,  wash  them  carefully,  and  drain 
them  on  a sieve  or  dry  them  in  a cloth  ; chop 
them  very  fine,  put  them  into  a sauce-tureen, 
and  to  three  tablespoonfuls  of  the  mint  add 
two  of  pounded  sugar ; let  them  remain  a short 
time  well-mixed  together,  and  then  pour  to 
them  gradually  six  tablespoonfuls  of  vinegar. 

Stewed  Lamb.— L — Take:  Three  or  four 
pounds  of  lamb,  cut  it  up  into  pieces  an  inch  or 
two  in  length,  crack  the  bones  and  remove  all 
the  fat ; put  the  meat  in  a pot  with  enough  cold 
water  to  cover  it,  and  set  where  it  will  heat 
gradually.  Cover  it  closely,  and  stew  half  an 
hour  ; then  add  four  ounces  of  salt  pork  cut 
into  strips,  a chopped  onion,  and  some  pepper ; 
cover  again  and  stew  an  hour  longer,  or  until 
the  meat  is  very  tender.  Mix  a little  dough 
as  for  biscuits,  cut  into  squares,  and  drop  into 
the  stew;  boil  ten  minutes  and  season  further 
by  the  addition  of  a little  parsley  and  thyme  ; 
thicken  with  two  tablespoonfuls  of  flour  stirred 
in  a teacup  of  cold  milk.  Boil  up  once  and 
serve  in  a deep  covered  dish. 

II.  Choose  a small  plump  leg  ot  lamb,  not 
much  exceeding  five  pounds  in  weight  ; put  it 
into  a vessel  nearly  of  its  size,  with  a few  trim- 
mings or  a bone  or  two  of  raw  veal,  if  at  hand  ; 
cover  it  with  warm  water,  bring  it  slowly  to  a 
boil,  clean  off  the  scum  with  great  care  when 
it  is  first  thrown  to  the  surface,  and  when  it  has 
all  been  skimmed  off,  add  a bunch  of  thyme 
and  parsley,  and  two  carrots  of  moderate  size. 
Let  the  lamb  simmer  slowly,  but  without  ceas- 
ing, for  an  hour  and  a quarter ; serve  it  covered 
with  rich  white  sauce,  and  send  some  of  the 
sauce  to  table  with  it  in  a tureen. 

LAMBREQUIN.  (See  Curtains.) 

LAMPREY — usually  called  lamprey-eels — 
are  taken  in  large  numbers  in  the  months  of 
March,  April,  May  and  June.  The  flesh  is 
dark,  rather  dry,  and  somewhat  insipid  in  taste  ; 
and,  though  a favorite  dish  in  England,  is  not 
much  esteemed  here.  They  are  considered 
best  in  the  months  of  May  and  June.  Prepare 
as  directed  for  Ef.LS. 

LAMPS. — The  lamps  in  use  not  too  simple 
to  justify  description,  are  treated  under  sepa- 
rate articles,  except  two  brought  to  our  notice 
since  the  articles  were  prepared  about  the  oth- 
ers named  in  the  cross-references  below.  The 
main  purpose  of  this  article  is  to  explain  some 
matters  common  to  lamps  in  general. 

The  distance  from  the  burning  part  of  the 
wick  to  the  surface  of  the  oil  should  remain 
unchanged,  so  that  equal  quantities  of  oil 
may  be  drawn  up  at  all  times,  and  the  reservoir 


should  be  so  shaped  and  placed  that  its  shadow 
will  occasion  the  least  inconvenience.  If  the 
wick  is  supplied  from  a reservoir  below,  it  is 
obvious  that  just  in  proportion  as  that  is  ex- 
hausted, the  distance  from  its  surface  to  the 
flame  is  increased  ; the  wick  elevates  less  oil, 
and  the  light  grows  faint  and  dim.  To  remedy 
this,  the  reservoir  is  often  made  so  as  to  have 
a large  surface  of  oil  that  will  fall  but  a little 
distance  although  a considerable  amount  be 
withdrawn.  To  avoid  the  objectionable  shade 
thrown  by  such  a large  cistern  close  to  the  wick, 
the  astral  lamp  had  its  reservoir  constructed 
in  the  form  of  a narrow  circular  ring,  which 
throws  but  a small  shadow.  The  sinumbra 
lamp  had  this  ring  so  shaped  as  to  produce  still 
less  shade.  A more  modern  device  is  a foun- 
tain of  oil  placed  on  one  side  higher  than  the 
wick,  with  a self-acting  arrangement  by  which 
the  reservoir  is  fed  from  it,  and  its  height  con- 
stantly maintained  at  the  same  point,  as  in  the 
German  student  lamp,  ( which  see).  The  astral 
and  sinumbra  lamps  are  now  virtually  out  of  use. 

The  wick  of  a lamp  serves  only  to  raise  up 
the  oil ; the  combustion  of  its  own  substance 
is  so  small«as  scarcely  to  deserve  notice.  The 
size  of  the  wick,  however,  is  important.  To  se- 
cure complete  combustion,  it  is  essential  that 
the  air  shall  have  access  to  every  part  of  the 
flame.  If  the  wick  be  large,  a great  deal  of 
carbon  vapor  remains  unconsumed  in  the  inte- 
rior of  the  flame,  or  breaks  out  at  the  top  as 
smoke,  and  the  flame  appears  yellow  or  even 
brownish.  The  smaller  the  wick,  the  clearer 
and  whiter  will  be  the  flame  ; yet  a very  small 
wick  cannot  give  much  light.  It  was  first 
noticed  by  Dr.  Franklin  that  two  small  wicks, 
placed  close  together,  give  more  light  than  one 
equal  in  quantity  to  both  ; the  air  being  admitted 
between  them,  there  is  more  surface  of  flame 
than  in  one  only.  {See  Duplex  Lamp  below.) 
Three  wicks,  for  the  same  reason,  give  still 
more  light ; but  they  consume  oil  in  proportion. 
It  is  rather  difficult  to  keep  several  wicks  always 
at  the  same  height,  and  there  is  a good  deal  of 
trouble  in  adjusting  and  trimming  them.  Aflat 
wick  is  found  to  obviate  this  inconvenience,  and 
to  give  a much  better  and  clearer  light  than  a 
round  one  which  consumes  the  same  quantity 
of  oil.  These  are  consequently  now  much  used. 
By  far  the  best  arrangement  of  the  whole,  how- 
ever, is  that  invented  by  M.  Argand,  and  known 
as  the  Argand  burner.  (See  Argand.) 

The  care  of  lamps  requires  so  much  atten- 
tion and  discretion  that  it  should  only  be 
entrusted  to  the  most  reliable  servants,  if  to 
any.  Lamps  should  be  freshly  filled,  the  chim- 
neys cleaned  every  day,  and  the  wicks  trim- 
med smooth  with  a pair  of  sharp  scissors. 
Take  the  lamp  to  pieces  and  clean  it  often.  Half 
the  light  produced  is  often  lost  owing  to  the 
dirty  state  of  the  chimneys.  Renew  the  wicks 
before  they  get  too  short;  they  should  never 
be  allowed  to  burn  shorter  than  an  inch  and  a 
half.  The  inside  of  oil-cans  should  be  cleansed 
occasionally  with  soda  dissolved  in  water  (one 
tablespoonful  of  soda  to  a quai  l of  water).  Be 


LAMPS 


LARD 


323 


careful  to  drain  them  well,  and  not  to  let  any 
gilding  or  bronze  be  injured  by  the  soda  coming 
in  contact  with  it.  Never  leave  a burning  ker- 
osene lamp  turned  down,  as  it  will  always 
smoke. 

Argand  Lamp.  (See  Argand.) 

Carcel  Lamp.  (See  Carcel.) 

Chimneys  of  glass  can  be  effectually  clean- 
ed by  kerosene  or  spirits,  when  water  is  inef- 
fectual. 

Duplex  Lamp. — This  is  a lamp  now  made 
for  burning  kerosene,  with  two  flat  wicks  side 
by  side.  (See  remarks  on  preceding  page.) 
The  mechanical  construction  is  too  simple  to 
justify  illustration,  but  as  these  lamps  are  some- 


times made  in  quite  elegant  form  we  annex  a 
cut  giving  the  exterior  view. 

Globes.  (See  under  Gas.) 

Moderateur  Lamp.  (See  Carcel.) 

Shades.  (See  under  Gas.) 

Spirit  Lamp. — The  ordinary  forms  are  well 
known ; the  one  here  given  is  not  yet  widely 
introduced,  but  is  an  immense  convenience  at 
the  table,  in  the  nursery  and  sick  room,  and  in 
travelling.  It  is  generally  known  as  the 
Rachaud  Lamp.  The  inventor  is  M.  Lang. 

It  burns  alcohol  vapor  with  which  it  supplies 
itself  through  a roll  of  wick  contained  in  the 
small  vertical  central  cylinder  and  reaching 
from  the  bottom  of  the  lamp  to  near  the  top  of 
the  cylinder.  The  top  of  the  cylinder  is  closed 
but  near  the  top  a circle  of  small  holes  is  pierced. 
The  part  of  the  cylinder  in  and  near  the  main 
reservoir  is  surrounded  by  a second  wick  pro- 
jecting slightly  above  the  cover  of  the  main 
reservoir  of  the  lamp.  When  this  outside  wick 
is  lighted  the  cylinder  is  heated,  and  the  alcohol, 


with  which  capillary  attraction  has  saturated 
the  inner  wick,  is  rapidly  vaporized  and  rushes 
out  of  the  holes  near  the  top  of  the  cylinder 
with  considerable  force.  This  vapor  becomes 
ignited  from  the  flame  below  it,  of  the  outside 
wick,  and  large  horizontal  jets  of  flame  are  so 
kept  up  while  the  supply  of  alcohol  lasts. 
Water  may  be  boiled  by  this  flame  with  an 
astonishing  saving  of  time  and  fuel. 


Three  vertical  rods  start  from  the  periphery 
of  the  reservoir,  and  are  bent  inward  horiz- 
ontally, so  as  to  support  the  vessels  to  be 
heated. 

Student  Lamp.  (See  German  Student 
Lamp.) 

LARD. — The  best  lard  is  that  made  from 
the  leaf-fat  which  adheres  to  the  ribs  and  belly 
of  the  hog;  lard  made  of  this  is  called  leaf- . 
lard.  As  a general  thing,  however,  the  lard 
obtained  in  the  stores  is  made  of  the  fat  cut 
from  various  parts  of  the  hog — including  both 
leaf-fat  and  meat-fat ; this  is  cut  into  very  small 
pieces,  then  boiled  till  quite  rendered,  and 
the  melted  fat  having  passed  through  a strainer 
into  pots  becomes  lard  when  cool.  Good  lard 
should  be  white  and  solid,  and  without  dis- 
agreeable smell. 

Extensive  adulterations  are  practised  in  lard 
by  mixing  flour , water , starch , lime , or  ahim 
with  it,  and  in  some  cases  carbonate  of  soda  or 
potash  and  salt.  In  addition  to  these,  veal 
and  mutton  fat  are  also  mixed  with  it,  in  order 
to  give  inferior  qualities  the  consistence  which 
good  lard  ought  to  have.  Water  is  easily  de- 
tected by  the  sputtering  made  in  melting.  Flour 
and  starch  can  only  be  detected  bv  the  micro- 
scope, excepting  that  on  melting  fard  contain- 
ing these  substances,  an  opaque  body  is  usually 
seen  floating  in  it,  and  generally  falling  towards 
the  bottom.  The  saline  ingredients  mentioned 
above  require  chemical  tests  to  make  them 
apparent. 

To  Make. — The  best  way  to  secure  pure 
lard  is  to  make  it  at  home.  For  this  purpose, 
if  “ leaf-lard  ” is  desired,  take  the  leaf-fat,  wash 
it  carefully  and  let  it  drain,  cut  it  into  bits,  and 
put  it  into  a tin  kettle  or  stone  jar,  and  set  this 
in  a pot  of  boiling  water ; stir  occasionally 
until  it  is  melted,  allowing  it  only  to  simmer 
slowly  ; throw  in  a very  little  salt  to  settle  the 
sediment ; and  while  still  hot,  strain  through  a 
coarse  cloth  into  jars.  Good  lard  for  common 
use  can  be  made  of  the  fatty  portions  of  the 
hog  lying  next  the  skin.  Cut  these  into  slices, 
put  them  in  a large  pot,  add  a teaspoonful  of 
water  to  prevent  scorching  at  the  bottom,  and 
melt  slowly,  stirring  every  few  minutes.  Sim- 
mer until  the  meat  is  shrivelled  and  brown  and 


321 


LARDING 


LAW 


dry ; remove  the  bits  carefully  with  a perfor- 
ated skimmer,  add  a little  salt  as  before,  and 
when  the  fat  is  clean  strain  it  into  jars.  Great 
care  is  required  in  making  lard  to  prevent 
scorching ; for  this  reason  it  should  simmer 
very  gently,  and  should  be  stirred  often— almost 
constantly  at  the  last.  Lard  keeps  belter  in 
small  jars  than  in  large  ones.  Cover  the  tops 
with  bladders,  and  over  these  tie  a cloth  dipped 
in  melted  grease. 

LARDING. — This  consists  in  the  introduc- 
tion of  thin  and  narrow  pieces  of  ham  or  bacon 
into  poultry  and  meats  that  are  naturally  some- 
what dry  and  devoid  of  flavor.  Veal,  turkeys, 
chickens,  and  rabbits  may  all  be  larded  with 
advantage,  and  almost  any  roast  or  stewed  dish 
is  improved  by  it.  The  larding-needle,  with 


Larding-needle. 


•which  the  process  of  larding  is  performed,  is 
merely  a short,  thick  needle  with  a spring 
opening  or  slit  instead  of  an  eye,  so  that  a nar- 
row slip  of  bacon  may  be  introduced,  just  as  a 
pen  is  inserted  into  a penholder.  Charged 
with  this  larding,  the  needle  is  passed  through 
a pinched-up  portion  of  the  flesh,  and  having 
inserted  it  so  that  its  two  ends  project,  the  slit 
of  the  needle  is  opened  and  liberates  its  charge. 
These  pieces  of  bacon  are  inserted  in  regular 
order,  at  intervals  of  about  an  inch,  in  the 
breast  of  a turkey,  chicken,  or  in  the  substance 
of  veal,  etc.;  after  which  the  article  is  consid- 
ered larded,  and  is  ready  for  the  fire. 

LARK. — This  is  one  of  the  small  birds 
ranked  as  game.  The  shore-lark  or  sky-lark , 
is  the  species  oftenest  found  in  the  market ; it 
is  generally  very  fat,  and  is  considered  excel- 
lent eating.  It  is  in  season  throughout  the 
winter  months,  but  cannot  always  be  obtained. 
The  brown  lark  is  not  quite  so  plentiful  as  the 
preceding;  it  is  in  season  during  the  months 
of  March,  April  and  May,  when  their  flesh  is 
said  to  be  equal  to  the  shore-lark.  Meadow- 
larks, or  meadow-starlings,  are  sometimes 
found  in  the  market,  and  are  shot  in  great  num- 
bers South  and  West.  The  flesh  of  a young 
fat  bird  is  almost  as  good  as  that  of  the  quail, 
but  the  bird  itself  is  neither  so  large  nor  so 
plump.  They  are  in  the  best  condition  dur- 
ing the  fall  months.  Cook  and  serve  as  Orto- 
lan. 

LARKSPUR. -One  of  the  finest  of  the  hardy 
herbaceous  plants,  and  desirable  for  every  flow- 
er-garden. It  is  perennial,  requiring  but  little 
attention  and  will  grow  luxuriantly  in  any  good 
garden  soil.  It  grows  readily  from  seed,  or 
from  increase  of  the  roots;  and  if  the  seed- 
pods  are  cut  off,  will  continue  in  flower  from 
July  to  November.  All  the  attention  they 
require  is  to  loosen  the  earth  around  the  roots 


each  Spring  and  dig  in  a few  spadefuls  of  ma- 
nure. The  plants  are  propagated  by  division 
of  the  root,  which  should  be  performed  in 
early  Spring,  just  as  the  plant  starts  into  growth, 
or  in  the  latter  part  of  Summer,  when  they 
have  done  flowering.  The  shades  of  blue  in 
the  larkspur  are  unsurpassed  by  any  flower  of 
similar  color. 

The  Delphinium  Formosiim , and  D.  Hender- 
sonii,zxz.  beautiful  varieties  of  the  brightest  blue 
color  with  a white  centre.  Other  varieties  are, 
D.  A Iba,  pure  white  ; D.  Bellado?ina,  sky  blue 
D.  Chinensi  Pumilum , azure  blue  ; and  D. 
Motis.  Neuner , pale  blue. 

LASTING. — A woollen  fabric  with  a double 
warp,  sometimes  of  two  and  sometimes  of  three 
threads  ; it  is  made  of  various  patterns,  plain, 
twilled,  or  figured.  It  is  generally  black  in  color, 
and  is  used  chiefly  for  the  tops  of  ladies’  shoes. 
Width  eighteen  inches. 

LATOUR.  (See  CLARET.) 

LAUDANUM. — The  ordinary  tincture  of 
opium.  The  ordinary  dose  for  an  adult  is  from 
20  to  30  drops.  (See  Opium.) 

LAUREL  LEAVES. — The  receipts  in  many 
cook-books  direct  the  use  of  laurel  leaves 
(cherry-laurel)  as  a seasoning  or  flavoring  sub- 
stance. In  all  such  receipts  substitute  the  bay 
leaf.  The  first  is  poisonous,  containing  prussic 
acid  ; the  latter  is  simply  aromatic,  with  a per- 
fume similar  to  that  of  cinnamon.  Laurel  leaves 
should  be  banished  from  cookery,  for  though 
no  perceptible  evil  effects  may  follow  their  use 
in  small  quantities,  the  consequences  of  an 
overdose,  or  of  a mistake  on  part  of  the  cook, 
may  be  serious. 

LAUGHING  GAS.  (See  Nitrous  Oxide.) 

LAURESTINUS.— This  plant,  hardy  in 
England,  is  with  us  a winter-blooming  parlor 
ornament.  It  is  easily  cultivated,  grows  rap- 
idly, and  blows  very  freely.  The  flowers  arc 
small,  white,  and  gathered  into  clusters,  and 
are  in  bloom  from  February  to  May.  The  pots 
for  growing  the  laurestinus  should  be  large,  and 
filled  with  a soil  composed  of  four  parts  loam, 
and  one  part  each  of  sand,  leaf-mould,  and 
manure.  The  plants  should  be  freely  watered. 
They  should  also  be  washed  frequently,  as 
dust  collecting  on  the  foliage  injures  the  beauty 
and  health  of  the  plant.  There  are  many  varie- 
ties of  the  laurestinus,  one  of  which,  the  snow 
ball  ( Viburnum  opulus)  is  a hardy  garden 
shrub,  highly  ornamental. 

LAVENDER-WATER. — Take  /-A  pint  of 
proof  spirits  of  wine  ; essential  oil  of  lavender, 
one  ounce  ; essence  of  ambergris,  two  drachms. 
Put  all  into  a quart  bottle,  and  shake  it  up  well 
daily. 

LAW. — While  there  is  the  same  danger  in 
law  as  in  medicine,  that  non-professional  treat- 
ment may  do  more  harm  than  good,  fortu- 
nately the  necessity  for  resorting  to  it  is  less 
frequent.  Owing  to  the  varying  laws  of  differ- 
ent States,  to  go  into  the  subject  fully  and 
without  danger  of  misleading,  would  require  a 
large  volume.  There  are,  however,  a few  uni- 
versal rules  that  everybody  should  know  as  a 


LAW 


325 


means  of  safety  in  estate,  just  as  the  principles 
of  hygiene  should  be  known  as  a means  of 
safety  in  body.  Some  of  these  rules  belong 
with  the  business  forms  elsewhere  given  under 
their  respective  titles  of  Account  or  Bill, 
Check,  Draft,  Power  of  Attorney,  Pro- 
missory Note  and  Receipt,  or  under  the 
law  of  master  and  servant,  which  is  treated 
under  Servants.  We  have  endeavored  to 
group  the  others  in  this  article. 

Caveat  Emptor  (Let  the  purchaser  take 
heed). — When  the  article  sold  is  not  at  the 
time  of  sale  in  the  possession  of  the  vendor, 
the  vendee  buys  at  his  peril,  unless  there  be 
a covenant  or  warranty  of  title.  But  if  the 
vendor  at  the  time  of  sale  has  the  article  in 
his  possession,  and  sells  it  as  his  own,  and  re- 
ceives a fair  price,  he  warrants  the  title  ; and 
in  case  the  title  prove  defective,  he  is  bound  to 
make  compensation  to  the  vendee.  After  the 
completion  of  the  sale  by  payment  and  deliv- 
ery, the  vendee  may  find  that  the  article  sold 
is  not  in  quality  and  nature  what  he  intended 
to  buy.  The  general  rule  applicable  here  is, 
that  it  is  the  duty  of  the  vendee  at  the  time  he 
entered  into  the  contract  to  examine  for  him- 
self and  ascertain  whether  the  article  will 
answer  the  intended  purpose,  and  to  exercise 
his  own  judgment  with  regard  to  its  quality. 
If.he  omitted  to  do  this,  he  cannot  rescind  the 
contract  and  recover  the  price  paid,  unless  the 
vendor  was  guilty  of  false  and  fraudulent  rep- 
resentations material  to  the  sale,  by  which 
the  vendee  was  misled ; or  there  was  an  ex- 
press warranty  by  the  vendor;  or  unless  a 
warranty  is  implied  from  the  nature  and  cir- 
cumstances of  the  sale.  When  goods  are  sold 
by  sample  there  is  an  implied  warranty  by  the 
vendor  that  the  quality  of  the  bulk  is  equal  to 
that  of  the  sample.  So,  if  one  buys  an  article 
for  a specific  purpose,  which  is  made  known  to 
the  vendor,  and  the  vendee  relies  upon  the 
skill  and  judgment  of  the  vendor  to  supply 
what  is  wanted,  there  is  an  implied  warranty 
that  the  article  will  be  fit  for  the  purpose. 
And  if  an  article  is  to  be  made  to  order,  there 
is  an  implied  warranty  that  is  reasonably  fit  for 
the  purpose  for  which  it  is  ordinarily  used.  It 
is  said  that  where  provisions  are  sold  by  a 
trader  for  domestic  use,  there  is  an  implied 
warranty  that  they  are  sound  and  wholesome. 
Good  faith  is  required  on  the  part  of  the  ven- 
dor ; and  if  the  article  sold  have  a secret  defect, 
which  the  vendee  by  the  strictest  attention 
could  not  discover,  but  which  is  known  to  the 
vendor,  it  is  his  duty  to  disclose  it. 

Change.  See  ( Tender  below.) 

Deed. — Any  contract  or  agreement  ex- 
pressed in  writing,  under  seal,  and  which  has 
been  delivered,  is  a deed  ; but  the  term  is 
often  used  in  a more  restricted  sense  to  de- 
note a writing,  sealed  and  delivered,  by  which 
lands  or  some  interest  therein  is  conveyed. 
A writing  for  the  conveyance  of  lands,  signed 
and  sealed  by  the  grantor,  and  placed  in  the 
hands  of  a third  person,  to  be  delivered  to  the 
grantee  upon  the  happening  of  a certain  event, 


is  called  an  escrow.  As  a general  rule  the  es- 
crow takes  effect  at  the  time  of  delivery  to 
the  grantee,  and  until  then  the  title  to  the  es- 
tate remains  in  the  grantor.  The  formalities 
necessary  for  the  due  execution  of  deeds  of 
lands  are  prescribed  by  the  statutes  of  the 
several  States;  and,  as  the  assistance  of  a 
competent  legal  adviser  should  always  be  ob- 
tained, no  forms  are  here  given. 

The  statute  of  frauds  provides,  that  ho  ac- 
tion shall  be  maintained  upon  any  agreement 
for  the  sale  of  real  estate,  or  any  interest  in 
or  concerning  it,  (except  leases  for  a sh^rt 
term,  usually  not  to  exceed  one  year,)  unless 
such  agreement  or  some  memorandum  thereof, 
be  made  in  writing,  and  signed  by  the  party 
to  be  charged  therewith,  or  his  agent. 

In  nearly  all  the  United  States,  the  wife  is 
entitled  to  dower  (an  estate  for  life  in  one- 
third  part  of  the  husband’s  lands)  in  all  the 
lands  which  the  husband  owned  and  possessed 
during  his  life ; in  which  case,  if  the  entire  in- 
terest in  the  lands  is  intended  to  be  conveyed 
to  the  grantee  the  wife  should  join  in  the  deeds. 
In  those  States,  however,  where  the  wife  is 
only  entitled  to  dower  in  those  lands  which 
the  husband  owned  and  possessed  at  the  time 
of  his  death,  there  is  no  occasion  for  her  to 
join  in  a conveyance  by  the  husband. 

Erasures  or  interlineations  in  a deed,  made 
by  the  grantee,  subsequent  to  its  execution 
and  delivery,  render  it  void  ; and  the  rule  now 
seems  to  be,  that  when  erasures  or  interlinea- 
tions appear  in  a deed  they  are  presumed  to 
have  been  made  after  execution  and  delivery, 
unless  the  contrary  be  proved.  It  is,  there- 
fore, best  when  they  are  made  before  execu- 
tion to  note  that  fact  upon  the  instrument  it- 
self before  signing. 

It  is  deemed  advisable  in  this  country  to 
have  every  man’s  title  to  real  estate  appear  on 
record,  and  provision  is  made  in  the  several 
States  for  the  recording  of  deeds  by  the  county 
clerk  or  other  proper  officer.  An  unrecorded 
deed  is  good  as  between  the  grantor  and  the 
grantee,  but  third  persons  may  acquire  an  in- 
terest to  the  prejudice  of  the  grantee.  A 
grantee  should,  therefore,  upon  the  delivery 
to  him  of  a deed,  have  it  recorded  immediately. 

The  destruction  of  a deed  after  delivery,  al- 
though unrecorded,  will  not  revest  the  title  in 
the  grantor.  To  do  this  a reconveyance  is 
necessary. 

An  owner  of  lands  should  exercise  caution 
in  entering  into  a written  agreement  for  a fu- 
ture sale  of  land,  or  any  interest  therein,  and 
satisfy  himself  of  the  responsibility  and  good 
faith  of  the  person  with  whom  he  deals,  as 
otherwise  he  may  find  a cloud  upon  his  title 
which  may  obstruct  his  selling  to  a third  party, 
and  cannot  be  removed  without  litigation. 

Delivery  of  personal  property. — As  be- 
tween vendor  and  vendee  the  property  in 
the  article  sold  passes  to  the  vendee  with- 
out delivery ; but  to  give  the  vendee  a 
title  which  will  avail  against  third  parties 
without  notice,  delivery  is  essential : as,  if  B 


32G 


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buys  A’s  horse  and  pays  the  purchase  money, 
but  leaves  him  in  A’s  possession,  who  sells 
and  delivers  him  to  C,  and  receives  the  pur- 
chase money,  if  C has  no  notice  of  the  prior 
sale  to  B he  can  retain  the  horse.  So,  if  the 
vendee  allow  the  article  sold  to  remain  in  the 
possession  of  the  vendor,  it  is  liable  to  be 
taken  by  legal  process  for  the  vendor’s  debts. 
The  general  rule  upon  this  subject  is,  that  if 
the  Sendee  of  personal  property  suffer  the 
vendor  to  remain  in  possession,  this  is  evi- 
dence of  fraud  as  against  the  creditors  of  the 
vendor  or  a bona  fide  purchaser  ; and,  unless 
there  be  a sufficient  excuse  shown  to  and  ap- 
proved by  the  court,  that  evidence  is  conclusive. 
In  many  States  mortgages  of  personal  prop- 
erty, or  chattel  mortgages  as  they  are  called, 
are  authorized  by  statute.  The  mortgage 
must  contain  a specific  description  of  the  prop- 
erty mortgaged,  and  be  recorded  in  the  same 
manner  as  deeds  of  real  estate.  Where  such 
mortgages  are  allowed,  and  the  provisions  of 
law  regulating  them  are  complied  with,  the 
mortgage  is  good,  although  the  mortgagor  re- 
tains possession.  In  all  other  cases  the  mort- 
gagee should  take  possession,  the  rule  being 
the  same  as  in  case  of  an  absolute  sale  ( See 
sale  of  personal  property.} 

Dower.  ( See  under  Deed  above.) 

Escrow.  (See  under  Deed  above.) 

Grace.  (See  Promissory  Note). 

Interest  (for  Money). — Interest,  in  the  sense 
in  which  it  is  here  considered,  is  the  sum  paid 
for  the  use  of  money  or  its  equivalent.  Inmost 
States  the  taking  of  more  than  a certain  sum 
as  interest  is  prohibited  ; in  which  case  the 
taking  of  a larger  sum  constitutes  the  offence 
of  usury.  The  rate  fixed  by  law  is  not  uni- 
form throughout  the  United  States.  By  re- 
cent legislation  in  some  States,  usury  laws,  so 
called,  have  been  abolished,  the  parties  being 
allowed  to  contract  for  any  rate  they  choose. 
Owing  to  the  diversity  in  the  laws  of  the  dif- 
ferent States  relating  to  this  subject  only  a 
few  general  considerations  will  be  given  here. 

To  entitle  a party  to  interest,  it  is  not  neces- 
sary in  many  cases  that  there  should  be  an 
express  contract  to  pay  it.  In  general,  the 
wrongful  detention  by  one  person  of  money 
due  to  another  gives  to  the  creditor  a claim 
for  interest ; as,  if  goods  are  sold  on  credit, 
the  debtor  in  case  of  non-payment  is  liable  for 
interest  from  the  time  the  credit  expired.  A 
promissory  note  made  without  interest,  pay- 
able at  a specific  time,  bears  interest  from  ma- 
turity. If  payable  on  demand,  it  bears  inter- 
est from  the  time  demand  was  made. 

Compound  interest,  or  interest  upon  inter- 
est, is  in  general  not  allowable.  If  a note  was 
made  payable  five  years  after  date,  with  inter- 
est annually,  which  the  debtor  should  neglect 
to  pay,  and,  after  the  maturity  of  the  note,  a 
suit  was  brought  for  principal  and  interest, 
only  simple  interest  could  be  recovered.  The 
creditor  might,  however,  have  brought  an  ac- 
tion for  each  year’s  interest  as  it  accrued,  in 
which  case,  the  measure  of  damages  would 


doubtless  be  the  unpaid  instalment  of  interest 
and  interest  thereon  from  the  time  it  became 
payable.  But  if  unpaid  instalments  of  inter- 
est are  allowed  to  run  until  the  principal  is 
due,  they  become  merged  with  it,  and  a sepa- 
rate suit  cannot  be  maintained  therefor.  (See 
Tender  below.) 

Legal  Tender.  ( See  Tender  below.) 

Limitations,  Statute  of.— It  is  a general 
rule  that  no  action  can  be  brought  upon  any 
account,  debt,  claim,  negotiable  note  or  con- 
tract not  evidenced  by  a writing  under  seal, 
except  within  six  years  after  the  right  of  ac- 
tion shall  accrue.  The  object  of  this  rule  is 
to  prevent  attempts  to  enforce  doubtful  or 
fraudulent  claims  after  the  evidence  by  which 
they  could  be  defeated  has  been  dissipated. 

The  six  years  are  to  be  counted  from  the 
time  the  creditor  might  have  brought  his  ac- 
tion. If  goods  are  sold  on  credit,  the  six 
years  begin  from  the  time  the  credit  expired. 
In  case  of  a promissory  note  on  time,  when 
the  note  is  due  and  payable.  An  acknowl- 
edgment or  promise  to  pay  the  debt  renews 
the  liability  of  the  debtor,  and  removes  the 
protection  of  the  statute.  Formerly  a verbal 
acknowledgment  or  promise  was  sufficient ; 
but  about  fifty  years  ago  a statute  was  passed 
in  England,  requiring  it  to  be  in  writing,  and 
similar  statutes  have  been  enacted  in  most  of 
the  United  States.  In  a few  States,  a verbal 
acknowledgment  or  promise  is  still  sufficient. 
A part  payment  of  the  debt,  or  a payment  of 
interest  due  upon  it,  also  renews  the  liability 
of  the  debtor.  This  is  upon  the  ground  that 
the  part  payment  of  a debt  is,  in  effect,  an 
acknowledgment  of  the  residue,  and  a prom- 
ise to  pay  it.  If,  therefore,  at  the  time  of 
payment  the  debtor  denies  any  further  liabil- 
ity, the  protection  of  the  statute  is  not  re- 
moved. When  a debt  is  renewed  in  either  of 
the  above  modes,  it  is  treated  as  giving  a new 
cause  of  action  to  the  creditor,  and  the  six 
years  begin  to  run  again  from  the  time  of 
such  renewal. 

The  statute  also  prohibits  the  bringing  of 
an  action  to  recover  possession  of  real  estate 
after  a certain  time,  usually  twenty  years, 
although  a shorter  period  is  prescribed  in 
some  states. 

Exception  is  made  in  favor  of  infants  or 
persons  under  twenty-one  years  of  age,  mar- 
ried women,  and  other  persons  legally  incapa- 
ble when  the  right  of  action  accrues.  As  to 
them,  the  statute  begins  to  run  from  the  time 
the  disability  ceases.  When  the  time  has 
once  begun  to  run,  however,  it  is  not  sus- 
pended by  a disability  that  arises  afterwards. 

Payments,  Appropriation  of. — Where  an 
indebtedness  consists  of  several  items  accru- 
ing at  different  times,  the  debtor  in  making  a 
partial  payment  may,  at  the  time  of  making 
such  payment,  apply  it  as  he  sees  fit.  II  the 
debtor  make  no  application  the  creditor  has  a 
right  to  do  so.  If  neither  makes  a specific 
application  by  an  express  act,  the  law  implies 
an  application  of  the  payment  to  the  items  in 


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327 


the  order  of  their  respective  dates,  commenc- 
ing with  that  which  accrued  first.  The  im- 
portance of  these  rules  would  be  illustrated  in 
a case  where  the  creditor  held  two  demands, 
one  secured  and  the  other  not.  It  might 
become  of  considerable  consequence  to  which 
demand  a payment  was  appropriated. 

Mortgage. — The  rules  vary  too  much  in  dif- 
ferent States  to  make  good  advice  practicable 
here.  ( See,  however,  Delivery  and  Pay- 

ments.) 

Outlawry  of  Claims.  (See  Limitations, 
Statute  of,  above.) 

Release. — A release  is  a written  instrument, 
by  which  a right  of  the  maker  to  sue  another 
person  is  discharged,  or  by  which  such  other 
person  is  released  from  some  obligation  or 
duty  with  respect  to  the  maker.  The  fol- 
lowing is  the  ordinary  form  of  a general  re- 
lease : — 

“ Know  all  men  by  these  Presents  : 

“That  I,  John  Doe,  of  the  city,  county  and 
“state  of  New  York,  in  consideration  of  one 
“hundred  (ioo)  dollars  to  me  paid  by  Richard 
“Roe,  of  said  city  of  New  York,  do,  for  my- 
“self,  my  heirs,  executors  and  administrators, 
“remise,  release  and  forever  discharge  the 
“ said  Richard  Roe,  his  heirs,  executors  and 
“administrators,  of  and  from  all  actions, 
“debts,  contracts,  agreements  and  demands 
“ whatsoever,  which  against  the  said  Richard 
“ Roe  I ever  had,  now  have,  or  which  I,  my 
“ executors  or  administrators,  hereafter  can  or 
“ shall  have,  by  reason  of  any  matter,  cause  or 
“ thing  whatsoever,  from  any  time  hitherto  to 
“ the  day  of  the  date  hereof. 

“ In  witness  whereof,  I have  hereunto  set 
“my  hand  and  seal,  this  first  day  of  May, 
“A.  D.  1876. 

John  Doe,  [l.  s.]  ” 

A release  will  be  set  aside  when  its  execu- 
tion was  procured  by  fraud,  or  it  was  the  re- 
sult of  accident  or  mistake. 

Sale  of  Personal  Property. — A sale  is  de- 
fined by  Chancellor  Kent  to  be  “ a contract  for 
the  transfer  of  property  from  one  person  to 
another  for  a valuable  consideration ; and 
three  things  are  requisite  to  its  validity,  viz.: 
the  thing  sold,  which  is  the  object  of  the  con- 
tract, the  price,  and  the  consent  of  the  con- 
tracting parties.”  The  seller  is  termed  the 
vendor,  and  the  purchaser  the  vendee. 

If  an  article  is  exchanged  for  another  the 
transaction  is  called  a barter.  If  an  article 
is  voluntarily  given  to  another  without  con- 
sideration, it  is  a gift. 

Unless  a contrary  intention  appears,  it  is 
presumed  that  a sale  is  to  be  completed  at 
once — the  article  delivered  and  the  price  paid. 
The  parties  may,  however,  agree  for  a future 
delivery  or  a future  payment. 

The  seventeenth  section  of  the  Statute  of 
Frauds,  so  called,  passed  in  the  twenty-ninth 
year  of  Charles  II.,  provides,  that  “no  contract 
“ for  the  sale  of  any  goods,  wares  and  merchan- 
“dize  for  the  price  of  sterling  or  upwards, 


“shall  be  allowed  to  be  good  except  the  buyer 
“ shall  accept  part  of  the  goods  so  sold,  and  ac- 
tually receive  the  same,  or  give  something  in 
“ earnest  to  bind  the  bargain,  or  in  part  payment, 
“or  that  some  note  or  memorandum  in  writing 
“ of  the  said  bargain  be  made  and  signed  by 
“ the  parties  to  be  charged  by  such  contract,  or 
“their  agents  thereunto  lawfully  authorized.” 
This  section,  with  some  variation  as  to  the 
amount,  has  been  generally  reenacted  in  this 
country.  It  is,  therefore,  essential  to  a valid 
contract  for  the  sale  of  goods  for  the  price  of 
fifty  dollars  or  more  (the  limit  in  New  York) 
that — 

First.  There  should  be  some  note  or  mem- 
orandum of  the  contract  made  in  writing, 
signed  by  the  parties  to  be  charged  thereby, 
or  their  agents  ; or — 

Second.  That  the  buyer  shall  accept  ’and 
actually  receive  part  of  the  goods  ; or — 

Third.  That  the  buyer  shall  give  something 
in  earnest  to  bind  the  bargain,  or  pay  some 
part  of  the  purchase  money. 

If  the  thing  sold  is  not  in  existence  at  the 
time  the  contract  is  entered  into,  the  sale  is 
wholly  void ; as,  if  the  furniture  in  a house  is 
sold,  and  unknown  to  either  party,  it  had  been 
destroyed  by  fire.  An  article  which  a man 
has  not  in  his  possession  but  which  he  ex- 
pects to  obtain,  as  by  purchasing  in  the  mar- 
ket, cannot  be  the  object  of  a present  sale,  al- 
though it  may  be  the  basis  of  a contract  for  a 
future  sale. 

No  one  can  sell  that  to  which  he  has  him- 
self no  title.  As  if  the  article  be  stolen,  the 
original  owner  may  reclaim  it,  although  the 
purchaser  paid  the  thief  full  value,  and  had  no 
knowledge  of  the  circumstances  under  which 
the  article  was  obtained.  A good  title  may, 
however,  be  obtained  to  money,  and  also 
notes,  checks  and  bills  of  exchange  payable  to 
bearer,  which  have  been  stolen,  by  an  inno- 
cent third  person  who  takes  them  bona  fide, 
without  knowledge  that  they  have  been  stolen, 
and  in  the  usual  course  of  business.  (See 
Caveat  Emptor  and  Delivery .) 

Sale  of  real  property.  (See  Deed.) 

Tender. — If  a creditor  for  any  reason  re- 
fuses to  receive  the  amount  justly  due  him 
from  his  debtor,  the  latter  may,  at  any  time  be- 
fore suit  is  brought,  make  a tender  of  the  sum 
due,  and  thereby  stop  interest  and  entitle  him- 
self to  costs  if  a suit  is  subsequently  brought. 
The  tender  should  be  of  the  exact  sum  due  at 
the  time,  and  no  condition  or  qualification 
must  be  insisted  upon  to  which  the  creditor 
can  reasonably  object. 

A tender  is  vitiated  by  a demand  for  a re- 
ceipt in  full , and  it  is  doubtful  whether  the 
debtor  is  entitled  to  demand  a receipt  for  the 
sum  tendered. 

A tender  should  be  made  in  lawful  money. 

No  foreign  gold  or  silver  coins  are  a legal 
tender  in  the  United  States. 

The  gold  coins  of  the  United  States  are  a 
tender  in  all  payments  at  their  nominal  value, 
when  not  below  the  standard  weight,  etc.  If 


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reduced  below  such  standard,  they  are  a legal 
tender  at  a valuation  in  proportion  to  their  ac- 
tual weight. 

By  the  Act  of  Congress  of  Feb.  12,  1873, 
the  silver  coins  of  the  United  States  were 
made  a legal  tender  at  their  nominal  value  for 
any  amount  not  exceeding  five  dollars  in  any 
one  payment.  This  limit  has  recently  been 
increased,  and  several  bills  are  now  pending 
before  Congress  relating  to  the  subject. 

The  minor  coins  of  the  United  States  are  a 
legal  tender  at  their  nominal  value  for  any 
amount  not  exceeding  twenty-five  cents  in  any 
one  payment. 

United  States  notes  (greenbacks)  are  a legal 
tender  in  payment  of  all  debts,  public  and  pri- 
vate, except  duties  on  imports  and  interest  on 
the  public  debt. 

A tender  made  in  other  than  lawful  money 
is  not  ■ thereby  vitiated,  if  the  creditor  object 
to  it  only  upon  some  other  ground,  as  that  the 
sum  tendered  is  not  sufficient. 

Where  several  distinct  debts  are  due  from 
the  debtor,  as  upon  several  promissory  notes, 
a tender  may  be  made  of  the  amount  due  upon 
one. 

While  the  exact  sum  due  should  be  tender- 
ed, the  offer  of  a larger  sum  will  make  a good 
tender  unless  coupled  with  a demand  for 
change  ; in  which  case,  if  objected  to  upon  that 
ground,  the  tender  will  be  vitiated.  If,  how- 
ever, the  creditor  object  only  upon  some  other 
ground,  as  that  the  amount  is  not  sufficient, 
the  demand  for  change  does  not  vitiate. 

To  constitute  a valid  tender,  the  money  must 
be  actually  produced  and  offered,  unless  there 
L>e  an  express  or  implied  waiver  thereof  by 
the  creditor. 

As  before  stated,  the  object  of  a tender  is 
to  stop  interest  or  damages  and  give  the 
debtor  a claim  for  costs  in  case  a suit  is  after- 
wards brought.  It  follows,  that  it  is  not  a dis- 
■charge  of  the  indebtedness,  but  rather  an 
admission  of  it.  It  is,  therefore,  the  duty  of 
the  debtor  to  be  in  readiness  to  pay  the  sum 
tendered  upon  demand,  although  it  was  refused 
by  the  creditor  when  first  offered. 

A tender  should  be  made  in  the  presence  of 
witnesses,  and  it  is  well  to  make  a memoran- 
dum of  the  circumstances  attending  it. 

Warranty.  (See  Caveat  Emptor  above,  and 
Endorsement , under  Promissory  Note.) 

Will. — A will,  or  testament,  as  it  is  some- 
times called,  is  a declaration  of  a man’s  in- 
tention with  regard  to  the  disposition  of  his 
property  after  his  death.  The  person  making 
the  will  is  called  the  testator,  and  those  taking 
under  it  legatees  or  devisees. 

A nuncupative  will  is  a verbal  declaration  of 
a man’s  intentions  with  regard  to  the  dispo- 
sition of  his  property,  made  before  witnesses. 
In  many  States,  wills  of  this  kind  have  been 
abolished  altogether,  and  in  others  they  arc 
only  good  under  peculiar  circumstances,  as  in 
case  of  soldiers  and  sailors. 

The  making  of  a will  is  an  important  event 
and  the  best  legal  assistance  at  command, 


should  always  be  secured.  Wills  unskilfully 
made  are  often  the  source  of  protracted  litiga- 
tion, and  become  a curse  rather  than  a blessing 
to  those  whom  the  testator  intended  to  serve. 

To  take  effect,  wills  must  be  executed  with 
the  formalities  required  by  law  : and  in  this  re- 
gard the  laws  of  the  several  States  are  not 
uniform,  some  States  require  three  witnesses, 
others  only  two,  etc. 

To  show  the  necessity  of  attending  to  all 
the  formalities  required  by  law,  it  may  be 
stated,  that  if  a testator  after  the  execution  of 
his  will  adds  another  provision  by  an  inter- 
lineation in  his  own  handwriting,  it  has  no 
effect  whatever,  unless  made  with  the  same 
formalities  required  for  the  will  itself. 

Any  person  of  sound  mind,  not  under 
twenty-one  years  of  age,  nor  a married  woman, 
is  competent  to  make  a will  devising  both  real 
and  personal  estate.  As  to  the  capacity  of 
persons  under  twenty-one  years  of  age,  and 
married  women  in  this  regard,  the  laws  of  the 
several  States  are  not  uniform. 

A will  takes  effect  at  the  death  of  the  tes- 
tator, and  may  be  revoked  by  him  at  pleasure 
during  his  life.  A subsequent  will  is  a revo- 
cation of  a prior  one,  if  it  is  so  expressed,  or 
if  a different  disposition  is  made  of  the  prop- 
erty. The  burning,  cancelling,  tearing  or  ob- 
literating a will  by  the  testator,  or  by  another 
person  in  his  presence  and  by  his  direction, 
will  also  operate  as  a revocation.  It  is  also 
a general  rule,  that  marriage  and  the  birth  of 
a child  subsequent  to  the  execution  of  a will, 
when  no  provision  is  made  for  such  contin- 
gency, operates  as  a revocation.  If  a single 
woman  makes  a will  and  then  marries,  the  will 
is  thereby  revoked. 

No  person  who  is  to  take  a beneficial  inter- 
est under  a will  should  be  a subscribing  witness, 
nor  is  it  prudent  for  such  a person  to  draft  it. 

While  we  advise  strongly  the  obtaining  of  the 
best  professional  assistance  in  all  cases  where 
it  is  possible,  nevertheless  emergencies  may 
arise  where  help  cannot  be  had.  For  such 
cases,  and  such  cases  only,  the  following  sug- 
gestions are  given  : Write  out  in  clear  and 
simple  language  the  exact  disposition  of  prop- 
erty desired.  Call  in  three  substantial  and  judi- 
cious persons,  and  let  the  testator  sign  and 
seal  the  will  in  their  presence,  telling  them 
that  it  is  his  last  will  and  testament,  and  re- 
questing them  to  act  as  witnesses.  Then  let 
the  witnesses,  in  the  presence  of  the  testator, 
and  in  the  presence  of  each  other,  each  sign 
the  following  form,  which  should  be  written 
underneath  the  signature  of  the  testator,  and 
on  the  same  sheet  of  paper: — 

“Signed,  sealed,  published  and  declared  by 
“ the  testator  as  and  for  his  last  will  and  testa- 
“ mcnt  in  our  presence,  who  at  his  request, 
“and  in  his  presence,  and  in  the  presence  of 
“each  other,  have  hereunto  subscribed  our 
“ names  as  witnesses.” 

Following  their  names,  the  witnesses  should 
write  their  places  of  residence.  It  is  believed 
that  a will  executed  in  the  above  described 


LAWN 


LEEK 


329 


manner  would  take  effect  in  nearly  if  not  quite 
all  the  States. 

LAWN. — A linen  fabric,  thinner  and  more 
transparent  than  ordinary  linen  and  resembling 
cambric.  The  thread  for  it  is  made  as  round 
as  possible,  and  is  not  pressed  so  much  as  for 
calicoes.  The  finest  lawn  is  of  French  manu- 
facture. The  Irish  is  next  to  the  French,  and 
there  are  also  Scotch  and  American  lawns. 
Lawn  has  the  advantage  that  it  will  take  and 
hold  very  delicate  colors  and  shades  of  colors. 
It  comes  in  pieces  a yard  wide,  and  should  be 
shrunk  before  cutting. 

LAXATIVES. — Remedies  which  gently 
open  the  bowels,  so  that  they  are  inclined  to 
be  loose,  but  no  more.  It  is  highly  desirable 
that  in  all  cases  the  medicines  of  the  least 
power  in  this  respect  should  be  first  employed 
when  it  is  necessary  to  open  the  bowels  artifi- 
cially, and  more  powerful  purgatives  used  only 
when  these  have  failed.  Sometimes,  if  the 
food  has  been  too  concentrated,  that  is,  if  there 
has  not  been  a fair  amount  of  indigestible  mat- 
ter in  it,  the  bowels  are  apt  to  become  con- 
fined ; in  such  cases,  the  use  of  brown  bread  in- 
stead of  white  bread  will  often  suffice.  Figs 
and  prunes  especially  are  excellent  laxatives. 
Manna,  tamarinds,  and  cassia  are  still  better. 
But  the  most  convenient  for  use  are  castor- 
oil,  flour  of  sulphur,  and  magnesia,  or  its  car- 
bonate. 

LEAD. — Lead  is  not  a proper  metal  to  be 
used  in  any  vessel  for  receiving  food,  it  is  so 
readily  acted  on  by  the  vegetable  and  mine- 
ral acids,  and  the  salts  thus  produced  are 
highly  prejudicial  to  health,  and  even  fatal 
to  life  itself.  Water-tanks  should  never  be 
lined  with  lead,  nor  should  the  gutters  of 
houses  from  which  the  rain-water  is  used  be 
made  of  it.  Water  that  has  been  standing  in 
the  pipes  should  not  be  used  until  the  pipes 
have  been  some  time  in  use. 

LEAK  (In  lead  pipe). — If  you  cannot  turn 
off  the  water  and  cannot  wait  for  the  plumber, 
put  some  flat  metal  object,  such  as  an  axe 
or  hatchet  blade  behind  ti  e pipe,  and  hammer 
the  -pipe  flat  against  it.  This,  of  course,  can  be 
done  at  any  place  between  the  source  and  the 
leak,  and  does  not  necessitate  waiting  to  tear 
away  any  impediment  that  may  surround  the 
leak  or  working  in  an  inconvenient  place.  If 
the  leak  is  up  stairs  at  a part  where  the  water 
stops  running  when  water  is  turned  on  down 
stairs  simply  turn  the  water  on  at  some  faucet 
down  stairs  till  the  plumber  comes.  ( See 

Drainage  and  Water.) 

LEAVEN.  (See  Yeast.) 

LEDUM. — A species  of  low-growing  ever- 
greens, making  very  pretty  miniature  plants  for 
garden  culture.  They  are  perfectly  hardy,  and 
require  no  attention  after  starting,  further  than 
digging  round  the  roots  in  the  Spring  and  work- 
ing in  a few  spadefuls  of  manure.  In  planting, 
dig  a hole  about  two  feet  in  diameter,  fill  in 
with  loam,  and  set  the  plant  carefully  in  the 
centre,  treading  the  soil  closely  around  it  so 
that  it  may  be  firmly  established.  The  ledum 


blooms  in  June,  throwing  out  a multitude  of 
small  white  flowers. 

The  varieties  are  : L.  A ugiistifolium , litxi- 
folittm,  intermedium , latifolium , plans tre, 
procumbens , and  thymofoliu?n. 

LEECHES  (How  to  use.) — Very  often  it 
is  found  almost  impossible  to  get  leeches  to 
bite ; they  will  either  refuse  to  bite  at  all,  or 
will  fasten  anywhere  but  on  the  desired  spot. 
This  is  because  they  are  not  managed  rightly. 
A leech  partakes,  to  some  extent,  of  the  nature 
of  a fish — that  is,  it  lives  in  water, — and  there- 
fore, instead  of  holding  them  in  a warm  hand 
or  a dry  towel,  act  in  this  way : First,  wash 
the  place  perfectly  clean,  then  put  the  leeches 
into  a wine-glass  and  fill  it  with  water ; put  a 
piece  of  paper  over  it,  turn  the  glass  upside 
down  on  the  place  where  you  want  them  to  fix, 
and  draw  the  paper  away;  the  leeches  being 
now  in  their  native  element,  will  settle  instantly, 
thereby  saving  a great  amount  of  vexation  and 
loss  of  time.  As  soon  as  they  have  taken 
hold,  place  a towel  round  the  glass  to  soak  up 
the  water,  and  remove  it.  In  this  way  you  get 
them  exactly  where  you  wish,  either  all  on  one 
spot  or  distributed  over  a larger  space,  by  put- 
ting on  only  one  or  two  at  a time.  If  you  re- 
quire one  on  a very  particular  spot,  for  in- 
stance, close  to  the  eye,  and  have  not  a proper 
leech-glass,  put  its  tail  first  into  a small,  narrow 
phial  filled  with  water.  Where  they  have  to 
be  used  inside  the  mouth,  nostrils,  etc.,  it  is 
better  to  pass  a needleful  of  thread  through 
the  tail  to  hold  by.  It  will  not  prevent  them 
biting.  If  one  should  be  swallowed,  drink  a 
little  salt  and  water,  which  is  poisonous  to 
them. 

Leeches  are  always  expensive,  but  with  a 
little  care  they  need  not  be  destroyed.  When 
they  come  off  do  not  dip  them  into  salt ; put 
them  into  a large  jar  of  water,  with  an  inch  or 
two  of  turf  or  garden  soil ; change  the  water 
every  day  for  the  first  week,  then  once  a week 
will  be  sufficient ; in  this  way  they  will  clear 
themselves  and  recover.  Any  dead  ones  must 
be  removed,  or  they  will  spoil  the  water  and 
destroy  the  others. 

LEEK. — This  is  a common  plant  of  the  onion 
tribe ; it  is  sometimes  called  flag-onion,  from 
the  large,  flag-like  leaves  which  it  throws  up 
from  its  small,  fine  roots.  Leeks  are  cultivated 
in  all  respects  like  the  onion,  and  have  the  ad- 
vantage that  they  stand  the  severest  winter. 
In  the  markets  they  are  generally  found  tied  in 
bunches,  or  one  or  two  tied  up  with  a small 
bunch  of  parsley,  being  a quantity  sufficient 
for  a soup  or  stew.  The  whole  plant  is  used 
in  soups  and  stews.  Notwithstanding  its  un- 
pleasant odor,  it  is  very  wholesome,  but  re- 
quires to  be  well  boiled,  that  it  may  not  taint 
the  breath.  The  young  leeks  appear  in  Au- 
gust, and  can  be  found  throughout  the  winter. 

Boiled  Leeks. — Trim  off  the  coarse  leaves 
from  some  young  leeks,  cut  them  into  equal 
lengths,  tie  them  up  in  small  bunches,  and  boil 
them  twenty  to  twenty-five  minutes  in  plenty  of 
water  which  has  been  previously  salted  and 


330 


LEG 


LETTUCE 


skimmed.  Serve  them  on  toast,  and  send 
melted  butter  to  table  with  them. 

LEG  (Broken.)  (See  Fractures.) 

LEMON. — The  lemon  is  the  most  useful  of 
all  the  foreign  fruits.  It  is  scarcely  an  article 
of  mere  luxury,  but  is  almost  essential  for  culi- 
nary and  many  other  purposes.  The  juice 
consists  chiefly  of  citric  acid , which,  besides 
its  agreeable  flavor,  is  particularly  cooling  and 
grateful.  It  is  also  a powerful  antiscorbutic, 
and  is  frequently  administered  as  a medicine. 
The  outward  rind  or  peel  of  the  lemon  con- 
tains a highly  odoriferous  essential  oil,  and  on 
that  account  is  a valuable  and  agreeable  stom- 
achic, and  is  used  for  flavoring  a variety  of 
dishes  ; it  is  warm,  aromatic,  and  slightly  bitter ; 
it  is  also  made  into  an  excellent  sweetmeat 
when  cleaned  of  the  pulp  and  preserved  with 
sugar,  well  known  by  the  name  of  ca7idied 
lemon-peel.  Lemons  can  almost  always  be  ob- 
tained. Fresh  ones  arrive  from  the  West  In- 
dies in  the  Winter  and  from  the  Mediterranean 
in  the  Spring.  The  best  are  those  with  thin 
rinds  and  rather  small. 

LEMONADE. — Take  .-Sugar  (granulated) 
l/2  lb;  lemon  juice,  (free  from  seeds)  I gill; 
water,  i qt. 

Grate  the  rind  of  two  lemons,  and  leave  it 
in  the  water  for  an  hour  or  two  ; or,  if  wanted 
immediately  steep  it  in  a little  of  the  water;  in 
either  case  strain  the  water  before  using  it. 
Mix  the  three  ingredients  ; add  a large  piece  of 
ice  and  serve.  The  lemons  should  be  well  rolled 
before  squeezing  and  the  peel  not  put  in  un- 
less the  lemonade  is  to  be  drunk  immediately. 

Concentrated  Lemonade.  — Take  : - Es- 
sence of  lemon,  i drachm ; citric  acid,  i y2  oz ; 
loaf  sugar,  iy2  lbs  ; water,  I pt. 

To  make  the  syrup,  put  the  sugar  into  the 
water  when  cold,  and  let  it  boil  gradually ; then 
pour  it  hot  on  the  acids.  Keep  this  in  bottles. 
To  make  the  beverage,  put  a tablespoonful  of 
the  syrup  into  a tumbler  of  water. 

Milk  Lemonade. — Dissolve  six  ounces  of 
loaf  sugar  in  a pint  of  boiling  water,  and  mix 
with  them  a gill  of  lemon-juice  and  the  same 
quantity  of  sherry ; then  add  three  gills  of  cold 
milk,  stir  the  whole  well  together,  and  pass  it 
through  a jelly-bag  till  clear.  This  is  delicious. 

Portable  Lemonade.— Rasp,  with  a quarter 
of  a pound  of  sugar,  the  rind  of  a fine,  juicy 
lemon,  reduce  it  to  powder,  and  pour  on  it  the 
strained  juice  of  the  fruit.  Press  the  mixture 
into  a jar,  and,  when  wanted  for  use,  dissolve 
a tablespoonful  of  it  in  a glass  of  water.  It 
will  keep  a considerable  time.  If  too  sweet, 
a very  small  portion  of  citric  acid  may  be 
added  when  it  is  taken. 

LEMONS,  Salt  of. — This  is  an  old-fashioned 
preparation,  used  for  taking  iron-mould  out  of 
linen  ; and  in  the  printed  directions  sold  with 
it,  it  is  recommended  for  flavoring  punch  and 
apple  puddings  instead  of  lemon-juice.  Now, 
this  so-called  salt  of  lemons  is  not  prepared 
from  lemons  at  all — it  is  composed  of  cream  of 
tartar  and  oxalic  acid,  or  salt  of  sorrel.  Both 
the  latter  are  poisonous  and  the  quantity  of 


salt  of  lemons  recommended  to  flavor  half  a 
pint  of  punch  or  an  apple  pudding  may  produce 
serious  effects.  Never  use  it  for  flavoring  any- 
thing that  is  to  pass  into  the  stomach. 

LEMON  VERBENA.— A half-hardy  shrub, 
brought  originally  from  Chili.  It  is  desirable 
chiefly  from  the  delicious  fragrance  of  itsi 
leaves.  The  flowers  are  small,  whitish,  and  of 
little  beauty.  • As  a Winter  plant  it  is  of  no 
value,  as  it  needs  a season  of  rest,  which 
must  be  given  in  a cellar  free  from  frost. 
The  best  treatment  is  to  plant  it  out  in  the 
open  garden  in  the  Spring,  where  it  will  attain 
a vigorous  growth.  In  the  fall,  before  the  first 
frost,  remove  the  plant,  with  a ball  of  earth  at- 
tached to  the  roots,  to  the  cellar.  When  Spring 
comes,  trim  the  plant  into  a neat  shape  and  re- 
plant it.  If  grown  in  pots,  the  proper  soil  is 
two  parts  loam,  two  parts  leaf-mould,  with  a 
little  sand  mixed  in.  Give  plenty  of  water 
while  the  plants  are  growing,  but  withhold  it 
entirely  during  the  Winter. 

The  lemon  Verbena  is  often  called  the  Aloy- 
sia,  and  the  only  species  is  A.  citriodora. 

LETTUCE. — Lettuce  may  be  considered  as 
a cooling  Summer  vegetable,  and  useful  rather 
as  correcting  and  diluting  animal  food  than  as 
containing  much  nutriment  itself.  There  are 
two  principal  varieties  : the  Cabbage  and  the  Cos 
lettuce.  The  first  comes  earliest  in  the  season  ; 
the  leaves  are  roundish  and  the  head  flat  and 
close  to  the  ground.  The  Cos  lettuce  is  more 
upright,  and  the  head  is  of  an  oblong  form. 
When  very  young,  the  cabbage  lettuce  is  pre- 
ferred, but  when  mature  the  Cos  has  the  finer 
flavor,  and  is  much  employed  for  salads.  The 
cabbage  lettuces  (such  as  Tennis  Ball,  and 
Black-seeded  Butter)  are  always  the  best  to  the 
time  of  running  to  seed.  The  only  advantage 
of  the  Cos  is  that  it  stands  heat  better  and  is 
slower  in  running  to  seed. 

The  Boston  Tennis  Ball , and  the  Black- 
seeded  Butter  Art  the  best  varieties  at  all  seasons 
save  in  Summer.  The  Early  Curled  Simpson 
is  good  for  Spring  and  early  Summer  use.  The 
Large  Curled  Itidiati  is  better  for  later  use ; it 
does  not  run  to  seed  so  quickly  as  other  kinds, 
and  bears  the  sun  better.  The  Green  Paris 
Cos  is  one  of  the  best  of  the  ordinary  Cos 
varieties.  The  hard  lettuce  raised  in  the  open 
air  generally  appears  in  the  market  in  May,  but 
is  most  abundant  in  June  and  July  and  con- 
tinues throughout  the  year,  being  very  largely 
raised  under  glass  throughout  the  Winter  and 
early  Spring. 

In  Salad. — Lettuce  for  salad  should  be 
handled  very  carefully,  in  order  not  to  wilt  the 
leaves  while  cleaning  it.  When  the  head  of 
tlie  lettuce  is  hard,  it  is  not  necessary  to  wash 
it  at  all,  as  when  the  outer  leaves  are  taken  off, 
the  rest  is  perfectly  clean.  Never  use  the 
knife,  but  break  the  leaves ; put  them  into  a 
salad-dish,  and  keep  them  fresh  with  water  un- 
til the  time  comes  to  eat  them.  Then  season 
with  salt,  pepper,  vinegar,  and  oil  (mustard 
may  be  added  if  liked),  in  proportions  to  suit 
the  taste.  The  salad  may  be  decorated  when 


LEUCORRHCEA 


LIBRARY 


331 


it  is  put  on  the  table  with  the  blossoms  and 
petals  of  the  rose  (any  kind^),  pink,  sage,  nas- 
turtium, periwinkle,  lady’s  slipper,  marsh-mal- 
low, or  wild  chicory ; these  are  not  removed, 
but  are  cut  up  and  eaten  with  the  lettuce.  In 
a regular  dinner,  lettuce  should  be  served  im- 
mediately after  the  roast. 

Stewed  Lettuce. — Strip  off  the  outer  leaves 
and  cut  away  its  stalks ; wash  the  remaining 
leaves  very  carefully,  and  throw  them  into  water 
with  a little  salt  in  it.  Boil  them  twenty  to 
thirty  minutes,  or  until  quite  tender,  then  lift 
them  out  and  press  the  water  thoroughly  from 
them ; chop  them  a little,  and  heat  them 
in  a clean  sauce-pan  with  a seasoning  of 
pepper  and  salt,  and  a small  slice  of  but- 
ter ; then  add  a little  flour  and  stir  them 
well ; add  next  about  a teacupful  of  broth  or 
gravy,  boil  them  quickly  until  they  are  tolerably 
dry,  and  stir  in  a little  pale  vinegar  or  lertion 
juice.  Serve  as  hot  as  possible. 

LEUCORRHCEA.  [See  Whites,  under 
Menstruation.] 

LEVERET.  ( See  Rabbit.) 

LIBRARY -Every  home  should  contain  a 

collection  of  books,  however  small;  and  they 
should  be  accumulated  on  some  definite  plan, 
however  limited.  The  privilege  of  using  a 
public  library  is  generally  valuable  ; but  some 
books  must  be  owned,  and  be  constantly  with- 
in reach,  or  no  real  satisfaction  can  be  had 
from  them.  Of  this  character  are  cyclopae 
dias,  histories,  standard  poets,  and  discursive 
essays.  Ordinary  novels,  satires,  and  other 
ephemeral  books  may  be  drawn  from  the  cir- 
culating library,  finished  up  in  an  evening  or 
two,  and  returned. 

There  are  innumerable  families  who  never 
dream  of  buying  any  book  but  school-books 
and  Christmas  gifts.  Every  one  who  can  af- 
ford anything  at  all  beyond  the  necessaries  of 
life  should  set  aside  a definite  yearly  sum  for 
books,  and  should  form  the  habit  of  frequently 
dropping  into  a book-store  to  see  what  there 
may  be  that  would  interest  him.  An  excellent 
way  to  cultivate  a habit  of  reading  in  a child  is 
to  give  him,  for  his  own,  every  book  of  your 
selection  which  he  will  read  through.  And 
living  among  good  books  at  home  is  as  im- 
portant as  going  to  school. 

We  disclaim  any  intention,  in  this  article,  of 
instructing  learned  or  “bookish”  people;  but 
we  hope  to  throw  out  a few  hints  which  will 
be  valuable  to  the  vast  number  who  may  wel- 
come guidance  regarding  what  to  read. 

Any  one  who  can  look  forward  to  spending 
within  a year  or  two  over,  say,  $150  in  books, 
will  find  it  well  to  consult  " Putnam’s  Best 
Reading”  (15th  edition).  It  contains  much 
valuable  information,  though  there  is  room  for 
dissent  from  some  of  its  critical  estimates. 

In  the  matter  of  subscription  books,  some 
people  buy  any  one  that  is  brought  to  the  door, 
if  the  agent  is  persistent  enough  ; others  refuse 
utterly  to  look  at  one.  As  Andrew  Fairservice 
said  of  the  Campbells,  “ There’s  baith  gude  and 
bad  ” o’  subscription  books,  like  other  books. 


Examine  the  subscription  book,  and  test  it,  as 
you  would  any  other  article  ; even  tell  the 
agent  to  call  again,  and  meantime  seek  advice. 
Never  buy  a book  solely  because  of  a great  name 
on  the  title-page.  One  or  two  of  our  most 
famous  authors  have  of  late  sold  their  names 
to  books  which  they  did  not  write,  and  which 
they  should  be  ashamed  of  if  they  had  written. 
It  is  a common  trick  in  subscription  books  to 
spread  out  the  matter  by  means  of  large  type, 
wide  spaces  between  the  lines,  and  thick,  pulpy 
paper  ; so  that  you  pay  four  or  five  dollars  for 
what  should  have  been  put  into  a dollar-and- 
a-half  book. 

Always  get  good  paper  and  print  if  you  can; 
the  latter  is  economical  because  it  saves  the  eyes, 
and  both  will  make  the  book  worth  re-binding 
some  day.  But  so  long  as  you  are  obliged  to 
refrain  from  buying  any  book  that  you  would 
like,  never  indulge  in  expensive  bindings. 
Dictionaries  and  cyclopaedias  should  have 
strong  leather  bindings  ; but  for  all  other  books 
the  ordinary  cloth  is  good  enough.  Do  not 
bind  up  sets  of  magazines.  The  binding  of 
each  volume  would  pay  for  a new  book;  any 
valuable  series  of  articles  is  pretty  sure  to  be 
collected  in  a volume  by  itself;  and  not  one  in 
a hundred  of  those  who  imagine  they  will  re- 
read their  monthlies  ever  does  so.  Send  your 
old  magazines  to  the  hospitals  and  the  mission- 
aries, and  save  the  shelf-room  and  the  binding 
price  for  fresher  books. 

The  bottom  book  in  every  library  must  be  a 
dictionary.  But  it  is  by  no  means  necessary  to 
get  an  unabridged  ; the  octavo  size  will  answer 
every  ordinary  purpose,  and  being  easier  to 
handle  will  be  consulted  much  oftener.  Yet 
the  quarto  editions  have,  in  addition  to  the 
dictionary  proper,  much  matter  which  tends 
to  obviate  the  need  of  other  books  of  reference. 
There  is  now  no  important  difference  between 
Webster  and  Worcester. 

An  American  who  can  have  but  one  cyclo- 
paedia should  buy  one  prepared  in  America. 
The  chief  of  these  is  the  American  (16  vols., 
$80).  Johnson’s  ranks  next  (4  vols.,  $43)  ; and 
there  will  soon  be  a smaller  one,  confined  to 
the  requirements  of  the  average  reader,  and 
omitting  the  things  which  scholars  alone  can 
understand,  issued  by  Henry  Holt  & Co.,  for 
$10.  A cyclopaedia  is  equivalent  to  a large 
number  of  books  of  reference. 

Next  get  an  atlas.  One  of  the  better  sort 
of  school  atlases  answers  all  general  purposes. 

Then  a history  of  your  native  land.  There  is 
but  one  short  history  of  the  United  States,  for 
grown  folks,  that  has  the  approval  of  scholars. 
This  is  Doyle’s  ($1.40),  edited  by  Freeman,  the 
English  historian.  Of  the  longer  histories,  the 
choice  is  between  Bancroft  (new  ed.,  6 vols., 
$13.50)  and  Bryant’s,  still  (1877)  incomplete. 
For  an  outline  of  the  world’s  history,  Freeman's 
General  Sketch  ($1.50)  is  incomparably  the 
best.  Green’s  Short  History  of  the  English  Peo- 
ple ($1,75)  is  not  only  the  best  short  book  on  the 
subject,  but  one  of  the  best  books  ever  written 
on  any  subject.  Bryce’s  Holy  Roman  Empire 


332 


LIBRARY 


($3)i  a work  of  the  very  first  excellence,  is 
virtually  a general  history  of  Europe  from  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  era. 

For  an  analysis  and  summary  of  the  litera- 
ture of  our  native  tongue  Taine’s  is  confessedly 
the  best  (3  vols.,  $7.50;  abridged,  $2.50). 

Very  early  in  your  collection  should  come  a 
popular  physiology  : Dalton’s  ($1.50),  Huxley 
and  Youmans’s  ($1.75),  Flint’s  ($6);  a natu- 
ral history  : Hooker’s  ($1.50),  Wood’s  abridged 
($1.50),  Milner’s  ($8)  ; and  a botany:  Gray’s 
($1.30  to  $3.50),  Koehler’s  ($3). 

Every  house  where  English  is  spoken  should 
contain  a Shakespeare  (50  cts.  to  $5,000).  Add 
to  this,  Dana’s  Household  Book  of  Poetry, 
($3  to  $6). 

Let  us  recapitulate  : 


Dictionary #5.00  to  $12.00 

Cyclopaedia. ...  10.00  “ 80.00 

Atlas 1.50  “ 25.00 

U.  S.  History...  1.40  “ 20.00 
General  History,  1.50  “ 1.50 

English  History,  1.75  " 1.75 

Holy  Roman 

Empire 3.00  **  3.00 


English  Litera- 
ture  $2.50  to  $7.50 

Physiology  ..  ..  1.50  “ 6.00 

Natural  History.  1.50  “ 2. 

Botany 1.30  “ 3.50 

Shakespeare 50  “ 30.00 

Household  Book 
of  Poetry 3.00  “ 6.00 


$34-45  $i98-25 

Here  we  have  the  essentials  of  a library  at 
a price  varying  from  a little  over  $30  to  about 
$200. 

We  now  proceed  to  books  the  choice  of 
which  will  be  determined  by  individual  tastes; 
and  for  the  use  of  the  reader  who  wishes  to  ex- 
pand his  library  we  add  lists  of  the  best  books 
in  various  departments.  Regarding  prices, 
please  observe  what  is  said  in  the  “ Hints  ” in- 
troductory to  this  volume.  Standard  works 
of  fiction  and  poetry  exist  in  so  many  editions 
that  we  have  not  attempted  to  give  their  prices. 

Reference. 

Men  of  the  Time,  $6.  Smith , Dict’y  of  Antiquities,  $2.50. 
Cruden,  Concordance  to  Bible,  $1.50  to  $2.75.  Smith , Dict’y 
of  Bible,  #4.  Goodholme , Domestic  Cyclopaedia,  $5.  Gasc, 
French  Dict’y,  $1.50  and  $4.  Whitney,  German  Dict’y,  $2.50. 
Dodd,  Dict’y  of  Manufactures,  Mining,  and  Mechanics,  $2. 
Ure,  Dict’y  of  Arts,  Manufactures,  and  Mines,  $15.  Bartlett, 
Familiar  Quotations,  $3.  Schem,  Statistics  of  the  World,  50  cts. 

General  Literature. 

Botta,  Handbook  of  Universal  Literature.  Taine,  English 
Literature,  condensed,  $2.50  ; 3 vols.,  $7.50.  White,  Classical 
Literature,  $2.50.  Gostwick  and  Harrison,  German  Lit- 
erature, $2.50.  Van  Lann,  French  Literature,  $7.50.  Tick- 
nor,  Spanish  Literature,  $10. 

Religion  and  Philosophy. 

Robertson,  Sermons,  $2.  Hardwick,  Christ  and  other 
Masters,  $3.  Cazelle,  Outlines  of  Evolution  Philosophy,  $2. 
Wright,  Philosophical  Discussions,  $3.50.  Fiske,  Cosmic 
Philosophy,  $6.  Lewes,  History  of  Philosophy  (English  ed.) 
Bain , Mind  and  Body,  $1.50.  Spencer,  Synthetic  Philosophy, 
6 vols.,  $15.  Leckey,  History  of  Rationalism,  $4.  Farrar, 
History  of  Free  Thought  (orthodox),  $2. 

History  and  Politics. 

Ancient — Herodotus  (Rawlinson’s),  $10  ; Bohn’s  ed.,  $1.75. 
Smith,  Student’s  Anc.  Hist.,  $2.  Greece — Grote,  $18  ; Cox, 
$2.50;  Smith's  Student’s,  $2.  Rome — Mommsen,  % 8;  Gibbon, 
$6  (Student’s  ed.,  $2)  ; Arnold,  $3.  Middle  Ages — Hallam, 
$5.25  (condensed,  $2.50).  England — Hume,  #7.50  (Student’s 
ed.,  $2).  Froude,  $15.  Macaulay,  $3  to  $16.  Hume,  Froude, 
and  Macaulay  connect  with  each  other.  For  a short  history, 
get  Green’s,  or  Freeman’s  Thompson,  $1.  Germany — Sime, 
$1,  also  in  Bryce,  Holy  Roman  Empire,  $3.  Bayard  Taylor, 
$2.  Freeman's,  $1.  France — Guizot  (now  publishing). 

Smith,  Student’s, $2.  [Freeman’s  Historical  Course,  by  vari- 
ous authors,  edited  by  the  great  historian,  is  an  excellent 
collection  of  manuals,  at  low  prices.  It  now  (March,  1877)  in- 
cludes the  editor’s  General  Sketch,  and  histories  of  the  United 
States,  England,  Scotland,  Germany,  and  Italy.]  Politics — 
Mul/ord,  The  Nation,  $3.  De  Tocquevile,  Democracy  in  Amer- 
ica, $5.  Mill,  On  Liberty,  $2.50;  Political  Economy,  $2.50  to  $4. 

Art. 

Taine,  Lectures,  $5  ; Italy,  $5.  Clement,  Handbook,  $3.25; 


Legendary  Art,  $3.25.  Blanc,  Grammar  of  Painting,  $6.50. 
Kugler,  Hand-book  of  Painting,  4 vols.,  $21.  Mrs.  Jameson's 
works,  $15  to  $42.  Ruskin,  Modern  Painters,  $18  to  $60; 
Lectures,  $1.50. 

Travels,  Geography,  etc. 

Africa — Jones's  Summary,  $5.  Alps — Whymper's  Scram- 
bles, $2.50.  Arabia — Falgrave,  $2.50.  Arctic  Regions — Hayes , 
Kane,  Markham.  Asia — Fumpelly' s Across  America  and  Asia, 
$2.50.  Taylor's  India,  China,  and  Japan,  $1.50.  Brazil — Agas- 
siz, $5.  Bates,  $2.50.  Orton,  $3.  California — Nordhojf,  $2.50. 
Canada — Thoreau,  $2.  China — Williams' s Middle  Kingdom, 
$4.  Taylor,  as  above.  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  the  Holy  Land — 
Stephens,  $3.  Prime,  % 2.  Curtis,  Nile  Notes,  $1.50.  The  Sea — 
Dana,  Two  Years  before  the  Mast,  $1.50.  India— Murray, 
$2.25.  Italy — Howells,  $2.  Taine,  $5.  Japan — Fumpelly , as 
above.  Norway — Dujferin,  Yacht  Voyage,  $1.50.  Russia — 
Wallace,  Scandinavia — Taylor,  Northern  Travel,  $1.50. 

Siam — Vincent,  Land  of  the  White  Elephant,  $3.50.  Siberia 
— Pumpelly,  $2.50.  Kennan,  Tent  Life,  $2.  Spain — Hare's 
Wanderings,  $3.  Sweden — Anderson,  $1.75.  Switzerland — 
Jones,  $1.75.  Turkey — Gautier,  $2.  West  Indies — Kingsley, 

Science. 

Astronomy — Newcomb  (in  press).  Mitchell,  $1.75.  Biol- 
ogy— Spencer,  $5.  Botany — Gray,  $1.30  or  $3.50.  Koehler, 
$3.  Chemistry — Cooke,  Chemical  Philosophy,  $2.50.  John- 
stonf  Chemistry  of  Common  Life,  $3.  Cosmology — Hceckel, 
$5.  Geography — Johnston,  Dict’y,  $12.  Steinwehr's  School 
Series.  Geology — Dana's  Books,  $1.50  to  $5.  Health — Foth- 
ergiir s Maintenance  of,  $2.  Jacobi,  Infant  Diet.  75  c.. 
Mineralogy — Dana's  Manual,  $2.  Natural  History — Milner, 
The  Gallery  of  Nature,  $8.  Wood's  abridged,  $1.50.  Physics 
— Ganot,  ed.  by  Peck,  $1.75.  Physical  Geography — Marsh, 
Man  and  Nature,  $3.  Physiology — Dalton's,  abridged,  $1.50. 
Flint's,  $6.  Psychology — Spencer,  $ 5.  Bain,  Mind  and  Body, 
$1.50.  Spectroscopy — Lockyer,  $1.25.  Zoology — Packard  (tn 
press).  Agassiz  and  Gould,  $1.50.  Teniiey,  $2. 

Fiction. 

If  your  means  are  limited,  do  not  think  that  you  must  get 
complete  sets  of  books.  Buy  only  masterpieces.  Owning 
and  being  familiar  with  these,  you  can  afford  to  gallop  through 
most  of  the  authors’  others  with  copies  from  the  circulat- 
ing library.  For  light  reading  in  variety,  and  to  afford 
a wide  choice  of  selections  for  reading  to  a company,  get 
Knight's  Half  Hours  with  the  Best  Authors  (4  or  6 vols.),  or 
Little  Classics  (8  or  16  vols.)  The  latter  includes  3 vols.  of 
poetry.  We  give  the  names,  in  Italic  type,  of  very  good 
writers  first,  and  then  of  other  good  ones,  with  here  and  there 
the  name  of  a representative  work  in  ordinary  type. 

Scott,  Ivanhoe,  Rob  Roy,  Kenilworth.  Cooper,  Last  of  the 
Mohicans,  Pioneer,  Spy.  Dickens,  David  Copperfield,  Pick- 
wick, Our  Mutual  Friend.  Thackeray,  Pendennis,  Vanity 
Fair,  Henry  Esmond.  Bulwer , Last  Days  of  Pompeii,  Rienzi, 
What  will  He  do  with  It?  George  Eliot,  Adam  Bede,  Silas 
Marner,  Daniel  Deronda.  Hawthorne,  Scarlet  Letter, 
Marble  Faun,  Twice-told  Tales.  Irving,  Knickerbocker, 
Sketch  Book.  Goldsmith,  Vicar  of  Wakefield.  Auerbach, 
On  the  Heights,  Village  Stories. 

About,  Miss  Aguilar,  Miss  Alcott,  Mrs.  Alexander,  Ander- 
sen, Improvisatore,  Arabian  Nights,  Miss  Austen,  Black, 
Princess  of  Thule.  Blackmore,  Lorna  Doonc.  Miss  Bronte, 
Jane  Eyre.  Btinyan,  Pilgrim’s  Progress.  Cervantes,  Don 
Quixote.  CJierbuliez,  Count  Kostia.  Mrs.  Charles,  Schoen- 
berg Cotta  Family.  Miss  Roberts,  Noblesse  Oblige.  Wilkie 
Collins,  Woman  in  White.  Mrs.  Crai/c,  John  Halifax.  Cur- 
tis, Potiphar  Papers.  Dc  Foe,  Robinson  Crusoe.  Disraeli, 
Coningsby,  Lothair.  Droz,  Around  a Spring.  Dumas,  Miss 
Edgeworth,  Mrs.  Edwards,  Erckmann-Chatrian,  Feuillet, 
Fielding,  Fouque,  Undine,  Sintram,  Aslauga’s  Knight.  Mrs. 
Gaskell,  Goethe,  Wilhelm  Meister.  Hardy,  Far  from  the  Mad- 
ding Crowd.  Bret  Harte,  Hoiuells,  F'oregone  Conclusion. 
Hughes,  Tom  Brown.  Hugo,  Les  Miserables.  II.  James, 
Jun.,  The  American.  Mrs.  Jenkin,  Who  Breaks — Pays.  Miss 
Kavanagh,  Kennedy,  Horse-Shoe  Robinson.  Kimball, 
Kingsley,  Hypatia.  Lawrence,  I^e  Sage,  Gil  Bias.  Ixver, 
MacDonald,  Miss  Manning,  Mary  Powell.  Mariitt,  Mar- 
ryat,  Midshipman  Easy.  Mayo,  Kaloolah.  Mitchell,  Rev- 
eries of  a Bachelor,  miss  Mit/ord,  Our  Village.  Mrs.  Oli- 
pliant.  Chronicles  of  Carlingford,  6 vols.  Mrs.  Parr,  Roe, 
Miss  Porter,  Scottish  Chiefs.  Miss  Poyntcr,  My  Little  Lady. 
Charles  Reade,  Peg  Woffington,  White  Lies.  Reuter,  In  the 
Year  13.  Richardson,  Clarissa  Harlowe,  condensed.  Rich- 
ter, Titan.  Robinson,  Rujfini,  Dr.  Antonio.  George  Sand, 
Miss  Sewell,  Miss  Sheppard,  Chailcs  Auchcstcr.  Simms, 
Smedley,  Frank  Fairlcign.  Smollett,  Humphry  Clinker.  Mrs. 
Spofford,  Amber  Gods.  Mute,  de  Stacl,  Corinnc.  Sterne, 
Tristram  Shandy.  Mrs.  Stowe,  Sue,  Mysteries  of  Paris.  Taut- 
pltoeus,  Bayard  Taylor,  Anthony  Trollope,  Turgenieff,  Jules 
Verne,  Wal/ord,  Mr.  Smith.  Ware,  Zcnobia.  Misses  War- 
ner, Qccchy.  Warren,  Ten  Thousand  a Year.  Mrs. 
Whitney,  Miss  Vottge. 

POETRY. 

The  standard  poets  arc  issued  in  numerous  editions.  One 


LICHENS 


LIGHTNING 


333 


of  the  most  compact  is  Appletons’  Works  of  the  British 
Poets,  revised  ed.,  brought  down  to  date  (3  vols.,  8vo,  $15). 
The  best  collections  of  short  poems,  both  British  and  Ameri- 
can, are  Dana's  Household  Book  of  Poetry,  Bryant's  Li- 
brary of  Poetry  and  Song  (new  ed.),  Kendrick' s Poetical 
Favorites,  Breton's  Great  Book  of  Poetry,  Whittier's  Three 
Centuries  of  Song,  and  Saunders's  Sacred  Poets. 

The  poets  most  desirable  to  have  in  separate  volumes  are 
the  following  : British — Shakespeare,  Byron,  Burns,  Tennyson, 
Shelley,  Moore,  Mrs.  Browning,  Robert  Browning  (any  vol- 
ume except  Sordello),  Wordsworth,  and  Keats.  American — 
Longfellow,  Whittier,  Lowell,  Holmes,  Stedman. 

In  humorous  poetry  Aytoun,  Bon  Gaultier  Ballads.  Barham, 
Ingoldsby  Legends.  Calvcrley.  Fly  Leaves.  Gilbert,  Bab  Bal- 
lads. Harte,  Poems.  Hood,  Poems.  Lowell,  Biglow  Papers. 
Saxe,  Poems.  Smith,  Rejected  Addresses.  Jones,  Vers  de 
Society. 

Miscellaneous. 

Smiles's  works,  lives  of  men,  principally  self-made,  emi- 
nent in  industry  and  invention,  8 vols.,  $1.50  each,  can  be  had 
separately.  Carlyle,  Anthology,  selections  from  his  writings, 
$2.50.  Milton,  Anthology,  from  his  prose  writings,  $2.50. 
Book  of  Golden  Deeds,  $1.25.  Boswell's  Life  of  Johnson,  best 
edition  for  practical  use,  condensation  by  Jones,  $2.50.  Plu- 
tarch's Lives,  handiest  edition  by  Clough,  Boston,  1 vol.,  $4. 
Modern  British  Essayists — Macaulay,  Carlyle,  Allison,  Jef- 
frey, Sydney  Smith,  Mackintosh,  Wilson,  Talfourd,  and 
Stephen,  8 vols.,  $2  each.  Arnold's  Essays  in  Criticism,  $2. 
MilFs  Dissertations  and  Discussions,  5 vols.,  and  Autobiogra- 
phy, 1 vol.,  $2.50  each.  Lamb,  Essays  of  Elia,  $175.  Lozvell,  4 
vols.  of  essays,  $2  each.  Spencer  [Herbert),  3 vols.  of  essays, 
$2  to  $2.50  each;  and,  On  Education,  $1.25.  Ruskin's  True 
and  Beautiful,  $1.25. 

LICHENS. — Lichens  form  a remarkable 
class  of  plants  that  live  in  the  most  barren 
situations  in  the  most  northern  parts  of  the 
world,  growing  even  on  bare  rocks  and  under 
circumstances  where  nature  refuses  any  de- 
scription of  corn.  They  have  no  roots,  but  ad- 
here by  a kind  of  claws,  and  are  nourished  by 
absorption  from  the  atmosphere.  The  Lichen 
Islandicus  is  the  “ Iceland  Moss  ” of  com- 
merce, and  is  so  named  from  existing  in  vast 
abundance  on  the  northern  coast  of  Iceland, 
where  no  other  vegetable  is  to  be  seen.  Not- 
withstanding its  mode  of  growth,  it  is  an  ex- 
tremely nutritious  substance,  and  with  the  Ice- 
landers constitutes  a very  important  article  of 
food,  and  is  prepared  in  a variety  of  ways.  It 
is  thought  to  have  some  tonic  power,  and  to 
have  other  qualities  which  commend  it,  espe- 
cially to  convalescents ; and  for  this  reason  it 
enters  to  some  extent  into  cookery  throughout 
the  world.  It  should  be  made  into  a blanc- 
mange and  eaten  with  milk  and  sugar. 

LIEBIG’S  EXTRACT  OF  MEAT.— By 
rigid  analysis  and  very  careful  experiments  this 
extract  has  been  degraded  from  a very  high 
position  in  the  scale  of  nutritive  substances  to 
a point  where  it  can  scarcely  be  claimed  for  it 
that  it  is  a food  at  all.  Professor  Liebig,  him- 
self, acknowledged  shortly  before  his  death  that 
“ it  is  not  nutriment  in  the  ordinary  sense ; ” 
and  Dr.  Edward  Smith  - says,  in  his  book  on 
Foods  : “ What  is  necessary  to  render  this  ex- 
tract as  valuable  as  the  meat  itself,  for  the  pur- 
poses of  nutrition,  is  to  restore  the  substances 
which  were  rejected  in  the  process  of  making, 
and  those  have  been  shown  to  be  almost  equiv- 
alent to  the  whole  meat.  There  is  but  little 
left  in  the  extract  to  nourish  the  body,  and  the 
elements  which  it  really  possesses  are  salts, 
which  may  be  obtained  otherwise  at  an  in- 
finitely smaller  cost,  and  the  flavor  of  meat, 
which  disguises  the  real  pqverty  of  the  sub- 
stance.” At  the  same  time  “ it  is  a valuable 


addition  to  other  foods,  since  it  yields  an  agree- 
able flavor,  and  when  prepared  with  hot  water 
and  properly  flavored,  gives  a degree  of  ex- 
hilaration which  may  be  useful  to  the  feeble, 
and  is  as  useful  to  the  healthy  as  tea  and 
coffee.”  Its  proper  position  in  dietetics  is 
somewhat  more  than  that  of  a meat-fla- 
vorer,  but  all  that  is  required  for  nutrition 
should  be  added  to  it.  Thus,  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  ordinary  soup  and  beef-tea,  the  extract 
may  be  added  to  increase  the  flavor  ; or  it  may 
be  mixed  with  white  of  egg,  gelatine,  bread,  and 
other  cooked  farinaceous  substances.  If,  how- 
ever, it  be  relied  upon  as  a principal  article  of 
food  for  the  sick,  it  will  prove  a broken  reed, 
except  to  those  extremely  feeble  persons  who 
can  take  very  little  food,  and  are  favorably  in- 
fluenced by  slight  causes. 

To  Make. — The  extract  as  sold  in  the  shops 
is  rather  expensive,  and  by  the  following  re- 
ceipt (which  is  Professor  Liebig’s  own)  it  can 
be  made  at  home  with  little  trouble  and  at  a 
slight  cost : — Take  .--A  pound  of  good  lean  beef 
(rumpsteak  is  best  for  the  purpose),  from  which 
all  the  skin  and  fat  that  can  possibly  be  separ- 
ated from  it  has  been  cut  away.  Chop  it  up 
small  like  sausage-meat ; then  mix  it  thoroughly 
with  an  exact  pint  of  cold  water,  and  place  it 
near  the  fire  so  that  it  will  heat  very  slowly ; 
give  it  an  occasional  stir.  It  may  stand  two  or 
three  hours  before  it  is  allowed  to  simmer,  and 
then  will  require  at  the  utmost  but  fifteen 
minutes  of  gentle  boiling.  Salt  should  be  add- 
ed when  the  boiling  first  commences,  and  for 
invalids  this,  in  general,  is  the  only  seasoning 
required.  When  the  extract  is  thus  far  pre- 
pared it  may  be  poured  from  the  meat  into  a 
bowl,  and  allowed  to  stand  until  any  particles 
of  fat  it  may  show  on  the  surface  can  be  skim- 
med off  entirely,  and  the  sediment  has  sub- 
sided and  left  the  soup  quite  clear ; then  pour 
off  gently,  heat  in  a sauce-pan,  and  serve  at 
once. 

To  mingle  vegetable  diet  in  its  best  form 
with  this  extract,  boil  down  the  kind  of  vege- 
table desired,  sliced  or  cut  up  small,  in  a very 
moderate  quantity  of  water,  until  its  juices  are 
well  drawn  out ; then  strain  off  the  liquid  from 
it  by  slight  pressure,  and  when  it  has  become 
cold,  pour  it  on  the  chopped  meat,  as  directed 
above,  instead  of  water.  Several  different 
kinds  of  vegetables  can  be  mixed  together  and 
cooked  in  this  way  ; the  water  must  boil  before 
they  are  added  to  it. 

LIGATURE. — A thread  or  cord  tied  tightly 
round  a severed  artery  to  stop  the  bleeding. 
Stout  silk  or  pack-thread  is  best  for  the  pur- 
pose and  it  should  be  tied  around  the  end  nearest 
the  heart.  It  should  be  employed  only  when 
pressure  and  cold  have  failed  to  arrest  the 
hemorrhage,  and  when  surgical  advice  cannot 
be  had  at  once.  (See  Bleeding.) 

LIGHTNING,  Stroke  of.— If  a person  be 
struck  by  lightning  there  is  hope  of  resuscitation 
unless  the  body  is  scorched  and  blackened. 
Throw  pailfuls  of  cold  water  on  the  head  and 
body,  apply  strong  mustard  poultices  to  the 


334 


LIGHTNING-ROD 


LIME 


stomach,  and  rub  the  whole  body  briskly  with 
flannel  cloths.  Try  inflation  of  the  lungs  as 
directed  in  the  case  of  the  apparently  drowned. 
Do  not  desist  from  rubbing  when  the  patient 
exhibits  signs  of  life,  but  keep  on  until  the  cir- 
culation is  thoroughly  restored.  As  soon  as 
he  can  swallow,  give  a cup  of  coffee  or  some 
other  stimulant. 

In  thunder-storms,  the  doors  and  windows 
should  be  closed,  and  all  currents  of  air  through 
the  room  stopped  as  far  as  possible.  The 
safest  position  in  a room  is  the  centre ; a 
feather-bed  placed  here  will  add  to  its  security. 

LIGHTNING-ROD.— Lightning-rods  should 
be  sunk  in  the  earth  at  least  six  feet  at  the 
bottom,  and  the  tops  should  be  well  pointed. 
Each  rod  will  then  afford  certain  protection  to 
a circle  around  it  whose  diameter  equals  the 
height  of  the  rod  above  the  highest  chimney  j 
but  it  protects  no  farther  than  this  extent.  As 
usually  placed,  lightning-rods  are  a very  slight 
protection  to  a building,  especially  if  it  be  in 
an  elevated  and  exposed  situation.  The  best 
material  for  a lightning-rod  is  copper,  which 
should  be  tipped  with  some  bright  polished 
metal ; the  glass  holders,  which  are  supposed 
to  act  as  “ insulators,”  are  not  considered  by 
Professor  Henry  to  be  of  much  importance, 
and  they  seriously  increase  the  cost. 

LILAC. — There  are  about  twenty  varieties 
of  the  lilac,  all  of  which  are  pretty  and  flourish 
in  any  garden  soil  under  circumstances  in  which 
other  shrubs  would  dwindle  and  die.  The  com- 
mon lilac  is  the  largest  of  the  species  and  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  of  our  spring-flowering 
ornamental  shrubs.  The  white  variety  is  less 
common  than  the  purple,  and  is  not  so  sick- 
ishly  sweet.  The  Persian  and  Chinese  lilacs  are 
smaller  and  better  adapted  for  a small  garden. 
The  former  is  a small  tree  of  graceful  habit, 
and  its  flowers  are  of  a lighter  lilac  color.  The 
latter  is  especially  desirable ; the  flowers  are 
much  darker  than  the  other  varieties,  and  its 
foliage  is  of  a dark,  glossy  green,  very  rich. 
All  these  shrubs  are  perfectly  hardy,  and  are 
usually  grown  without  any  care  ; yet  if  pruned 
and  manured  their  beauty  will  be  much  in- 
creased. 

LILY. — The  lily  is  a large  family  of  orna- 
mental bulbs,  most  of  which  are  hardy,  and  in- 
dispensable in  every  flower  garden.  The 
plants  will  grow  in  any  garden  soil,  but  a little 
attention  will  be  repaid  by  greater  luxuriance 
and  more  abundant  bloom.  The  proper  soil  is 
a compost  of  one  part  loam,  one  part  peat,  one 
part  sand,  and  one  part  leaf  mould.  Dig  a 
hole  about  two  feet  deep,  and  fill  in  with  the 
compost.  The  bulbs  should  be  planted  from 
three  to  five  inches  deep,  according  to  size ; 
autumn  is  the  best  time  for  planting.  The  soil 
should  be  frequently  enriched,  as  the  lily  is  a 
gross  feeder,  and  will  bear  a large  amount  of 
manure,  showing  the  effect  in  the  increased 
size  of  stem  and  leaves  and  greater  abundance 
of  blossoms.  During  the  winter  the  bulbs 
should  be  protected  by  a covering  of  coarse 
manure  which  may  be  dug  in  in  the  Spring, 


The  most  desirable  species  are  : — L.  candi- 
dum,  one  of  the  oldest  garden  flowers,  of  great 
beauty  and  fragrance,  and  too  well  known  to 
need  description  ; there  is  a pretty  variety  with 
striped  leaves,  L.  perigrutnium , is  somewhat 
similar  to  the  last  but  is  botanically  distinct. 
L.  bulbiferum  is  the  common  orange  lily ; L. 
Canadense  is  one  of  the  finest  of  the  native 
variety ; it  has  light  orange  and  yellow  droop- 
ing flowers,  and  throws  up  a stalk,  sometimes 
five  feet  in  height,  having  as  many  as  twenty 
flowers.  L.  Philadelpliium  is  commonly  called 
the  Blackberry  Lily;  it  has  deep  red  flowers, 
spotted  with  black.  L.  Monadelphum  is  some- 
times called  the  Circassian  Lily,  from  its  native 
country ; it  has  drooping,  yellow-spotted  flow- 
ers. L.  Martagon  is  a very  ornamental  variety, 
with  white  and  purple  flo^vers  ; the  soil  should 
be  rather  sandy.  L.  Chalcedonicum  is  the 
Scarlet  Martagon , one  of  the  most  highly- 
colored  species.  L.  Superbum  is  the  finest 
native  species ; flowers  drooping,  orange  red- 
dish, with  numerous  spots.  « 

The  Japan  Lilies  are,  perhaps,  the  finest 
of  the  family,  and  are  as  hardy  and  easy  of  cul- 
tivation as  the  native  species.  The  treatment 
is  the  same,  except  that  the  soil  must  not  be 
made  too  rich  with  manure,  as  it  tends  to  rot 
the  bulbs.  L.  Longiflorum  is  a very  beautiful 
species ; flowers  pure  white,  very  long,  and 
fragrant.  It  blooms  in  July,  and  requires  a 
slight  protection  during  the  winter.  L.  Exi- 
mium  is  another  lovely  variety  resembling  L. 
longiflonan , but  the  flowers  are  still  larger  and 
their  color  is  of  a satin  whiteness.  L.  Japoni- 
cum  is  a variety  with  large,  white,  bell-shaped 
flowers,  and  very  desirable  for  either  parlor  or 
out-door  culture. 

The  Lily  of  the  Valley  grows  from  large 
roots,  which  partake  of  the  nature  of  tubers. 
It  requires  no  care,  will  bloom  year  after  year, 
in  the  same  bed,  and  is  perfectly  hardy,  requir- 
ing no  protection  in  the  coldest  winter.  There 
is  no  bulb  that  flourishes  so  perfectly  under 
neglect,  and  no  flower  more  perfect  in  form  and 
fragrance.  It  will  grow  anywhere,  but  flour- 
ishes best  in  sandy  out-of-the-way  corners, 
where  the  soil  is  moist  and  rich.  Plant  in  the 
late  Autumn.  It  flowers  in  May  and  produces 
red  berries  in  September. 

LIME. — A small  variety  oflemon,  more  acid 
and  cooling  than  the  ordinary.  Most  of  the 
citric  acid  of  commerce  is  prepared  from  it. 
The  green  fruit  is  excellent  for  preserving, 
but  is  seldom  found  here.  As  a substitute  for 
lemons  its  flavor  is  not  agreeable  to  every- 
body. 

Lime  Juice  is  an  antiseptic  in  scurvy  ; dose 
from  one  to  two  tablespoonfuls,  with  sugar,  two 
or  three  times  a day. 

LIME. — A mineral  used  in  mortar,  in  white- 
washing, and  as  a manure,  disinfectant,  etc. 
In  its  original  form  it  is  called  quick-lime,  and 
is  highly  caustic.  Before  using  it  is  slaked  ; 
that  is,  caused  to  go  to  pieces  by  adding  water 
and  leaving  it  in  the  open  air.  It  is  slaked  when 
more  water  can  be  added  without  causing  it  to 


LIME-WATER 


LIQUEURS 


335 


smoke.  Slaked  lime  can  be  had  at  gas-works, 
or  where  building  is  being  carried  on. 

LIME-WATER.— Cover  the  bottom  of  a 
large  bottle  two  or  three  inches 
deep  with  slaked  lime.  Fill  up  with 
Clearwater.  It  will  not  necometoo 
strong.  After  well  shaking,  and 
allowing  it  to  settle,  it  will  be  ready 
for  use.  The  bottle  shown  in  the 
cut  is  very  convenient.  By  blow- 
ing through  the  glass  tube  a,  the 
water  is  forced  through  b,  with- 
out disturbing  the  lime  remain- 
ing in  the  bottom.  Refill  with 
water  until  the  lime  disappears. 

LINEN. — In  choosing  linen,  examine  the 
threads,  and  select  those  which  are  even  and 
close.  A raw  linen  with  uneven  threads  does 
not  wear  well.  Also  choose  that  which  is  per- 
fectly white ; if  linen  is  not  white  at  first  it  will 
never  become  so  afterwards.  Fine  linens 
answer  better  than  coarse  ones,  provided  they 
are  not  unsuitable  for  the  purpose  for  which 
they  are  destined.  The  wide  linens  are  not 
thought  so  strong  and  well  made  as  those  of 
narrow  width,  but  the  latter  will  not  cut  to  the 
same  advantage  as  the  wider  ones.  Much 
that  is  called  linen  in  the  shops  is  half 
cotton,  and  does  not  wear  so  well  as  the  cotton 
alone ; cheap  linens  are  usually  of  this  kind. 

To  discover  which  are  all  linen  take  a 
sample  home,  wash  it  and  ravel  it.  If  this  be 

food  the  rest  of  the  lot  will  probably  be  so. 

f it  is  not  convenient  to  do  this,  draw  a thread 
each  way,  and  if  both  appear  equally  strong, 
it  is  probably  all  linen.  Linen  comes  of  various 
widths,  from  three-quarters  of  a yard  to  two 
and  a half  yards.  It  should  be  put  into  clean 
water  and  boiled,  and  ironed,  before  it  is  cut. 
LING. — The  ling  is  in  season  from  Novem- 


ber to  March,  but  is  seldom  very  plentiful  in 
the  markets.  Usual  weight  about  six  pounds. 
Prepare,  cook,  and  serve  same  as  cod. 

LINIMENT. — A term  applied  to  an  oily  or 
other  stimulating  application  for  external  use. 
Ca.7nphorated  oil,  an  excellent  antispasmodic 
linimeTit,  to  be  used  in  obstinate  rheumatism, 
etc.,  is  made  by  rubbing  an  ounce  of  camphor 
with  two  ounces  of  Florence  oil  in  a mortar  till 
the  camphor  is  entirely  dissolved. 

Volatile  Liniment.— Take  of  Florence  oil  an 
ounce,  and  spirits  of  hartshorn  half  an  ounce  ; 
shake  them  well  together.  This  liniment  made 
with  equal  parts  of  the  oil  and  hartshorn  will 
be  more  effective  when  the  skin  of  the  patient 
can  stand  it.  In  inflammatory  quinsy,  moisten 
a flannel  cloth  in  this  liniment  and  apply  it  to 
the  throat,  renewing  every  four  or  five  hours  ; 
it  rarely  fails  to  afford  relief.  It  is  also  excel- 
lent for  inflammation  or  tension  of  any  kind. 

White  Liniment. — Take  of  olive  oil,  one 
pint ; spermaceti,  three  ounces ; white  wax,  one 


ounce.  Melt  them  together,  stirring  all  the 
time.  This  is  good  for  burns,  scalds,  or  any 
excoriated  surface. 

LINSEED.— The  seeds  of  the  flax-plant. 
They  contain  a good  deal  of  oil  which  may  be 
readily  obtained  by  expression ; the  amount 
depends  upon  the  method  adopted,  and  varies 
from  eighteen  to  twenty-seven  per  cent.  Linseed 
oil  is  especially  remarkable  for  drying  rapidly 
when  applied  to  the  surface  of  any  body  ex- 
posed to  the  air,  and  thus  forming  a hard 
transparent  varnish.  This  property  of  drying 
quickly  is  much  increased  by  previously  boil- 
ing the  oil,  either  alone  or  with  some  prepara- 
tion of  lead. 

The  cake  left  after  the  expression  of  the  oil 
is  known  as  oil-cake  and  forms  an  excellent 
food  for  cattle.  When  powdered,  it  is  common- 
ly sold  as  linseed-meal,  which  is  much  used  for 
poultices  and  for  other  purposes.  The  linseed- 
meal,  however,  directed  to  be  used  in  medicine, 
is  merely  the  linseed  powdered;  hence,  it  con- 
tains the  oil  which  is  not  present  in  ordinary 
meal. 

Linseed-tea  is  made  by  putting  a quarter  of 
an  ounce  of  linseed  in  a quart  of  boiling  water. 
Steep  two  hours,  and  then  strain. 

LINSEY-WOOLSEY.  — A cheap  fabric 
made  of  linen  for  warp,  and  wool  for  woof, 
generally  one  blue  and  the  other  white,  or 
mixed  with  red.  It  was  more  used  formerly 
than  now,  but  is  still  very  serviceable  stuff  for 
children’s  common  dresses  in  winter.  Shrink 
it  in  hot  water  before  cutting. 

LIPS,  Chapped.  ( See  Chapped-Hands.) 

LIQUEURS. — These  are  intermediate  be- 
tween common  spirits  and  the  foreign  sweet 
distilled  spirit,  mixed  with  certain  flavoring 
matters,  such  as  pine  apple,  peach  kernels,  etc. 
Below  are  given  descriptions  of  the  principal 
ones,  with  recipes  for  such  as  can  be  conve- 
niently made  at  home. 

Some  not  given  here  can  occasionally  be  ob- 
tained from  a few  special  dealers,  but"  the  list 
is  believed  to  contain  not  only  all  that  are 
“ standard,”  but  about  all  that  the  best  dealers 
think  it  worth  while  to  keep  regularly  in  stock. 

Liqueurs  are  taken  after  coffee,  frequently 
mixed  together,  and  sometimes  added  to  bran- 
dy. One  small  glass  of  liqueur  is  sufficiently 
agreeable,  but  a larger  quantity  is  cloying,  and 
frequently  disturbs  digestion.  The  habit  of 
drinking  liqueurs  during  the  day,  which  is  not 
uncommon  in  France,  especially  among  women, 
is  excessively  injurious,  as  the  spirit  used  in 
their  manufacture  is  usually  of  inferior  quality. 

All  liqueurs  improve  vastly  with  age,  and 
they  are  not  usually  good  for  several  months 
after  their  manufacture. 

Anisette. — This  is  composed  of  sweetened 
spirit  flavored  with  aniseed  and  coriander. 
Bordeaux  is  famous  for  the  manufacture  of 
this  liqueur,  which  is  very  popular  in  France, 
the  best  being  made  by  Marie  Brissart. 

Benedictine. — Made  by  a community  of 
Benedictine  monks  from  fragrant  herbs.  The 
recipe  is  unknown.  It  is  believed  to  promote 


33G 


LIQUEURS 


LIVER 


• digestion.  It  comes  in  odd-looking  squat  black 
bottles  that  set  off  ornamental  glass  quite  ef- 
fectively. 

Black  Currant  Liqueur. — The  skins  only 
of  the  black  currants  should  be  used ; the  pulp 
should  be  squeezed  out  from  the  currants,  one 
by  one,  between  the  finger  and  thumb.  Steep 
a pint  of  the  skins  in  a quart  of  rectified  spirit 
for  a fortnight  in  a warm  place  ; then  strain  the 
liqueur  from  the  skins,  and  add  to  it  a pound 
and  a half  of  sugar. 

Creme  de  Girofle. — Add  forty  drops  of  oil 
of  cloves  to  a quart  of  spirits  of  wine  and  a quart 
of  syrup,  with  a little  red  coloring  matter.  This 
liqueur  is  said  to  be  beneficial  to  singers  suf- 
fering under  relaxation  of  the  throat. 

Creme  de  Noyeau. — Take  /—  Soft  water,  2 
quarts;  loaf  sugar,  2 lbs;  brandy  or  rum,  1 
gal;  milk,  i>£pts;  lemons,  peel  of  5;  bitter 
almonds,  y2  lb. 

Boil  the  sugar  in  the  water,  and  add  the 
brandy  or  rum  ; then  add  the  milk  (boiled),  the 
lemon  peel,  and  the  bitter  almonds  (blanched  and 
bruised).  Let  the  ingredients  stand  together 
five  days,  stirring  well  each  day;  then  filter 
through  very  fine  linen,  and  bottle  it.  It  may 
be  drunk  in  a month,  but  improves  by  keeping. 

Creme  de  The  is  made  in  France,  flavored 
with  tea,  and  put  up  in  bottles  covered  with 
gay-colored  silk,  on  which  are  pasted  paper 
pictures  of  Chinese  scenes.  The  effect  is  quite 
ornamental  to  the  dinner-table. 

Creme  de  Vanille.— Spirit  and  syrup  fla- 
vored and  colored  with  the  tincture  and  pod  of 
vanilla. 

Chartreuse. — This  liqueur,  of  which  there 
are  two  varieties,  the  white  and  the  green,  was 
originally  prepared  from  a secret  recipe  by  the 
monks  of  Chartreuse,  in  France.  In  1809  its 
manufacture  by  the  monks  was  prohibited  by  the 
Pope,  and  the  liqueurs  now  sold  under  the  name 
of  Chartreuse  are  imitations  of  the  original. 
The  flavor  is  aromatic,  and  the  liqueur  has  "done 
good  service  in  many  cases  of  dyspepsia. 

Curagoa. — This,  which  is  one  of  the  most 
popular  of  the  liqueurs,  is  made  bv  macerating 
orange-peel  with  a little  cinnamon  and  a few 
cloves  in  sweetened  brandy.  Two  varieties 
exist  in  commerce,  the  white  and  the  red,  the 
latter  being  simply  colored.  For  directions 
for  making  at  home,  see  Curacoa. 

Eau  de  Vie  de  Dantzic. — One  quart  of  spir- 
its of  wine,  twelve  drops  of  oil  of  aniseed,  six 
drops  of  oil  of  cinnamon,  three  drops  of  oil  of 
roses,  eight  drops  of  oil  of  citron.  Mix  the 
above  with  a quart  of  syrup,  filter,  mix  with  the 
liqueur  some  fine  bits  of  gold  leaf,  and  bottle. 

Kirschwasser. — -This  is  a spirituous  liqueur, 
made  of  black  cherries,  bruised  and  fermented, 
the  stones  of  the  cherries  are  bruised  with  the 
fruit,  and  used  to  give  additional  flavor.  The 
fermented  liquor  is  afterwards  distilled. 

Kuemmel. — This  is  a favorite  Russian  liq- 
ueur. It  consists  of  sweetened  spirit  flavored 
with  cumin  and  caraway  seeds. 

Maraschino  comes  in  wicker-covered  bottles. 
To  make  at  home,  Take  .-Seville  oranges,' 


rinds  of  12  ; lemons,  peel  of  5 ; sugar-candy,  3 
lbs  ; gin,  1 gall. 

Steep  all  the  ingredients  together  for  four 
days  and  nights,  stirring  well  each  day  ; filter  it 
clear,  and  bottle  it. 

I L Take  /-English  gin,  1 qt ; bitter  almonds, 
2 oz.  ; white  sugar-candy,  6 oz. 

Mix  the  ingredients  and  let  them  stand  a 
fortnight  ; then  strain  it,  and  it  will  be  ready  for 
use  in  another  fortnight. 

Noyeau. — I.  Take: -bitter  almonds,  blanch- 
ed and  pounded,  2 lbs  ; brandy,  1 gall  ; white 
sugar-candy,  2 lbs  ; mace,  J oz  ; one  grated 
nutmeg. 

Mix  together  thoroughly  ; stir  up  well  every 
day  for  twelve  days,  and  then  leave  it  for  six 
weeks,  when  it  may  be  bottled.  It  must  be 
kept  at  least  five  months  before  it  is  ready  for 
use. 

II.  Take  /-Sweet  almonds,  \ lb  ; bitter  al- 
monds, \ lb  ; loaf  sugar,  I lb  ; English  gin,  1 
qt. 

Blanch  the  almonds  and  cut  them  small  be- 
fore adding  them,  with  the  sugar,  to  the  gin. 
Keep  them  in  a warm  place  ; stir  up  frequent- 
ly during  a fortnight  ; then  strain  and  filter 
into  bottles. 

Orange  Liqueur.  Take  /-Brandy,  1 qt ; lump 
sugar,  5 lbs  ; vanilla,  ^ of  a stick  ; one  orange. 

Put  the  brandy  into  a wide-mouthed  glass 
jar  ; add  the  sugar  (reduced  to  powder),  and 
the  vanilla  ; stir  till  the  sugar  is  all  melted. 
Then  put  in  one  fine,  smooth,  unspotted 
orange,  whole;  cover  the  jar  closely,  and  set  it 
aside  in  a warm  place.  This  liqueur  should 
stand  two  or  three  months,  so  as  to  be  well  im- 
pregnated with  the  perfume  of  the  orange. 

Raspberry  Liqueur. — Allow  three  pints  of 
raspberries  to  a quart  of  spirit,  and  let  them 
stand  a fortnight  in  a warm  place  ; then  strain 
the  liqueur,  and  add  to  it  a pound  and  a half  of 
loaf  sugar. 

Ratafia. — Take  /-Peach  and  apricot  kernels, 

2 oz  ; brandy,  1 qt  ; white  sugar-candy,  1 lb; 
cold  water,  1 teacupful. 

Blanch  the  kernels,  bruise  them,  and  put 
them  into  a bottle  ; pour  on  the  brandy,  and 
let  them  stand  a month  ; then  strain  it  off;  add 
the  sugar,  dissolved  in  a cup  of  cold  water  ; 
filter,  and  bottle  for  use.  The  leaves  of  peaches 
and  nectarines,  plucked  in  the  spring  and  dis- 
tilled, are  an  excellent  substitute  for  ratafia  in 
puddings. 

LIVER. — The  liver  of  the  calf  is  better  than 
any  other,  not  even  excepting  goose  liver,  or 
\flatede  fois.  Lamb's  liver  is  also  better  fla- 
vored, more  tender,  and  less  dry  than  that  of 
I the  sheep.  In  choosing  liver,  select  that  which 
j presents  a clear,  bright,  yellowish-red  color, 
though  that  which  is  of  a clear,  dark  color  is 
good  ; yielding  easily  under  the  pressure  of 
the  finger  is  a sure  sign  of  tenderness.  Those 
which  present  dark,  “ sedgy  ” streaks,  sandy 
spots,  and  abscesses,  are  unwholesome,  and,  in 
fact,  unfit  to  be  eaten. 

Baked  Liver. — Lard  the  liver  with  fat  pork, 
and  put  into  an  iron  pan,  with  a pint  of  water 


LOBSTER 


337 


or  veal  stock.  Bake  it  three-quarters  of  an 
hour,  basting  it  frequently.  Have  ready  some 
macaroni,  well  boiled  in  milk  and  water.  Dish 
the  liver,  and  lay  the  macaroni  around  it.  Add 
to  the  gravy  a tablespoonful  of  butter,  a little 
flour,  and  pepper,  salt,  and  sage ; boil  it  up  once, 
and  turn  it  over  the  dish. 

Fried  Liver  (with  Bacon). — Cut  the  liver 
into  slices  about  a quarter  of  an  inch  thick, 
season  it  with  salt  and  pepper,  and  fry  it 
to  a crisp  brown  with  some  breakfast  bacon 
cut  into  thin  slices.  Serve  with  the  gravy 
alone,  or  thicken  the  gravy  with  a very  little 
browned  flour.  Help  a piece  of  the  bacon  with 
each  piece  of  liver. 

Roast  Liver. — Take  the  whole  or  part  of  a 
liver,  and  either  lard  it  on  the  surface,  or  with 
large  strips  of  highly-seasoned  bacon  in  the  in- 
side ( see  Larding);  or,  should  either  of  these 
modes  be  objected  to,  merely  wrap  it  in  a well- 
buttered  paper,  and  roast  it  before  a brisk  fire 
from  an  hour  to  an  hour  and  a quarter,  keep- 
ing it  constantly  basted.  Serve  with  a sauce 
of  some  piquancy,  in  addition  to  some  good 
gravy.  As  an  economical  mode,  some  small 
bits  of  the  liver  may  be  trimmed  off,  floured, 
and  lightly  fried  with  a sliced  onion,  then  stewed 
down  for  gravy  in  three-quarters  of  a pint  of 
water  which  has  been  poured  into  the  pan, 
with  the  addition  of  a small  bunch  of  herbs,  a 
few  pepper-corns,  salt,  and  a little  lemon-juice. 

Stewed  Liver.  — I.  From  three  to  four 
pounds  of  liver  will  be  sufficient  for  a dish  of 
moderate  size.  First  lard  it  quite  through  with 
bacon  rolled  in  a seasoning  of  spice  and  of 
savory  herbs  very  finely  minced ; then  lay  it 
into  a stew-pan  or  sauce-pan  just  fitted  to  its 
size,  and  pour  in  about  half  a pint  of  broth  or 
gravy ; heat  it  very  gently,  and  throw  in,  when 
it  begins  to  simmer,  a sliced  carrot,  a small 
onion  cut  in  two,  a small  bunch  of  parsley,  and 
a blade  of  mace ; stew  the  liver  as  gently  as 
possible  over  a slow  fire  from  two  hours  and  a 
half  to  three  hours ; thicken  the  gravy  with  a 
dessertspoonful  of  browned  flour ; add  a couple 
of  wineglassfuls  of  white  wine,  and  a little  spice, 
if  needed,  and  serve  it  very  hot,  after  having 
taken  out  the  herbs  and  vegetables. 

The  liver  may  be  stewed  without  being 
larded.  The  wine  can  be  altogether  omitted, 
or  a wineglassful  of  port,  mixed  with  a little 
lemon-juice,  may  take  the  place  of  the  sherry. 

II.  Parboil  the  liver,  cut  it  into  small  pieces, 
and  stew  in  gravy  or  broth  until  done.  Thicken 
with  brown  flour,  and  season  with  salt  and  pep- 
per, and,  if  liked,  some  sweet  herbs. 

LIVERWORT.  (See  Hepatic  A.) 

LOBSTER. — Lobsters  are  generally  plenti- 
ful in  the  markets  throughout  the  year,  except 
during  the  months  of  December,  January,  and 
February.  They  are  better,  however,  in  some 
months  than  in  others — that  is,  the  female  lob- 
ster is  generally  preferred  through  the  summer 
months,  especially  in  June  and  July,  and  the 
male  during  the  winter  months.  The  latter  is 
distinguished  from  the  female  not  only  by  the 
absence  of  eggs  under  the  tail,  but  by  the  longer 
22 


and  narrower  back,  running  quite  to  the  tail 
and  including  the  fan  or  fins.  The  female  con- 
tains the  coral.  If  the  lobster  is  stale,  the 
tail  hangs  limp ; while,  if  fresh,  it  is  retained 
close  to  the  belly,  and  if  drawn  down,  will 
spring  back  with  some  force  as  soon  as  releas- 
ed. When  the  eggs  of  the  female  are  large 
and  quite  brown,  the  lobster  will  be  found  ex- 
hausted, watery,  and  poor.  Lobsters  ranging 
from  four  pounds  in  weight  are  most  delicate. 
The  whole  of  the  lobster  is  good  to  eat,  except 
the  shell  and  the  craw,  or  stomach  which  lies 
between  the  eyes. 

The  blue-back  lobsters  are  a very  fine  variety. 
The  shell  is  quite  thin,  and  they  are  in  season 
during  May  and  June.  Their  average  weight 
is  from  two  to  four  pounds.  They  are  fre- 
quently found  in  the  markets  already  cooked. 

Boiled  Lobster. — Put  five  ounces  of  salt  in 
a gallon  of  boiling  water ; tie  the  claws  of  the 
lobster  together,  if  the  fish  merchant  has  not 
already  skewered  them,  and  throw  it  into  the 
water;  boil  from  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes,  if 
of  moderate  size ; thirty  to  forty  minutes,  if 
large,  and  an  hour,  if  very  large.  When  done, 
lift  it  out,  and  lay  face  downward  on  a sieve 
to  dry. 

Before  a lobster  is  sent  to  table,  take  off 
the  large  claws,  hold  each  of  them  firmly, 
with  the  edge  upward,  and  with  a quick  blow 
with  a heavy  knife,  crash  the  shell  without  dis- 
figuring the  fish.  Split  the  tail  open  with  a very 
sharp  knife,  and  dish  the  lobster  in  the  manner 


Dressed  Lobster. 


shown  in  the  engraving,  either  with  or  without 
a napkin  under  it.  When  the  soft  part  of  the 
body  is  required  to  mix  with  the  dressing,  take 
it  out  before  it  is  served,  and  add  it  to  the 
sauce  intended  for  it.  It  is  customary  to  dress 
the  salad  before  serving,  as  few  persons  care  to 
prepare  their  own  salad. 

Croquettes  o ^Lobster Cutthe  meat  of  a cold 

boiled  lobster  into  small,  neat  dice ; season  with 
cayenne,  white  pepper,  and  salt.  Have  one  half 
pint  of  stiffly  reduced  bechamel  sauce ; add  to  it 
the  yolks  ot  3 eggs,  and  1 blade  of  powdered 
mace;  then  add  the  lobster, stir  until  scalding; 
turn  on  a well-oiled  dish, and  when  firm  by  cool- 
ing form  them  as  desired.  Bread-crumb,  and 
fry  in  plenty  of  lard  made  hot  for  the  purpose. 

Curry  of  Lobster. — Extract  the  meat  from 
a boiled  lobster;  lay  it  in  a sauce-pan  with 
gravy  and  cream  at  discretion  ; then  add  a ta- 
blespoonful of  butter  and  two  teaspoonfuls  of 


338 


LOBSTER 


curry-powder,  (if  not  powerful,  three,)  and  sim- 
mer for  an  hour,  adding  a pinch  of  cayenne 
and  salt.  Half  a wineglassful  of  sherry  or 
Madeira  will  add  to  the  aroma,  but  is  not 
essential. 

Devilled  Lobster. — Prepare  the  meat  as  for 
salad,  reserving  the  coral ; season  highly  with 
cayenne,  mustard,  salt,  and  some  pungent  sauce, 
and  mix  all  together  thoroughly.  Rub  the  coral 
smooth,  moistening  with  vinegar  until  it  is  thin 
enough  to  pour  easily,  and  have  it  ready  to  add 
to  the  lobster.  Put  the  lobster  into  a porcelain 
sauce-pan,  with  just  enough  hot  water  to  keep 
it  from  burning,  and  cover  it ; let  it  boil  up  once, 
and  add  the  sauce,  prepared  as  above  ; then  stir 
in  a tablespoonful  of  butter,  and  when  it  boils 
again,  take  the  pan  from  the  fire.  This  is  a 
famous  supper  dish. 

Fried  Lobster. — To  be  fried,  the  lobster 
must  be  bled;  separate  the  body  from  the 
tail ; then  cut  the  tail  in  pieces,  making  as  many 
pieces  as  there  are  joints.  Put  these  pieces  in 
a frying-pan,  with  two  or  three  ounces  of  butter 
and  an  onion  minced  fine ; set  on  a brisk  fire, 
and  stir  occasionally  till  they  are  fried  ; then 
add  a bunch  of  seasoning,  composed  of  three 
sprigs  of  parsley,  one  of  thyme,  and  a clove  ; 
add  also  salt,  pepper,  and  three  gills  of  Ma- 
deira, Catawba,  or  Sauterne  wine.  Boil  gently 
till  reduced  one-half ; dish  the  pieces  of  lob- 
ster ; add  two  or  three  tablespoonfuls  of  gravy 
to  the  sauce,  stir  it,  give  one  boil,  and  turn  it 
over  the  lobster  through  a strainer.  Serve  hot. 

Lobster  Farcie — Pound  in  a mortar  the 
meat  and  coral  of  2 fine  lobsters,  with  3 ozs. 
butter,  2 anchovies,  1 blade  powdered  mace, 
cayenne,  white  pepper,  and  salt,  the  juice  of  1 
lemon,  4 ozs.  of  crumb  of  bread,  the  yolks  of  2 
raw  eggs,  1 giil  of  cream,  and  1 gill  of  broth. 
Fill  the  empty  shell,  sprinkle  with  crumbs, 
bake  10  minutes. 

Patties  (Lobster) — Cut  the  meat  of  1 large 
lobster,  with  the  coral,  into  small  dice;  bone 
2 anchovies;  cut  them  into  small  dice  with  2 
ozs.  mushrooms,  nutmeg,  cayenne,  salt,  and 


Lobster  Patties. 


x glass  of  white  wine.  Simmer  3 or  4 minutes, 
then  add  | pint  of  white  sauce,  the  yolk  of  an 
egg,  and  2 ozs.  of  butter.  Empty  the  patties, 
and  fill  with  the  lobster. 

Potted  Lobster.  — Separate  carefully  the 
flesh  of  freshly-boiled  lobsters  from  the  shells 
and  from  the  tough  red  skin  of  the  tails  ; mince 
the  fish  up  quickly  with  a sharp  knife,  turn  it 
immediately  into  a large  mortar,  and  strew  over 
it  a mixed  seasoning  of  fine  cayenne,  pounded 
mace,  lightly  grated  nutmeg,  and  salt;  this  last 
should  be  sparingly  used  in  the  first  instance, 


and  should  be  reduced  to  powder  before  it  is 
added.  Pound  the  lobster  to  a perfect  paste, 
with  from  two  to  three  ounces  of  butter  to  each 
fish  if  of  large  size,  but  with  less  should  they 
be  small,  and  the  lobster-coral  previously  rub- 
bed through  a sieve.  When  there  is  no  coral, 
a fine  color  may  be  given  to  the  mixture  by 
stewing  the  red  skin  of  the  tails  very  gently  for 
ten  or  twelve  minutes  with  part  of  the  butter 
which  is  used  for  it,  but  which  must  be  strained 
and  allowed  to  become  perfectly  cold  before 
it  is  mixed  with  the  meat.  The  degree  of  sea- 
soning must  be  regulated  by  the  taste ; but  no 
flavor  should  predominate  over  the  lobster  it- 
self, and  all  over-spicing  must  be  avoided.  Be- 
fore the  mixture  is  taken  from  the  mortar,  it 
should  be  set  over  the  ice  for  a short  time,  or 
placed  in  a cool  closet  to  render  it  firm  before 
it  is  pressed  into  the  potting-pans  or  moulds. 
In  putting  into  these,  be  careful  to  press  it  into 
a compact,  even  mass  ; smooth  the  surface,  and 
run  a little  clarified  butter  over  when  it  is  only 
just  liquid, , for  if  hot  it  will  prevent  the  fish 
from  keeping.  Send  to  table  garnished  with 
light  green  foliage ; or  with  ornamentally  cut 
paper  fastened  round  the  mould  ; or  with  a 
small  damask  napkin  tastefully  arranged  about 
it. 

Salad  (Lobster).  ( See  Salads.) 

Sauce  (Lobster). — Take  a large  fresh  lobster, 
carefully  pick  out  the  berries  and  all  the  inside  ; 
cut  it  small ; make  a sauce  with  a lump  of  flour 
and  butter  (half  and  half),  a little  milk  or  cream, 
a very  small  quantity  of  essence  of  anchovy,  a 
very  little  pounded  mace,  and  cayenne ; then 
pull  the  rest  of  the  lobster  to  pieces ; add  the 
sauce  by  degrees  to  the  berries,  and  put  in  the 
lobster.  Boil,  stirring  all  the  time,  and  serve. 

LOCKJAW.  (See  Tetanus.) 

LOTION. — A medical  preparation  used  as 
an  outward  application  for  bruises,  burns,  or 
hurts  of  any  kind,  for  allaying  local  inflamma- 
tion, or  for  stimulating  some  indolent  sore  or 
ulcer.  Lotions  are  of  various  kinds,  such  as 
refrigerating,  sedative,  astringent,  stimulating, 
or  evaporating,  according  to  the  effect  they  are 
employed  to  produce.  The  following  are  those 
most  often  prescribed  in  general  practice. 

Arnica  Lotion. — Tincture  of  arnica,  one  part, 
water  from  five  to  eight  parts.  Mix  together. 

Astringent  Lotion. — Dissolve  one  drachm 
of  alum,  and  one  drachm  of  sugar  of  lead,  in  a 
pint  of  cold  water. 

Evaporating  Lotions. — Dissolve  2 drachms 
of  sal-ammoniac  in  a pint  of  camphor-water,  and 
add  one  ounce  of  spirits  of  sulphuric  ether.  Or, 
mix  two  ounces  of  spirits  of  wine,  or  three  ounces 
of  brandy,  with  a pint  of  cold  water.  To  secure 
evaporation,  free  access  of  external  air  is  ne- 
cessary ; a single  piece  of  linen  should  be  dip- 
ped in  the  lotion  and  laid  on  the  injured  part, 
and  no  other  covering  must  be  placed  on  this. 
As  fast  as  the  linen  dries,  it  should  be  saturated 
afresh. 

Raspail's  Sedative  Lotion. — Take  of  liquid 
ammonia,  two  ounces;  camphorated  spirit  of 
wine,  one-third  of  an  ounce ; coarse  salt,  one 


LUMBAGO 


LUNGS 


339 


ounce;  rain-water;  one  quart.  Mix  the  cam- 
phorated spirit  and  the  ammonia  together  in  a 
bottle ; stop  it  up  carefully,  and  shake.  In  an- 
other vessel  dissolve  the  salt  in  the  rain-water, 
adding  a few  drops  of  liquid  ammonia ; when 
it  is  completely  dissolved,  and  its  impurities 
have  settled,  pour  it  off  gently,  or  filter  it  through 
filtering  paper.  Then  pour  in  rapidly  the  mixed 
spirit  and  ammonia;  cork  it,  and  shake  well 
together.  It  is  then  ready  for  use,  but  must 
always  be  kept  tightly  stopped.  This  lotion  is 
excellent  to  apply  to  the*bites  of  insects  and 
even  of  venomous  snakes.  It  is  also  much  used 
as  a remedy  for  headache. 

Stimulating  Lotions. — Mix  an  ounce  of 
spirits  of  wine  with  half  a pint  of  camphor-water. 
Or,  dissolve  three  grains  of  sulphate  of  copper 
in  one  ounce  of  water. 

LUMBAGO. — A rheumatism  or  rheumatic 
pains  in  the  loins  and  small  of  the  back.  Its 
cause,  and  the  manner  of  treatment  are  the 
same  as  for  rheumatism  in  general.  ( See 
Rheumatism.) 

LUNACY.  {See  Insanity.) 

LUNAR  CAUSTIC. — A term  applied  to 
nitrate  of  silver,  cast  in  sticks,  and  used  by 
surgeons  for  cauterizing  purposes.  A great 
improvement  has  lately  been  made  in  its  manu- 
facture by  melting  with  it  a certain  proportion 
of  chloride  of  silver,  which  has  the  effect  of 
rendering  the  stick  flexible  instead  of  brittle. 

Lunar  caustic  is  a deadly  poison  and  should 
be  kept  out  of  the  way,  especially  of  children. 
In  case  of  poisoning,  give  a teaspoonful  of 
common  salt  in  a glass  of  water,  and  repeat  in 
ten  minutes.  Then  a dose  of  castor  oil,  to  be 
followed  by  a drink  of  linseed-tea  or  barley- 
water. 

LUNCH. — Where  late  dinners  are  the  cus- 
tom it  is  necessary  that  something  should  be 
eaten  in  the  long  'interval  between  breakfast 
and  dinner,  and  this  meal  is  called  lunch.  The 
best  time  for  lunch  is  either  twelve  or  one 
o’clock,  according  as  the  breakfast  hour  is 
early  or  late  ; it  should  not  be  later  than  one 
o’clock  or  it  may  spoil  the  appetite  for  dinner. 
The  hour,  moreover,  should  always  be  the 
same ; and  the  meal  should  never  be  shirked, 
as  it  is  too  apt  to  be  by  business  men,  in  favor 
of  any  of  those  miserable  pretexts  of  the  bar- 
room or  confectionery-counter  which  are  among 
the  most  fruitful  causes  of  dyspepsia  and  its 
train  of  ills.  Lunch  should  be  made  a regular 
repast,  to  which  the  guest  may  sit  down,  eating' 
and  enjoying  his  food  deliberately. 

The  very  best  mid-day  refreshment  for  busy 
people,  involving  the  least  possible  interruption 
to  their  pursuits,  is  a bowl  of  good  soup  ; such 
as  consonant  (with  vermicelli  or  macaroni), 
mock-turtle,  ox-tail,  gumbo,  or  giblet.  All  these 
combine  the  advantage  of  being  hot,  of  taking 
1 ittle  time  to  eat,  and  of  containing  much  nu- 
triment  in  small  bulk.  Bread  may  be  soaked 
in  any  of  these,  or  eaten  as  an  accompaniment. 
If  they  cause  thirst,  it  may  be  allayed  with  a 
wineglassful  of  toast-and-water,  or  a little  cold 
tea. 


The  three  following  Bills  of  Fare  are  given 
for  entertainments,  in  order  to  show  the  man- 
ner of  the  serving.  The  plates  are  to  be 
changed  precisely  as.for  dinner.  Those  dishes 
which  are  printed  in  italics  may  be  omitted  if 
desired. 

SPRING. 

LUNCHEON  FOR  TEN  PERSONS. 

Consomme,  with  vermicelli.  (Sherry.) 

Boiled  blue-fish,  with  lobster  sauce. ) Haute- 
Potato  croquettes.  ) Sauterne. 

(Vol-au-vent  of  oysters.) 

■<  Quenelles  of  partridge.  >•  Chambertin. 

I Green  peas.  ) 

j Roast  sirloin  of  beef  a la  Jardiniere.  ) p,  . 

) Artichokes  au  gratin.  j a 

Punch  a la  Romaine. 

( Woodcocks  on  toast.  ) r,, 

1/-1.-  , A I Champagne. 

( Chicoree  salad.  ) r b 

Plum  pudding  glace. 

Assorted  cakes,  crackers,  bonbons,  coffee. 

SUMMER. 

LUNCHEON  FOR  EIGHTEEN  PERSONS. 

Oysters  a la  poulette.  Rudesheimer. 

Sorrel  soup  aux  croutons.  Madeira. 

Salmon  cutlets,  broiled,  with  | q j. 
green  peas.  ) 

i Chickens,  roasted,  with) 

apple  sauce.  > Chateau  Yquem. 

Macaroni,  with  cheese.  ) 

Fricandeau  with  ) ch  e. 

puree  of  spinach,  j r 

j Lobster  salad. 

( Crackers  and  cheese. 

Ice  cream,  milk  punch,  frappee. 

Cakes,  bonbons,  coffee.  Maraschino. 

WINTER. 

LUNCHEON  FOR  SIX  PERSONS. 

Mock  turtle  soup.  Sherry. 

i Filets  of  flounders,  saute,) 

caper  sauce.  . V Marcob runner. 

Fried  potatoes.  ) 

Bouchees  of  chicken. ) Red  Hermitage. 
Cauliflower.  ) 

l Roast  turkey,  with 
| stewed  mushrooms  (white), 
i Reed  birds,  “ au  petit  sail P ) pomm4iy. 

( Fried  oysters.  ) 

Ice  cream,  cakes,  etc. 

Cafe  noir. 

LUNGS,  Bleeding  of  the.  ( See  Bleed- 
ing.) 

LUNGS,  To  test  the  state  of  the.— Those 
desirous  of  ascertaining  the  true  state  of  their 
lungs  may  do  so  by  drawing  in  as  much  breath 
as  they  conveniently  can ; they  are  then  to 
count  as  many  as  possible  in  a slow  audible 
voice,  without  drawing  in  more  breath.  The 
number  of  seconds  they  continue  counting 
must  be  carefully  observed.  When  the  lungs 
are  in  a sound  condition,  the  time  will  range  as 


340 


LUPIN 


MACARONI 


high  as  from  twenty  to  thirty-five  seconds.  In 
a consumptive  the  number  docs  not  exceed 
ten,  and  is  often  less  than  six  seconds ; in 
pleurisy  and  pneumonia  it  ranges  from  nine  to 
four  seconds.  The  progress  and  even  the 
commencement  of  consumption,  or  of  any 
other  pulmonary  disease,  can  be  traced  in  this 
way,  if  the  capacity  of  the  lungs  in  time  of 
health  is  known  by  the  same  standard. 

LUPIN.  — One  of  the  prettiest  of  the  half- 
hardy  annuals.  It  will  grow  in  any  soil  even  in 
the  poorest,  but  will  repay  a little  attention  in 
the  way  of  manuring  and  watering.  There  are 
many  varieties  of  the  Lupin.  They  bloom  from 
June  to  September,  and  throw  out  blue,  white, 
yellow,  and  pink  flowers.  Sow  the  seeds  where 
they  are  to  bloom  in  May,  or  as  soon  as  the  sun 
begins  to  feel  warm  on  the  ground.  They  will 
spring  up  year  after  year. 


LUSTRING. — Often  corruptly  written  Lute- 
string. A species  of  stout,  glossy,  bright  silk 
stuff,  used  for  ladies’  dresses,  etc.  It  is  con- 
sidered more  durable  than  ordinary  silk,  but  is 
hardly  so  much  used  now  as  formerly.  There 
are  many  qualities  and  colors. 

LYE.  — Water  impregnated  with  alkaline 
salt  from  wood-ashes.  It  is  very  useful  in  many 
domestic  operations,  particularly  in  the  making 
of  common  soap.  It  can  be  very  easily  made 
by  putting  the  ashes  in  a vat  or  box  sloped 
gently  forwards,  witb  an  aperture  at  the  bottom 
in  front  for  the  escape  of  the  lye  into  a vessel 
beneath.  Pour  water  on  the  top  every  day — 
just  enough  of  it  to  keep  it  dropping  out  at  the 
bottom.  Of  course  the  lye  will  be  strong  in 
proportion  to  the  length  of  time  taken  by  the 
water  in  draining  through. 


M 


MACARONI.  — An  excellent  quality  of 
macaroni  is  now  made  in  this  country,  at  Phila- 
delphia and  elsewhere,  but  those  imported 
from  Italy  are  the  best.  The  Naples  macaroni, 
of  which  the  pipes  are  larger  and  somewhat 
thin,  should  be  selected  for  the  table  in  prefer- 
ence to  the  Genoa,  which  is  less  in  size  but 
more  substantial  and  better  suited  for  timbales 
and  similar  fanciful  dishes.  Ribbon  macaroni , 
though  more  delicate  in  flavor  and  more  quick- 
ly boiled  than  pipe  macaroni,  is  far  less  fre- 
quently seen  at  our  tables  ; yet  it  is  extremely 
good  in  many  simple  forms  and  very  whole- 
some, therefore  especially  suited  to  invalids  and 
children.  It  may  be  boiled  and  eaten  quite 
plain  instead  of  vegetables  or  rice ; or  with  a 
compote  of  fruit ; or  with  sugar  and  cinnamon, 
or  lemon-juice  ; or  it  may  be  prepared  in  any 
of  the  ways  indicated  for  the  pipe  macaroni. 

Macaroni  should  be  quite  fresh,  as  it  con- 
tracts a most  unpleasant  flavor  from  being  too 
long  stored.  The  finest  quality  is  yellowish  in 
color,  and  does  not  burst  or  break  up  in  boiling ; 
it  should  swell  considerably  and  become  quite 
soft,  but  if  it  does  not  retain  its  form  when 
boiled,  it  has  not  been  made  of  the  right  kind 
of  wheat. 

A-la-Creme  (Macaroni). — This  is  a very 
delicate  mode  of  dressing  macaroni.  Boil  eight 
ounces  in  the  usual  way,  and  by  the  time  it  is 
sufficiently  tender  dissolve  ten  ounces  of  any 
rich,  well-flavored  white  cheese  in  three-quarters 
of  a pint  of  fresh  cream  ; add  a little  salt,  a 
rather  full  seasoning  of  cayenne,  from  a half  to 
a whole  saltspoonful  of  pounded  mace,  and  two 
ounces  of  butter.  The  cheese  should  be  sliced 
very  thin,  and  the  hard  part  adjoining  the  rind 
pared  away;  it  should  be  stirred  into  the  cream 
without  intermission  until  it  is  entirely  dis- 
solved, and  the  whole  is  perfectly  smooth.  The 
macaroni,  previously  well  drained,  may  then  be 


tossed  gently  into  it ; or,  after  it  is  dished,  the 
cheese  may  be  poured  over  the  top.  The  whole, 
in  either  case,  may  be  thickly  covered  before  it 
is  sent  to  the  table  with  fine  crumbs  of  bread 
fried  to  a light  brown  and  dried  perfectly,  either 
before  the  fire  or  in  an  oven.  Rich  white  sauce 
or  bechamel,  made  not  very  thick,  with  an  ad- 
ditional ounce  or  two  of  butter,  may  be  used  to 
vary  and  enrich  this  preparation. 

Baked  Macaroni. — Take  /-Half  a pound  of 
pipe  macaroni,  break  it  in  pieces  about  an  inch 
long,  and  put  them  into  a sauce-pan  of  boiling 
water,  slightly  salted ; boil  slowly  for  twenty 
minutes ; then  drain  well  and  put  a layer  in  the 
bottom  of  a buttered  pie  or  pudding-dish  ; grate 
some  rich  cheese  over  the  top,  and  scatter  over 
it  some  bits  of  butter.  Put  in  another  layer  of 
macaroni,  and  then  the  cheese  again ; fill  the 
dish  in  this  order,  having  macaroni  at  the  top, 
buttered  well ; add  a few  spoonfuls  of  cream  or 
milk  and  a pinch  of  salt.  Cover  over,  and  bake 
half  an  hour;  then  brown  nicely,  and  serve. 

Boiled  Macaroni. — Most  cooks  soak  maca- 
roni in  milk  and  water  for  an  hour  or  more  be- 
fore boiling,  that  the  pipes  may  be  swollen  to 
the  utmost;  but  this  is  apt  to  render  it  pulpy. 
The  better  way  is  to  drop  it  lightly  into  a pan  of 
fast-boiling  water,  into  which  a little  salt  and  a 
teaspoonful  of  butter  have  been  previously 
thrown,  and  of  which  the  boiling  should  not  be 
stopped  by  the  addition  of  the  macaroni.  Boil 
gently  from  twenty  minutes  to  three-quarters 
of  an  hour;  macaroni  should  always  be  perfect- 
ly cooked,  for  otherwise  it  will  prove  very  in- 
digestible, but  the  pipes  should  remain  entire. 
The  Italian  macaroni  requires  longer  boiling 
than  the  American.  Ribbon  macaroni  will 
generally  cook  in  from  fifteen  to  twenty  min- 
utes. 

Richelieu,  or  Veal  and  Ham  Macaroni. — 

Boil  three  ounces  of  macaroni  tender ; beat  up 


MACAROONS 

two  eggs ; put  about  a pint  of  nicely  flavored 
minced  veal  or  ham  into  a sauce-pan,  with  a lit- 
tle grated  lemon-peel ; add  the  macaroni  and 
eggs;  mix  well,  and  boil  five  minutes.  Serve 
with  good  gravy. 

Side  Dish  of  Macaroni. — Take  A quarter 
of  a pound  of  macaroni,  and  scald  it  till  tender, 
but  not  so  as  to  break  or  make  it  stick  together; 
when  scalded,  cut  it  in  pieces  about  one-third 
of  an  inch  in  length,  and  a perfect  pipe.  Then 
make  a mince  of  every  kind  of  meat,  game,  and 
poultry  you  happen  to  have  cooked,  adding  a 
little  fat  and  lean  of  ham  or  bacon ; add  a piece 
of  onion,  finely  chopped,  salt,  pepper,  a little 
cayenne,  about  a teaspoonful  of  catsup,  the 
same  of  Worcestershire  sauce,  and  a small 
quantity  of  gravy  to  moisten  the  whole.  Butter 
a pie  or  pudding-dish  thickly,  and  stick  the 
macaroni  closely  into  it,  so  as  to  give  the  ap- 
pearance of  a honeycomb  when  turned  out ; fill 
up  with  the  mincemeat,  laying  the  rest  of  the 
macaroni  at  the  top.  Cover  tightly  with  a cloth, 
set  it  in  a pan  of  water,  and  boil  gently  three- 
quarters  of  an  hour,  taking  it  out  five  minutes 
before  turning  it  out  of  the  dish.  Serve  with  a 
tureen  of  gravy,  putting  a very  little  in  the 
dish. 

Timbale  of  Macaroni.  — Simmer  half  a 
pound  of  macaroni  in  salted  water  till  tender, 
but  not  too  soft,  and  strain  the  water  from  it ; 
beat  five  yolks  and  the  whites  of  two  eggs,  and 
mix  with  half  a pint  of  cream  ; mince  the  breast 
of  a chicken  and  some  ham  ( enough  to  tnake 
half  a pou?id),  and  mix  with  them  three  table- 
spoonfuls of  grated  Parmesan  cheese,  season- 
ing with  pepper  and  salt;  mix  all  the  above 
with  the  macaroni,  and  put  it  into  a well-but- 
tered mould.  Let  it  steam  in  a stew-pan  of 
boiling  water  about  an  hour,  and  serve  hot  with 
rich  gravy. 

MACAROONS  (Almond).  — Take Al- 
monds, ]/2  lb ; rose-water,  I tablespoonful ; eggs, 
whites  of  3 ; white  sugar  ( powdered ),  x/z  lb. 

Soak  the  almonds  in  boiling-hot  water  till 
the  skin  will  rub  off  easily ; then  wipe  them 
dry,  rAnoving  the  skins,  and  pound  them  to  a 
paste  with  the  rose-water.  Beat  the  whites  of 
the  eggs  to  a stiff  froth,  then  stir  the  sugar  in 
gradually,  and  then  add  the  almonds.  When 
the  almonds  are  well  mixed  in,  drop  the  mix- 
ture by  spoonfuls  upon  buttered  baking  plates 
or  letter-paper,  several  inches  apart,  sift  sugar 
on  them,  and  bake  to  a light  brown  in  a slow 
oven ; it  will  take  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes. 

The  flavor  of  these  macaroons  is  improved  by 
substituting  an  ounce  of  bitter  almonds  for  an 
ounce  of  the  sweet;  and  they  are  sometimes 
made  with  an  equal  weight  of  each. 

Cocoa-nut  Macaroons.  — Rasp  a fresh 
cocoa-nut,  spread  it  on  a dish  or  tin,  and  let  it 
dry  gradually  for  a couple  of  days ; add  to  it 
double  its  weight  of  fine  sifted  sugar,  and  the 
whites  of  eight  eggs,  beaten  to  a stiff  froth,  to 
the  pound.  Roll  the  mixture  into  small  balls, 
place  them  on  a buttered  tin,  and  bake  them  in 
a very  slow  oven  twenty  minutes.  Move  them 
from  the  tin  while  they  are  warm,  and  store  them 


MACKEREL  341 

in  a perfectly  dry  canister  as  soon  as  they  are 
cold. 

Filbert  Macaroons. — Heat  a quarter  of  a 
pound  of  filbert  meats  till  the  skin  will  rub  off ; 
when  cold,  pound  them  to  a paste  with  a little 
white  of  egg ; add  a quarter  of  a pound  of  sifted 
white  sugar  and  the  white  of  one  egg;  mix  well, 
and  bake  on  buttered  tins  or  letter-paper. 

Flour  Macaroons. — These  are  plain,  and 
are  nearly  as  good  as  any  other.  Work  a pint 
of  sifted  white  sugar  with  one  beaten  egg,  till 
a smooth  paste  is  formed ; then  add  a little  sifted 
flour,  so  as  to  mould  it  with  the  hands.  Flavor 
it  with  rose-water,  essence  of  lemon,  or  any 
essence,  and  proceed  as  for  almond  maca- 
roons. 

Orange-flower  Macaroons. — Take  .‘-Pound- 
ed sugar,  2 lbs ; orange-blossoms,  2 oz  ; whites 
of  eggs,  7. 

The  orange-blossoms  must  be  freshly  gath- 
ered ; cut  them  very  small  with  a pair  of  scis- 
sors itito  the  sugar ; mix  together,  add  the  whites 
of  the  eggs,  and  whisk  the  whole  until  the  mix- 
ture looks  like  snow  ; then  drop  by  spoonfuls  on 
buttered  letter-paper,  and  bake  about  twenty 
minutes  in  a very  slow  oven. 

MACE. — The  reddish  membrane  surround- 
ing the  shell  which  contains  the  nutmeg.  It  is 
dried  previous  to  being  packed  in  tight  bags. 
Its  general  qualities  are  the  same  as  those  of 
nutmeg,  but  it  is  considered  the  choicest  of  all 
the  spices.  It  has  an  agreeable  aromatic  odor, 
and  a hot,  biting  taste.  It  contains  a very 
large  proportion  of  essential  oil,  on  account  of 
which  mace  is  never  employed  alone  in  medi- 
cine, though  possessing  the  usual  carminative 
properties  of  the  other  spices.  Mace  should 
be  pounded  fine,  and  corked  tight  in  small  glass 
bottles  with  mouths  large  enough  for  a junk- 
bottle  cork,  and  kept  in  a tight  tin  box.  Or  it 
can  be  kept  in  small  tin  boxes  with  tight-fitting 
covers.  To  make  essence  of  mace,  see  Es- 
sences. 

MACERATION.  — The  infusion  of  sub- 
stances in  cold  liquids.  The  term  is  usually 
employed  with  regard  to  vegetable  substances, 
when  they  are  reduced  to  powder  and  exposed 
to  the  action  of  water,  or  any  other  liquid,  with- 
out the  assistance  of  heat,  in  which  last  respect 
it  differs  from  infusion  and  digestion.  Mac- 
eration is  useful  either  when  it  is  required 
merely  to  soften  the  parts  of  the  substance 
operated  on — as  when  cinnamon  and  cloves  are 
macerated  in  water  before  distillation ; or  in 
cases  where  heat  would  be  injurious — as  when 
volatile  or  aromatic  substances  are  used. 

MACKEREL. — The  common  or  spring 
mackerel  is  one  of  the  finest  and  most  beauti- 


Mackerel. 


ful  of  fish.  It  is  never  found  alive  on  the 
stands,  and  is  seldom  fat  when  fresh,  at  least 


342 


MACKEREL 


not  so  fat  as  formerly ; but  it  is  a very  choice 
table-fish.  It  generally  weighs  about  a pound. 
In  season,  about  the  first  of  May,  and  found 
scattering  through  the  summer.  It  may  also 
be  had  either  smoked  or  salted.  The  thimble- 
eyed.  or  fall  mackerel  are  rather  smaller  than 
the  preceding,  and  have  very  large,  prominent 
eyes.  When  found  in  the  markets,  they  are 
usually  strung  together,  but  "are  not  much 
thought  of  for  the  table.  In  season  from  Sep- 
tember to  November.  The  Spanish  mackerel , 
perhaps  the  choicest  of  all  fish,  are  usually 
plentiful  in  the  months  of  June,  July,  August, 
and  September.  They  resemble  the  spring 
mackerel  in  general  appearance,  but  are  a 
much  larger  fish,  and  without  the  dark  lines  on 
the  sides.  They  are  sold  usually  at  high 
prices,  and  their  weight  ranges  from  two  to 
eight  pounds. 

Baked  Mackerel. — After  the  fish  have  been 
cleaned  well  and  washed  in  cold  water,  fill  the 
insides  with  stuffing ; sew  them  up ; arrange 
them  with  the  roes  close  together  on  a coarse 
baking-dish  ; flour  them  lightly ; strew  a little 
fine  salt  over  them;  and  stick  bits  of  butter 
upon  them  ; or,  melt  the  butter  in  a sauce-pan, 
and  pour  it  equally  on  them.  Half  an  hour  in  a 
moderate  oven  will  bake  them.  Oyster  stuff- 
ing is  always  appropriate  for  any  kind  of  fish 
which  is  in  season  when  the  oysters  are ; but 
mackerel  are  commonly  served  with  one  of  the 
ordinary  stuffings  for  which  receipts  are  given 
in  article  on  Stuffing.  Lift  them  carefully 
into  a hot  dish  after  they  are  taken  from  the 
oven  and  send  melted  butter  and  a quartered 
lemon  to  table  with  them. 

Boiled  Mackerel  (Fresh). — Open  the  fish 
sufficiently  for  the  insides  to  be  perfectly 
cleansed,  but  not  more  than  is  necessary  for 
this  purpose  ; empty  them  with  care,  and  wash 
them  delicately  clean,  afterwards  wiping  them 
dry. 


Then  put  them  into  a pot  with  enough  salt- 
ed water  to  cover  them,  and  boil  gently  from 
twenty  minutes  to  half  an  hour;  drain  well 
before  dishing.  Serve  with  a sauce  made  by 
taking  a teacupful  of  the  water  in  which  the 
fish  were  boiled  and  putting  it  into  a sauce-pan 
with  a tablespoonful  of  walnut  catsup,  the  same 
quantity  of  anchovy  sauce  or  paste,  and  the 
juice  of  half  a lemon  ; let  this  boil  up  well, 
and  then  add  a tablespoonful  of  butter,  and  a 
tablespoonful  of  browned  flour  wet  in  cold 


water  ; boil  up  again,  and  send  to  table  in  a 
sauce-boat.  Fennel  or  gooseberry  sauce  is 
also  very  good ; and  plain  melted  butter  will 
answer. 

Boiled  Mackerel  (Salt). — Soak  one  night  in 
lukewarm  water,  and  change  this  to  cold  water 
about  half  an  hour  before  cooking.  Put  on 
with  just  enough  water  to  cover  them,  and  boil 
gently  for  twenty  or  twenty-five  minutes. 
Drain  carefully,  and  pour  melted  butter  on 
them  before  serving. 

Broiled  Mackerel  (Fresh). — Cleanse  the 
fish  as  for  boiling ; split  it  open  so  that  when 
laid  flat  the  back-bone  will  be  in  the  middle ; 
dust  lightly  with  salt,  and  lay  on  a buttered 
gridiron  over  a clear  fire,  with  the  inside  down- 
wards, until  it  begins  to  brown ; then  turn  it 
over.  When  done,  lay  on  a hot  dish,  butter 
plentifully,  lay  another  hot  dish  over  it,  and  let 
it  stand  two  or  three  minutes  before  sending  to 
table. 

Broiling  whole  is  an  excellent  way  of  cook- 
ing mackerel.  Cleanse  the  fish  without  open- 
ing it  more  than  needful ; dry  it  well,  either  in 
a cloth  or  by  hanging  it  in  a cool  air  till  it  is 
stiff:  make  with  a sharp  knife  a deep  incision 
on  either  side  of  the  back-bone,  and  about  half 
an  inch  from  it,  and  with  a feather  put  in  a 
little  cayenne  and  fine  salt  mixed  with  a few 
drops  of  good  salad  oil  or  clarified  butter.  Lay 
the  fish  on  a moderate  fire  upon  a well-buttered 
gridiron  ; loosen  it  gently  should  it  stick,  which 
it  will  do  unless  often  moved  ; and  when  it  is 
equally  done  on  both  sides,  turn  the  back  to 
the  fire.  About  half  an  hour  will  broil  it  well. 

Broiled  Mackerel  (Salt).  — Soak  over 
night  in  lukewarm  water  ; change  this  early  in 
the  morning  for  cold,  and  let  the  fish  lie  in  it  till 
time  to  cook  ; then  proceed  as  for  fresh  mack- 
erel. 

Fried  Mackerel. — Cut  off  the  head ; split 
the  fish  quite  open  all  along  the  belly  and 
below  it ; lay  it  flat  without  removing  the  back- 
bone ; dust  with  flour  and  salt,  and  fry  in 
butter.  Serve  garnished  with  fried  fennel. 

Potted  Mackerel. — Clean  the  fish  without 
opening  them  ; draw  the  intestines,  but  leave 
the  roes  and  the  milts.  Remove  the  heads  and 
tails,  and  then  cut  the  fish  crosswise  into  three 
equal  portions.  Wash,  drain,  and  wipe  dry 
with  a cloth.  Take  an  oval  plate-dish,  with  a 
close-fitting  cover,  or,  in  the  absence  of  this,  a 
round  earthen  or  stone  pot.  If  this  latter  has 
no  cover,  a wooden  one  may  be  made  to  fit  it. 
Put  at  the  bottom  a layer  of  pieces  of  fish  ; 
season  them  with  salt,  whole  pepper,  cloves, 
and  allspice  j then  another  layer  of  fish,  then 
another  sprinkling  of  seasoning,  and  so  on. 
Pour  over  all  these,  until  they  are  well  covered, 
a mixture  of  half  vinegar  and  half  water.  Put 
on  the  lid,  and  simmer  gently  over  a slow  fire 
for  about  half  an  hour,  or  until  the  fish  is 
thoroughly  done.  Let  it  cool  with  the  lid  on. 

Fish  so  potted  will  keep  a long  time,  if  always 
immersed  in  the  liquor ; and  the  very  bones 
become  eatable.  It  affords  a convenient  re- 
source in  an  emergency ; for  a few  pieces  of 


MADEIRA 


MAGNOLIA 


343 


the  fish  can  be  taken  from  the  pot,  laid  on  a 
* small  dish,  a little  of  the  liquor  poured  over 
them,  and  served  garnished  with  sprigs  of 
parsley.  What  is  left  canbe  returned  to  the 
pot. 

Stewed  Fresh  Mackerel.  (With  wine.) — 

Work  smoothly  together  a large  teaspoonful  of 
flour  and  two  ounces  of  butter,  put  them  into  a 
stew-pan,  and  stir  or  shake  them  round  over  the 
fire  until  the  butter  is  dissolved  ; add  a quarter 
of  a teaspoonful  of  pounded  mace,  half  a tea- 
spoonful of  salt,  and  a pinch  of  cayenne  ; pour 
in  by  slow  degrees  three  wineglassfuls  of  claret 
(or  port  wine  and  a little  lemon-juice).  When 
the  sauce  boils,  lay  in  a couple  of  fine  mackerel, 
well  cleaned  and  wiped  quite  dry ; stew  them 
very  gently  for  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  and 
turn  them  when  half  done  ; lift  them  out  and 
dish  them  carefully ; stir  a teaspoonful  of  made 
mustard  to  the  sauce,  give  it  a boil  and  pour  it 
over  the  fish. 

MADEIRA — A white  wine  made  in  the 
island  of  Madeira,  which,  when  genuine,  is  one 
of  the  richest  wines  in  the  world,  having  great 
strength,  dryness,  and  delicacy  of  flavor.  It  is 
extremely  durable  in  all  climates,  and  improves 
with  age.  Maderia,  being  a strong  wine  natur- 
ally, has,  least  of  all,  occasion  for  the  addition 
of  brandy ; yet  it  is  the  constant  practice  to  add 
some  of  this  spirit  previous  to  exportation, 
which  is  incorporated  in  time.  The  inferior 
kinds  are  made  up  with  almonds  and  various 
additions  ; and,  in  fact,  the  adulterations  are  so 
numerous  that  the  wine  has  lately  fallen  into 
comparative  disrepute.  The  prejudice  against 
Maderia  has  been  considerably  increased  by 
the  supposed  discovery  that  it  contains  a little 
more  acid  than  sherry,  but  this  opinion  has  been 
disputed,  and  seems  to  have  been  derived  from 
the  inferior  Madeiras. 

Several  years  ago,  the  vines  failed  in  the 
island  of  Madeira,  and  the  best  Madeira  is  now 
very  old.  The  new  wine  made  from  vines 
planted  in  the  island  within  a few  years  is  ex- 
cellent for  its  age  and  is  of  great  promise. 

Madeira  keeps  best  in  demijohns  in  a moder- 
ately warm  place,  though  it  keeps  quite  well  in 
bottles.  Warmth  seems  to  ripen  it  and  bring 
out  its  best  qualities.  It  should  be  drunk 
about  the  temperature  of  the  room. 

MAGGOTS. — These  disgusting  larvae  are 
generated  in  meat  which  has  been  imperfectly 
cured,  which  has  been  kept  for  too  long  a time, 
or  which  has  been  exposed  to  the  attacks  of 
the  green  fly.  Cut  away  the  part  which  they 
have  penetrated,  and  the  meat  should  be  dipped 
anew  in  brine,  and  the  outside  rubbed  with  a 
mixture  of  dry  ashes  and  salt.  When  they 
appear  in  vegetables,  the  vegetables  must  be 
thrown  away. 

MAGNESIA. — The  oxide  of  magnesium 
occurs  in  two  forms,  one  more  bulky  than  the 
other.  It  is  obtained  by  burning  the  carbon- 
ate, and  then  appears  as  a white  powder  with 
hardly  any  taste,  almost  insoluble  in  water,  and 
slightly  alkaline  in  reaction.  When  introduced 
into  the  stomach,  magnesia  acts  as  an  antacid, 


and  its  antacid  properties  are  considerable. 
If  not  all  neutralized,  what  remains  passes  on 
into  the  intestine  where,  if  given  incautiously, 
it  is  apt  to  accumulate.  In  the  small  intestine 
it  acts  as  a gentle  laxative,  in  very  large  doses 
having  considerable  power.  It  also  passes 
into  the  blood  and  tends  to  render  the  urine 
clear  if  previously  turbid  from  urates.  It  is 
given  as  an  antacid  in  heartburn,  and  is  still 
more  useful  for  the  acidity  of  the  intestines 
which  gripes,  and  so  is  useful  along  with  rhu- 
barb in  the  early  stages  of  diarrhoea.  It  is  also 
useful  when  there  is  acidity  with  a tendency  to 
constipation,  as  in  gouty  subjects.  In  these 
patients  it  does  remarkably  well.  On  account 
of  alkalinity,  too,  magnesia  is  often  given  as  an 
antidote  to  poisoning  by  mineral  or  vegetable 
acids,  and  for  this  it  is  well  suited.  It  neutral- 
izes the  acid  and  protects  the  stomach  from 
injury.  Many  metals  are  also  precipitated  by 
it  and  rendered  nearly  insoluble.  Magnesia 
has  also  been  given  as  a remedy  for  vomit- 
ing when  that  has  seemed  to  depend  on 
excess  of  acid ; but  other  remedies  are  more 
powerful. 

The  carbonate  of  magnesia  also  exists  in 
two  forms — heavy  and  light.  It  is  prepared 
from  the  sulphate  of  magnesia  by  precipitating 
by  carbonate  of  soda.  The  powder  so  thrown 
down  is  a white,  almost  tasteless  substance,  in- 
soluble in  water,  and  nearly  neutral  in  reaction. 
A solution  of  the  bicarbonate  of  magnesia  has 
long  been  in  use  under  the  title  of  fluid  magne- 
sia ; it  is  an  admirable  preparation.  This  may 
effervesce  slightly ; when  opened,  the  liquid  is 
clear  and  is  not  bitter.  Carbonate  of  magnesia 
acts  in  much  the  same  way  as  magnesia  itself, 
only  when  it  is  introduced  into  the  stomach,  and 
meets  with  an  acid,  it  gives  off  its  carbonic 
acid,  which  may  be  unpleasant.  Sometimes, 
however,  the  carbonic  acid  gas  so  set  free  is 
pleasant  to  the  stomach.  The  great  disadvan- 
tage these  remedies  labor  under  is  their  bulk, 
so  much  requires  to  be  taken  ; but  the  objec- 
tion does  not  apply  to  the  fluid  magnesia. 

Citrate  of  magnesia,  the  effervescent  prep- 
aration popularly  used  as  a laxative,  contains, 
besides  the  magnesia,  citrate  or  tartrate  of 
sodium  or  potassium.  It  is  pleasant  to  take, 
and  mild  in  its  operation. 

MAGNOLIA. — This  is  the  most  beautiful 
of  all  flowering  trees,  and  in  several  of  its 
varieties  is  unapproached.  The  magnolia 
grandiflora  is  a native  of  the  Southern  States, 
where  it  grows  wild  in  the  low  swamp  lands  of 
the  coast  in  the  greatest  abundance.  This  is 
the  noblest  species  of  the  genus ; its  great 
height  (sometimes  80  feet),  its  shining,  dark- 
green  leaves,  its  fragrant  white  flowers,  a foot 
in  diameter  and  exquisitely  fine,  form  a com- 
bination of  rare  magnificence.  The  French 
magnolia  is  the  kind  usually  cultivated  in  gar- 
dens, especially  in  the  Northern  States.  It 
grows  to  the  height  of  about  twenty  feet,  and 
throws  out  a profusion  of  flowers  of  the  utmost 
fragrance  early  in  the  Spring.  It  is  perfectly 
hardy,  and  will  flourish  in  any  good  garden 


344 


MAHOGANY 


MALARIA 


soil,  though  a moist,  rich  spot,  not  too  shady, 
is  best.  There  are  also  one  or  two  species  of 
the  magnolia  which  can  be  cultivated  as  parlor 
and  greenhouse  plants.  They  require  the  same 
treatment  as  other  window  plants. 

MAHOGANY.  {See  Furniture.) 

MAIZE.  {See  Indian  Corn.) 

MAJOLICA. — A kind  of  Italian  pottery, 
consisting  of  a common  earthen-ware  ground, 
covered  with  a fine  glaze,  and  enamelled  with 
painted  designs.  It  is  used  chiefly  for  orna- 
mental purposes,  and  is  usually  found  in  the 
shape  of  large  vases,  urns,  etc.  The  antique 
forms  are  very  fine,  and  some  of  the  designs 
equal  the  best  Japanese  painted  pottery;  but 
in  general,  the  ware  has  a coarse,  tawdry, 
inartistic  look.  It  is  not  so  much  used  now  as 
formerly. 

MALARIA. — A term  now  generally  used  to 
designate  a certain  effluvium  or  emanation  from 
decaying  animal  or  vegetable  substances — the 
word  miasm  being  used  in  the  same  sense,  but 
generally  with  the  adjunct  of  marsh.  Marshes, 
whether  salt  or  fresh,  are  prolific  sources  of 
malaria  ; but  it  is  the  product  also  of  different 
sorts  of  soil,  as  wet  meadows,  grounds  alter- 
nately flooded  and  drained,  the  mud  left  by  the 
retiring  tide  in  seaport,  and  estuaries,  land 
covered  with  low  and  dense  brushwood,  or 
with  reeds  and  grass,  or  nearly  cleared  of  its 
wood, — all  these,  particularly  in  warm  climates, 
are  prolific  sources  of  malaria.  It  will  also  re- 
appear in  districts  and  even  cities  from  which 
apparently  it  had  long  since  been  banished  on 
account  of  the  digging  of  a well,  or  of  any  ex- 
cavation which  exposes  new  soil  to  the  surface 
during  hot  weather.  The  concurrence  of 
vegetable  matter  susceptible  of  decay,  of  mois- 
ture, either  on  the  surface  or  a short  dis- 
tance below  it,  and  of  a certain  warmth  of 
temperature,  is  necessary  for  its  evolution  ; and 
of  these,  long-continued  heat  has  the  greatest 
influence  in  increasing  the  intensity  of  the  poi- 
son. It  is  not  necessary  that  the  amount  of 
vegetable  matter  be  great,  or  its  growth  recent, 
since  malarious  diseases  are  often  caused  by 
the  draining  of  ponds  and  lakes ; neither  does 
the  quantity  of  water  require  to  be  large, 
just  enough  moisture  to  cause  the  vegetable 
matter  to  decay  when  exposed  to  the  heat  of 
the  sun  is  more  dangerous  than  a greater 
amount ; and  it  is  only  when  this  moisture  is 
being  dried  up  that  it  becomes  pestilential. 

It  is  observable  that  malaria  is  more  abund- 
ant and  more  powerful  in  Spring  and  Autumn 
than  at  any  other  time  of  the  year,  and  for  this 
reason  : Towards  the  end  of  Summer  trees  and 
plants  lose  their  foliage  and  flowers,  and  scatter 
their  seeds ; an  immense  quantity  of  dead 
vegetable  matter  is  thus  distributed  on  the 
ground ; and  if  the  requisite  degree  of  mois- 
ture be  present,  the  heats  of  Autumn  soon 
cause  decay  and  extricate  the  peculiar  sub- 
stances which  cause  ague  when  disseminated 
through  the  air.  Marshes  again,  towards  the 
end  of  Summer,  have  lost  much  water  by 
evaporation,  and  the  water-plants  which  grow 


in  most  marshes  in  prodigious  abundance  are 
in  a position  the  most  favorable  for  decomposi- 
tion. The  extrication  goes  on  throughout  the 
Autumn,  but  it  is  arrested  by  the  frosts  of  Win- 
ter which  congeal  the  water  and  render  decay 
impossible.  In  the  Spring,  however,  when  the 
sun  again  acquires  power,  the  remnants  of 
vegetable  matter  which  escaped  decomposition 
during  the  previous  autumn,  and  which  have 
lain  dormant  all  the  winter,  are  speedily  acted 
upon,  and  the  evolution  of  malaria  begins. 

As  a general  rule  malaria  is  pernicious  in 
proportion  to  the  proximity  to  the  source  ; but 
to  this  rule  there  are  numerous  exceptions. 
Places  at  some  distance,  especially  if  situated 
upon  an  eminence,  are  sometimes  affected  with 
the  same,  or  even  greater  intensity,  than  places 
nearer  at  hand.  The  distance  to  which  the 
emanations  may  extend  by  gradual  diffusion  is 
estimated  to  be  from  1400  to  1600  feet  in  eleva- 
iton,  and  from  600  to  1000  feet  in  a horizontal 
direction ; but  when  winds  are  blowing  the  dis- 
tance to  which  the  poison  may  be  transported  is 
unknown — instances  are  recorded  of  its  being 
conveyed  three  or  four  miles.  Though  malaria  is 
principally  owing  to  heat,  it  is  not  in  the  hottest 
part  of  the  day  that  its  influence  is  the  most 
pernicious,  but  in  the  evening  and  at  night. 
Malaria  is  more  liable  to  attack  new-comers, 
and  those  unused  to  it,  than  inhabitants  of  the 
malarious  district.  It  will  sometimes  not  ex- 
cite ague  till  the  strength  of  the  individual  has 
been  lowered  by  some  cause  or  other ; but  it 
is  a most  insidious  foe,  and  every  one  exposed 
to  it  should  be  constantly  on  guard  against  its 
inroads.  Besides  the  more  familiar  effects  of 
malaria — remittent  and  intermittent  fevers — 
there  are  a number  of  organic  affections  of  the 
spleen,  liver,  stomach,  intestines,  and  mesen- 
teric glands,  also  dropsy,  palsy,  apoplexy,  and 
idiocy,  which  may  be  directly  traced  to  its  in- 
fluence ; while  cholera,  dysentery,  and  diarrhoea 
are  among  its  most  casual  results. 

Touching  the  means  of  preventing  the  gene- 
ration of  malaria,  numberless  methods  have 
been  tried ; but  there  is  no  effectual  remedy 
except  thorough  drainage,  and  attention  to  the 
principles  laid  down  in  the  first  part  of  the 
article  on  House.  Professor  Mentegazza,  of 
Italy,  has  lately  made  the  most  important  of  re- 
cent contributions  to  the  subject  in  the  discov- 
ery that  vegetable  perfumes  exercise  a healthful 
and  purifying  influence  on  the  atmosphere  by 
converting  its  oxygen  into  ozone,  and  thus  in- 
creasing its  oxydizing  influence.  The  essences 
found  to  develop  the  largest  quantity  of  ozone 
are  those  of  cherry-laurel,  cloves,  lavender, 
mint,  juniper,  lemons,  fennel,  and  bergamot ; 
those  that  give  it  in  smaller  quantity  are  anise, 
nutmeg,  and  thyme.  The  flowers  of  the  nar- 
cissus, heliotrope,  hyacinth,  mignonette,  and 
lily  of  the  valley,  develop  ozone  in  closed  ves- 
sels or  in  the  open  air.  Flowers  destitute  of 
perfume  do  not,  as  a general  thing,  develop  it ; 
though  the  large  sun-flower  is  one  of  the  most 
powerful  generators  of  all.  Reasoning  from 
these  facts  the  Professor  recommends  the  cul- 


MALIC  ACID 

tivation  of  flowers  in  marshy  districts,  and  in 
all  places  infested  with  animal  emanations  on 
account  of  the  powerful  oxidizing-  influence  of 
ozone.  The  inhabitants  of  such  districts,  he 
says,  should  surround  their  houses  with  beds 
of  the  most  odorous  flowers. 

Malaria,  as  we  have  already  said,  is  more 
powerful  at  night  than  in  the  day  ; it  will  attack 
those  sleeping  on  the  ground  floor,  and  exempt 
those  at  the  top  of  the  house  ; sleeping  on  the 
ground  in  the  open  air  is  almost  sure  to  bring 
on  an  attack.  Those  exposed  to  it  should  take 
the  greatest  precautions  against  the  night 
air,  especially  while  asleep ; the  windows 
should  be  closed  at  dusk,  and  some  perfume, 
mentioned  above,  kept  in  the  bed-rooms.  ( See 
Ague.) 

MALIC  ACID.  {See  Acids.) 

MALT.  {See  Brewing.) 

MALT  LIQUOR.  {See  Ale,  Beer,  Lager 
Beer,  Porter,  and  Stout.) 

MALT  WINE.— L Take  of  pale  malt, 
ground,  one  bushel,  and  of  boiling  water  twelve 
gallons  ; infuse  or  mash  as  for  beer  {see  Brew- 
ing), and  strain  off  the  wort ; then  add  forty 
pounds  of  loaf  sugar  and  ten  pounds  of  sugar 
candy,  dissolved  in  thirty-two  gallons  of  hot 
water  ; when  cooled  down  to  550,  add  one 
quart  of  yeast,  and  put  it  into  a fifty-four  gal- 
lon cask,  to  which  add  on  the  third  day  twenty 
pounds  of  raisins  stoned.  Let  it  work  for 
three  days  ; then  pour  in  half  a gallon  of 
brandy,  bung  it  down,  taking  care  to  fill  the 
cask  up  with  warm  but  not  boiling  water,  if 
not  already  full.  In  four  months  rack  it  off 
into  another  cask  and  add  another  half  gallon 
of  brandy.  In  a month  it  will  be  fit  to  drink 
from  the  wood,  and  in  two  more  to  bottle  for 
keeping. 

II.  (Inexpensive.)  — To  every  gallon  of 
water,  put  three  pounds  of  brown  sugar ; boil 
ten  minutes  and  skim  it  well ; when  the  liquor 
is  nearly  cold  put  two  ounces  of  yeast  to  it, 
and  let  it  stand  till  the  following  day ; then 
put  it  into  a perfectly  ■ clean  cask,  with  one 
pint  of  strong  new  ale  in  a state  of  fer- 
mentation, and  one  pound  of  raisins  to  every 
gallon.  Let  it  stand  twelve  months  before 
bottling  it. 

MANGE. — An  eruptive  disease  which  at- 
tacks several  of  the  domestic  animals,  es- 
pecially dogs  and  pigs.  It  is  said  to  be  pro- 
duced by  a minute  worm  which  burrows  under 
the  skin,  and  produces  a scaly  pustule  on  the 
surface  resembling  the  itch.  It  is  caused  by 
confinement,  want  of  cleanliness,  and  bad  air. 
It  may  be  cured  by  anointing  with  an  ointment 
composed  of  equal  parts  of  lard  and  brim- 
stone. 

MARASCHINO.  {See  Liqueurs.) 

MARBLE,  To  Clean. — I.  Brush  a paste  of 
chloride  of  lime  and  water  over  the  entire 
surface,  taking  care  to  protect  the  adjacent 
wall-paper,  or  any  kind  of  inferior  gilding, 
which  will  be  injured  by  the  chlorine  given 
off. 

To  remove  oil  from  marble,  make  a paste  of 


MARJORAM  345 

equal  parts  of  crude  potash  and  whiting,  and 
apply  as  above. 

Iron  Stains  may  sometimes  be  removed 
from  marble  by  wetting  the  spots  with  lemon 
juice,  or  oxalic  acid  and  spirits  of  wine,  and  in 
a quarter  of  an  hour  rubbing  the  marble  dry 
with  a soft  linen  cloth. 

To  remove  ink-stains — see  Ink. 

II.  Rub  on  with  a brush  a paste  com- 
posed of  a gill  of  ox-gall  or  a gill  of  strong 
soap-suds,  and  half  a gill  of  turpentine,  all 
mixed  together  and  thickened  with  finely  pow- 
dered pipe-clay.  Have  a second  brush,  small 
enough  to  go  into  the  carving,  etc.  Having 
applied  either  of  these  pastes,  let  it  remain  un- 
disturbed for  two  days,  then  wipe  it  off.  If 
the  marble  is  not  then  perfectly  bright  and 
clean,  repeat  the  application  a second  or  even 
a third  time. 

Or,  dip  a stiff  brush  (a  worn-down  paint- 
brush is  good)  in  Javelle  water,  then  in  pul- 
verized pumice  stone  ; clean  thoroughly,  and 
rinse  with  cold  water. 

A hearth  will  be  improved  by  rubbing  oc- 
casionally with  a flannel  wet  with  linseed  oil. 
Rub  the  oil  in  so  as  not  to  come  off  and  grease 
other  things.  Next  day  go  over  it  with  a 
clean,  dry  cloth. 

MARIGOLD.  — One  of  the  prettiest  of  the 
garden  annuals,  easily  grown,  and  bearing 
bright  golden  flowers  throughout  the  summer. 
Sow  the  seed  in  the  spring,  when  the  days 
have  become  warm  and  the  nights  exhibit  no 
frosts ; or  they  may  be  brought  forward  in 
pots  so  as  to  transplant  to  the  open  border  in 
latter  part  of  May.  Sprinkle  the  seed  lightly 
over  the  surface  of  the  prepared  soil,  and  rake 
them  in,  afterwards  pressing  them  down  with 
the  palm  of  the  hand.  Water  pretty  freely, 
and  when  they  come  up,  thin  out  and  trans- 
plant to  their  proper  places.  The  plants  grow 
best  when  they  are  not  crowded.  Some  of  the 
new  varieties  of  the  Marigold  are  very  attrac- 
tive, but  any  of  them  is  worth  a place  in  the 
garden. 

Marsh  Marigold  (called  Cowslip  in  the 
Eastern  States)  is  a common  swamp  or  water- 
plant,  which  grows  from  eight  to  ten  inches 
high,  with  quite  a thick  stem  ; when  young  the 
leaves  can  be  used  as  greens  as  well  as  a pot- 
herb. In  England  the  flowers  are  used  for 
flavoring  soup,  stews,  etc. 

MARJORAM There  are  several  species 

of  Marjoram,  but  that  which  is  preferred  for 
cookery,  and  which  is  most  frequently  culti- 
vated in  gardens  for  the  purpose  is  the  Sweet 
Marjoram , also  called  “ Knotted  Marjoram.” 
Winter  Sweet  Marjoram  and  Pot-Marjoram 
are  also  cultivated.  They  have  all  the  same 
qualities,  though  in  varying  degrees.  The 
Common  or  Wild  Marjoram  is  found  growing 
in  the  open  fields  on  calcareous  soils.  This 
has  nearly  the  same  flavor  as  the  cultivated 
varieties,  but  is  inferior,  and  is  seldom  used 
except  when  the  others  are  not  at  hand.  The 
tops  and  leaves  of  the  Marjoram  are  used 
both  in  a green  and  dry  state,  and  as  a relish- 


346 


MARKING  CLOTHES 


MATELOTE 


ing  herb  in  soups,  stews,  broths,  stuffings,  etc. 
The  branches  should  be  cut  for  drying  (for 
winter  use)  in  July  or  August,  before  the 
flowers  open.  For  Essence  of  Marjoram,  see 
Essences. 

MARKING  CLOTHES.  See  INK.  If  in- 
delible ink  cannot  be  had,  mark  in  cross- 
stitch  with  colored  thread. 

MARMALADE — In  making  marmalade 
the  same  precautions  must  be  observed  as  in 
making  jam  or  jelly.  Especial  care  must  be 
taken  not  to  scorch  the  fruit  by  placing  it  over 
too  hot  a fire  and  not  to  cook  it  too  long. 

Apple  Marmalade. — Pare  seven  pounds  of 
apples,  and  put  them  on  to  stew  with  a pint 
of  water ; when  they  are  quite  soft  rub  them 
through  a strainer  ; add  the  same  weight  of 
sugar  as  of  apples,  and  the  grated  peel  of  four 
lemons;  boil  nearly. an  hour,  stirring  all  the 
time  ; ten  minutes  before  taking  it  off  the  fire, 
add  three  ounces  of  essence  of  ginger.  This 
is  very  useful  throughout  the  winter. 

Apricot  Marmalade.— Remove  the  stones 
and  hard  portions  of  the  skins  of  very  ripe 
apricots,  cut  them  in  pieces,  and  set  them  on 
the  fire  in  a preserving  pan,  with  one  pound 
of  sugar  to  one  pound  of  fruit.  A quarter  of 
an  hour’s  boiling  will  be  sufficient  ; or  to  as- 
certain when  the  marmalade  is  done,  put  a 
little  of  it  on  the  tip  of  your  finger,  and  if  by  ap- 
plying the  thumb  and  withdrawing  it  a small 
filament  is  formed,  it  has  boiled  enough. 
Stir  the  marmalade  continually  while  it  is 
boiling.  If  the  flavor  is  liked,  break  half  the 
stones,  blanch  their  kernels  in  boiling  water, 
and  put  them  into  the  marmalade  five  minutes 
before  it  is  removed  from  the  fire  ; mix  the 
whole  well,  that  each  pot  may  have  an  equal 
share  of  the  kernels. 

Barberry  Marmalade. — Wash  the  barber- 
ries, stone  them,  add  a quarter  of  a pint  of  cold 
water  to  ever^  pound  of  fruit  ; apd  boil  them 
till  quite  tender.  Then  prepare  a syrup  of  a 
pint  of  water  and  a pound  and  a half  of  sugar  to 
every  pound  of  fruit ; boil  till  quite  stiff.  Boil 
the  barberries  again  till  they  become  a jam  : 
add  them  to  the  syrup  and  stir  together  over 
the  fire,  simmering  it  only  for  a few  moments  ; 
and  then  turn  it  into  the  pots. 

Lemon  Marmalade.  — Make  same  as 
Orange  marmalade,  allowing  a pound  and  a 
quarter  of  sugar  to  a pound  of  the  fruit. 

Orange  Marmalade. — Take  sour  oranges,  12 
lbs;  granulated  sugar,  12  lbs.  Pare  the 
oranges  in  the  same  manner  as  you  do  apples, 
cover  the  parings  twice  their  depth  with  cold 
water  ; boil  until  tender,  then  drain.  Halve 
the  oranges  cross-wise,  press  eut  the  juice  and 
soft  pulp,  cover  the  white  skins  with  three  quarts 
of  cold  water,  and  boil  half  an  hour  ; strain  the 
water  "in  the  orange  juice,  and  pound  the  skins 
through  the  colander  until  you  have  2\  lbs  of 
pulp;  add  this  also  to  the  juice;  cut  the  yellow 
rind,  with  scissors,  in  fine  shreds;  add  to  the 
juice,  and  boil  ten  minutes  ; add  the  sugar,  and 
boil  until  it  thickens. 

Peach  Marmalade.  — Pare,  stone,  and 


weigh  the  fruit  ; and  allow  three-quarters  of 
a pound  of  sugar  to  every  pound  of  fruit.  Put 
the  fruit  on  the  fire  and  heat  slowly  to  draw 
out  the  juice,  stirring  up  frequently  from  the 
bottom  ; after  it  is  hot,  boil  quickly  three 
quarters  of  an  hour,  stirring  all  the  time.  Then 
add  the  sugar,  and  boil  five  minutes,  carefully 
removing  the  scum.  Add  the  juice  of  a lemon 
for  every  three  pounds  of  the  lruit,  and  the 
water  in  which  one-fourth  of  the  peach  kernels 
have  been  boiled  and  steeped.  Stew  all  to- 
gether ten  minutes,  stirring  to  a smooth  paste, 
and  remove  from  the  fire.  This  is  one  of  the 
choicest  of  the  marmalades. 

Pineapple  Marmalade — Select  the  largest, 
ripest,  and  most  perfect  pineapples  that  can 
be  found  ; pare  them  and  cut  out  all  the' 
blemishes.  Grate  them  on  a large  dish, 
using  a coarse  grater,  and  omitting  the  hard 
core  which  goes  down  to  the  centre  of  each  ; 
or,  in  the  absence  of  the  grater,  cut  them 
into  small  bits.  Add  an  equal  weight  of 
the  best  double-refined  sugar  (in  lump),  put 
them  into  a preserving-kettle,  and  mix  well 
together  : set  over  a moderate  and  very  clear 
fire,  and  boil  and  skim  well,  stirring  it  after 
skimming ; after  the  scum  has  ceased  to 
appear,  stir  the  marmalade  frequently  until 
it  is  done,  which  will  be  in  an  hour  or 
an  hour  and  a half  after  it  has  come  to 
a boil.  But  if  it  is  not  smooth,  clear,  and 
bright  in  that  time,  continue  the  boiling  till  it 
is.  This  is  a delicious  preparation  of  pine- 
apple. 

Quince  Marmalade Pare,  core,  and  quar- 

ter some  of  the  inferior  quinces,  and  boil 
them  in  as  much  water  as  will  nearly  cover 
them,  until  they  begin  to  break  ; strain  the 
juice  from  them,  and  for  the  marmalade  put 
half  a pint  of  it  to  each  pound  of  fresh  quinces  ; 
in  preparing  these,  be  careful  to  cut  out  the 
hard  portions  around  the  cores.  Simmer 
them  gently  until  they  are  very  soft,  then 
press  them,  with  the  juice,  through  a coarse 
sieve;  put  them  into  a clean  pan,  and  boil  until 
they  form  a dry  paste  ; add  for  each  pound 
of  quinces  and  the  half  pint  of  juice,  three- 
quarters  of  a pound  of  sugar  finely  powdered; 
and  boil  the  marmalade  for  half  an  hour, 
stirring  it  constantly.  It  should  be  very  firm, 
and  bright  in  color.  If  made  shortly  after 
the  fruit  is  gathered,  a little  more  sugar  will 
be  required  ; and  when  a richer  and  less 
dry  marmalade  is  liked,  it  must  be  boiled 
a shorter  time,  and  an  equal  weight  of  fruit 
and  sugar  used. 

Quince-and-Apple  Marmalade. — Boil  toge- 
ther, from  three-quarters  of  an  hour  to  an 
hour,  two  pounds  of  apples,  pared  and  cored, 
in  an  equal  weight  of  quince-juice  (prepared  as 
above) ; then  take  them  from  the  fire,  and  mix 
with  them  a pound  and  a half  of  finely  pow- 
dered sugar:  when  this  is  nearly  dissolved,  set 
the  pan  again  over  a brisk  fire,  and  boil  twenty 
minutes  longer,  stirring  all  the  time. 

MATELOTE. — A sort  of  stew  that  may 
be  made  of  any  variety  of  fishes,  which 


MEAD 


MELT 


347 


all  take  the  same  time  to  cook.  Carp,  tench, 
eels,  and  pike  are  very  good. 

For  a matelote  of  any  or  all  of  these  fish,  after 
thorough  cleansing  and  washing,  let  them  lie 
a few  hours  sprinkled  with  salt,  and  rinse  them 
again  before  cooking ; if  small,  merely  cut  off 
the  heads  and  tails — if  large,  divide  the  carp  and 
tench  into  two  or  three  pieces,  and  the  pike 
and  eels  into  convenient  lengths.  Put  some 
button-onions  into  the  stew-pan  and  brown 
them  in  butter  ; when  half  done,  add  a bunch 
of  sweet  herbs,  put  in  the  fish  with  as  much 
good  broth  as  will  just  suffice  to  cook  it ; add 
a little  red  or  white  wine,  or  good  cider ; stew 
closely  covered  until  done,  taking  care  that  it 
does  not  burn.  Arrange  the  fish  in  a hot,  hol- 
low dish  ; let  the  gravy  from  which  it  was 
taken  boil  a minute  or  two  to  reduce  it,  thick- 
ening it  with  a dust  of  flour ; at  the  same 
time  make  what  additions  of  seasoning  you  may 
think  fit,  such  as  a handful  of  shrimps,  essence 
of  anchovies,  Harvey’s  or  Worcestershire 
sauce,  or  Walnut  catsup;  pour  this  gravy  over 
the  fish,  and  serve  with  thin  toasted  bread. 

The  matelote  may  be  varied  indefinitely,  ac- 
cording to  the  cook’s  resources.  Cold  lobster, 
shrimps,  eggs,  or  oyster  sauce,  or  simple 
melted  butter,  may  be  used  as  thickening. 
The  seasoning  may  be  cayenne  or  black  pep- 
per merely,  or  small  pieces  of  hot  pickles. 
For  fish  matelotes,  the  gravy  should  always  be 
based  on  the  liquor  in  which  the  fish  was 
cooked.  Cold  matelote  of  eels  and  tenches  is 
excellent,  forming  a stiff  jelly  ; this  requires  a 
dash  of  vinegar,  and  a strong  seasoning  of 
pepper. 

Egg  (Matelote  of). — Put  into  a stew-pan  a 
pint  of  vin  ordinaire , or  cheap  claret,  or  of 
better  wine  diluted  with  water.  Add  pepper, 
salt,  a bunch  of  sweet  herbs,  an  onion  sliced, 
and  a clove  of  garlic  split.  Boil  five  minutes, 
remove  the  flavoring  materials,  and  poach 
eight  or  ten  eggs  in  the  liquor,  as  in  water. 
When  done,  arrange  them  on  a dish ; thicken 
the  liquor  by  stirring  in  a tablespoonful  of  but- 
ter rolled  in  a tablespoonful  of  flour;  let  it  just 
boil  up,  and  pour  it  over  the  eggs  by  way  of 
sauce.  A few  shrimps,  shell-fish,  or  ready- 
cooked  pieces  of  eel  or  other  fish,  may  be  ad- 
ded before  serving. 

MATTRESS.  ( See  Beds  and  FURNITURE.) 

MAYONNAISE.  * [See  Salad  and  Sauce.) 

MEAD. — A fermented  liquor  prepared  from 
honey.  To  make,  put  four  pounds  of  honey  to 
every  gallon  of  water,  and  boil  it  three-quarters 
of  an  hour,  skimming  carefully.  To  every  gallon 
of  this  add  an  ounce  of  hops  ; then  boil  it  half 
an  hour  and  let  it  stand  till  next  day,  then  put 
it  into  a cask,  and  to  thirteen  gallons  of  the 
liquor  add  a quart  of  brandy.  Stop  it  up 
lightly  until  the  fermentation  is  over,  and  then 
stop  it  very  close.  If  a large  cask  is  made, 
keep  it  a year  before  bottling;  for  a smaller 
cask  in  proportion. 

Sparkling  Mead. — Boil  fourteen  pounds  of 
honey  in  six  gallons  of  water  for  half  an  hour, 
breaking  into  it  three  or  four  eggs  ; then  add 


half  an  ounce  each  of  cinnamon,  cloves,  mace, 
and  bruised  ginger,  and  small  bunches  of  mar- 
joram, balm,  and  sweet-brier  ; boil  a quarter  of 
an  hour  longer,  and  pour  it  out  to  cool ; then 
toast  a large  slice  of  brown  bread,  spread  it 
over  with  fresh  ydast,  and  put  it  into  the 
liquor ; let  it  ferment  for  a day,  and  then  put  it 
into  the  cask,  but  keep  it  open  till  the  fermen- 
tation is  complete.  Then  stop  closely.  It  may 
be  bottled  in  a month,  and  the  corks  must  be 
securely  tied. 

MEASLES. — This  disease  is  most  common 
in  infancy  and  early  childhood,  but  may  oc- 
cur at  any  age.  It  .is  infectious,  but  with 
ordinary  care  is  not  fatal  as  a general  rule. 
The  symptoms  are  a feverish  cold  in  the  head,, 
accompanied  by  a peculiar  ringing  cough, 
sneezing,  running  of  the  eyes  and  nose  and 
itching  of  the  face,  while  the  eyes  are  red 
and  very  sensitive  to  the  light.  After  some 
days  of  these  symptoms  small  red  crescent- 
shaped spots  appear  on  the  face,  generally  in 
clusters,  and  then  spread  over  the  rest  of  the 
body.  The  fever  increases  as  the  rash  comes 
out.  When  it  has  been  out  three  days,  the 
spots  turn  brown,  and  the  skin  crumbles  off 
like  bran.  The  rash  usually  disappears  in 
three  or  four  days,  or  a week  at  farthest. 

Treatment. — Keep  the  patient  in  a moder- 
ately warm  room,  shaded  from  any  strong  light. 
Inflammation  of  the  lungs  is  very  liable  to  oc- 
cur in  connection  with  measles,  and  should  b,e 
guaroked  against  by  every  precaution ; the  chest 
in  particular  should  be  well  protected  from  cold. 
The  diet  should  consist  only  of  milk  and  light 
farinaceous  food ; and  a sufficient  amount  of 
tepid  drinks)  such  as  lemonade  (for  older 
children),  arrowroot,  barley-water,  etc.,  should 
be  given.  If  the  breathing  is  difficult,  put  on 
a mustard  and  oatmeal  poultice  to  the  chest, 
and  keep  the  bowels  open  by  injections  if  need- 
ful. In  general  this  is  all  thht  is  required,  and 
the  disorder  will  subside  in  from  a week  to  ten 
days;  but  if  the  disease  is  not  running  its 
usual  course,  especially  if  inflammation  devel- 
ops itself,  then  medical  aid  should  be  sum- 
moned. After  measles  great  care  should  be 
taken  to  keep  the  secretions  in  good  order,  and 
they  should  be  rigidly  watched  for  some  time 
with  that  view. 

MEASURES.  ( See  Weights  and  Meas- 
ures.) 

MEAT.  (See  Food  and  separate  meats.) 

MEDICINES,  For  family  use.  (See 
Drugs.) 

MEDOC  WINES.  (See  Claret.) 

MELONS.  (See  Musk  Melon  and  Water 
Melon.) 

MELT. — This  small,  dark,  tongue-like  piece 
attached  to  the  lights  of  calves,  lambs,,  sheep, 
and  pigs,  i*  not  often  used  in  this  country, 
but  can  be  made  into  a very  wholesome  and 
savory  dish.  * The  calves’  melt  is  best,  and 
next  to  this  that  of  pigs.  To  cook:  after 
soaking  three  or  four  hours  in  a little  salt  and 
water,  and  vinegar,  wipe  dry,  pepper  it  well, 
and  boil  till  tender  ; or,  wash  it  thoroughly, 


348 


MENSTRUATION 


season  it  strongly  with  salt,  and  boil  it  over  a 
brisk  fire. 

MENSTRUATION.— The  function  of  men- 
struation generally  begins  when  the  female  ar- 
rives at  the  age  of  puberty,  which  in  this 
country  is  usually  between  the  ages  of  fourteen 
and  sixteen ; and  terminates  at  the  “ critical 
period  ” or  “ change  of  life,”  which  usually  oc- 
curs between  the  forty-fifth  and  forty-eighth 
years.  It  consists  of  sanguineous  fluid  which  is 
exuded  from  the  vessels  of  the  uterus,  and  es- 
capes through  the  vagina,  the  flow  generally 
returning  every  twenty-eight  days,  and  lasting 
from  three  to  six  days.  About  the  first  appear- 
ance of  this  discharge  the  constitution  under- 
goes a very  considerable  change,  usually  indeed 
for  the  better,  but  sometimes  for  the  worse; 
and  the  greatest  care  is  then  necessary.  It  is 
the  duty  of  mothers  especially,  and  of  those 
who  are  entrusted  with  the  education  of  girls, 
to  instruct  them  early  in  the  conduct  and  man- 
agement of  themselves  at  this  most  critical 
period  of  their  lives.  False  modesty,  inatten- 
tion, and  ignorance  of  what  is  beneficial  or 
hurtful  at  such  times,  are  the  source  of  many 
diseas-es  and  misfortunes  in  after  life.  The 
eating  of  improper  food,  violent  affections  of 
the  mind,  or  catching  cold  at  this  period,  are 
often  sufficient  permanently  to  injure  the 
health,  or  even  to  render  the  woman  ever  after 
incapable  of  procreation. 

The  first  menstrual  flow  is  nearly  always 
preceded  by  symptoms  which  foretell  its  ap- 
proach ; as  a sense  of  weight  and  pain  in  the 
loins,  distention  and  hardness  of  the  breasts, 
headache,  loss  of  appetite,  languor,  chilliness, 
and  sometimes  a slight  degree  of  fever.  When 
these  symptoms  appear  at  the  age  at  which  the 
metises  usually  begin,  everything  should  be 
carefully  avoided  which  may  obstruct  the  flow, 
and  all  means  used  to  promote  it,  as  rest  from 
all  unnecessary  exercise,  sitting  frequently  over 
steam  from  hot  water,  and-drinking  warm  di- 
luted liquors,  as  tansy  tea,  etc.  After  the 
flow  has  actually  begun,  the  greatest  care 
should  be  taken  to  avoid  everything  that  may 
tend  to  arrest  it.  Women  should  be  extremely 
cautious  of  what  they  eat  and  drink  at  the 
time  they  are  out  of  order.  Everything 
that  is  cold  or  apt  to  sour  on  the  stomach 
should  be  avoided  ; as  should  fish,  and  all 
kinds  of  food  that  are  difficult  of  digestion. 
Cold  should  be  especially  guarded  against  at 
these  periods  ; more  of  the  sex  date  their  dis- 
eases from  catching  cold  while  they  are  out  of 
order  than  from  all  other  causes  combined, 
probably.  A degree  of  cold  that  will  not  in  the 
least  hurt  them  at  another  time  will  at  this 
period  seriously  endanger  the  health.  Rest 
also,  at  least  comparative  rest,  from  all  the 
usual  avocations,  even  from  study,  should  be 
obtained.  German  mothers,  notably  the  health- 
iest women  in  Europe,  compel  their  daughters 
during  the  first  few  years  to  remain  in  bed 
during  the  first  day  of  the  discharge,  and  to 
abstain  from  all  except  the  most  necessary  ex- 
ercise until  the  discharge  ceases.  From  the 


time  the  menses  begin  until  about  the  twentieth 
year,  this  function  is  the  main  instrument  in 
building  up  the  most  delicate,  complex,  and  im- 
portant apparatus  known  to  nature : and  unless 
especial  attention  is  paid  during  all  this  period 
to  the  conditions  upon  which  health  depends — 
exercise,  wholesome  and  appropriate  food,  and 
healthful  dress — the  neglect  is  almost  certain 
to  be  dearly  paid  for  in  after-life.  The  fact  that 
the  years  embraced  in  this  period  are  those  in 
which  girls  are  expected  to  get  the  most  im- 
portant part  of  their  education,  greatly  compli- 
cates the  matter,  and  it  is  the  conviction  now 
of  nearly  every  leading  physiologist  that  the 
schools  in  which  young  women  are  trained 
must  be  organized  on  such  elastic  methods  as 
to  allow  of  a suspension  of  study,  complete  or 
partial,  on  the  part  of  each  pupil  for  four  or 
five  days  in  each  month.  When  provision  for 
this  is  not  made  in  the  schools,  their  parents 
should  take  the  responsibility  upon  themselves. 

When  menstruation  has  once  commenced, 
its  regular  occurrence  is  absolutely  indispens- 
able to  good  health  ; and  from  whatever  cause 
it  is  obstructed  (except  from  pregnancy)  proper 
means  should  be  used  to  restore  it.  For  this 
purpose,  exercise  in  the  open  air,  wholesome 
diet,  and,  if  the  body  be  weak  and  languid, 
generous  liquors  will  generally  be  sufficient ; 
but  if  these  fail  recourse  must  be  had  to  medi- 
cine. When  obstructions  proceed  from  a 
weak  state  of  health,  such  medicines  as  pro- 
mote digestion  and  give  tone  to  the  sys- 
tem must  be  used.  The  best  of  these  are 
iron,  Peruvian  bark,  and  prepared  steel.  In- 
fuse two  or  three  ounces  of  iron  filings  in  a 
quart  of  ale,  and  after  it  has  stood  two  weeks, 
filter  it,  and  take  half  a wineglassful  twice  a 
day  (fifteen  drops  of  tincture  of  iron  in  a little 
water  will  do  as  well,)  or  prepared  steel  may 
be  taken  in  doses  of  half  a drachm,  mixed  with 
a little  honey  or  molasses,  three  or  four  times 
a day.  The  bark  and  other  bitters  may  be 
taken  either  powdered  or  in  infusion  as  most 
agreeable.  When  obstructions  are  caused  by 
a bad  state  of  the  blood,  or  when  they  occur  in 
women  of  a gross  or  full  habit,  mild  purgatives, 
a spare  diet,  and  attenuating  drinks,  accom- 
panied by  frequent  bathing  of  the  feet  in  warm 
water  effect  a cure.  A half-spoonful  of  the 
tincture  of  black  hellebore  may  also  be  taken 
twice  a day  in  a teacupful  of  warm  water. 
When  the  flow  is  simply  delayed  beyond  the 
usual  time,  by  a cold  for  instance,  the  feet 
should  be  bathed  twice  a day  in  warm  water,  a 
warm  bath  should  be  taken,  warm  applications 
placed  on  the  bowels  and  a copious  draught  of 
pennyroyal  or  tansy  tea  taken  warm,  with  a 
strong  infusion  of  gin.  An  obstruction  of  the 
menses  is  often  the  result  of  other  maladies. 
When  this  is  the  case,  instead  of  trying  to  force 
that  discharge  (which  might  be  dangerous), 
the  treatment  should  be  directed  to  restoring 
the  patient’s  general  health.  When  that  is 
effected,  the  other  will  return  of  course,  and 
without  special  treatment. 

The  flow  of  the  menses  is  to  be  considered 


MENSTRUATION 

immoderate  when  it  either  returns  more  fre- 
quently than  is  natural,  or  continues  longer  or 
is  more  abundant  than  usual ; it  is  generally 
accompanied  by  pains  in  the  back  and  belly, 
somewhat  like  those  of  childbirth.  This  is 
very  weakening,  and  unless  promptly  arrested 
is  apt  to  degenerate  into  dropsy  or  consump- 
tion. The  most  effective  treatment  here,  as 
before,  is  in  attention  to  the  general  health  and 
the  conditions  which  affect  it.  At  the  time  of 
the  flow,  if  it  is  very  copious,  the  patient  should 
lie  on  a rather  hard  mattress,  with  the  head 
low ; confine  herself  to  a cool  and  slender  diet, 
as  veal  or  chicken  broth  with  bread;  drink 
lemonade  or  other  cool  acidulated  liquors  ; and 
take  small  and  frequent  doses  of  nitre  (say  half 
a teaspoonful  every  two  hours).  If  these  do 
not  arrest  the  flux,  take  two  drachms  of  alum 
and  one  of  Japan-earth,  pounded  together,  di- 
vide into  eight  or  nine  doses,  and  give  one 
three  times  a day.  Persons  whose  stomachs 
cannot  bear  alum  may  take  two  tablespoonfuls 
of  infusion  of  roses,  three  or  four  times  a day, 
to  each  dose  of  which  ten  drops  of  laudanum 
may  be  added.  If  these  should  fail,  half  a 
drachm  of  powdered  Peruvian  bark,  and  ten 
drops  of  elixir  of  vitriol  may  be  taken  in  a 
glass  of  red  wine  four  times  a day. 

Leucorrhcea.  — The  discharge  may  offend 
in  quality  as  well  as  in  quantity.  What  is 
called  whites  or  jiuor  albas  is  a very  common 
disease,  and  is  very  injurious  to  delicate  women. 
This  discharge  is  not  always  white,  however, 
but  may  be  either  pale  yellow,  green,  or  black- 
ish ; sometimes  it  is  acrid  and  corrosive  ; some- 
times foul  and  foetid.  It  is  attended  by  pain  in 
the  back,  loss  of  appetite,  swelling  of  the  feet, 
and  other  signs  of  debility;  and  is  generally 
the  result  of  a relaxed  state  of  the  body,  fre- 
quent childbearing,  etc.  It  is  obvious  that 
hygienic  measures  adapted  to  improve  the  gen- 
eral condition  of  the  body  must  play  the  chief 
part  in  the  treatment  of  this  disease  ; the  food 
should  be  solid  and  nourishing,  but  easy  of 
digestion,  and  the  drink  generous,  as  port  or 
good  claret.  Tea  and  coffee  should  be  avoided, 
and  strong  broth  drunk  instead.  Besides  this 
regimen,  Peruvian  bark  or  some  other  astring- 
ent bitters,  or  the  muriated  tincture  of  iron 
in  20  drop  doses,  largely  diluted  with  water, 
three  times  a day  after  meals  may  be  taken  ; 
and  the  loins  and  thighs  may  be  sponged 
twice  a day  with  cold  water.  The  solution 
of  acetate  of  lead,  a teaspoonful  to  a half 
pint  of  water,  may  be  employed  as  a wash  or 
injection. 

Difficult  Menstruation  ( Dysmenorrhoea ) 
is  a disease  in  which  the  menses , though  not 
entirely  suppressed,  are  accompanied  with  sev- 
ere pains  in  the  back,  loins,  and  bottom  of  the 
belly.  It  is  caused  by  weak  action  of  the 
vessels  of  the  uterus,  or  spasm  of  its  extreme 
vessels  ; and  is  to  be  removed  by  warm  bathing, 
both  topical  and  general,  with  the  use  of  opiates 
(under  a physician’s  advice),  which  should  be 
employed  on  the  first  appearance  of  the  symp- 
toms that  denote  its  approach.  Many  cases  of 


MERINGUES  349 

dysmenorrhoea  are  due  to  causes  which  require 
local  surgical  treatment. 

The  cessation  of  the  menses,  commonly  call- 
ed “ the  turn  of  life,”  is  a very  critical  period, 
and  requires  the  most  careful  attention  to  the 
conditions  of  good  health.  If  they  cease  all 
of  a sudden,  which  is  very  seldom  the  case,  the 
treatment  is  by  rather  low  diet,  plenty  of  exer- 
cise, and  keeping  the  bowels  open.  For  this 
latter  purpose  a little  rhubarb,  or  a dose  of 
Rochelle  salts  may  be  taken  twice  a week. 
Ulcerous,  cancerous,  or  other  chronic  diseases 
sometimes  follow  upon  this  cessation  and  acute 
diseases  of  a dangerous  nature  are  not  infre- 
quent ; but  these  are  matters  wfth  which  dom- 
estic medicines  must  not  venture  to  deal,  and 
the  advice  of  a physician  must  be  sought.  The 
most  dreaded  accident,  however,  is  too  profuse 
menstruation,  the  popular  idea  that  this  con- 
dition is  natural  at  the  turn  of  life,  is  incorrect. 
It  is  probably  due  to  some  uterine  disease 
requiring  the  physician’s  attention. 

MERINGUES.— Whisk  to  the  firmest  pos- 
sible froth  the  whites  of  six  fresh  eggs.  Lay 
some  squares  or  strips  of  writing-paper  closely 
together  upon  a board  or  thick  dish.  When 
these  are  ready,  mix  the  eggs  with  three- 
quarters  of  a pound  of  the  finest  sugar,  well 
dried,  and  sifted;  stir  them  together  thoroughly 
and  then  with  a table  or  dessert-spoon  lay  the 
mixture  quickly  on  the  papers  in  the  form  of 
a half-egg,  sift  sugar  over  them  without  delay, 
blow  off  with  a bellows  all  that  does  not  adhere, 
and  set  the  meringties  into  a moderate  oven. 
The  process  must  be  quick,  or  the  sugar  melt- 
ing will  cause  the  cakes  to  spread,  instead  of 
retaining  the  shape  of  the  spoon,  as  they  ought. 
When  they  are  colored  to  a light  brown  and 
are  firm  to  the  touch,  draw  them  out,  turn  the 


papers  gently  over,  separating  the  meringues 
from  them,  and  with  a teaspoon  scoop  out 
enough  of  the  insides  to  form  a space  for  some 
whipped  cream  or  preserves,  and  put  them 
again  into  the  oven,  upon  some  clean  sheets  of 
paper,  with  the  moist  side  uppermost,  to  dry. 
When  they  are  crisp  through,  they  are  done. 
Let  them  become  cold : fill  with  the  cream  or 
preserves ; and  then  join  together,  two  by  two 
with  a little  white  of  egg,  so  as  to  give  them  the 
appearance  shown  in  the  engraving. 


350 


MERINO 


METER 


Italian  Meringues. — Take  the  whites  of  six 
eggs  and  a pound  of  fine  sugar,  or  half  the 
quantity  for  a small  number  of  meringues. 
Boil  the  sugar  with  a pint  of  water  until  it 
whitens,  and  begins  to  fall  in  flakes  from  the 
skimmer;  in  the  mean  time  have  the  eggs  whisk- 
ed to  a perfectly  solid  froth,  and  when  the 
sugar  has  stood  for  three  minutes  after  the 
boiling,  and  been  worked  well  from  the  sides 
of  the  pan,  mix  them  gradually  but  very  quick- 
ly with  it,  until  the  mass  is  quite  smooth  and 
firm  enough  to  retain  its  shape  when  moulded 
by  a teaspoon  ; lay  out  the  cakes  on  writing- 
paper,  and  se£  them  in  an  oven  so  slow  as  to 
harden  without  coloring  them.  As  they  are 
not  to  be  filled,  but  merely  fastened  together, 
they  may  be  baked  on  tins. 

Part  of  them  may  be  varied  by  the  addition 
of  three  or  four  ounces  of  pounded  almonds 
mixed  thoroughly  with  half  the  eggs  and  sugar, 
when  a portion  of  the  meringues  have  been 
moulded ; these  will  require  to  be  baked  much 
longer  than  the  others  ; they  should  be  lightly 
browned,  and  crisp  quite  through. 

Pears  or  other  Fruit,  (Meringues  of.) — 
Fill  a deep  tart-dish  nearly  to  the  brim  with 


stewed  pears,  and  let  them  be  about  half  cover- 
ed with  their  juice.  Whisk  to  a solid  froth  the 
whites’  of  five  eggs  ; stir  to  them  five  table- 
spoonfuls  of  sifted  white  sugar,  and  lay  the 
mixture  lightly  and  equally  over  the  fruit ; set 
the  dish  immediately  into  a moderate  oven  and 
bake  it  fifteen  minutes.  Cherries,  damsons,  or 
common  plums,  first  stewed  as  for  compotes 
( See  Compotes)  answer  as  well  as  pears  for 
this  dish  ; also  apples,  apricots,  or  peaches, 
boiled  down  to  a marmalade  with  sufficient 
sugar  to  sweeten  them  moderately.  The  skins 
and  stones  of  the  peaches,  apricots,  and  plums 
should  be  removed,  but  a few  of  the  blanched 
kernels  may  be  used  to  flavor  the  fruit. 

MERINO. — An  extremely  fine  twilled  stuff, 
made  of  the  finest  wool,  and  used  for  dresses 
or  shawls.  The  French  excel  in  the  manu- 
facture of  this  article,  and  their  best  qualities, 
approximate  to  Cashmere  ; but  there  are  also 
very  good  merinoes  of  English  and  American 
make.  Merino  is  found  of  all  colors  and  quali- 
ties, and  is  usually  either  three-quarters  or  six- 
quarters  wide. 

There  are  also  merinoes  made  of  a mixture 
of  wool  and  silk. 


Vertical  Section  of  Water  Meter  Drum. 

a,  inlet  J exit  pipe  ; kkk . compartments  of  the  drum  ; e,  slit  for  exit  of  gas  from  compartments  ; 5,  c , direction  of 

rotation  of  drum. 


METERS,  for  Gas. — These  are  of  two  kinds, 
the  water-meter  and  the  dry-meter.  The  dry- 
meter  has  the  advantage  that  it  does  not  aid  in 
the  deposit  of  the  water  in  the  tubes,  which  is 
always  going  on  more  or  less,  and  which  it  is 
necessary  to  avoid  as  far  as  possible  by  taking 
care  that  the  pipes  all  drain  into  the  meter, 
without  any  depending  portions  except  at  the 
burners,  where  it  is  impossible  to  avoid  it. 

A Water  Meter  consists  of  a drum  divid- 
ed into  four  compartments  by  partitions  so 


arranged  that  when  the  water  is  at  the 
proper  level — so  as  to  immerse  about  three- 
fifths  of  the  drum  — gas  may  enter  into  or 
escape  from  some  of  the  compartments,  but 
cannot  do  both  at  the  same  time  in  the  case  of 
any  one  compartment.  The  drum  is  moved  by 
the  pressureof  the  gas  against  the  partitions. 
The  motion  of  the  drum  is  communicated 
to  wheel-work  which  turns  the  hands  on  the 
meter  dial.  The  measuring  space  of  the  meter 
depends  of  course  upon  the  level  of  the  water  in 


METER 


351 


the  drum ; if  this  is  too  high  the  meter  has  to 
make  more  revolutions  to  pass  a given  amount  of 
gas,  and  registers  high  or  against  the  consumer. 


I f the  water  is  too  low,  fewer  revolutions  for  the 
same  amount  are  required,  and  it  registers  low 
or  against  the  company.  To  prevent  the  for- 


Vertical  section  of  wet  meter.  G inlet,  g outlet,  h float,  i valve,  n overflow  pipe,  u plug  to  let  off  surplus  water.  F. 
wheel-work  of  dials  ; V,  plug  for  pouring  water  into  meter. 


mer  state  of  affairs  so  far  as  possible,  the  tube 
n (Figs.  2 and  3),  is  so  arranged  as  to  act  as  an 
overflow  and  stop  the  flow  of  gas  completely  if 


Fig.  3. 


Vertical  section  of  wet  meter  at  right  angles  to  that  in  Fig.  2. 
Lettering  same  as  in  Fig,  2. 


the  water  level  is  too  high.  To  avoid  other 
consequences  of  a low  water  level,  the  float  h 
(Figs.  2 and  3)  is  applied  which  is  attached  to 
the  valve  i (Figs.  2 and  3)  which  shuts  off  the 
gas  by  falling  upon  its  seat. 

The  freezing  of  the  water  in  the  meter  stops 


the  motion  of  the  drum,  and  consequently  the 
flow  of  the  gas.  It  may  be  thawed  by  pouring 
boiling  water  over  the  meter  or  into  it.  Gly- 
cerine solution  of  chloride  of  calcium,  4 lbs  to 
the  gallon,  and  similar  liquids  which  neither 
freeze  nor  evaporate,  are  used  to  prevent  this 
difficulty. 

Besides  the  stoppage  caused  by  freezing  of 
the  water  in  the  meter,  the  gas  in  a house  sup- 
plied through  a wet  meter  will  sometimes  re- 
fuse to  burn  on  account  of  too  much  or  too 
little  water  in  the  meter.  In  such  a case  the 
plug  u (Fig.  2)  should  be  unscrewed  to  let  out 
the  excess  from  the  overflow,  or  water  should 
be  poured  in  through  V (Fig.  2)  until  it  runs 
out  at  the  overflow.  Condensation  of  water  in 
the  pipes  will  often  cause  the  lights  to  jump  or 
extinguish  them  altogether.  This  is  remedied 
by  removing  a burner  and  blowing  strongly 
through  the  pipe  will  sometimes  force  the  wa- 
ter out  of  the  depression  in  the  line  of  pipe 
where  it  has  collected. 

Freezing  of  moisture  in  the  service  pipe  may 
also  cut  off  the  supply  of  gas.  This  can  only 
be  remedied  by  excavation  and  applying  heat 
outside  the  house. 

A dry  meter  consists  of  two  chambers  (some- 
times three),  usually  circular,  resembling  in  ap- 
pearance a double  bellows  which  are  so  connect- 
ed that  when  one  side  is  expanded,  the  other  side 
is  contracted.  The  gas  passing  through  the  me- 
ter fills  and  empties  these  chambers  alternately, 
and  by  the  reciprocating  action  thus  produced,  a 
train  of  wheel  work  attached  to  the  hands  of  the 


352 


METER 


MILK 


V 


dials,  is  made  to  move.  The  mode  of  action  may- 
be best  understood  from  Figs.  4 and  5.  The 


Description  of  Figs.  4 and  5.— A inlet,  B outlet,  rr,  U 
and  dd  are  the  rings,  leather  belts  and  disks  forming  the  measur- 
ing bellows,  held  in  place  by  the  guides  gg,  2 and  3 in  cut  4 and 
j in  cut  5,  attachment  connecting  with  the  arrangement  for 
converting  the  reciprocating  motion  into  rotary  motion.  The 
slide  valves  are  so  arranged  that  when  one  side  of  the  bellows 
is  full  the  flow  of  gas  is  turned  into  the  other  side  which  fills  as 
the  first  one  empties,  the  gas  escaping  through  the  pipe  B, 


side  valves  sometimes  stick,  but  may  usually 
be  started  by  suddenly  turning  on  the  gas  at 
the  service  pipe.  The  flexible  diaphragms  of 
the  bellows  are  apt  after  a time  to  grow  stiff, 
when  the  lights  become  unsteady.  Wet  meters 
are  simpler  and  less  liable  to  get  out  of  order 
than  dry  meters.  The  latter  on  the  other  hand 
are  not  subject  to  freezing,  too  much  or  too 
little  water,  or  water  in  the  house  pipes. 

The  index  of  the  meter  is  quite  simple.  A 
small  dial  above  is  not  used  except  in  testing 


the  meter.  The  dials  below  are  marked  tens, 
hundreds,  thousands,  etc.,  according  to  what 
they  record.  The  lowest  figure  when  the  hand 
is  between  two,  should  be  taken;  thus:  if  the 
dial  marked  “ 100  thousand  ” has  the  hand  be- 
tween 5 and  6,  that  marked  “ io  thousand  ” 
between  o and  9,  that  marked  “ thousands  ” at 
8,  the  reading  would  be  598,000.  If  sometime 
after  the  “ 100  thousand  ” hand  is  between  7 
and  8,  the  “ 10  thousand”  at  2, and  the  “thou- 
sand” between  o and  1,  the  reading  is  720,000, 
and  the  difference  between  these  figures,  or 
122,000  feet,  have  passed  through  the  meter. 
Householders  may  easily  verify  the  accuracy  of 
their  gas  bills  by  consulting  their  meter  at 
stated  intervals.  1 

MICE. — A good  cat  is  the  best  remedy  for 
these  nuisances,  and  will  generally  clean  the 
house  of  them  in  a short  time.  A turtle  in  the 
cellar  is  said  to  keep  it  clear  of  mice  and  rats, 
probably  by  some  odor  disagreeable  to  them. 
We  do  not  vouch  for  the  statement.  Many  poi- 
sons for  them  are  sold  in  the  shops,  the  best  of 
which  is  the  phosphorus  paste ; but  equal 
quantities  of  hemlock  and  old  cheese,  or  of  arse- 
nic and  meal,  are  as  good  as  anything  else.  The 
objection  to  using  poison  is  that  it  renders  the 
house  liable  to  a bad  smell ; but  this  evil  may 
be  lessened  by  placing  a dish  containing  oil  of 
vitriol  poured  on  saltpetre,  or  chloride  of  lime 
and  water,  where  the  smell  is  most  annoying. 

MIGNONETTE. — One  of  the  most  popular 
of  the  hardy  annuals.  It  will  thrive  in  any 
good  garden  soil  and  requires  no  care ; 
and  where  this  plant  has  once  grown  well  it 
will  come  up  year  after  year  from  self-sown 
seed.  Sow  late  in  the  autumn  and  it  will  come 
up  early  the  next  spring  and  bloom  profusely 
all  summer.  The  flowers  of  the  common  vari- 
ety are  a greenish  white,  and  of  exquisite 
fragrance.  Parson’s  new  white,  and  the  crimson 
flowered,  are  choice  novelties. 

MILDEW. — This  is  one  of  the  most  dif- 
ficult of  stains  to  remove,  and  cannot  be  re- 
moved at  all  unless  it  is  attacked  early.  Mix 
soft  soap  with  powdered  starch,  half  as  much 
salt,  and  the  juice  of  a lemon ; spread  this  mix- 
ture on  both  sides  of  the  mildewed  cloth.  Let 
it  lie  on  the  grass  day  and  night  till  the  stain 
comes  out,  renewing  the  application  two  or 
three  times  a day. 

Salt  wet  with  tomato-juice  will  sometimes 
extract  the  stain.  Spread  the  cloth  on  the  grass 
in  the  sun  as  before. 

MILK. — This  is  one  of  the  most  important 
foods  which  nature  has  supplied  for  the  use  of 
man,  since  it  contains  all  the  elements  of 
nutrition  within  itself,  and  in  the  most  digest- 
ible form ; and  there  is  no  other,  perhaps, 
which  is  found  in  such  universal  use  through- 
out the  world.  Cow’s  milk,  which  is  the  only 
kind  of  which  we  shall  treat  here,  is  the  most 
agreeable  of  any  ; and  even  for  infants  is  supe- 
rior to  any  other  except  the  human  milk.  {See 
Infants.)  Its  quality  depends  very  largely 
upon  the  breed  of  the  cow — some  breeds  give 
milk  much  richer  in  cream  than  others — and 


MILK-WEED 

also  upon  the  treatment  which  the  cow  receives. 
(See  Cow.)  Scarcely  less  important  is  the 
management  of  the  milk  itself,  after  it  is  drawn 
from  the  cow,  and  too  much  care  cannot  be  be- 
stowed upon  this  point.  (See  Dairy.) 

Milk  from  a farm  where  typhoid  fever  exists 
is  one  of  the  most  prolific  sources  of  the 
spread  of  that  disease.  In  hot  weather  milk  may 
be  kept  sweet  by  scalding  it  very  gently,  with- 
out boiling;  also  by  putting  a spoonful  of 
scraped  horse-radish  into  each  pan  of  milk, 
which  will  keep  it  sweet  for  several  days. 
Cream  may  be  kept  for  twenty-four  hours  by 
scalding  it ; and,  if  sweetened  with  pounded 
loaf-sugar,  it  may  be  kept  two  days.  Certain 
kinds  of  food  affect  the  flavor  of  milk;  turnips, 
for  instance,  impart  a flavor  which  is  very  dis- 
agreeable. This  flavor  may  be  removed  by 
dissolving  a pound  of  saltpetre  in  a gallon  of 
boiling  water,  and  adding  a half  pint  of  this 
solution  to  every  four  gallons  of  milk  as  it  comes 
from  the  cow. 

The  adulteration  of  milk,  as  sold  in  the  cities, 
has  always  been  considered  to  be  very  great — 
that  is,  it  has  been  believed  that  not  only  water, 
but  various  other  ingredients  are  added  in 
great  quantities.  Recent  analyses  in  several  of 
the  cities  seem  to  prove  that  this  is  a fallacy; 
and  that  while  water  is  added  in  numerous  in- 
stances, it  is  extremely  seldom  that  even  chalk 
or  starch  has  been  used  for  adulteration, 
while  of  other  substances  there  are  practically 
none.  Starch  is  said  to  be  sometimes  added  to 
conceal  the  blue  color  produced  by  the  addition 
of  water  ; it  is  easily  detected  by  the  violet-blue 
color  formed  when  the  milk  is  brought  in  con- 
tact with  a drop  of  tincture  of  iodine.  Chalk 
is  added  occasionally  to  neutralize  the  acidity 
in  sour  milk,  and  also  to  give  it  thickness  and 
body.  When  this  is  the  case,  the  deposit  left 
by  the  milk,  after  standing  some  time,  if  washed 
and  dissolved  in  acetic.acid  (vinegar)  will  effer- 
vesce. A more  common  fraud  than  any,  prob- 
ably, consists  in  removing  the  cream  ; but  this 
can  usually  be  told  merely  by  tasting. 

Condensed  Milk  is  simply  milk  boiled  till 
all  the  water  is  extracted  from  the  other  ingredi- 
ents, with  the  addition  of  a certain  proportion  of 
sugar.  Dilution  with  water  brings  it  back  near- 
ly to  its  original  condition.  This  milk  has 
several  advantages  over  the  fresh  in  cities, — 
one  of  which  is  that  it  is  certainly  pure.  (See 
Butter,  Buttermilk,  Cheese,  Cream,  and 
Dairy.) 

MILKING.  (See  Cow.) 

MILK-WEED.  — An  extensive  family  of 
plants,  known  also  as  “ milk-vetch,”  growing 
wild  in  many  portions  of  the  country,  the  young 
shoots  of  which,  when  about  four  to  six  inches 
high,  make  excellent  and  tender  greens.  Even 
after  the  young  leaves  become  detached  from 
the  stalk  and  begin  to  mature,  they  are  good. 
When  sold  in  the  market,  the  young  milk-weed 
is  usually  tied  up  like  asparagus,  in  bunches  ; 
but  the  stalks  are  shorter,  and  of  a lighter 
color.  It  is  best  in  May,  and  that  which  grows 
in  the  shade  is  most  tender  and  sweet.  Cook 
2 3 


MINCEMEAT  353 

and  stew  like  any  other  vegetable  used  for 
greens. 

MILLET. — The  smallest  seeded  of  the  corn 
plants,  being  a true  grass,  but  the  number  of 
seeds  in  an  ear  makes  up  for  the  diminutive 
size.  There  are  numerous  varieties  of  the  mil- 
let which  are  cultivated  as  food  in  different 
parts  of  the  world.  The  common  jnillet  is  the 
kind  usually  grown  here  (when  it  is  cultivated 
at  all),  and  of  this  there  are  two  kinds,  the 
brown  and  the  yellow.  The  first  is  sometimes 
used  as  a substitute  for  sago  and  rice,  and  it 
makes  very  good  puddings.  A yellow  variety 
of  the  Italian  millet,  called  “ golden-cloud  mil- 
let,” is  sold  in  the  grocers’  shops  for  making  pud- 
dings, and  is  very  delicate  and  wholesome. 

MINCEMEAT.— I.  Take  .--Beef-tongue,  or 
inside  of  roasted  sirloin,  1 lb  ; beef  kidney-suet, 
2 lbs  ; stoned  raisins  and  minced  apples,  each 
2 lbs  ; currants,  iy2  lbs  ; fine  sugar,  2)4  lbs  ; 
candied  orange,  lemon,  or  citron  peel,  8 to  16 
oz ; lemons,  2 ; peel  of  2 others  grated  ; salt,  l/2 
oz  ; nutmegs,  2 ; pounded  mace,  1 teaspoonful ; 
ground  gingei*,  rather  more  than  1 teaspoonful ; 
sherry  or  Madeira,  l/2  pt ; brandy,  l/2  pt. 

Boil  the  tongue  (without  salt)  until  quite  ten- 
der and  cut  free  from  the  rind ; or  if  the  sirloin 
be  used  cut  it  from  the  inside  of  a well-roasted 
joint.  Boil  the  two  lemons  whole  until  quite 
tender,  and  then  chop  them  up  entirely,  with 
the  exception  of  the  pips.  Mince  each  of  the 
above  ingredients  separately,  and  all  well  to- 
gether before  the  wine  and  brandy  are  added. 

After  the  mincemeat  is  mixed  thoroughly, 
press  it  into  a jar  or  jars,  and  keep  it  closely 
covered  ; it  should  be  stored  for  a few  days  be- 
fore it  is  used,  and  will  remain  good  all  winter. 
Some  persons  like  a slight  flavoring  of  cloves 
in  addition  to  the  other  spices  ; others  add  the 
juice  of  two  lemons,  and  a larger  quantity  of 
brandy.  Minor  changes  such  as  these  can  be 
made  to  suit  individual  tastes 

II.  Take:- Lean  beef  {boiled),  2 lbs;  beef- 
suet,  1 lb  ; apples,  5 lbs  ; seeded  raisins,  2 lbs  ; 
sultana  raisins,  1 lb  ; currants,  2 lbs ; citron,  y 
lb ; pounded  mace,  2 tablespoonfuls  ; pounded 
cinnamon,  2 tablespoonfuls ; nutmeg,  grated, 
1 ; cloves,  and  allspice,  1 tablespoonful  each  ; 
brown  sugar,  2 y2  lbs ; sherry,  1 qt ; brandy,  1 
pt. 

Wash  the  currants  and  raisins  and  pick  them 
out  carefully ; pare  and  core  the  apples  ; mince 
these,  together  with  the  beef  and  suet,  separ- 
ately ; and  mix  all  together  thoroughly  before 
adding  the  sherry  and  brandy.  This  may  be 
kept,  as  in  preceding  recipe,  all  winter. 

III.  Take  /-Beef-suet,  2 lbs;  currants,  2 lbs; 
raisins,  seeded,  1 lb;  bread,  2 oz;  brown  sugar, 
iy  lbs;  red  and  white  wine,  mixed,  3 gills  ; 
lemons,  peel  of  2 and  juice  of  1 ; candied 
orange-peel,  4 oz;  cinnamon,  mace,  nutmeg, 
and  salt,  to  taste. 

Prepare  and  mix  as  above.  If  preferred,  two 
biscuits  may  be  substituted  for  the  two  ounces 
of  bread. 

Mock  Mincemeat. — Take  /-Raisins,  1 tea- 
cupful ; currants,  1 teacupful ; molasses,  brown 


354: 


MINT 


MOREEN 


sugar,  and  sour  cider  each,  i teacupful ; cold 
water,  2 teacupfuls ; melted  butter,  1 yz  teacup- 
fuls ; eggs,  beaten,  2 ; . soda-crackers,  rolled 
fine,  6;  cinnamon  and  allspice  mixed,  1 table- 
spoonful ; salt,  pepper,  nutmeg,  and  cloves, 
each,  1 tablespoonful;  brandy,  1 wineglassful. 

Prepare  and  mix  as  above.  Boiled  cider  or 
the  syrup  from  sweet  pickles  may  be  used  for 
mince  pies,  instead  of  wine  or  brandy. 

MINT.  — The  common  mint,  sometimes 
called  “ spearmint  ” or  “ green  mint,”  is  what 
is  generally  meant  by  mint,  though  pennyroyal 
and  peppermint  are  members  of  the  same 
family.  The  young  leaves  of  from  one  to  six 
inches  in  length  are  the  parts  used.  Mint  will 
grow  in  any  sort  of  garden  soil  and  in  any  situ- 
ation, but  a warm,  sunny  spot  will  bring  it  for- 
ward earlier.  It  is  very  prolific,  and  a bed  six 
feet  long  and  two  feet  wide  will  produce  a large 
quantity.  It  is  best  propagated  by  cuttings,  or 
by  dividing  the  roots  of  an  old  plant.  Early 
spring  is  the  best  time  for  this  ; though  it  may 
be  done  at  any  time  by  shading  and  watering 
during  the  first  few  days.  Those  who  have 
conservatories  or  frames  should  keep  a root  or 
twig  of  mint  in  pots,  as  it  is  in  demand  for  lamb 
very  early  in  the  year,  before  it  puts  forth  its 
leaves  in  the  open  air.  In  drying  mint,  cut 
the  stalks  just  before  the  plant  is  in  full  flower, 
and  spread  them  out  thinly  in  some  dry,  shady 
place,  where  they  can  dry  slowly.  When  of 
sufficient  crispness,  put  it  in  paper  bags  (this  is 
better  than  laying  up  in  bunches),  and  keep  in 
a dry  place  till  wanted.  (See  Sauces.) 

MINT  JULEP.  (See  Julep.) 

MIRRORS.  (To  Clean.)— Remove  the  fly 
stains  and  other  spots  with  a damp  rag;  then 
polish  with  a dry  woollen  cloth  and  powder- 
blue.  Or,  take  a clean  piece  of  sponge,  well 
washed  out  in  water,  and  dip  it  into  methylated 
spirits  of  wine ; rub  it  rapidly  over  the  glass  ; 
put  over  it  powder-blue,  or  the  finest  sifted 
whiting ; rub  it  off  with  a clean  linen  cloth,  and 
polish  with  soft  Jeather  or  an  old  silk  hand- 
kerchief. 

MOCKING-BIRD.  — This  bird  takes  its 
name  from  its  remarkable  powers  of  voice, 
being  able  to  imitate  the  notes  of  nearly  every 
other  species  of  bird,  and  of  many  animals,  as 
well  as  noises  that  are  artificially  produced. 
Nor  are  its  notes  entirely  imitative  ; its  own 
song  is  bold,  full,  and  exceedingly  varied ; and 
in  confinement  it  loses  little  of  its  energy.  It 
is  a native  of  the  Southern  States,  whence 
those  found  in  our  bird-fanciers’  shops  are 
brought.  Only  the  males  sing,  and  these  may 
be  distinguished  by  the  markings  of  the  wings. 
When  these  are  opened,  if  the  bird  be  a male, 
two  distinct  bands  of  white  may  be  traced  en- 
tirely across  them,  and  the  central  feather  in 
each  wing  is  nearly  or  quite  white.  These 
markings  are  absent  in  the  females. 

Mocking-birds  require  much  larger  cages  than 
the  canary,  and  in  a northern  climate  must  be 
carefnlly  sheltered  in  winter  and  at  night.  The 
best  food  for  them  is  a mixture  of  boiled  white 
potatoes  and  boiled  yolk  of  egg  (two  parts  of 


potato  to  one  of  egg)  mashed  together.  They 
also  require  a liberal  supply  of  earth  worms, 
grasshoppers,  and  an  occasional  sprig  of  green 
vegetables,  together  with  berries  in  their  sea- 
son. The  care  of  the  cage  is  described  in 
article  on  Bird-Cage. 

The  mocking-bird  is  much  superior  to  the 
canary  as  a songster,  with  a greater  variety  of 
notes,  and  a more  brilliant  execution ; and  can 
be  taught  to  whistle  a variety  of  tunes  per- 
fectly, even  when  these  are  of  considerable 
length.  In  buying,  select  a young  bird,  as  it 
can  be  taught  more  easily,  and  is  less  likely  to 
suffer  from  change  of  residence  and  diet. 

MODERATEUR  LAMP.  (See  Carcel.) 

MOHAIR. — A kind  of  cloth  made  of  the 
hair  of  the  Angora  goat,  ancl  suitable  for  pal- 
etots, etc.  Mohair  dresses  were  much  worn 
by  ladies  a few  years  ago,  but  they  have  been 
superseded  lately  by  alpaca  cloths  and  other 
similar  materials.  Mohair  is  manufactured  in 
France,  England,  and  Scotland  ; the  French  is 
the  best.  It  comes  in  pieces  three-quarters  of 
a yard,  a yard,  and  a yard  and  a half  wide. 

MOLASSES. — This  term  is  commonly  ap- 
plied to  all  the  syrups  produced  in  the  manu- 
facture of  sugar,  but  properly  speaking  it 
means  only  that  brown  viscid  syrup  which  in- 
cludes those  portions  of  the  saccharine  juice 
that  are  uncrystallizable,  either  naturally,  or 
rendered  so  by  defects  in  the  process  of  boil- 
ing. It  contains  a large  proportion  of  the 
sweet  or  saccharine  principle  of  the  sugar-cane 
juice,  and  this,  combined  with  its  cheapness, 
renders  it  a useful  article  of  domestic  economy. 
It  is  considered  very  wholesome,  and  children 
are  generally  fond  of  it.  Molasses  may  be  de- 
prived of  its  peculiar  rank  taste  by  boiling  it 
for  half  an  hour  with  a little  pulverized  char- 
coal ; after  straining  it  from  the  charcoal  the 
flavor  of  the  liquor  will  be  found  equal  to  that 
of  sugar.  The  syrups  which  remain  after  the 
sugar  has  passed  through  the  process  of  refin- 
ing are  generally  known  as  treacle.  In  buy- 
ing molasses,  reject  the  very  dark,  and 
choose  that  which  is  clear  and  smooth. 

MOLASSES  CANDY.  (See  CANDY.) 

MOOSE. — This  animal  is  also  known  as  the 
“ moose-deer,”  and  its  flesh  may  properly  be 
called  moose-venison.  It  is  very  scarce,  but 
is  sometimes  found  in  the  winter  time  in  New 
York  and  Boston,  and  the  more  northern  mar- 
kets. The  meat  is  not  so  inviting  to  the  eye 
as  the  common  venison,  being  coarse,  dry,  dark, 
and  tough-looking;  but  sportsmen  say  it  is  ex- 
cellent food,  and  more  nutritious  than  any 
other.  The  tongue  is  considered  a delicacy, 
and  so  is  the  moufle  (the  large,  gristly  extremity 
of  the  nose).  Prepare,  cook  and  serve  like 
Venison. 

MOREEN. — A very  stout  woollen  stuff, 
made  for  furniture  and  chiefly  for  window-cur- 
tains. It  is  manufactured  either  plain  or 
watered.  Some  moreen  is  of  a very  nice  qual- 
ity, resembling  silk  damask  in  appearance  ; 
but  it  may  also  be  had  at  very  low  prices. 
Usual  width,  X yard. 


MORPHINE 


MOULD 


355 


MORPHINE.  — Poison.  Treatment , see 

Opium.  A vegetable  alkaloid  made  from  opium. 
It  is  a powerful  anodyne  and  sedative,  and  is 
much  used  in  medicine,  either  in  the  form  of 
hydrochlorate,  acetate,  sulphate,  or  citrate  ; the 
first-named  being  used  most  frequently.  The 
best  preparation  of  it  is  what  is  known  as  Magen- 
die's  Solution.  Morphine  is  a deadly  poison 
when  taken  in  overdoses,  and  its  use  is  attended 
with  such  danger  under  any  circumstances 
that  it  should  never  be  taken  except  by  and 
in  accordance  with  medical  advice.  In  sub- 
cutaneons  injections  of  morphine,  be  sure  to 
have  Magendie's  Solution  without  acid,  fresh 
and  clear,  or  an  abscess  will  result.  There 
is  danger  of  forming  a morphine  or  an  opium 
habit,  as  bad  as  the  alcohol  habit.  Moreover 
the  patient  may  be  under  the  influence  of  opium 
so  as  to  be  really  irresponsible,  and  yet  his  con- 
dition not  apparent  to  companions.  In  such  a 
state,  there  is  great  danger  of  his  seeking  the 
drug  and  taking  a poisonous  dose  ; it  should 
therefore  be  kept  out  of  his  reach.  In  the  so-call- 
ed “ reaction  ” from  excessive  doses  of  opium, 
the  suicidal  mania  is  apt  to  come,  so  the  patient 
should  be  watched,  even  for  three  or  four  days 
after  the  effects  of  the  drug  appear  to  be  entire- 
ly gone.  After  it  has  been  necessary  to  give 
heavy  doses  of  opium,  it  should  not  be  stopped 
off  suddenly,  but  the  dose  should  be  continued 
though  gradually  but  inexorably  lessened  at 
the  rate  of  about  one-third  per  day.  Opium  is 
probably  the  most  powerful  stimulant  known, 
and  the  effects  of  its  sudden  withdrawal  are 
more  painful  than  those  of  even  alcohol. 

MORTAR.  ( See  Wedgewood  mortar.) 

MOSELLE  WINES.— These  wines  are 
made  in  the  valley  of  the  Moselle  (Germany), 
and  are  usually  classified  with  the  Rhine  wines, 
though  they  are  much  inferior  to  the  better 
qualities  of  the  latter.  They  are  also  lighter 
and  less  spirituous,  and  of  rather  thin  body  ; 
but  they  are  noted  for  an  agreeable  aromatic 
flavor,  which,  however,  is  said  to  be  generally 
imparted  to  the  wine  by  mixing  with  it  tincture 
of  elder-flowers.  The  better  sorts  of  Moselle 
are  highly  esteemed  in  Germany  for  their  sup- 
posed medicinal  properties  ; they  are  believed 
to  be  not  only  generous  and  stimulating  but 
slightly  laxative. 

The  most  celebrated  brands  are  the  Branne- 
berger,  and  Scharzberger ; and  scarcely  less 
esteemed  are  the  Zeltigner,  Graachen , Dun , 
Josephshoff,  Berncastle,  Grunhausen,  Scharg- 
hoffber^er,  and  Piesporter  A uslese.  By  a pro- 
cess similar  to  that  by  which  champagne  is 
made,  large  quantities  of  sparkling  Moselle 
are  manufactured,  which  resembles  champagne 
in  taste,  and  by  means  of  false  labels  is  sold  as 
such.  It  is  never  a pure  and  good  wine. 

Moselle  is  essentially  a summer  wine,  and 
should  be  drunk  cooled. 

MOSQUITOES. — The  only  sure  protection 
against  these  troublesome  little  insects  is  to 
have  nets  at  the  windows,  so  as  to  keep  them 
out  of  the  room,  or.  failing  this,  to  have  close 
nets  around  the  bed.  The  fumes  of  camphor 


are  supposed  to  be  disagreeable  to  them,  and 
in  the  absence  of  the  nets  may  be  applied  to 
the  face ; but  whatever  effect  it  has  is  only  tem- 
porary. Spirits  of  ammonia  (hartshorn)  is  the 
best  antidote  for  their  bites ; salt  and  water  is 
good. 

MOSS,  ICELAND.  (See  Lichens.) 

MOTHS. — Many  persons  suppose  that  moths 
are  produced  in  clothes  that  are  laid  by,  merely 
by  their  being  shut  up  in  closed  places ; but 
this  is  an  error.  The  moths  themselves  are  quite 
harmless,  and  it  is  only  in  their  larva  or  maggot 
state  that  they  feed  upon  the  woollen  fabric. 
None  of  these  larvae  ever  appear  among  clothes 
or  articles  of  any  kind,  provided  none  of  the 
winged  moths  can  have  access  to  them  to  lay 
their  eggs  ; therefore,  by  preventing  the  winged 
moths  from  obtaining  access  to  what  you  wish 
to  preserve,  no  injury  by  moths  can  possibly 
happen  to  them.  By  tying  up  any  article  that 
is  free  from  moths  in  paper,  calico,  or  linen  so 
tightly  that  the  winged  moths  cannot  penetrate 
it,  it  may  be  kept  secure.  But  it  is  to  be 
observed  that  the  moth  is  very  cunning,  and 
unless  the  enfolding  has  been  very  careful  they 
will  effect  an  entrance.  Camphor,  cedar-wood, 
pepper  and  Russia-leather  will,  to  a certain 
extent,  repel  their  advances ; but  neither  of 
them  can  be  relied  on,  and  the  above  precau- 
tion is  all  that  is  necessary. 

Should  any  woollen  articles  appear  to  be 
attacked  by  moths,  beating  and  brushing,  and 
exposure  to  the  sun  should  be  resorted  to  at 
once.  They  should  then  be  hung  in  a closet 
or  wardrobe  in  which  an  open  vessel  containing 
spirits  of  turpentine  has  been  placed ; this  wall 
effectually  destroy  all  the  larvae.  (See  Carpets.) 

MOULD.— Mouldiness  is  caused  by  the 
growth  of  minute  vegetation.  Ink,  paste, 
leather,  and  seeds  most  frequently  suffer  from  it. 
A clove,  or  a few  drops  of  any  essential  oil, 
will  preserve  ink.  Leather  may  be  preserved 
by  the  same  substances  ; thus,  Russia-leather, 
which  is  perfumed  with  tar  of  birch,  not  only 
never  becomes  mouldy  but  prevents  its  occur- 
ring in  other  bodies.  A few  drops  of  essential 
oil  put  in  the  box  in  which  they  are  packed 
will  keep  books  entirely  free  from  mould.  For 
harness,  oil  of  turpentine  is  good.  Alum  and 
resin  are  used  to  preserve  bookbinders’-paste, 
but  ineffectually ; oil  of  turpentine  (three  or 
four  drops  to  a quart)  succeeds  better,  but  by 
small  quantities  of  oil  of  peppermint,  anise, 
or  cassia,  paste  has  been  preserved  for  several 
years.  Seeds  may  also  be  preserved  by  putting 
a few  drops  of  any  of  the  essential  oils  on  the 
paper  or  cloth  in  which  they  are  enclosed ; and 
this  is  of  great  consequence  w'hen  they  are 
sent  to  a distance.  Of  course  moisture  must 
be  excluded  as  much  as  possible,  as  the  oils 
prevent  the  bad  effects  of  mould  only. 

Iron-mould  is  in  reality  a stain  from  rust, 
and  is  as  nearly  ineradicable  as  stain  can  be. 
By  moistening  the  part  with  ink,  and,  while 
this  is  wet,  rubbing  it  with  muriatic  acid  diluted 
with  five  times  its  weight  of  water,  both  stains 
may  sometimes  be  removed  together. 


356 


MUCILAGE 


MULLET 


MUCILAGE. — A solution  of  gum  in  water, 
used  in  medicine,  and  as  a paste  in  many 
household  processes.  Mucilage  of  gum-arabic 
is  best  for  these  latter  purposes.  Dissolve 
gum-arabic  (the  best  is  nearly  colorless)  in 
either  hot  or  cold  water  till  the  whole  is  of  the 
consistency  of  cream,  and  keep  it  as  much  as 
possible  from  contact  with  the  air.  Add  a few 
drops  of  any  essential  oil,  to  prevent  its  sour- 
ing. About  30  drops  of  syrupy  glycerine  to  a 
pint  of  mucilage  will  prevent  its  cracking  when 
dry,  or  making  labels  curl. 

MUFFINS. — Take  .--Flour,  3 pts  ; milk,  1 ]/2 
pts  ; yeast,  \2  teacupful ; eggs,  2 ; melted  but- 
ter, 4 tablespoonfuls  ; salt,  1 teaspoonful. 

Heat  the  milk  till  lukewarm,  and  then  mix 
in  the  flour;  beat  the  eggs,  and  add  them  with 
the  other  ingredients.  Set  the  batter  to  rise 
in  a warm  place  ; when  light,  butter  the  muffin 
rings,  turn  in  the  mixture,  and  bake  on  a grid- 
dle not  too  hot,  till  the  muffins  are  of  a light 
brown.  Serve  hot. 

Bread  Muffins. — Take  .--Raised  bread,  4 
thick  slices ; flour,  two  tablespoonfuls  ; milk, 
^ pt ; eggs,  3. 

Cut  all  the  crust  off  the  slices  of  bread,  put 
them  in  a pan  and  pour  enough  boiling  water 
over  them  to  soak  them  well ; cover  it  over 
and  let  it  stand  an  hour. 

Then  drain  off  the  water,  and  stir  the  soaked 
bread  till  it  is  a smooth  paste  ; stir  in  the  flour 
and  the  milk ; and  add  the  eggs,  after  having 
beaten  them  very  light.  Butter  the  muffin- 
rings,  fill  them  with  the  mixture,  and  bake 
brown.  These  muffins,  if  properly  made,  are 
very  light  and  nice. 

Hominy  Muffins. — Take  .--Small  hominy, 
boiled,  two  cupfuls  ; milk,  two  cupfuls ; melted 
butter,  yz  cupful ; salt,  2 even  teaspoonfuls ; 
sugar,  two  tablespoonfuls  ; flour,  1 y2  cupfuls ; 
baking  powder,  2 teaspoonfuls  ; eggs  3. 

Sift  the  baking  powder  with  the  flour  ; and 
beat  in  a little  of  the  milk,  and  all  the  eggs, 
butter,  salt,  sugar  and  hominy,  which  should 
be  warm  to  mix  well;  add  the  rest  of  the  milk; 
bake  in  a quick  oven  in  muffin  rings  placed 
in  a dripping-pan. 

Rice  Muffins. — Take  .--Boiled  rice,  y2  pt; 
flour,  1 y2  pts  ; milk,  1 pt ; butter  (or  lard),  1 gill ; 
salt,  1 teaspoonful ; baking  powder,  4 even 
teaspoonfuls. 

Beat  the  butter,  salt  and  eggs  into  the  warm 
nee ; add  the  flour,  with  which  the  baking 
powder  has  been  sifted,  and  the  milk;  bake 
as  above. 

Corn  Muffins. — Pour  a pint  of  scalding 
milk  on  three  gills  of  corn  meal ; add  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  melted  butter  and  half  a tea- 
spoonful of  salt ; stir  in  two  well  beaten  eggs, 
and  one  pint  and  one  tablespoonful  of  flour, 
which  has  been  sifted  with  two  even  table- 
spoonfuls  of  baking-powder.  Bake  about  an 
hour. 

Graham  Muffins  may  be  made  by  substitut- 
ing unbolted  flour  or  Indian  meal  in  the  above 
receipt.  Use  cold  milk. 

MULBERRY. — The  red  mulberry  is  the 


best.  It  has  an  agreeable  acid,  sugary  taste. 
Black  mulberries  are  larger  and  sweeter,  but 
are  slightly  insipid.  The  white  variety  is 
smaller  than  either,  and  in  flavor  resembles 
the  black.  Mulberries  begin  to  ripen  about 
the  1st  of  August.  When  used  for  dessert, 
they  should  be  freshly  gathered,  and  so  ripe 
as  to  fall  from  the  trees  when  slightly  shaken. 
Boiling  black  mulberries  in  a little  water  till  of 
the  consistency  of  cream  makes  a syrup  which 
is  good  for  sore  throat. 

Cider  (Mulberry). — Press  the  juice  from 
ripe  mulberries ; mix  it  with  an  equal  quantity 
of  apple-juice ; and  proceed  as  in  making 
cider. 

MULCH. — Half-rotten  matting,  straw, 

leaves,  etc.,  strewn  around  the  roots  of  plants 
to  protect  them  from  unfavorable  weather. 
When  completely  rotted,  it  makes  an  excellent 
manure. 

MULLED  DRINKS  (Cider).— Take  of 
bruised  stick  cinnamon  about  % oz;  half  a 
grated  nutmeg;  10  or  12  bruised  cloves;  infuse 
in  half  a pint  of  boiling  water  for  an  hour  ; 
strain  the  liquid,  add  sugar  to  the  taste,  and 
pour  it  into  a pint  of  hot  cider. 

Claret. — Boil  the  sugar  and  spice  as  above 
for  a few  minutes  in  just  enough  wine  for  the 
purpose  ; then  add  the  remainder  and  boil  as 
above  for  a second  or  two. 

Port. — Boil  any  of  the  spices  (cloves,  cinna- 
mon, nutmeg  or  mace)  in  half  a pint  of  water, 
with  three  ounces  of  sugar;  after  it  has  boiled 
five  minutes  or  so,  add  from  six  to  twelve 
wineglassfuls  of  rich  port  wine ; let  it  boil 
up  once  and  pour  out  into  the  vessel  in  which 
it  is  to  be  served.  If  desired,  the  water  can 
be  drained  off  from  the  spices  before  the 
wine  is  added  to  it;  and  lemon  or  orange  juice 
added. 

Any  other  wine,  and  either  ale  or  porter, 
may  be  “ mulled  ” like  claret  in  the  same  way ; 
it  is  a very  pleasant  drink  for  winter. 

MULLET. — There  are  several  varieties  of 
the  mullet,  among  which  the  striped  mullet  is 
most  plentiful.  It  is  in  season  from  Septem- 
ber to  May,  and  is  usually  very  fat ; but  it  has 
a rather  unpleasant  flavor,  and  is  not  much 
esteemed  for  the  table.  The  golden  mullet, 
or  mullet-sucker,  is  a beautiful  fresh  water  fish, 
in  season  during  the  winter  and  spring  months. 
The  flesh  is  sweet,  but  rather  dry,  and  quite 
full  of  small  bones.  The  plain  red  mullet  is 
abundant  in  summer,  and  may  be  had  through- 
out the  year.  The  white  ox  gray  mullet  is  also 
very  fine. 


Prepare,  cook,  and  serve  white  mullet  as 
directed  for  fresh  mackerel. 

Baked,  Broiled,  or  Roast  Red  Mullet. — 


MULLIGATAYVNEY 


MUSHROOM 


357 


First  wash  and  then  dry  the  fish  thoroughly  in 
a cloth ; neither  scale  nor  open  it,  but  take  out 
the  gills  gently  and  carefully  with  the  small 
intestine  which  will  adhere  to  them;  wrap  it 
closely  in  a sheet  of  thickly  buttered  paper,  tie 
this  securely  at  the  ends  and  over  the  mullet 
with  pack-thread,  and  bake  it  in  a moderate 
oven;  broil  it  over  a clear  but  not  too  hot  fire, 


Red  Mullet. 


or  roast  it  in  a Dutch  oven : from  twenty  to 
twenty-five  minutes  will  generally  be  sufficient 
to  dress  it  in  either  way.  For  sauce,  add  a 
little  melted  butter  to  the  liquor  which  has 
flowed  from  the  fish,  a dessert-spoonful  of 
essence  of  anchovies,  some  cayenne,  a little 
lemon-juice,  and  (if  desired)  a wineglassful  of 
port  or  claret.  Remove  the  pack-thread  and 
send  the  mullet  to  table  in  the  paper  wrapping ; 
or  remove  the  paper  and  dish  with  the  sauce. 

MULLAGATAWNY disjoint  a rabbit, 

cut  the  back  into  6 pieces ; slice  I i lbs  beef,  thin. 
Place  in  a sautoir  6 onions  sliced,  and  3 ozs 
butter;  when  brown  remove  into  a stew-pan; 
in  the  butter  brown  the  rabbit  and  beef;  put 
into  the  bottom  of  a soup-pot  4 slices  of  raw 
ham;  lay  in  the  rabbit  and  beef,  the  onions,  2 
sour  apples  grated,  and  rind  of  lemon.  Now 
in  the  sautoir  put  2 ozs  butter,  2 ozs  flour,  3 ta- 
blespoonfuls of  curry-powder,  1 large  teaspoon- 
ful salt;  stir  with  a wooden  spoon  2 minutes; 
add  2 qts  of  boiling  stock  with  which  the  sautoir 
has  been  rinsed  out,  and  4 pint  white  wine; 
simmer  il  hours,  skim  clean ; when  ready  pour 
into  tureen;  serve  with  rice.  {See  under  Soup.) 

MUMPS. — A swelling  of  the  glands  about 
the  throat.  This  curious  disease  makes  its  ap- 
pearance usually  in  the  spring,  and  young 
persons  of  both  sexes  are  much  more  liable  to 
be  attacked  by  it  than  those  farther  advanced 
in  life.  It  commences  with  a feeling  of  pain 
and  tension  beneath  the  ear,  swelling  soon  de- 
velops, and  as  the  disease  progresses  the  least 
motion  of  the  jaw  becomes  extremely  painful. 
Sometimes  only  one  side  is  affected,  sometimes 
both  at  once,  more  commonly  one  after  the 
other.  The  disease  is  accompanied  by  fever, 
usually  very  slight,  but  occasionally  more  se- 
rious. About  the  fourth  day  from  the  com- 
mencement of  the  swelling,  the  disease  is  at  its 
height.  A gentle  moisture  then  begins  to 
exude  from  the  surface  of  the  swelling,  accom- 
panied with  a general  perspiration  of  the  whole 
body,  which,  if  it  be  encouraged  by  keeping 
warm  in  bed  and  drinking  diluent  fluids,  seems 
to  form  the  natural  crisis  of  the  disease,  which 
begins  to  decline  and  usually  disappears  about 
the  eighth  day. 

If,  however,  by  exposure  to  cold  or  impru- 


dent management,  this  natural  process  of  the 
disease  is  interrupted,  the  tumors  about  the 
throat  suddenly  subside  and  are  followed  by 
swellings  of  the  testicles  in  males  and  of  the 
breasts  in  females,  accompanied  with  increased 
fever. 

Treatment. — In  ordinary  cases  very  little 
treatment  is  required  beyond  the  administering 
of  a mild  laxative  and  the  application  of  warm 
poultices  to  the  parts  affected.  But  great  pre- 
cautions must  be  taken  against  taking  cold, 
especially  if  the  swelling  is  transferred  from  the 
throat  to  the  testicles  or  breast.  During  the 
first  day  or  two  of  the  disease  it  is  well  to  en- 
courage the  swelling  by  rubbing  the  parts  gen- 
tly with  some  volatile  liniment ; and  for  the  same 
reason,  the  parts  may  be  covered  with  soft  flan- 
nel. Should  the  swelling  suddenly  subside 
and  any  tendency  to  delirium  manifest  itself,  a 
physician  should  be  summoned  at  once. 

Mumps  are  epidemic,  and  are  generally  be- 
lieved to  be  contagious. 

MUSCADINE. — A very  large,  sweet,  and 
spicy  grape,  which  grows  in  great  abundance 
throughout  several  of  the  Southern  States.  The 
skin  is  very  thick  and  tough,  and  the  pulp  has 
a spicy  flavor  which  is  extremely  pleasant.  No 
cultivated  grape  approaches  the  muscadine  in 
size  ; it  is  generally  twice  as  large  as  the  largest 
Delaware  or  Concord.  Muscadines  ripen  in 
August.  Wine  is  made  from  them  in  the  same 
way  as  from  other  grapes. 

MUSH. — Take  a pint  of  Indian  meal,  wet  it 
up  with  cold  water,  and  stir  it  into  two  quarts 
of  cold  water,  salting  to  taste.  Boil  two  hours 
stirring  often  with  a wooden  spoon  or  stick, 
and  then  remove  from  the  fire.  This  may  be 
eaten  with  butter  simply,  or  with  milk  and 
sugar,  and  is  very  good  for  the  sickroom  or  the 
nursery.  Graham  meal  may  be  substituted  for 
the  Indian  if  liked. 

MUSHROOM. — The  mushroom  is  consid- 
ered by  many  one  of  the  greatest  delicacies 
known  to  our  tables,  and  its  richness  in  nitro- 
genous elements  renders  it  one  of  the  most 
nutritious  of  all  the  edible  vegetables ; but 
there  are  a variety  of  poisonous  fungi  which  so 
closely  resemble  mushrooms  in  appearance 
that  no  one  should  venture  to  eat  of  the  latter 
without  knowing  with  certainty  how  to  select 
the  proper  kind.  Edible  mushrooms  are  most 
plentiful  in  August  and  September,  and  spring 
up  in  the  open  fields  after  low-lying  fogs  or 
heavy  dews ; in  looking  for  them  avoid  low, 
damp,  shady  spots.  The  young  button  (as  it 
is  generally  called)  has  the  top  or  cap  quite 
white,  while  the  gills  or  under  part  are  loose, 
and  of  a light  red  or  flesh  color  ; as  it  increases 
in  size  and  age,  the  top  changes  to  a tawny  or 
brown  color,  and  looks  scurvy,  and  the  gills 
change  to  a darker  red  or  black.  The  stem  is 
also  white  and  round,  and  turns  dark  with  age. 
The  upper  skin  of  the  mushroom  peels  off 
readily ; that  of  the  poisonous  fungus  does  not. 
The  button  is  sometimes  found  perfectly  round, 
and  when  smooth  and  white  is  the  best  kind  of 
mushroom.  Every  edible  mushroom  has  a 


3o8 


MUSHROOM 


MUSK 


decidedly  pleasant  odor,  and  is  never  shiny; 
while  those  which  are  dangerous  either  have  a 
bad  odor  or  none  at  all.  By  those  however  who 
are  not  already  skilled  in  detecting  the  charac- 
teristics of  mushrooms  still  further  tests  should 
be  applied.  For  instance,  sprinkle  salt  on  the 
spongy  part  or  gill  of  the  mushrooms  to  be 
tried  ; if  they  turn  yellow  they  are  poisonous  ; 
but  if  they  turn  black  they  are  good.  Allow 
the  salt  to  act  a little  time  before  deciding  as 
to  the  color  produced.  Another  simple  and 
efficient  test  is  to  cook  a peeled  white  onion  in 
the  pot  with  the  mushrooms ; if  it  turns  black, 
the  mushrooms  are  poisonous  and  should  be 
thrown  away.  It  is  also  deemed  prudent  to 
reject  mushrooms  when  a silver  spoon  used  in 
stirring  them  turns  black. 

In  case  of  suspected  poisoning  by  spurious 
mushrooms,  take  a liberal  dose  of  the  emetic 
nearest  to  hand.  After  the  stomach  has  settled, 
take  from  one  to  three  tablespoonfuls  of  castor- 
oil. 

Baked  Mushrooms. — Select  large  ones;  trim 
the  stalks,  remove  skins  with  a damp  cloth. 
Place  them  on  oval  croutons;  put  them  into  a 
baking-pan;  season  with  salt,  white  pepper, 
lemon  juice,  and  chopped  parsley.  Cook  in  a 
hot  oven  5 or  6 minutes,  basting  them  often 
with  rich  hot  gravy  in  which  a lump  of  butter 
has  been  melted.  Arrange  the  croutons  on 
their  dish,  and  pour  over  them  the  gravy. 
Serve  sauce  a la  Maitre  d' Hotel  in  a tureen. 

Broiled  Mushrooms. — Large  ones  are  best 
for  this  purpose.  Peel  off  the  upper  skin,  and 
lay  them,  with  the  gills  upward,  on  the  gridiron  ; 
sprinkle  them  with  salt  and  pepper,  and  drop 
little  bits  of  butter  over  them  here  and  there. 
Broil  them  over  a hot,  clear  fire,  turning  them 
over  when  browned  on  one  side  ; serve  hot. 

Catsup  (Mushroom.)  ( See  Catsup.) 

Dried  Mushrooms.— Peel  small,  sound,  fresh- 
ly-gathered  mushrooms,  cut  off  the  stems,  and 
scrape  off  the  fur  entirely ; then  arrange  them 
singly  on  tins  or  dishes,  and  dry  them  as  grad- 
ually as  possible  in  a gentle  oven.  When  they 
are  dry,  put  them  into  tin  canisters,  and  store 
them  where  they  will  be  secure  from  damp. 
When  wanted  for  table,  they  should  be  put  into 
cold  gravy,  slowly  heated,  and  gently  simmered 
until  they  are  tender. 

Pickled  Mushrooms.— Select  the  smallest 
buttons  of  the  meadow  mushrooms,  and  let 
them  be  as  freshly  gathered  as  possible.  Cut 
the  stems  off  quite  close,  and  clean  them  with 
a bit  of  new  flannel  slightly  moistened,  and 
dipped  into  fine  salt ; throw  them  as  they  are 
done  into  plenty  of  spring-water,  mixed  with  a 
large  spoonful  of  salt,  but  drain  them  from  it 
quickly  afterwards,  and  lay  them  into  a soft 
cloth  to  dry,  or  the  moisture  which  hangs  about 
them  will  too  much  weaken  the  pickle.  For 
each  quart  of  the  mushrooms  thus  prepared, 
take  nearly  a quart  of  the  palest  white  wine 
vinegar  (this  is  far  superior  to  the  distilled 
vinegar  generally  used  for  the  purpose,  and  the 
variation  in  the  color  of  the  mushrooms  will  be 
slight),  and  add  to  it  a heaped  teaspoonful  of 


salt,  half  an  ounce  of  whole  white  pepper,  an 
ounce  of  ginger,  sliced  or  slightly  bruised, 
about  the  fourth  of  a saltspbonful  of  cayenne 
tied  in  a small  bit  of  muslin,  and  two  large 
blades  of  mace : to  these  may  be  added  half  a 
small  nutmeg,  sliced,  but  too  much  spice  will 
entirely  overpower  the  fine  natural  flavor  of  the 
mushrooms.  When  the  pickle  boils,  throw 
them  in,  and  boil  them  in  it  over  a clear  fire 
moderately  fast  from  six  to  nine  minutes,  or 
somewhat  longer,  should  they  not  be  very  small. 
When  they  are  much  disproportioned  in  size, 
the  larger  ones  should  have  two  minutes  boil 
before  the  others  are  thrown  into  the  vinegar. 
As  soon  as  they  are  tolerably  tender,  put  them 
at  once  into  small  stone  jars,  or  into  ivar}n 
wide-necked  bottles,  and  divide  the  spice  equally 
amongst  them.  The  following  day,  or  as  soon 
as  they  are  perfectly  cold,  secure  them  from 
the  air  with  large  corks,  or  tie  skins  and  paper 
over  them.  They  should  be  stored  in  a dry 
place,  and  guarded  from  severe  frost.  When 
the  color  of  the  mushrooms  is  more  considered 
than  the  excellence  of  the  pickle,  the  distilled 
vinegar  can  be  used  for  it. 

Sweetbreads  and  Mushrooms — Take  equal 
quantities  of  sweetbreads  and  mushrooms; 
put  into  a sauce-pan  and  barely  cover  the  mush- 
rooms with  water;  cover  the  sauce-pan,  and 
stew  half  an  hour;  take  them  from  the  water, 
lay  in  the  sweetbreads  and  stew  fifteen  min- 
utes. When  both  are  cool,  cut  them  into 
pieces  the  size  of  grains  of  mocha  coffee; 
stew  a few  minutes  in  a little  cream ; season 
with  white  pepper,  salt,  and  mace,  if  liked; 
dredge  in  a little  flour,  to  make  the  cream 
barely  thick  enough  to  keep  the  whole  together 
in  a soft  mass.  Serve  hot,  in  paper  cases,  on 
a napkin. 

Powder  (Mushroom). — Take  dried  mush- 
rooms (prepared  as  above)  and  pound  them  to 
a very  fine  powder ; sift  it,  and  put  it  immedi- 
ately into  small  and  perfectly  dry  bottles ; cork 
and  seal  them  without  delay,  for  if  the  powder 
be  long  exposed  to  the  air  so  as  to  imbibe  any 
humidity,  or  if  it  be  not  well  secured  from  it  in 
the  bottles,  it  will  become  putrid.  This  is  an 
excellent  addition  to  many  dishes  and  sauces. 
A teaspoonful  of  it,  with  a quarter  of  a pint  of 
strong  veal  gravy,  as  much  cream,  and  a small 
dessert  spoonful  of  flour,  will  made  a good 
bechamel  or  white  sauce. 

Stewed  Mushrooms. — I.  Peel,  and  trim  the 
stalks;  place  in  a stew-pan  with  half  the  juice 
of  a lemon,  white  pepper  and  salt  to  taste,  a 
very  little  scraped  garlic,  and  1 oz  of  butter; 
cover  close,  and  stew  for  5 minutes,  add 
bechamel,  allemande,  or  veloute  sauce  to  just 
cover;  boil  up  once  and  serve. 

II. — Peel,  trim  the  stalks,  and  cut  through  and 
down  the  stalkintoyor  4 slices.  Place  in  a stew- 
pan  in  which  asmallshallothasbeen  minced  and 
fried  in  2 oz  of  butter,  with  white  pepper  and  salt 
to  taste.  Pass  over  the  fire  a few  minutes,  then 
addenoughEspagnoleorcullis  to  cover;  simmer 
1 minute,  addasmallglassof  red  wine,  and  serve. 

MUSK.— A highly  odorous  substance  found 


MUSK-MELON 


MUSTARD 


359 


in  the  musk-deer , an  animal  which  is  a native 
of  Thibet,  China,  and  Siberia.  A variety  of 
musk  is  also  found  in  the  musk-rat  of  Canada. 
Musk  is  of  a bitter  taste,  and  has  a more 
powerful  scent  than  any  substance  known ; 
other  substances  in  its  neighborhood  become 
strongly  infected  by  it,  and  when  once  per- 
fumed retain  the  scent  for  a long  time.  It  also 
has  the  property,  when  employed  in  very  small 
quantities,  of  augmenting  the  scent  of  other 
substances  without  imparting  its  own.  The 
best  musk  comes  from  China ; and  to  have  it 
genuine  it  should  be  purchased  in  the  natural 
bag,  or  pod,  as  it  is  very  often  adulterated. 
The  Bengal  musk  is  inferior,  and  that  from 
Russia  the  worst  of  all.  The  hair  on  the  pod 
of  the  best  musk  is  a fawn  color,  and  on  the  in- 
ferior a dirty  white.  When  musk  is  bought 
otherwise  than  in  the  pod,  draw  a silken  thread 
two  or  three  times  through  a clove  of  moist 
garlic,  and  then  through  the  musk  ; the  latter, 
if  genuine,  will  instantly  overcome  the  odor  of 
the  garlic.  To  preserve  musk  well,  keep  it 
perfectly  dry ; and  when  it  is  to  be  used  as  a 
perfume,  moisten  it. 

MUSK-MELON.  — The  varieties  of  this 
melon  are  very  numerous,  some  of  them  being 
distinguished  by  a thick  and  warty  rind,  some 
by  a rind  cracked  in  a net-like  manner,  some 
by  ribs  and  furrows,  and  others  by  a perfectly 
smooth  and  thin  rind.  They  differ  also  in  the 
color  of  the  flesh  of  the  fruit,  which  is  green, 
yellow,  and  red ; and  in  size,  which  varies  from 
three  or  four  inches  to  a foot  in  diameter.  The 
choicest  varieties  are  the  citroti,  cantaloupe , 
nutmeg,  and  pineapple.  Of  these,  the  citron 
is  most  valued  for  its  sweetness,  richness,  and 
high  flavor.  They  appear  in  the  Southern 
markets  (whence  they  are  shipped  North)  about 
the  first  of  August,  and  are  distinguished  by 
their  small  size  and  comparatively  smooth  rind. 
1'he  nutmeg  is  preferred  by  most  people  for 
its  high  musky  flavor  and  large  size,  and  the 
skin  appears  as  if  covered  with  a net,  ribbed 
or  crossed  like  the  nutmeg  spice.  They  are  in 
season  in  July  and  August,  and  are  among  the 
most  extensively  cultivated  of  the  varieties. 
The  cantaloupe  is  the  first  ripe  musk-melon 
but  is  less  cultivated  than  the  former.  It  has 
a sweet  and  pleasant  flavor.  Most  musk- 
melons  when  ripe  have  a decided  yellowish 
tinge,  but  this  test  is  not  always  conclusive. 

MUSK-RAT.  — This  animal  is  sometimes 
seen  in  the  Northern  markets,  but  is  not  often 
eaten,  more  on  account  of  its  name  probably 
than  anything  else,  for  its  flesh  is  both  tender 
and  well  flavored.  If  it  can  be  hung  and  frozen 
a few  days  it  is  considered  still  better.  Pre- 
pare, cook,  and  serve  like  Rabbit. 

MUSLIN.— A fine,  thin,  flimsy  sort  of 
cotton  cloth,  which  has  a fine  warp  on  its 
surface.  There  are  numberless  varieties  of 
muslin,  it  being  manufactured  in  nearly  every 
country  of  the  world.  The  best  is  the  Indian 
muslin,  which  has  a special  reputation  for  dura- 
bility, and  for  retaining  its  whiteness  ; and  the  i 
Swiss  muslin  ranks  next.  But  the  English  and  | 


American  muslins  are  scarcely  inferior,  and 
serve  admirably  for  all  purposes  for  which 
the  cloth  can  be  used.  Muslin  comes  of  differ- 
ent widths,  but  the  customary  one  is  a yard ; it 
should  be  carefully  shrunk  before  being  cut 
into  garments. 

MUSSELS. — These  shell-fish  are  not  highly 
esteemed  as  food,  being  tough  of  texture,  hard 
to  digest,  and  consequently  not  agreeing  with 
many  stomachs.  They  may  be  obtained  in 
the  markets,  however,  though  not  in  great 
quantities,  and  are  best  during  the  fall  and 
winter  months.  Boiling  and  pickling  them  are 
the  best  methods  of  preparing  them.  Choose 
such  as  are  large  in  the  shell,  plump  in  the 
flesh,  and  brilliant  orange  in  hue. 

Boiled  Mussels. — Put  the  mussels  into  a 
large  tin  sauce-pan  without  water,  and  with  the 
lid  on.  Set  it  over  a brisk  fire  ; the  mussels 
at  the  bottom  will  immediately  let  out  enough 
liquor  to  keep  them  from  burning.  As  soon  as 
they  begin  to  warm  shake  or  “hustle”  the 
sauce-pan  so  as  to  bring  the  bottom  over  the 
top ; and  so  on  till  all  the  mussels  have  felt  the 
influence  of  the  heat.  When  they  open  they 
are  done ; too  much  cooked  they  are  spoiled. 
Pour  them,  with  their  hot  liquor  over  them, 
into  a bowl  or  deep  dish,  and  serve  imme- 
diately. 

Pickled  Mussels. — Boil  them  as  above,  and 
when  done,  pick  out  the  mussels  with  a fork 
and  put  them  into  a common  preserve-jar,  dust- 
ing pepper  over  them  from  time  to  time.  When 
the  liquor  which  comes  from  them  has  settled, 
pour  over  the  mussels  a mixture  of  half  liquor 
and  half  vinegar.  They  will  then  keep  several 
days.  If  not  for  early  use,  they  should  be 
pickled  in  pure  vinegar  with  plenty  of  spice. 
Tie  them  down  close  with  bladder  or  thick 
paper. 

MUSTARD. — The  pulverized  seed  of  the 
mustard-plant.  There  are  two  varieties  of 
mustard,  the  black  and  the  white,  both  of 
which  are  cultivated  in  our  gardens.  The 
seeds  should  be  sown  in  the  early  spring,  in 
rows  about  two  feet  apart ; they  grow  very 
rapidly,  and  flower  in  June,  shortly  after  which 
the  seeds  appear.  The  leaves  of  the  young, 
white,  hood-leafed  mustard  are  excellent  for 
salad,  or  to  boil  with  meat  as  greens;  they 
may  be  had  at  any  time  in  a few  days  by  sow- 
ing the  seed  in  a box  and  keeping  it  in  a warm 
place.  The  seed-vessels  of  the  black  mustard 
are  smooth,  those  of  the  white  rough  and  hairy. 
The  seeds  of  the  former  are  small,  of  a dark 
brown  color,  inodorous  when  whole,  but  when 
powdered  and  mixed  with  water  have  a strong, 
penetrating  odor,  and  a sharp,  burning  taste; 
those  of  the  latter  are  larger,  of  a yellow  color, 
and  less  pungent  taste.  The  flavor  of  mustard 
is  obtained  by  crushing  and  sifting  both  kinds 
of  seeds,  which  are  usually  mixed  for  this  pur- 
pose. 

The  adulteration  of  mustard  is  well-nigh  uni- 
versal, wheaten  flour  being  added  and  turmeric 
to  give  the  proper  color  to  the  mixture.  The 
adulterations,  however,  are  only  of  importance 


360 


MUTTON 


as  far  as  the  money-value  is  concerned,  as  the 
turmeric  is  innocent  of  any  mischievous  qual- 
ities. In  purchasing  mustard  there  is  no  guide 
short  of  the  microscope  but  the  palate,  as  the 
full  strength  is  not  developed  until  the  flour  is 
mixed  with  hot  water.  Most  people  can  judge 
of  the  strength  when  used,  and  this  will  serve 
as  a guide  in  future  purchases. 

The  art  of  mixing  mustard  is  to  have  it  per- 
fectly smooth  and  of  the  proper  consistency. 
The  liquid  with  which  it  is  moistened  should 
be  added  to  it  in  small  quantities,  and  the  mus- 
tard should  be  well  rubbed  and  beaten  with  a 
spoon.  Mix  half  a teaspoonful  of  salt  with 
two  ounces  of  the  flour  of  mustard,  and  stir 
to  them  by  degrees  sufficient  water  to  reduce 
the  whole  to  the  consistency  of  a thick  bat- 
ter; do  not  put  it  into  the  mustard-glass 
until  cold.  It  ought  always  to  be  sufficiently 
diluted  to  drop  easily  from  the  spoon.  Some 
persons  like  half  a teaspoonful  of  sugar  in  the 
finest  powder  added  to  the  above  mixture. 

Mustard  for  instant  use  should  be  mixed 
with  milk,  to  which  a spoonful  or  two  of  very 
thin  cream  should  be  added. 

Tartar  Mustard.— Rub  four  ounces  of  mus- 
tard very  smooth  with  a teaspoonful  of  salt, 
and  wet  it  by  degrees  with  strong  horseradish 
vinegar,  a dessert  spoonful  of  cayenne,  or  of 
Chili  vinegar,  and  one  or  two  of  tarragon  vin- 
egar. A quarter  of  a pint  of  vinegar  poured 
boiling  upon  an  ounce  of  scraped  horseradish, 
and  left  for  one  night,  closely  covered,  will  be 
ready  to  use  for  this  mustard,  but  it  will  be 
better  for  standing  two  or  three  days. 

MUTTON. — The  name  given  to  the  flesh  of 
sheep  when  slaughtered  and  dressed.  The  age 
of  the  animal  producing  the  best  mutton  ap- 
pears to  be  between  three  and  five  years. 
When  younger  than  three  years,  it  is  usually 
tender;  but  has  not  so  much  flavor  and  juici- 
ness as  that  which  is  older  and  more  fully  de- 
veloped. The  quality  of  mutton  depends  also 
to  a great  extent  on  breeds  and  feeding.  A 
large-framed,  coarse-woolled,  fat  sheep  produces 
a coarse-grained,  dry,  and  poorly-flavored  mut- 
ton ; while  the  short-woolled,  round,  plump, 
and  thick  sheep  (such  as  the  Southdown,  Leices- 
ter, Cotswold,  etc.)  yield  the  close-grained, 
tender,  juicy,  and  highly-flavored  mutton — 
especially  when  allowed  to  graze  on  the  short, 
sweet  grass  of  hills  and  mountains,  with  the 
addition  of  proper  stall-feeding  afterwards. 

The  sheep  is  usually  butchered  as  shown  in 
the  accompanying  cut ; and  the  following  are 
the  names  of  the  principal  pieces  : — 

The  joint  which  contains  the  least  propor- 
tion of  fat  is  the  leg,  and  next  to  that  the 
shoulder,  whilst  the  loin,  neck  and  breast  have 
the  largest  proportion.  The  least  proportion 
of  bone  to  meat  is  found  in  the  leg,  and  on  this 
account  as  well  as  the  comparative  absence  of 
fat,  it  must  be  regarded  as  the  most  useful 
joint  in  the  sheep  and  justifies  the  higher  price 
demanded  for  it.  The  neck  has  the  greatest 
proportion  of  bone,  with  a large  proportion  of  I 
fat,  and  is  not  so  economical  as  its  price  would  I 


seem  to  indicate.  The  most  solid  meat  is  the 
leg,  and  the  least  the  shoulder  and  breast. 
The  latter  has  the  further  disadvantage  of  hav- 
ing more  fat  than  lean,  whilst  the  lean  is  not 
easily  masticated  and  has  but  little  flavor.  It 
is  sold  at  a lower  price,  however,  than  any 
other  joint  of  mutton,  and  may  be  made  into  a 
variety  of  economical  and  serviceable  dishes. 


1.  Leg  of  mutton. 

2.  Shoulder  of  mutton. 

3.  Lofn  of  “ 

4 and  6.  Neck  of  mutton. 

5.  Breast  of  mutton. 

6.  Scrag  of  mutton  (end  of  neck). 

7.  Flank  of  “ 

To  secure  the  best  mutton,  choose  that  in 
which  the  lean  is  firm,  juicy,  of  a darkish  red 
color,  and  finely-grained ; and  the  fat  white, 
clear,  and  hard.  When  the  latter  is  yellow,  the 
meat  is  rank  and  of  a bad  quality.  If  the  ani- 
mal is  diseased,  or  has  been  driven  a long  way, 
the  flesh  will  be  flabby,  the  kidney-fat  small, 
with  a stringy  appearance,  and  the  lean  seen 
through  the  skin  on  the  back  of  a dark,  bluish 
hue. 

It  is  maintained  by  some  that  mutton  is  best 
immediately  after  being  killed,  or  before  the 
animal  heat  has  been  lost ; but  this  seems  to  be 
a mistake,  and  butchers  themselves  agree  that 
it  is  much  improved  by  standing  a day  or  two. 
When  the  weather  will  permit,  the  tenderness 
and  sweetness  of  a joint  of  mutton  may  be 
greatly  increased  by  “hanging”  it  for  a week 
or  even  more.  In  England,  the  Christmas 
mutton  is  frequently  “hung”  six  weeks  before 
using.  A light,  cool,  airy  place  must  be  chosen 
for  this  purpose. 

As  regards  the  nutritive  value  of  mutton,  it 
is  popularly  considered  a lighter  food  than 
beef ; and  it  doubtless  has  a more  delicate 
flavor,  less  red-blood  juices,  a looser  texture, 
and  a larger  proportion  of  fat.  Dr.  Smith  ob- 
serves that  “although  an  agreeable  and  valu- 
able food  for  all  classes,  it  is  not  so  well  fitted 
as  beef  to  sustain  great  exertion,  but  is  rather 
a food  for  those  of  sedentary  and  quiet  habits, 
including  women  and  the  sick.”  The  time  re- 
quired for  the  digestion  of  mutton  is  three  to 
three  and  a quarter  hours. 

Mutton  is  in  season  throughout  the  year,  but 
in  the  Autumn  is  not  so  good  as  at  other  sea- 


MUTTON 


361 


sons,  the  meat  being  dry,  and  “woolly-fla- 
vored. ” 

Baked  Mutton. — Either  a loin , saddle , leg, 
shoulder  or  breast , may  be  baked.  Put  the 
meat  into  a baking-pan  with  a little  butter 
spread  over  it ; pour  in  enough  cold  water  to 
cover  the  bottom  of  the  pan,  and  then  set  it  in 
aquick  oven.  After  it  has  been  in  the  oven 
about  fifteen  minutes,  baste  and  place  a piece 
of  buttered  paper  on  the  top  of  the  meat ; if  the 
bottom  of  the  pan  is  getting  dry,  add  a little 
more  water.  If  too  much  fat  accumulates  in  the 
pan,  take  the  pan  out,  pour  the  fat  off,  adding 
cold  water  instead,  and  set  back  into  the  oven 
to  finish  cooking.  If  the  paper  scorches,  sub- 
stitute another  piece,  but  by  basting  over  the 
paper  it  will  last  a good  while.  Cook  until  a 
skewer  or  small  knife  can  be  run  into  the  joint 
easily  (about  twenty  minutes  to  a pound),  and 
then  dish.  Serve  with  its  own  gravy. 

Boiled  Mutton. — Either  the  leg,  shoulder, 
or  neck  may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  Of 
these  the  leg  is  much  the  choicest ; but  the 
neck,  being  smaller,  is  convenient  for  small 
families,  and  may  be  further  diminished  by 
taking  a few  chops  from  its  best  end.  It  also 
takes  less  time  to  cook — another  convenience. 
Wash  the  joint,  but  do  not  soak  it,  and  wipe 
dry.  Put  it  into  a pot  as  near  its  size  as  con- 
venient, cover  it  with  hot  water,  and  add  a 
small  tablespoonful  of  salt ; skim  off  the  scum 
as  fast  as  it  rises,  boil  till  you  find  by  probing 
that  it  is  tender  in  its  thickest  part  (it  will  take 
twelve  or  fifteen  minutes  to  a pound).  Remove 
from  the  fire,  drain  perfectly  dry,  and  serve 
with  melted  butter,  caper  sauce,  or  with  either 
brown  cucumber  or  oyster  sauce.  Or  carrots 
and  turnips  may  be  boiled  with  it  and  after- 
wards dished  with  the  meat. 

Broiled  Mutton. — Either  chops  or  cutlets 
— the  latter  taken  from  the  neck — may  be 
broiled.  Trim  off  the  skin  and  superfluous 
fat,  sprinkle  a little  salt  and  pepper  on  each 
chop,  and  broil  on  a gridiron  over  a bright  fire. 
It  will  take  about  eight  minutes  if  they  are  not 
more  than  ]/2  inch  thick.  Butter  them  before 
sending  to  table. 

Broth  (Mutton). — 1.  Take  a pound  of  meat, 
free  from  bone,  and  put  it  on  the  fire  with  a 
quart  of  water;  when  it  boils  skim  off  every 
particle  of  the  scum  and  then  add  a little  cold 
water  to  make  the  scum  rise  afresh  ; add  a 
parsley-root  about  the  size  of  two  fingers,  and 
a tablespoonful  of  rice  or  barley  (previously 
soaked)  ; boil  it  an  hour  and  a half  at  least,  or 
until  the  meat  falls  to  pieces  ; then  strain  it  and 
serve.  Either  mutton,  beef,  or  veal  may  be 
used  in  this  receipt  or  the  three  combined. 

2.  (With  the  meat  in). — Cut  a neck  of  mut- 
ton into  chops,  taking  off  every  particle  of  fat ; 
put  it  into  a stew-pan  and  pour  in  enough  boil- 
ing water  to  cover  it ; slice  four  carrots  and  six 
turnips,  and  put  in  the  pan  at  the  same  time  ; 
add  a little  salt,  and  as  the  scum  rises  skim  it 
off  Simmer  slowly  about  four  hours.  An 
ounce  or  two  of  rice  may  be  added  with  the 
vegetables,  if  desired. 


Fried  Mutton  Chops — Prepare  the  chops 
as  for  broiling  ; dip  them  in  beaten  eggs  and 
roll  them  in  pounded  crackers  ; fry  in  hot  lard 
or  dripping;  drain  them  as  they  are  dished, 
and  serve  hot. 

Ham  of  Mutton. — Select  a plump,  solid-look- 
ing leg  of  mutton.  Mix  a quarter  of  a pound 
of  brown  sugar,  an  ounce  of  saltpetre,  and  an 
ounce  of  black  pepper  ; rub  this  mixture  into 
the  meat  for  some  minutes  until  the  outer  part 
is  well  saturated  with  it ; then  put  the  mutton 
into  a large  earthen-ware  vessel,  cover  it  with 
about  a pound  and  a half  of  salt,  and  let  it 
stand  three  weeks,  turning  it  every  day  and 
basting  with  the  brine;  after  the  first  week  add 
a teacup  of  vinegar.  At  the  expiration  of  the 
three  weeks,  remove  the  ham  from  the  pickle, 
wash  first  with  cold  water  and  then  with  vine- 
gar, and  hang  it  up  in  a cool  place  for  a week 
before  it  is  used.  Soak  an  hour  in  cold  water 
before  boiling,  and  cook  like  an  ordinary  ham. 

Haricot  (Mutton) Slice  a carrot,  a turnip, 

and  a head  of  celery,  and  soak  ah  hour  and  a 
half  in  salt  and  water,  or  boil  tender  in  broth, 
adding  a dozen  small  onions.  Then  take  a 
neck  of  mutton  cut  into  chops,  trim  off  most  of 
the  fat,  flour  them  and  fry  them  brown,  season- 
ing them  with  a sliced  onion,  salt,  black  pepper, 
and  cayenne.  Next  fry  the  vegetables,  and 
put  them  with  the  meat  into  a stew-pan  with  all 
the  gravy,  a little  sugar,  and  a little  catsup,  and 
simmer  the  whole  very  gently  for  two  hours. 
Strain  off  the  gravy,  thicken  it  with  butter 
and  flour,  and  pour  it  over  the  meat  on  the 
dish. 

Hash  (Mutton) — -Cut  cold  mutton  up  into 
small  squares,  leaving  out  most  of  the  fat,  and 
prepare  same  as  beef  hash  ; add,  however,  a 
small  onion  (grated),  to  give  a slight  flavor  of 
onions  and  thus  hide  the  strong  mutton  taste. 

Irish  Stew. — Procure  3 lbs  of  thick  mutton 
chops;  blanch  them;  return  to  the  fire  neatly 
arranged  in  the  bottom  of  a clean  stew-pan,  a 
little  more  than  covered  with  cold  water;  bring 
slowly  to  boil,  adding  1 teaspoonful  of  salt. 
When  skimmed  clean,  add  a large  garnished 
bouquet  of  parsley,  a blade  of  mace,  and  8 
pepper-corns.  Simmer  20  minutes ; then  add 
12  small  onions  whole,  and  2 tablespoonfuls  of 
flour  dissolved  in  a little  cold  water.  Set  it  by 
the  side  of  the  fire,  where  it  will  gently  sim- 
mer for  an  hour;  then  add  12  small  potatoes, 
pared  neatly  round,  the  size  of  the  onions.  As 
soon  as  the  potatoes  are  tender,  remove  from 
the  fire;  dish  the  chops  in  close  circular  order; 
take  out  the  potatoes  and  onions  whole  into  the 
center;  strain  the  sauce,  add  3 tablespoonfuls 
of  chopped  parsley,  and  pour  over  the  stew. 

Minced  Mutton  (browned) Take  cold 

roast  mutton,  and  cut  away  all  the  skin  and  fat; 
chop  it  up  very  small  and  season  with  pepper 
and  salt;  mince  a little  parsley  and  onion,  and 
mix  all  together  with  a quarter  of  a pound  of 
grated  bread-crumbs.  Moisten  the  mixture 
with  a tablespoonful  of  vinegar  and  a teacupful 
I of  gravy;  put  it  into  a pie-dish;  lay  an  ounce 
j of  butter  in  small  bits  over  the  top,  and  grate 


362 


MUTTON 


NANKEEN 


bread  crumbs  over  it.  Add  a little  butter,  and 
brown  in  the  oven  or  before  the  fire. 

Pie  (Mutton). — I.  Trim  the  fat  from  cold 
roast  mutton  ; cut  in  thin  slices  and  place  in  a 
baking-dish,  seasoning  with  pepper,  salt,  and  a 
grated  onion  (or  Chili  sauce)  ; dredge  a little 
flour  over  every  layer,  and  add,  in  small  bits, 
a piece  of  butter  the  size  of  an  egg ; cover 
with  well-seasoned  mashed  potatoes,  or  with 
boiled  rice,  and  bake  three-quarters  of  an  hour. 

II.  Put  thin  slices  of  cold  boiled  mutton  in 
a baking  dish,  with  the  remains  of  drawn  but- 
ter, and  capers,  a little  pepper,  salt,  and  a cup 
of  white  stock.  Cover  with  potato,  rice,  or 
pastry,  and  bake  three-quarters  of  an  hour. 

III.  Cover  the  bottom  of  a buttered  baking- 
dish  with  bread  crumbs,  then  a layer  of  cold  mut- 
ton in  thin  small  slices,  a layer  of  peeled  sliced 
tomatoes,  thin  bread,  and  so  on,  having  the  last 
layer  of  tomatoes  covered  with  bread  crumbs. 
Season  every  layer  with  pepper,#  salt,  and 
small  bits  of  butter.  Bake  slowly  for  one 
hour. 

Roast  Mutton. — The  joints  for  this  pur- 
pose are  the  leg,  the  shoulder  and  the  saddle, 
or  chine.  The  leg  is  seldom  good  roasted 
unless  the  mutton  is  very  tender.  Wash  the 
meat  well  in  cold  water,  and  dry  it  with  a 
cloth.  Have  the  fire  clear  and  hot,  and  put 
the  meat  on  with  a little  water  in  the  dripping- 
pan.  Allow  about  twelve  minutes  to  the 
pound.  Baste  often,  at  first  with  salt  and 
water,  and  afterwards  with  the  gravy.  If  it 
browns  too  fast,  cover  with  a sheet  of  but- 
tered letter-paper.  Skim  the  fat  off  the  gravy 
and  thicken  with  browned  flour.  Serve  with 
gravy  or  currant  jelly. 

Stewed  Mutton  (like  Venison). — Skin 
and  bone  a loin  of  mutton  and  lay  it  into  a 
stew-pan,  with  a pint  of  water,  a large  onion 
stuck  with  six  cloves,  half  a pint  of  port  wine, 
and  a spoonful  of  vinegar;  when  it  boils,  add 
a small  bundle  of  thyme  and  parsley,  and 
some  pepper  and  salt;  let  it  stew  two  hours, 
turning  it  often.  Make  some  gravy  with  the 
bones,  and  add  it  at  intervals  to  the  stew. 
This  makes  a very  handsome  and  savory  dish. 

II.  (A  Good  Family  Stew.) — Take  three 
or  four  pounds  of  mutton,  remove  all  the  fat, 


and  cut  the  .ean  into  squares ; crack  the  bones 
and  add  them ; put  the  whole  into  a pot  with 
enough  cold  water  to  cover  well,  cover  it  over, 
heat  gradually,  and  boil  for  an  hour ; then  add 
half  a pound  of  salt  pork  cut  into  strips,  a 
minced  onion  and  some  black  pepper ; cover 
and  stew  an  hour  longer,  or  until  the  meat  is 
quite  tender.  Make  out  a little  paste,  as  for 
pie-crust,  cut  into  squares  and  drop  into  the 
stew;  boil  ten  minutes,  and  season  with  a lit- 
tle parsley  and  thyme  ; thicken  with  two  table- 
spoonfuls of  flour  stirred  into  a teacupful  of 
cold  milk-  Boil  up  once  and  serve  hot. 

MYRRH. — A fragrant,  bitter,  aromatic 
gum-resin  which  exudes  from  a tree  that  grows 
in  various  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa.  It  is  one 
of  the  ingredients  in  most  tooth  powders  and 
mouth-washes,  and  has  a very  soothing  and 
healing  effect  upon  irritated  gums.  It  is  also 
useful  in  disordered  conditions  of  the  diges- 
tive organs,  as  an  expectorant,  and  as  a gargle 
for  the  throat.  Internally  it  is  used  chiefly  in 
the  form  of  the  Compound  Iron  Mixture,  which 
is  composed  of  myrrh,  carbonate  of  potash,  and 
sulphate  of  iron.  The  dose  is  two  tablespoon- 
fuls three  times  a day.  Externally  usethe 
tincture  in  from  eight  to  sixteen  times  its  bulk 
of  water. 

MYRTLE. — A hard-wooded,  evergreen 
shrub,  possessing  a peculiar  and  highly  agree- 
able fragrance.  It  is  a universal  favorite  for 
indoor  culture.  The  myrtle  does  not  require 
large  pots,  and  the  proper  soil  is  three  parts 
loam,  with  one  part  each  of  sand  and  leaf  mould. 
It  will  flourish  well  in  almost  any  situation, 
but  requires  plenty  of  light  and  air  during  the 
summer,  which  is  its  season  of  growth ; it 
should  then  be  put  out  of  doors  in  a shady 
place.  It  requires  moderate  washing  ana 
watering.  The  flowers  are  usually  white,  and 
are  produced  in  profusion  in  midsummer.  M. 
Communis  is  the  plant  commonly  cultivated, 
and  of  this  there  are  many  varieties,  with 
small  and  large  leaves,  variegated  foliage,  and 
flowers  of  single  or  double.  M.  te7ivifoha  is 
a new  species,  and  a fine  plant ; and  M. 
tonientosa  is  a fine  Chinese  species,  with  pur- 
ple flowers  changing  to  white.  This  latter 
should  be  oftener  cultivated. 


N 


NAILS.  ( See  Finger  Nails  and  Toe 
Nails.) 

NAINSOOK. — A kind  of  jaconet  muslin 
which  is  still  thicker  than  ordinary  jaconet.  It 
is  woven  plain  or  in  striped  figures,  the  stripe 
running  the  way  of  the  warp.  It  is  very  dura- 
ble ; and  must  be  shrunk  before  cutting  into 
garments.  Generally  a yard  wide. 

NANKEEN. — A kind  of  cloth  which  was 
originally  manufactured  in  China  only,  and,  it 


is  said,  derived  its  agreeable  pale  salmon-col- 
ored tint  from  the  natural  color  of  a kind  of 
cotton  grown  near  Nankin.  An  English  imi- 
tation is  now  made  in  Manchester,  which  looks 
equally  well  at  first,  and  even  better,  as  it  is 
more  evenly  woven;  but  it  gradually  loses  its 
color,  which  is  obtained  from  a dye.  '1  lie  Chi- 
nese nankeen  is  rather  expensive,  and  seldom 
seen  in  this  country : the  English  is  plentiful 
and  cheap. 


NARCISSUS 

NARCISSUS. — A large  family  of  hardy 
bulbs,  belonging  to  the  same  family  as  the  daf- 
fodil and  jonquil.  There  are  many  varieties  of 
the  narcissus  of  which  the  principal  are  the 
Roman  and  Polyanthus,  the  latter  being  the 
loveliest  bulbs  of  the  class.  They  bloom  in 
clusters  of  six  to  twelve  flowers  on  a single 
stem,  and  the  flowers  are  of  every  shade  from 
purest  white  to  deepest  orange.  The  cup  of 
the  white  varieties  is  always  yellow,  while  that 
of  the  yellow  is  a deep  orange.  The  double 
narcissus  is  desirable  for  its  perfect  flower  and 
exquisite  fragrance.  All  the  varieties  succeed 
finely  either  indoors  or  in  the  open  border. 
They  require  the  same  treatment  as  hyacinths 
(See  Hyacinths),  and  should  be  planted  three 
inches  deep,  in  clusters  ten  inches  apart. 

The  best  varieties  of  the  Polyanthus  Narcis- 
sus are  : Bazelman  Major,  white  and  yellow ; 
Grand  Monarque,  white  and  citron ; Grand 
Primo,  white  and  citron  ; Grand  Prmce,  white 
and  lemon  ; and  Soleil  d’Or,  yellow  and 
orange. 

NARCOTICS: — Substances  which  intro- 
duced into  the  stomach  have  in  the  first  place  a 
stimulating  influence  on  the  nervous  system 
(differing  in  this  respect  from  sedatives),  soon 
followed  by  a depression  of  those  powers  accom- 
panied by  sleep,  or  by  coma  if  given  in  sufficient 
quantities.  To  this  class  of  medicines  belong 
opium,  hemlock,  henbane,  belladonna,  aconite, 
camphor,  stramonium,  alcohol,  ether,  and  a 
variety  of  other  substances.  A full  dose  of  a 
narcotic  introduced  into  the  stomach  will,  if  the 
stomach  be  empty,  destroy  the  desire  for  food, 
while  if  it  contain  food,  the  digestive  process  is 
suspended  or  rendered  slower.  Their  contin- 
ued or  frequent  use  is  injurious  to  the  nutrition 
of  the  body,  besides  being  attended  with  im- 
mediate danger  to  life.  They  should  never  be 
used  by  any  one  except  under  medical  advice, 
and  then  only  in  strict  accordance  with  the 
doctor’s  directions.  ( See  Morphine.) 

NASTURTIUM. — The  name  properly  given 
to  Indian  cress,  a very  useful  and  showy  garden 
plant.  It  grows  abundantly  and  is  easy  of 
cultivation,  flourishing  without  attention  in  any 
moderately  rich  soil.  The  young  leaves  are  ex- 
cellent in  salads,  being  in  this  respect  scarcely 
inferior  to  winter-cress  to  which  it  is  related. 
The  flowers  serve  as  a garnish  for  dishes  of 
cooked  meats ; and  the  scarcely  formed  buds, 
and  the  green  seed  (pods  or  fruit)  when  pre- 
served in  vinegar  make  an  excellent  small 
pickle,  which  is  used  like  capers  and  which 
many  prefer  to  the  latter.  These  pods  should 
be  gathered  in  August. 

Pickled  Nasturtiums. — Gather  the  pods 
quite  young,  and  a portion  of  the  buds,  when 
very  small,  should  be  mixed  with  them.  Pre- 
pare a pickle  by  dissolving  an  ounce  and  a half 
of  salt  in  a quart  of  pale  vinegar,  and  throw  in 
the  pods  as  they  become  fit,  from  day  to  day. 
Use  them  instead  of  capers  for  sauce.  When 
the  pods  are  purchased  for  pickling,  put  them 
at  once  into  a jar  and  cover  them  well  with 
vinegar. 


NERINE  3G3 

NECK,  Dislocation  of.  ( See  Disloca- 

tions.) 

NECK,  Stiff. — This  is  nothing  more  than  a 
cramp,  or  rheumatic  affection  of  the  muscles  of 
the  neck,  and  is  caused  by  sitting  in  a draught ; 
but  its  persistence,  and  the  delicacy  of  the  part 
affected  make  it  necessary  to  treat  it  with  care. 
Relief  may  generally  be  obtained  by  warm 
fomentations  and  the  warm  bath ; warmth 
should  also  be  applied  by  means  of  hot  flannels 
wrapped  round  the  neck.  This  will  usually  be 
effective  in  a few  hours  at  furthest,  and  in  the 
mean  time  it  is  best  to  keep  quiet  and  especial- 
ly to  avoid  any  sudden  starts  or  wrenches  to 
the  neck.  Any  attempt  to  place  the  neck  in  its 
proper  position  by  manual  force  is  attended 
with  danger. 

NECTAR. — Take  .-Raisins  (chopped),  2 lbs  ; 
honey,  4 lbs  ; juice  of  2 lemons  strained,  and 
the  peel  of  the  same  rubbed  on  sugar ; boiling 
water,  2 galls ; 3 bottles  of  sherry,  or  3 pints  of 
rum,  or  brandy,  or  gin. 

Mix  all  the  ingredients  together  and  let  them 
stand  two  weeks  ; then  strain ; and  afterwards 
filter  clean  and  bottle. 

NECTARINE. — A variety  of  the  peach,  dis- 
tinguished by  its  perfectly  smooth  skin  and  the 
pulpiness  of  its  flesh.  As  in  the  peach,  there 
are  two  sorts  of  nectarines  : the  freestone,  with 
the  flesh  parting  from  the  stone  ; and  the  cling- 
stone, with  the  flesh  adhering  to  the  stone. 
Among  the  choice  varieties  are  the  early  violet, 
the  Roman,  the  French  white,  the  Boston,  and 
the  late  yellow.  Nectarines  can  rarely  be  grown 
in  the  northern  parts  of  the  United  States,  with- 
out the  protection  of  glass  and  the  forcing  of 
artificial  heat,  and  consequently  but  few  of  them 
are  found  in  our  markets.  They  begin  to 
ripen  about  August  1st,  and  continue  good 
until  October. 

NEGUS. — In  order  to  make  good  negus  it  is 
necessary  to  use  good  wine  and  ntt  as  some 
suppose  any  sort  of  stuff  in  any  condition. 
Port  negus  is  delicious  if  made  as  follows 
Pour  boiling  water  upon  a sufficient  quantity7  of 
sugar  to  sweeten  the  whole,  stir  it  well ; heat 
some  good  Port  (making  the  mixture  strong  or 
mild  according  to  taste)  and  pour  it  to  the  water ; 
stir  together  briskly7,  and  add  a little  grated 
nutmeg.  A slice  of  lemon  put  in  with  the 
sugar  and  a little  of  the  yellow  peel  scraped 
with  it  improves  the  negus  ; but  it  is  very  good 
without. 

Barley  Negus. — To  one  pint  of  barley  water, 
put  half  a pint  of  wine,  a tablespoonful  of 
lemon-juice,  with  grated  nutmeg  and  sugar  to 
taste.  This  is  a very  agreeable  and  refreshing 
drink. 

NERINE. — The  Nerine  is  one  of  the  finest 
of  the  Cape  Bulbs,  making  beautiful  plants 
either  for  parlor  or  garden.  For  indoor  culture 
the  soil  should  be  very  rich  loam,  peat,  and 
sand,  in  equal  proportions,  and  water  should  be 
plentifully  supplied  during  the  flowering  and 
growth.  The  flowers  have  a peculiar  lustre, 
and  glitter  like  jewels  in  the  sun  ; they  are  pro- 
duced in  showy  umbels  in  September  or  Octo- 


364 


NETTLE  RASH 


NIGHT-DRESS 


ber.  After  the  period  of  flowering  is  over,  dry 
off  the  plants  gradually  and  set  them  aside  in 
a cool  dark  place  for  a season  of  rest.  In 
growing  them  in  the  garden  the  treatment 
should  be  the  same  as  for  Hyacinths. 

N.  coruscans  is  the  most  common  species ; 
it  has  large  umbels  of  shining,  salmon-colored 
flowers.  N.  curvifolia  is  a fine  species  with 
glittering  scarlet  flowers.  N.  sarnensis  is  the 
far-famed  Guernsey  Lily.  All  these  varieties 
may  be  procured  of  any  large  dealer  at  a trifling 
cost. 

NETTLE  RASH. — A disease  which  takes  its 
name  from  being  attended  by  an  eruption  sim- 
ilar to  that  produced  by  the  stinging  of  nettles. 
It  is  caused  by  the  use  of  certain  articles  of 
food,  shell-fish,  fruit  etc.  In  some  persons, 
these  produce,  after  a few  hours,  tingling  of  the 
skin,  and  then  itching  and  burning  ; soon  after 
the  itching  has  commenced  wheals  appear  on 
the  skin  ; these  are  of  whitish  color  and  the  skin 
around  is  often  very  red  ; the  face  is  swelled,  the 
eyes  closed,  and  often  with  all  this  there  is  a 
feeling  of  nausea  and  weight  at  the  pit  of  the 
stomach. 

Treatment.— The  best  treatment  is  to  dis- 
lodge the  offending  matter  by  an  emetic  of 
ipecacuanha  (eighteen  grains  or  one  scruple  of 
the  powder,  or  one  teaspoonful  of  the  syrup, 
for  an  adult),  and  afterwards  a brisk  aperient 
should  be  taken.  The  warm  bath  often  gives 
much  relief.  To  allay  the  irritation,  dust 
starch-powder  over  the  eruptions  ; or  use  a lo- 
tion of  elder-flower  water  or  rose-water,  in  half 
a pint  of  which  has  been  dissolved  one  drachm 
of  carbonate  of  ammonia  and  half  a drachm  of 
sugar  of  lead.  In  severe  cases,  seek  medical 
advice. 

NEURALGIA. — An  increased  and  pervert- 
ed sensation  in  a nerve,  arising  from  some 
disease  affecting  the  function  or  structure  of  a 
nerve  or  its  centres.  It  is  thus  of  two  kinds: 
functional  (when  unconnected  with  organic 
lesion  at  any  part  of  the  nervous  course  or  at 
the  nerve  centres);  or,  as  is  more  frequently 
the  case,  structural  (connected  with  some  or- 
ganic change,  acute  or  chronic,  more  frequently 
the  latter,  at  some  part  of  the  nerve’s  course  or 
at  the  nervous  centres).  The  causes  of  neural- 
gia are  various  and  often  obscure.  They  may 
be  either  constitutional  or  local ; the  former  aris- 
ing from  an  enfeebled  state  of  the  body  or  an 
impoverished  condition  of  the  blood,  the  latter 
from  inflammation  of  the  enveloping  sheath  of 
the  nerves,  or  the  development  of  tumors  along 
or  near  their  course.  It  may  be  caused  by  the 
circulation  of  poisonous  secretions,  such  as 
corea,  bile,  etc.,  in  the  blood,  or  by  the  miasma 
of  marshy  regions.  The  pain  is  intense,  but 
intermittent ; sudden  in  its  onset,  and  abrupt  in 
its  departure,  shooting  or  plunging  in  its  char- 
acter, and  often  quite  excruciating ; readily  ex- 
cited by  the  slightest  external  impression,  but 
seldom  aggravated  by  firm  pressure  on  the 
part— on  the  contrary,  often  relieved  thereby. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  neuralgia  de- 
pends of  course  upon  the  causes  that  produce 


it.  When  it  arises  from  constitutional  causes 
it  generally  yields  to  treatment.  The  neuralgia, 
for  instance,  that  depends  on  an  impoverished 
condition  of  the  blood  can  be  cured  by  iron 
tonics,  good  diet,  and  outdoor  exercise  ; that 
which  arises  from  the  effects  of  miasmatic 
poisoning  disappears  rapidly  under  the  use  of 
quinine ; and  that  of  rheumatic  origin  can  be 
controlled  by  preparations  of  colchicum,  the 
alkalies,  and  alkaline  and  sulphur  baths.  The 
neuralgia  which  sometimes  occurs  in  hysteria 
yields  in  some  cases  to  the  mineral  tonics, 
electricity,  shower-baths,  and  exercise  in  the 
open  air.  When  neuralgia  is  caused  by'  a 
tumor  near  the  origin  of  the  nerves,  in  the  brain 
or  spinal  cord,  its  radical  cure  is  generally  im- 
practicable ; where  it  depends  on  the  pressure 
of  tumors  that  can  be  removed,  the  pain  will 
generally  disappear  with  the  removal  of  the 
cause.  In  inflammation  of  the  nerve-sheath — 
a frequent  cause  of  neuralgia — local  counter- 
irritation by  cups,  blisters,  setons,  issues,  etc. ; 
always  gives  relief  and  usually  effects  a cure. 
Temporary  relief  may  be  secured  in  all  forms 
of  neuralgia  by  the  administration  of  powerful 
anodynes.  Those  most  commonly  used  are 
morphine  and  aconitine,  they  may  be  used 
either  internally  or  externally,  but  only  under 
the  advice  of  a physicia7i. 

The  following  can  be  recommended  as  an 
excellent  nerve  tonic  in  neuralgia  : — 

Iron  reduced  by  hydrogen,  2 drachms. 

Arsenic,  i grain. 

Divide  into  40  pills. 

A pill  after  meals,  3 times  a day. 

NIGELLA.— The  Nigella  Hispanica  and  N. 
Damascena  (Love  in  a Mist)  are  very  desirable 
hardy  annuals,  growing  well  in  any  good  garden 
soil.  Sow  the  seed  in  May  when  the  days  be- 
some  warm.  The  .plants  flower  very  freely 
from  June  to  October,  and  have  curious  seed- 
vessels.  The  covers  of  the  flowers  are  white, 
blue,  purple,  and  yellow. 

NIGHT-DRESS.— This  garment  is  made 
after  the  pattern  of  the  Sacque  (See  Sacque, 
figs.  1 and  2) , or  else  after  that  of  the  yoke,  as 
explained  under  the  head  of  blouse-waists  (See 
Waists.) 

Three  yards  and  five-eighths  of  a yard-wide 
material  is  a sufficient  quantity  for  either  pat- 
tern, for  a person  of  medium  size.  I n cutting  out 
the  fronts  of  the  sacque  night-dress  we  follow 
the  pattern,  Fig.  1 (See  Sacque),  as  far  as  the 
waist  line.  We  begin  by  cutting  off  the  five- 
eighths  destined  for  the  sleeves ; then  we  fold 
the  three  yards  so  as  to  give  two  breadths  of 
equal  length.  Separate  them,  double  one  length- 
wise in  the  middle,  and  cut  out  the  fronts.  1 f de- 
sired to  have  the  garment  open  all  the  way,  cut 
the  breadth  apart  in  the  middle,  otherwise  cut 
the  fronts  apart  with  a slit  twenty  inches  long. 
From  the  upper  part  of  this  breadth  there  will 
remain  outside  the  breadth  of  the  shoulders 
enough  material  to  make  gores  for  the  fronts  ; 
cut  them  as  wide  as  possible,  sew  them  on  to 
the  breadth,  selvage  to  selvage,  and  even  the 
slope  of  the  whole.  Cut  the  pattern  for  the 


NITRIC  ACID 


NURSES  AND  NURSING  305 


back  in  the  same  way  by  Fig.  2 {See  Sacque), 
and  add  gores.  To  strengthen  the  garment  it 
is*usual  to  line  the  shoulders,  cutting  the  lining 
in  shape  like  a yoke. 

The  sleeves  tor  a sacque  night-dress  should 
be  cut  after  the  plain  coat-sleeve  pattern  ( See 
Waist,  page  569.) 

The  fronts  and  back  should  be  stitched  to- 
gether on  the  shoulders  and  under  the  arms, 
and  the  seams  felled  down.  The  edge  should 
be  hemmed  up  about  an  inch.  The  front  is 
finished  off  with  a narrow  hem  on  one  side  for 
the  buttons,  and  a wide  one  on  the  other  for 
the  button-holes.  The  neck  should  have  a nar- 
row binding  and  a collar,  and  the  sleeves  may 
be  simply  hemmed  up,  or  may  be  finished  off 
with  a cuff.  8 

For  a night-dress  cut  with  a yoke,  we  take  off 
the  breadths  from  six  to  eight  inches  shorter 
than  for  the  sacque  pattern.  The  yoke  is  cut 
from  the  plain  waist  pattern  {See  Waist),  allow- 
ing two  inches  more  breadth  to  the  chest 
measure.  A yoke  can  also  be  cut  without  seams 
on  the  shoulders,  from  the  pattern  for  capes, 
Figs.  1 and  2 {See  Capes).  The  breadths  for 
the  night-dress  are  gored  in  the  same  way  as 
for  the  chemise  {See  UNDERGARMENTS),  and  a 
short  slit  is  made  in  the  front  breadth,  or  it 
is  cut  down  the  whole  length.  The  breadths 
are  then  gathered  across  the  top,  leaving  two  or 
three  inches  plain  near  the  arm-size,  as  ex- 
plained for  the  back  of  the  shirt  {See  Shirt), 
and  the  yoke  sewed  on. 

The  sleeve  of  the  yoked  night-dress  should 
be  the  gathered  sleeve,  and  the  garment  will  be 
finished  off  in  the  same  way  as  the  sacque  night- 
dress. 

NITRIC  ACID.— Aqua  Fortis.  Poison. 
(For  symptoms  and  treatment  see  Sulphuric 
Acid.)  Extremely  corrosive.  Readily  dis- 
solves metals.  The  “strong”  is  about  70  per 
cent,  pure  acid  ; the  “ dilute  ” is  “ strong,"  with 
five  or  six  times  its  bulk  of  water,  and  is  used 
as  a tonic.  That  sold  as  “ double  aqua  fortis  ” 
contains  60  per  cent,  pure  acid,  and  "single 
aqua  fortis  ” half  that. 

NITROUS  OXIDE. — Known  as  Laughing 
Gas.  Sir  H.  Davy  discovered  that  it  was  respir- 
able and  produced  intoxicant  effects.  Small  quan- 
tities may  produce  uncontrollable  laughter; 
hence  the  name.  It  was  found  that  it  would  pro- 
duce anaesthesia.  After  discovery  of  ether  and 
chloroform itwasalmost  discarded  ; it  acts  more 
quickly  than  these,  and  is  claimed  to  be  less  fatal 
in  effects,  and  has  again  come  into  use.  Should 
be  used  only  under  medical  advice. 

NOSEBLEED.  {See  Bleeding.) 

NOTE.  {See  Promissory  Note.) 

NOYEAU.  {See  Liqueurs.) 

NURSES  AND  NURSING.— In  any  case 
of  sickness,  whether  serious  or  otherwise,  noth- 
ing— not  even  skilful  medical  advice — is  more 
important  than  good  nursing.  Only  doctors 
know  how  many  valuable  lives  are  saved  by 
good  nursing,  and  on  the  other  hand  how  many 
are  actually  thrown  away  by  the  want  of  it ; 


but  fortunately  its  importance  is  beginning  to  be 
better  appreciated  by  the  people  at  large.  In 
cases  of  ordinary  sickness  the  members  of  the 
family  usually  do  the  nursing,  and  in  such  cases 
their  zeal  and  affection  make  up  to  a great  ex- 
tent for  other  deficiencies  ; but  when  a disease 
is  lingering,  or  from  its  character  requires 
bodily  strength  in  those  employed  as  nurses, 
the  services  of  a professional  sick  nurse  should 
be  obtained.  Such  a nurse  knows,  or  ought  to 
know,  how  to  perform  many  important  duties  of 
which  those  less  accustomed  to  sickness  are 
ignorant.  She  will  also  be  quick  to  notice 
changes  in  the  patient’s  symptoms  which  the 
relatives,  from  inexperience,  would  overlook, 
and  which  it  may  be  important  for  the  doctor  to 
be  informed  of.  But  most  sick  nurses  will  re- 
quire to  be  superintended  by  those  most  in- 
terested in  the  invalid’s  recovery.  They 
are  often  inattentive  to  the  needful  ven- 
tilation of  sick-rooms,  and  to  the  regulation  of 
their  temperature,  keeping  up  the  fires,  and 
especially  at  night;  this  fault  frequently  in- 
creases the  patient’s  fever  in  a way  which  puz- 
zles the  physicians  to  account  for.  Sometimes 
also  they  are  careless  in  administering  the  medi- 
cines at  the  precise  hours  ordered,  and  are  not 
always  to  be  relied  upon  to  give  the  right  quan- 
tity. In  the  convalescent  stages  of  fever,  they 
also  reauire  to  be  cautioned  in  respect  to  the 
diet  of  their  patients,  which  in  quantity  they 
are  disposed  to  over-do. 

Qualifications  of  a Nurse. — Not  every  one 
is  fitted  for  a nurse  ; not  because  of  wilful 
wrong-doing,  but  because  they  are  not  “ cut  out 
for  it.”  Talent  for  nursing  is  in  a great  meas- 
ure a natural  gift,  either  in  man  or  in  woman ; 
and,  contrary  to  the  general  opinion,  it  is  found 
as  frequently  in  man  as  in  woman.  The  abso- 
lutely indispensable  qualifications  of  a good 
nurse  are  healthfulness ; strength  enough  to 
lift  the  patient  when  necessary  ; activity,  use- 
fulness, cheerfulness,  yet  with  the  power  of 
being  quiet — a noisy  nurse  being  utterly  out  of 
place  in  a sick-room.  She  should  be  free  from 
any  habitual  cough,  or  any  habit  which  might 
annoy  a patient,  such  as  snuff-taking,  and  the 
like.  She  should  be  scrupulously  cleanly  in  per- 
son and  habits,  and  in  particular  should  have 
pure  breath.  She  should  be  able  to  read  wri- 
ting readily,  or  she  may  be  led  by  the  resem- 
blance of  drugs  and  vials  to  make  dreadful 
mistakes.  She  ought  to  have  her  five  senses 
— sight,  hearing,  feeling,  smell,  taste  — in  a 
healthy,  active  condition.  Sight,  that  she 
may  be  able  to  read  directions  or  read  aloud 
to  the  patient,  and  watch  the  change  of 
countenance.  A quick-sighted  nurse  will  not 
need  to  wait  till  the  sufferer  has  asked 
for  anything  in  words.  She  will  from  the 
motion  of  an  eye,  or  the  lips,  or  a finger,  see  in 
a moment  what  is  wanted.  Hearing,  that  she 
may  catch  the  faintest  whisper,  and  not  oblige 
a weak  patient  to  exert  the  voice,  and  to  repeat 
every  request.  Feeling,  that  she  may  detect 
any  change  in  the  heat  or  dryness  of  the  skin 
of  the  patient,  and  not  use  any  application 


36G 


NURSERY 


OATMEAL 


which  will  either  scald  with  heat,  or  cause  a 
chill  with  cold.  Smell , that  she  may  detect 

the  least  impurity  in  the  atmosphere  of  the 
room,  or  in  giving  medicine,  notice  if  there 
be  any  mistake.  Taste,  that  she  may  not 
offer  food  unfit  to  be  used,  or  good  in  itself, 
but  cooked  in  such  a way  as  to  be  disgusting 
to  the  patient.  She  should  be  an  experienced 
cook,  so  as  to  prepare  such  food  as  the  patient 
requires.  This  is  often  of  great  importance  where 
the  food  of  the  sick-room  is  different  from  that 
of  the  rest  of  the  household,  and  must  be  pre- 
pared at  irregular  and  frequent  intervals.  In 
selecting  a sick  nurse  it  is  well  to  take  the 
attendant  physician’s  advice,  as  it  is  with  him  that 
she  has  to  co-operate  and  to  him  that  she  should 
be  chiefly  responsible.  ( See  Wet  Nurse.) 

NURSERY.  ( See  Children,  Furniture 
and  Infants. 

NUTMEG. — The  true  nutmeg  is  a native  of 
the  Moluccas  or  Spice  Islands,  but  is  prin- 
cipally confined  to  the  island  of  Banda,  under 
the  equator,  where  it  bears  blossoms  and  fruit 
all  the  year  round.  The  latter  is  gathered  at 
different  periods  — namely,  in  July,  Novem- 
ber and  April.  The  mace  is  good  in  July, 
when  the  nuts  are  most  abundant ; in  Novem- 
ber it  is  superior,  but  in  April  both  the  nutmeg 
and  the  mace  are  in  greatest  perfection,  the  sea- 
son then  being  driest.  The  outer  pulpy  coat  is 
first  removed,  and  then  the  mace  ; the  nuts  are 
then  placed  over  a slow  fire  when  the  inner 
shell  becomes  brittle  and  the  seeds,  or  nutmegs 
of  commerce,  are  easily  taken  out.  They  are 
then  soaked  in  sea-water  and  impregnated  with 
lime,  a process  which  answers  the  double  pur- 
pose of  securing  the  fruit  from  the  attacks  of  in- 
sects and  of  destroying  the  vegetating  property. 

There  are  two  sorts  of  nutmeg — one  wild, 
which  is  long  or  oval  shaped  and  much  inferior ; 
the  cultivated  nutmeg  is  nearly  round.  The 
best  nutmegs  are  firm,  hard,  and  of  an  unctuous 
consistence,  the  odor  strong,  aromatic,  and 
agreeable  ; the  taste  hot  and  acrid.  When  cut 
across,  they  appear  full  of  small  veins,  which 
are  full  of  volatile  oil.  This  oil  is  yielded  by 
distillation,  and  it  possesses  the  flavor  of  the 
nutmeg  in  perfection,  two  drops  being  equal  to 
a pound  of  the  powder.  It  is  employed  in 
medicine. 


The  nutmeg  is  much  used  as  a condiment, 
and  is  one  of  the  most  wholesome  of  the  spices  ; 
but  it  has  been  observed  that  when  taken  in 
large  quantity  it  has  narcotic  effects,  and  pro- 
duces symptoms  indicating  great  tendency  to 
the  head,  on  which  account  it  should  be  cau- 
tiously used  by  persons  of  an  apoplectic  or 
paralytic  habit. 

NUTS. — These  are  a species  of  fruit  much 
enjoyed  by  most  persons,  but  though  they  are 
nutritive,  they  are  less  digestible  than  any  other 
vegetable  substance  used  as  a food.  Boiled 
chestnuts  are  floury  and  soft,  and  consequently 
unobjectionable,  but  raw  nuts  are  hard,  dense, 
and  full  of  oil,  and  are  apt  to  lie  for  a long  time 
on  the  stomach  undigested.  The  different 
kinds  of  huts  used  as  food  in  this  country,  as 
well  as  those  imported,  are  described  in  their 
proper  places. 

Nuts  of  any  kind  may  be  preserved  during 
the  winter  by  placing  them  in  a large  earthen- 
ware pan,  which  when  filled  is  to  be  placed  in 
a deep  hole  dug  in  the  ground  ; the  top  of  the 
pan  should  be  covered  with  a board  on  which 
a heavy  weight  is  to  be  placed,  the  hole  then 
being  filled  with  earth.  By  this  method  nuts 
may  be  kept  in  a fresh  state  till  the  season  of 
their  maturity  returns. 

NUX  VOMICA.—  POISON.  — Symptoms  : 
Tetanic  convulsions,  difficult  breathing,  finally 
asphyxia.  Treatment:  In  case  of  poisoning  by 
Nux  Vomica,  the  poison  must  be  promptly 
removed  either  by  the  stomach-pump  or  by 
emetics;  but  when  the  paroxysms  have  set  in, 
an  attempt  to  use  either  generally  brings  on 
convulsions.  Then  it  is  best  to  trust  to  the 
inhalation  of  chloroform. 

The  fruit  of  Strychnus  Nux  Vomica , which 
grows  in  the  East  Indian  Archipelago.  The 
seeds,  which  contain  the  active  principle,  are 
extremely  bitter,  and  contain  a considerable 
quantity  of  stryc/mia,  one  of  the  deadly  pois- 
ons. A sixth  of  a grain  is  sufficient  to  kill  a 
dog.  Nux  Vomica  is  extensively  employed  in 
medicine  as  a tonic  for  the  digestion  and  in 
some  derangements  of  the  nerves;  and  the 
seeds,  rasped  or  filed,  are  often  used  to  destroy 
noxious  animals  and  vermin.  But  it  should 
be  used  with  extreme  care,  and  never  placed 
where  children  can  possibly  get  at  it. 


o 


OATMEAL.“  The  flour  or  meal  which 
results  from  grinding  the  kernel  of  oats.  The 
oats  of  this  country,  while  superior  to  that  pro- 
duced in  southern  England  and  on  the  continent, 
is  inferior  to  that  of  Scotland,  whose  climate  is 
better  adapted  for  it  and  where  much  more 
attention  is  paid  to  its  cultivation.  Scotch  oat- 
meal, therefore,  is  superior  to  any  other  for 
table  use,  and  as  it  is  prepared  in  such  a way 


as  to  improve  rather  than  otherwise  by  keeping, 
no  damage  is  done  to  it  by  importation.  “ Oat- 
meal,” says  Dr.  Smith  in  his  book  on  Foods , 
“is  known  as  a strong  food  and  one  that 
requires  much  cooking  in  order  to  break  its 
starch  cells ; but  when  it  is  well  cooked  it 
thickens  milk  or  water  more  than  the  same 
weight  of  wheaten  flour.  It  also  yields  a jelly 
or  blanc-mange  of  a finer  quality  than  that 


OATMEAL 


OIL-CLOTH 


3G7 


derived  from  vvheaten  flour,  and  is  doubtless 
the  stronger  and  better  food.”  In  Scotland  it 
is  used  more  extensively  as  food  for  man  than 
anywhere  else  in  the  world,  and  in  certain 
sections  forms  almost  the  exclusive  diet  of  an 
exceptionally  hardy  and  robust  peasantry.  The 
flavor,  although  sweet,  is  rough,  and  to  be 
thoroughly  approved  must  be  eaten  in  early 
life ; which  accounts,  perhaps,  for  the  fact  that 
in  this  country  where  wheat  and  Indian  corn 
are  so  cheap  and  abundant,  it  has  never  come 
into  general  or  extended  use. 

When  oats  are  ground  in  the  ordinary  way  a 
portion  of  the  husk  is  left  in  the  meal,  but 
less  in  meal  made  by  mill-stones  than  by  crush- 
ing corn-mills.  The  meal  is  ground  in  two 
forms,  namely,  in  somewhat  large  grains,  as  in 
the  Scotch  oatmeal,  and  in  fine  powder  like 
flour,  but  either  may  be  obtained  from  the 
same  grain.  The  Scotch  always  prefer  the 
large  grain  and  boil  it  for  a long  time;  by 
which  they  obtain  a thicker  and  sweeter  por- 
ridge than  can  be  obtained  from  the  finer  meal. 
The  longer  it  is  boiled,  the  more  digestible  is 
the  food  produced.  Oatmeal  is  cooked  in  two 
principal  ways,  namely,  as  porridge  and  cakes. 
The  word  “porridge,”  in  Scotland,  means  oat- 
meal boiled  well  in  water,  in  which  state  it  is 
known  in  England  as  “ hasty-pudding ; ” but  it 
is  more  usual  in  England  to  boil  a smaller  por- 
tion of  it  with  milk  and  water  in  the  preparation 
of  milk  porridge.  The  former  kind  is  eaten  as 
a thick  pudding  with  cold  milk,  or  it  is  sweet- 
ened with  molasses,  or  sugar  and  butter,  as  in 
eating  hominy.  Oat-cakes  are  made  by  mixing 
the  meal  with  water  and  kneading  it  into  a 
dough,  which  is  baked  on  iron  plates,  producing 
a bread  much  enjoyed  by  those  accustomed  to 
it,  and  extremely  nourishing.  One  advantage 
possessed  by  bread  made  of  oats  is  that  it  will 
keep  sweet  as  long  as  it  is  kept  dry. 

Groats  (or  grits),  are  the  whole  kernels  of 
the  oats  when  freed  from  the  husk.  They  are 
not  eaten  in  the  form  of  bread  or  cake,  but  are 
boiled  in  water  or  milk  in  the  preparation  of 
gruel.  When  thoroughly  cooked  with  milk, 
they  make  a very  nutritious  pudding  ; but  as  the 
flavor  is  far  less  delicate  than  that  of  rice  they 
are  rarely  used  for  that  purpose.  The  groats 
require  to  be  cooked  much  longer  than  ordinary 
oatmeal  before  they  can  be  digested  easily. 

Gruel  (Oatmeal).  See  Gruel. 

Mush  (Oatmeal). — Make  same  as  the  mush 
of  Indian  meal,  but  boil  at  least  twice  as  long. 

Porridge  (Oatmeal). — Put  as  much  water 
into  a sauce-pan  as  will  make  the  desired 
quantity  of  porridge  ; let  it  boil,  and  then  take 
a handful  of  oatmeal  in  the  left  hand  and  let  it 
fall  by  degrees  into  the  water,  stirring  the  water 
and  meal  quickly  around  with  the  right  with  a 
wooden  spoon  or  ladle ; do  this  till  it  is  of  the 
consistency  of  thick  gruel,  then  salt  to  taste ; 
let  it  boil  for  ten  minutes ; add  a little  more 
boiling  water,  and  boil  it  five  minutes  longer ; 
it  will  then  be  quite  smooth  and  very  digestible 
(boiling  it  well  is  the  secret  of  making  it  diges- 
tible and  nourishing  for  invalids). 


Pudding  (Oatmeal).— Pour  a quart  of  boiling 
milk  over  a pint  of  oatmeal,  and  let  it  soak  all 
night;  next  day  beat  two  eggs  into  it,  and  add 
a little  salt ; butter  a bowl  that  will  just  hold  it, 
cover  it  tight  with  a floured  cloth,  and  boil  it 
an  hour  and  a half.  Eat  it  with  buttes  and  sal', 
When  cold,  slice  and  toast  it,  and  eat  it  as  oai- 
cake  buttered. 

OIL-NUTS.  (See  Butternuts.) 

OIL-CLOTH. — This  name  is  applied  to  a 
kind  of  floor-covering  made  of  cloth  painted  over 
with  oil  colors,  so  as  to  be  impenetrable  to  wa- 
ter ; and  also  a lighter  kind  of  cloth  used  as  a 
covering  for  tables,  etc.,  made  in  the  same  way. 
For  the  former  a stout  hemp  canvas  is  chosen, 
and  after  being  well  sized  and  rubbed  down 
with  pumice-stone,  is  covered  with  four  coats 
of  stiff  oil  paint.  It  is  then  printed  in  the  same 
manner  as  calico,  the  colors  employed  being 
always  white  lead  mixed  with  ochre,  umber, 
and  the  usual  earthy  pigment  ground  in  linseed 
oil  and  mixed  with  a little  turpentine.  In  the 
cheaper  kinds  of  oil-cloth  whiting  is  mixed  with 
the  white  lead,  but  such  cloth  cracks  and  does 
not  wear  well.  It  is  reckoned  that  every  square 
yard  of  oil-cloth  should  weigh  3^  to  4^  lbs.,  and 
hence  the  quality  of  the  cloth  may  in  part  be 
estimated  by  the  weight.  There  is  a great  va- 
riety of  styles  in  the  patterns  of  oil-cloth.  Some 
are  made  to  imitate  marble,  some  wainscots, 
and  some  carpets  of  various  kinds.  Those  are 
best  which  have  several  colors  and  a rather  small 
pattern.  When  the  pattern  is  large,  defects 
are  sooner  perceived;  but  on  the  other  hand, 
those  which  have  the  pattern  large  to  imitate 
marble  can  be  repainted  by  any  house  painter. 
In  buying  an  oil-cloth,  select  one  that  has  been 
manufactured  for  at  least  two  years  ; the  longer 
it  has  stood  previous  to  use,  the  better  it  will 
wear,  as  the  paint  will  have  become  hard  and 
durable.  An  oil-cloth  that  has  been  made  with- 
in the  year  is  scarcely  worth  buying,  as  the 
paint  will  be  defaced  in  a very  little  time.  Age 
of  course  adds  to  the  cost,  and,  consequently, 
the  cheaper  oil-cloths  are  very  apt  to  be  both 
flimsy  and  newly-made. 

Oil-cloth  for  covering  tables,  etc.,  is  made  on 
fine  canvas ; one  side  after  having  received 
the  proper  number  of  coats  of  paint,  is  printed 
with  blocks ; and  the  other  side,  next  the  table, 
receives  only  one  coat  of  paint,  which,  while 
wet,  is  strewed  over  with  flock  made  of  cut 
wool,  so  as  to  resemble  baize. 

In  cleaning  oil-cloths  never  use  either  hot 
water  or  soap,  as  the  latter  will  cause  the  paint 
to  come  off  by  dissolving  the  oil  with  which  it 
was  made.  If  not  too  much  dirtied,  oil-cloth 
may  be  kept  clean  by  wiping  with  a damp  cloth 
and  rubbing  well  with  a dry  cloth  and  then  with 
a dry  brush  till  it  shines.  If  much  soiled,  rub 
briskly  with  lukewarm  water  and  a soft  cloth. 

To  Make  Oil-Cloth.— A very  good  and  dur- 
able oil-cloth  can  be  made  as  follows: — Place 
some  good  rosin  or  gum-lac  over  the  fire  in  dry- 
ing linseed  oil  till  the  rosin  is  thoroughly  dis- 
solved, and  the  oil  brought  to  the  thickness  of 
cream.  Spread  this  upon  canvas,  or  any  linen 


368 


OINTMENTS 


OLIVE-OIL 


cloth,  so  as  fully  and  entirely  to  glaze  it  over; 
suffer  it  to  dry  perfectly  ; and  it  will  be  found 
impenetrable  to  wet  of  every  description.  To 
give  a color  to  this  varnish,  grind  the  blue, 
green,  etc.,  with  the  last  coat  that  you  lay  on. 

A better  method  than  the  above  is  first  to 
cover  the  canvas  with  a liquid  paste,  made 
with  drying  oil  in  the  following  manner: — Take 
Spanish  white  or  tobacco-pipe  clay,  which  has 
been  completely  cleaned  by  washing  and  sift- 
ing it  from  all  impurities,  and  mix  it  up  with 
boiled  oil,  to  which  a drying  quality  has  been 
given  by  adding  a proportion  of  litharge  one- 
fourth  the  weight  of  the  oil.  This  mixture, 
being  brought  to  the  consistence  of  thin  paste, 
is  spread  over  the  cloth,  etc. ; when  the  first 
coating  is  dry,  a second  is  applied.  The  un- 
evenness occasioned  by  the  coarseness  of  the 
canvas  or  the  unequal  distribution  of  the  paste, 
is  smoothed  down  with  pumice-stone  reduced  to 
powder  and  rubbed  over  the  canvas  with  a bit 
of  soft  serge  or  cork  dipped  in  water.  When 
the  last  coating  is  dry,  the  canvas  must  be  well 
washed  in  water,  to  clean  it ; and  when  dry,  a 
varnish  composed  of  gum-lac  dissolved  in  lin- 
seed oil  boiled  with  turpentine,  is  applied,  and 
the  process  is  complete.  The  color  of  the 
varnished  canvas  thus  produced  is  yellow. 

A cheap  and  serviceable  oil-cloth  for  the  kitch- 
en or  other  room  may  be  made  thus  : — Buy  a 
cheap  tow-cloth,  and  fit  it  to  the  size  and  shape 
of  the  room.  Then  stretch  and  nail  it  on  the 
sunny  side  of  an  outbuilding,  and,  with  a brush, 
cover  it  with  a coat  of  thin  rye  paste.  When 
this  is  dry,  put  on  a coat  of  yellow  paint,  and 
let  it  dry  for  a fortnight ; then  put  on  a second 
coat,  and  at  the  end  of  another  fortnight  a third 
coat.  Then  let  it  hang  two  months  to  “ season,” 
and  it  will  last  for  many  years.  The  longer 
the  paint  is  left  to  dry  the  better;  and  if 
varnished  it  will  last  much  longer. 

OINTMENTS.  (See  Drugs,  Glycerine, 
and  under  the  special  disorders  to  be  treated.) 

OKRA. — A plant  whose  unripe  pods  are  much 
used  in  some  parts  of  the  United  States,  alone, 
or  in  soups  and  stews.  It  is  the  basis  of  the 
favorite  Gumbo  soup  of  the  South.  It  is  raised 
by  sowing  the  seeds  from  April  till  June  in 
drills  an  inch  deep,  dropping  the  seeds  about 
eight  inches  from  one  another,  and  earthing  up 
the  plants  two  or  three  times  during  the  season. 
It  grows  on  a smooth  stem  four  or  five  feet  high, 
and  the  pods  may  be  used  from  August  till  the 
end  of  November.  By  slicing  the  pods  into 
rings  and  drying  them  on  strings,  they  can  be 
preserved  for  winter  use,  and  are  then  espe- 
cially useful  for  soups,  stews,  etc.  Okra  is  a 
wholesome  and  highly  nutritious  vegetable; 
but  when  eaten  alone  the  pods  should  be  young 
and  tender. 

Boiled  Okra. — Place  the  pods  in  enough 
salt  and  water  to  cover  them  and  boil  till  quite 
tender.  Drain  thoroughly,  dish,  pepper  and 
salt  to  taste,  and  pour  over  the  top  three  or 
four  tablespoonfuls  of  melted  butter. 

OLEANDER. — A very  showy  plant  well 
adapted  for  cultivation,  both  in  the  parlor  and 


in  the  garden.  To  bloom  in  perfection,  they 
need  a stove,  but  they  do  well  out  of  doors  in 
any  moderately  rich  soil.  They  flower  freely 
when  scarcely  a foot  high,  but  will  grow  to  the 
height  of  ten  or  fifteen  feet,  forming  beautiful 
trees  covered  with  long,  willow-like,  leathery 
leaves,  and  terminal  clusters  of  large  rose-col- 
ored, white,  or  variegated  flowers.  Their  nat- 
ural season  for  blooming  is  July,  but  that  may 
be  changed  and  bloom  produced  at  any  season. 
In  indoor  culture  give  them  plenty  of  pot  room 
in  soil  made  of  two  parts  loam,  two  parts  peat, 
and  one  part  well-rotted  manure.  During  the 
growing  and  blooming  seasons  water  should  be 
abundantly  supplied ; and  as  the  plants  are 
subject  to  white  scale,  frequent  washings  of  the 
leaves  and  stems  are  desirable.  They  may  be 
wintered  in  a light  cellar,  and  then  water  should 
be  given  sparingly. 

The  principal  varieties  are  the  double  rose 
(ATeerenm  oleander  splendens')  j striata  pleno , 
with  double  striped  flowers;  and  purpurea, 
dark  red.  There  are  many  other  varieties,  and 
any  of  them  will  repay  the  care  bestowed  upon 
their  cultivation. 

OLIVES. — The  fruit  of  the  olive-tree,  which 
is  extensively  cultivated  in  Italy,  Spain,  and  the 
South  of  France,  partly  for  the  green  fruit  and 
partly  for  the  oil  which  it  yields  when  mature. 
Olives  are  oval  in  shape,  with  a smooth  rind, 
and  closely  resemble  a small  half-ripe  plum. 
For  the  purposes  of  the  table  they  are  gath- 
ered when  immature,  and  are  then  pickled  in 
salt  and  water  and  barrelled  for  exportation. 
The  Italian  olives  are  the  best,  then  the 
French,  and  lastly  the  Spanish,  which,  though 
large,  are  not  so  well  flavored.  In  choosing, 
select  the  light-colored  and  bright-looking 
ones ; those  which  have  a blackish  cast  are  un- 
fit to  eat. 

Pickled  Olives  are  supposed  to  have  peculiar- 
ly appetizing  properties,  but  they  are  eaten 
chiefly  with  a view  to  remove  the  taste  of  food 
from  the  mouth  previously  to  enjoying  the 
flavor  of  wine.  They  should  be  passed  round 
after  the  soup. 

OLIVE-OIL. — This  oil,  sometimes  called 
salad  oil,  is  expressed  from  ripe  olives.  It  is 
largely  used  in  the  more  delicate  kinds  of 
cookery,  instead  of  butter,  and  is  a useful  ad- 
dition to  salads,  preventing  them  from  ferment- 
ing and  from  causing  flatulency.  When  it  is 
fresh  and  pure  it  has  only  a very  slight  yel- 
lowish-green color,  and  but  little  smell  or 
flavor,  so  that  it  may  even  be  drunk  by  those 
who  like  oil;  and  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  it  is 
one  of  the  most  easily  digested  fats  in  food. 
Its  use  in  cookery  might  properly  be  extended 
in  this  country,  notwithstanding  our  excellent 
animal  fats. 

The  best  quality  of  oil  is  ^iat  produced  by 
the  first  gentle  pressure  of  the  olives,  and  this 
is  at  once  bottled  in  the  flasks  peculiar  to  the 
article.  Stronger  pressure  on  the  fruit  breaks 
the  kernels  and  produces  an  inferior  grade  of 
oil,  which  is  exported  in  jars  and  barrels. 
Italian  oil  is  superior  to  either  French  or  Span- 


OMELETTE 


ONION 


3G9 


ish,  and  is  distinguished  as  Florence,  Lucca, 
and  Gallipoli  oil.  The  first  is  most  desirable. 

OMELETTE. — Put  an  ounce  of  butter  in  a 
frying-pan  the  size  of  a breakfast  plate  ; when 
hot,  pour  in  three  eggs  that  have  been  beaten 
for  a moment,  with  a little  salt  and  chopped 
parsley ; as  the  omelette  cooks,  lift  the  edge 
with  a knife  and  press  it  toward  the  centre. 
The  instant  it  is  set  (it  need  not  be  brown) 
fold  one  side  over  the  other,  and  serve  imme- 
diately. A spoonful  or  two  of  rich  cream  add- 
ed with  the  parsley  is  an  improvement.  Beat 
the  eggs  but  very  little,  to  avoid  making  them 
too  thin.  The  fact  that  in  the  best  omelettes 
we  often  see  spots  and  streaks  of  white,  proves 
the  beating  to  have  been  very  slight. 

Aux  Fins  Herbs  (Omelette). — Beat  the 
eggs  and  prepare  the  batter  exactly  as  for  plain 
omelette,  but  when  the  pepper  and  salt  are  put 
in  add  a strong  seasoning  of  parsley  and  onion 
(minced),  or  of  parsley,  thyme,  and  sweet 
marjorum  ; mix  together  well,  and  fry  at  once. 
This  is  a very  savory  dish. 

Cheese  Omelette. — Prepare  the  batter  as 
before,  but  before  putting  into  the  frying-pan 
stir  in  some  nice  old  cheese  (grated)  and  sea- 
son with  parsley  and  green  thyme.  Cook  as 
soon  as  the  ingredients  are  well  mixed. 

Friar's  or  Apple  Omelette. — Prepare  twelve 
medium  sized  apples  as  for  sauce,  and  stir  in  a 
quarter  of  a pound  of  sugar  and  a quarter  of  a 
pound  of  butter ; when  cold,  add  four  eggs  well 
beaten ; fry  in  butter  or  lard  made  very  hot. 

Ham  Omelette. — Prepare  the  batter  as  for 
plain  omelette,  and  then  stir  in  some  ham 
minced  very  fine.  Cook  at  once  and  serve  as 
soon  as  done.  Or,  cook  the  omelette  plain, 
and  when  it  is  done  scatter  the  minced  ham 
thickly  over  the  surface  and  double  the  omelette 
over  it.  Chicken,  tongue,  or  veal  may  be  used 
instead  of  the  ham,  in  the  same  way. 

Savory  Omelette. — Same  as  Otnelette  aux 
fins  herbs. 

Souffld. — I.  Beat  the  yolks  of  six  eggs  first 
by  themselves  and  then  with  four  tablespoon- 
fuls of  sifted  white  sugar  and  the  rind  of  half 
a lemon  grated  on  a fine  grater.  Whisk  the 
whites  to  a solid  froth,  and  just  before  the 
omelette  is  poured  into  the  pan,  mix  them 
well  but  lightly  with  the  yolks.  Put  four 
ounces  of  fresh  butter  into  a small  frying-pan, 
and  as  soon  as  it  is  melted,  add  the  eggs  and 
stir  them  round  until  they  absorb  it  entirely ; 
when  the  under  side  is  just  set,  turn  the  ome- 
lette into  a well-buttered  dish  (hot)  and  put  it 
into  a tolerably  brisk  oven.  From  five  to  ten 
minutes  will  bake  it : and  it  must  be  served 
the  instant  it  is  taken  out.  It  will  have  risen 
to  a great  height,  but  will  sink  and  become 
heavy  in  a very  short  time. 

n.  Take  a pint  of  milk  and  add  as  much  flour 
as  will  come  to  a thick  paste  on  the  fire ; keep 
stirring  it  all  the  time,  and  add  the  yolks  of  six 
eggs,  a pinch  of  salt,  and  enough  sugar  to 
sweeten  to  taste ; then  stir  in  the  whites  of 
eight  eggs  beaten  to  a stiff  froth.  Put  into  a 
quick  oven  and  bake  a quarter  of  an  hour ; 

24 


then  glaze  with  white  sugar  and  send  quickly 
to  table.  Ground  rice  may  be  used  instead  of 
flour.  The  rind  of  a lemon  grated,  or  lemon- 
juice,  gives  the  omelette  an  agreeable  flavor. 

Strawberry  Omelette. — Beat  up  a dozen 
eggs  as  before  directed,  but  mix  with  the  yolks 
instead  of  pepper  and  salt  a heaping  table- 
spoonful of  pounded  lump  sugar ; mix  well  and 
fry  in  butter.  When  done,  put  in  the  centre  of 
it  four  tablespoonfuls  of  strawberry  jam,  let 
the  jam  lie  long  enough  to  get  well  warmed 
through,  then  double  the  whole  into  a half- 
moon keeping  the  jam  in  a mass  inside.  Dish 
it,  and  dust  the  top  thickly  with  white  sugar. 

Sweet  Omelette. — Beat  four  eggs  together 
as  for  plain  omelette,  omitting  the  salt  and 
pepper  and  sweetening  to  taste  with  fine  white 
sugar.  F ry,  and  when  well  set,  lay  on  currant 
jelly,  raspberry  jam,  preserved  apricots,  or  any 
other  sweetmeat  that  may  be  convenient;  a 
large  tablespoonful  will  be  sufficient  for  an 
omelette  of  this  size.  It  should  be  laid  on  in  a 
lump  rather  than  spread  about.  Fold  one  half 
of  the  omelette  over  the  other,  enclosing  the 
fruit,  dust  sugar  over  the  top,  and  send  to  table 
on  a napkin. 

ONION. — The  varieties  of  the  common 
onion  are  not  so  numerous  as  might  have  been 
anticipated,  considering  that  it  is  raised  from 
seed.  They  vary,  however,  in  very  sensible 
qualities,  such  as  hardness,  pungency  of  taste, 
shape,  size,  and  the  color  of  the  skin.  The 
common  onion  succeeds  well  in  any  rich,  moist, 
sandy  soil,  using  old  manures,  mixed  with 
ashes  and  soot,  or  thoroughly  decomposed 
meadow  muck,  mixed  with  well-rotted  horse  or 
cow  manure.  The  seed  should  be  sown  in 
May,  in  drill  rows  about  a foot  apart.  As  the 
plants  appear  they  should  be  kept  free  of 
weeds,  and  will  need  four  or  five  hoeings  be- 
fore the  tops  arrive  at  their  full  growth.  The 
onion  requires  a full  exposure  to  the  sun’s  rays 
and  all  the  warmth  it  can  get ; so  that  weeds,  if 
suffered  to  grow,  would  impede  the  progress  of 
the  crop  by  shading  it,  as  well  as  robbing  it  of 
its  supply  of  food.  At  the  end  of  the  season 
the  leaves  dry  away,  when  the  bulbs  should  be 
pulled  up  and  spread  upon  the  ground  to  ripen 
and  harden.  The  best  way  to  store  them  is  to 
string  them  and  hang  them  up  in  a cool,  dry 
place ; if  they  are  small,  they  may  be  kept  in 
nets.  The  thick-necked,  spongy  ones  should  be 
used  first,  or  the  germ  may  be  taken  out,  and 
the  onions  then  hung  up  or  kiln-dried.  Among 
the  principal  and  best  varieties  are  the  white, 
or  silver-skinned,  the  yellow,  and  the  red,  and 
they  have  also  various  names  according  to  their 
size,  shape,  season,  and  flavor.  The  very 
small  of  the  white  kind  are  much  used  for  pick- 
ling ; the  other  and  larger  kinds  are  applied  to 
various  uses. 

The  first  new  onions  are  received  from  the 
South,  usually  from  the  Bermudas,  about  the 
1st  of  May;  they  are  large,  flat,  and  red-colored, 
but  sweet  and  excellent.  Then  they  follow 
from  New  Orleans  about  June  1st,  and  from 
New  England  from  the  15th  to  the  20th  of  July. 


370 


ONIONS 


OPIUM 


Baked  Onions. — The  large  Spanish  or  Ber- 
muda onions  are  best  for  this  purpose.  Wash 
the  outside  clean,  put  into  a sauce-pan  with 
slightly  salted  water,  and  boil  an  hour,  replen- 
ishing the  water  with  more  (boiling  hot)  as  it 
boils  away.  Then  turn  off  the  water;  take 
out  the  onions  and  lay  upon  a cloth  that  all  the 
moisture  may  be  absorbed  ; roll  each  in  a press 
of  buttered  tissue-paper,  twisting  it  at  the  top 
to  keep  it  closed,  and  bake  in  a slow  oven 
nearly  an  hour,  or  until  tender  all  through.  Peel 
them,  put  them  in  a deep  dish,  and  brown 
slightly,  basting  freely  with  butter;  this  will 
take  fifteen  minutes  more.  Season  with  pepper 
and  salt,  and  pour  melted  butter  over  the  top. 

Boiled  Onions. — Peel  and  blanch  16  small  on- 
ions. Prepare  a sauce  of  2\  oz  butter  and  2 oz 
flour  in  a stew-pan  ; pour  on  it  one  pint  of  milk 
and  veal  broth,  or  water  boiling.  Add  to  it  the 
onions,  with  6 pepper-corns,  a bouquet  of  pars- 
ley, a blade  of  mace,  and  a teaspoonful  of  salt. 
A lump  of  sugar  much  improves.  When  tender, 
remove,  strain  the  sauce,  and  serve. 

Pickled  Onions. — Select  the  smallest  ones 
that  can  be  had,  and  peel  off  the  outer  skin ; 
they  are  best  when  newly  harvested.  To  a 
quart  of  the  onions  allow  a quart  of  the  best 
white  vinegar,  a tablespoonful  of  salt,  and  an 
ounce  of  whole  black  pepper;  bring  these 
quickly  to  a boil,  take  off  the  scum  and  throw 
in  the  onions  ; simmer  them  for  three  or  four 
minutes,  and  when  they  begin  to  look  clear, 
put  them  into  jars  and  pour  the  pickle  on 
them.  Any  favorite  spices  can  be  added  to 
the  vinegar. 

Roast  Onions. — They  should  be  roasted 
with  all  the  skin  on  till  tender  throughout ; they 
may  be  served  alone,  with  only  salt  and  cold 
butter,  or  with  roast  potatoes  or  beet-roots. 

Stewed  Onions. — Strip  the  outer  skin  from 
four  or  five  large  Spanish  or  Bermuda  onions, 
and  trim  the  ends,  but  without  cutting  into  the 
vegetable;  arrange  them  in  a sauce-pan  of  suffi- 
cient size  to  contain  them  all  in  one  layer;  just 
cover  these  with  good  beef  or  veal  gravy,  and 
stew  them  gently  for  a couple  of  hours ; they 
should  be  tender  quite  through,  but  should  not 
be  allowed  to  fall  to  pieces.  When  common 
onions  are  used,  they  should  be  first  boiled  for 
half  an  hour  in  plenty  of  water,  then  drained 
from  it,  and  put  into  boiling  gravy  or  broth. 
The  savor  of  this  dish  is  heightened  by  flour- 
ing  lightly  and  frying  the  onions  of  a pale 
brown  before  they  are  stewed. 

Stuffed  Onions. — Choose  the  largest  on- 
ions ; peel  and  boil  them  in  plenty  of  water 
until  done  enough.  Then  take  out  their  in- 
sides, leaving  a few  of  the  outer  coats  remain- 
ing. Drain  well  the  portion  extracted,  and 
chop  it  small.  Mix  this  with  a good  piece  of 
butter,  a few  raw  eggs,  and  bread-crumbs 
soaked  in  milk.  Stuff  with  it  the  hollowed 
onions.  Lay  them  in  a tart-pan  which  has  been 
previously  greased  with  butter  and  lined  with 
paper.  Bake  them,  if  possible,  with  fire  over 
as  well  as  under  them. 

For  sauce,  take  broth,  butter,  chopped  pars- 


ley, mace,  and  stir  together  over  the  fire  in  a 
sauce-pan  with  the  yolks  of  a few  eggs.  Pour 
it  hot  over  the  onions  when  ready  to  serve. 

OPIUM. — Poison — -Symptoms : Excessive 
drowsiness  apt  to  sink  into  death.  Treatmetit : 
If  the  drug  has  been  swallowed,  empty  the 
stomach  by  the  stomach-pump  or  an  emetic  of 
two  glasses  of  hot  water,  each  with  a half-tea- 
spoonful  of  mustard.  Try  to  rouse  the  pa- 
tient, and  keep  him  roused,  by  shaking,  tickling 
the  soles  of  the  feet,  etc.  Use  artificial  respira- 
tion as  in  Drowning,  which  see.  After  vom- 
iting occurs,  strong  black  coffee  should  be 
freely  administered  from  time  to  time  until  the 
patient  gets  well. 

A drug  prepared  from  the  juice  of  the 
capsules  of  the  poppy,  the  white  variety  of  the 
latter  being  generally  used.  The  preparations 
from  it  used  in  medicine  are  various,  in- 
cluding a confection,  a plaster,  an  enema,  an 
extract,  a liniment,  a pill  (commonly  called  com- 
pound soap  pill),  a lead  and  opium  pill  (aro- 
matic chalk  powdered  with  opium),  laudanum 
(tincture  of  opium),  compound  ipecacuanha 
powder  (Dover’s  powder),  compound  kino  pow- 
der, compound  powder  of  opium,  compound 
tincture  of  camphor  (also  known  as  paregoric 
elixir),  opium  lozenges,  an  ammoniated  tincture 
of  opium,  ointment  of  galls  and  opium,  and  wine 
of  opium.  Of  course  the  doses  of  these  vary 
according  to  the  effect  desired  to  be  produced, 
but  supposing  it  is  intended  to  give  rise  to  an 
effect  comparable  to  that  produced  by  a grain 
of  opium  (which  is  an  ordinary  full  dose),  they 
would  be  as  follows : of  confection  of  opium 
(U.  S.  Pharmacopoeoa),  30  grs  ; of  .the  extract, 
about  a grain  ; of  the  liquid  extract,  25  drops  ; 
of  laudanum,  25  to  30  drops  ; of  compound  tinc- 
ture of  camphor  (paregoric  elixir),  two  teaspoon- 
fuls ; of  acetated  tincture  of  opium,  15  drops; 
of  opium  wine,  about  20  drops ; of  chalk  and 
opium  powder,  10  to  20  grains  ; of  compound 
ipecacuanha  powder  (known  as  Dover’s  Pow- 
der), 10  grains;  of  compound  kino  powder,  5 
to  1 5 grains  ; of  compound  soap  pill,  4 to  5 
grains;  of  lead  and  opium  pill,  4 grains. 

In  order  for  opium  to  exercise  its  free  influ- 
ence it  is  necessary  that  it  should  be  absorbed 
into  the  blood,  but  it  does  not  greatly  matter 
how  it  is  introduced,  whether  by  the  stomach, 
by  a raw  surface,  or,  as  is  now  extensively 
practised,  by  sub-cutaneous  injections.  If  in 
any  of  these  ways  an  ordinary  dose  of  opium, 
or  of  its  alkaloid  morphine,  be  introduced  it 
acts  as  a narcotic  and  has  a surprisingly  sooth- 
ing influence  upon  pain  or  nervous  excitement. 
Should  a large  dose  be  given  the  effects  are 
more  marked ; sleep  of  a heavy  kind  speedily 
comes  on,  the  breathing  is  often  stertorous, 
and  the  pulse  is  slow.  After  a poisonous  dose, 
there  is  a craving  for  sleep  which  can  hardly  be 
overcome,  and  sleep  if  permitted  soon  passes 
into  complete  insensibility  and  death  gradually 
ensues. 

Opium  should  rarely  be  used  in  any  form 
except  under  medical  advice,  then  the  physi- 
cian’s directions  should  be  rigidly  adhered 


OPHTHALMIA 


OPOSSUM 


371 


to.  The  danger  of  poisoning  is  not  the  worst 
danger  to  which  the  habitual  or  ignorant  user 
exposes  himself.  (See  Morphine.) 

OPHTHALMIA. — This  term  is  applied  to  in- 
flammation of  the  thin  mucous  membrane  which 
covers  the  front  of  the  eyeball  and  lines  the 
inner  surface  of  the  lids.  In  some  forms  of 
ophthalmia,  however,  there  is  inflammation  of 
the  cornea  and  of  the  anterior  part  of  the  strong 
fibrous  coat  of  the  eye,  called  sclerotic.  Ophthal- 
mia is  a very  frequent  affection,  presents  many 
forms,  and  originates  from  one  or  more  of  a 
great  number  of  local  and  constitutional  causes. 
Among  the  principal  of  these  causes  are  the 
presence  between  the  lids  and  the  surface  of 
the  eye  of  foreign  substances,  such  as  particles 
of  dust,  sand,  etc ; particles  of  steel  and  iron, 
when  impelled  with  much  force,  adhere  to  or 
are  imbedded  in  the  tissue  of  the  cornea  or  eye- 
ball, and  so  long  as  they  remain  keep  up  inflam- 
mation ; an  inverted  eyelash  has  the  same  ef- 
fect ; exposure  of  the  eyes  to  a strong  draught 
and  the  prolonged  action  of  a heated  atmos- 
phere are  also  common  causes  of  opthalmia,  as 
is  long-continued  exercise  of  the  eyes  on  min- 
ute objects,  especially  under  artificial  light  and 
in  close  badly  ventilated  rooms.  Constitutional 
diseases,  such  as  gout,  rheumatism,  scrofula, 
and  inherited  syphilis,  render  their  subjects 
liable  to  attacks  of  ophthalmia. 

Simple  or  Common  Ophthalmia  is  pro- 
duced by  slight  injury  or  by  exposure  to  a 
draught.  The  symptoms  are  redness  of  the  eye- 
ball, “ watering  ” of  the  eye,  and  a feeling  of 
smarting  and  stiffness.  These  in  most  cases 
soon  pass  away  after  the  application  of  a cool- 
ing lotion ; but  care  must  be  taken  to  protect 
the  eye  both  from  light  and  the  action  of  cold. 

Catarrhal  Ophthalmia,  like  catarrh  of  the 
nasal  passages,  is  an  inflammation  of  the 
mucous  membrane,  attended  by  the  produc- 
tion of  mucous  or  pus.  This  form  of  oph- 
thalmia is  met  with  in  patients  attacked  by 
measles,  and  occurs  in  some  cases  of  scar- 
let fever,  and  of  erysipelas.  The  symptoms  re- 
semble those  of  simple  ophthalmia  much  aggra- 
vated. The  eyelids  feel  stiff,  and  the  patient 
has  a feeling  as  if  sand  were  in  the  eye  ; and 
the  eyeball  is  of  a bright  scarlet  redness,  dis- 
posed not  regularly  over  the  entire  surface,  but 
in  irregularly-formed  patches.  There  is  a dis- 
charge from  the  eye,  which  at  first  is  clear  and 
thin,  but  aftenvards  yellow,  and  thick,  and 
viscid  ; during  sleep  this  discharge  collects  at 
the  edges  of  the  lid  and  dries  there,  gluing 
together  the  eyelashes.  The  lids  become  red 
and  swollen  ; the  general  health  gradually  be- 
comes disordered  ; and  there  is  headache,  fever, 
and  loss  of  appetite.  In  ordinary  cases  the 
affection  generally  lasts  for  ten  days  or  two 
weeks,  but  when  the  inflammation  has  been 
allowed  to  proceed  without  treatment,  it  often 
passes  into  an  obstinate  chronic  condition. 
Where  there  is  not  very  much  local  irritation, 
frequent  bathing  of  the  eyes  with  cold  water, 
and  the  application  of  alum  lotion  (one  grain  to 
one  ounce  of  water),  or  of  one'or  two  drops  of 


a solution  of  lunar  caustic  (one  grain  to  two 
ounces  of  distilled  water)  will  generally  be 
found  effectual.  The  application  of  the  lotion 
should  be  made  thrice  (the  drops  once)  daily. 
When  there  is  severe  pain,  however,  and  the 
eyelids  are  red  and  inflamed,  a leech  may  be 
applied  to  each  temple.  The  edges  of  the  lids 
should  be  anointed  every  night  at  bedtime  with 
simple  cerate.  The  patient  should  be  kept  on 
a light  diet,  and  the  bowels  kept  open  if  neces- 
sary by  administration  of  cathartics.  The  eyes 
should  be  protected  by  a dark  green  shade. 

Purulent  Ophthalmia,  or  Epythalmia,  is  the 
most  malignant  form  of  the  disease.  It  some- 
times attacks  individuals  who  have  been  col- 
lected together  in  large  numbers  under  faulty 
hygienic  conditions,  and  breaks  out  occasion- 
ally in  large  schools  of  young  children.  The 
symptoms  in  the  earlier  stages  resemble  those  of 
catarrhal  ophthalmia,  but  they  rapidly  increase 
in  severity,  and  in  the  course  of  twenty-four  or 
thirty  hours  the  eyelids  become  of  a deep-red 
color,  and  swollen  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
patient  cannot  obtain  a glimpse  of  any  object, 
or  even  tell  whether  it  be  day  or  night,  and 
believes  that  he  is  blind.  There  is  acute  pain, 
which  shoots  from  the  eye  to  the  corresponding 
cheek,  forehead,  and  temple ; and  from  be- 
tween the  swollen  lids  there  is  a constant  dis- 
charge of  thick,  purulent  fluid,  which,  if  applied 
even  in  minute  quantity  to  a healthy  eye  will 
cause  purulent  inflammation.  There  is  also  gen- 
erally considerable  constitutional  disturbance. 
The  affection,  if  unchecked  by  treatment,  causes 
ulceration  with  perforation  of  the  cornea,  and, 
in  some  cases,  sloughing  of  the  whole  of  the 
transparent  membrane.  In  the  latter  case, 
there  will,  of  course,  be  complete  loss  of  vision ; 
with  slight  ulceration  even,  the  sight,  though 
not  destroyed,  will  in  most  cases  be  seriously 
impaired. 

The  subjects  of  purulent  ophthalmia  are 
usually  pallid  and  weak,  and  should  not  be 
treated  on  any  lowering  system ; the  strength 
ought  to  be  kept  up  by  good,  but  easily  digest- 
ible food.  Beer,  wine,  and  in  very  bad  cases 
brandy  may  be  given  in  moderate  quantities. 
The  most  useful  medicinal  agents  are  quinine 
and  opium.  The  local  treatment  consists  fn 
incising  the  mass  of  swollen  membrane,  and 
applying  some  strong  astringent,  as  lunar  caus- 
tic. The  eyes  are  then  to  be  frequently 
syringed  with  a solution  of  alum.  Early  and 
skilful  medical  attendance  is  very  necessary 
in  purulent  ophthalmia ; but  much  also  depends 
upon  the  nursing.  The  eyes  must  be  frequently 
bathed,  the  face  kept  clean,  and  above  all  great 
care  must  be  taken  to  wipe  away  at  once  the  pur- 
ulent discharge,  as  it  will  communicate  the  dis- 
ease to  any  healthy  eye  with  which  it  happens 
to  come  in  contact.  The  affected  eye  should 
be  covered  by  a layer  of  cotton-wool  fixed  by 
a bandage ; this  covering  should  be  frequently 
renewed,  and  when  removed  should  at  once  be 
burnt. 

OPOSSUM. — An  animal,  about  the  size  of 
a large  cat,  which  is  seldom  found  in  the 


372 


ORANGE 


Eastern  markets  but  is  much  liked  and  much 
sought  after  in  the  South  and  South-west. 
Hunting  it  is  a favorite  amusement  at  the  South, 
especially  with  the  negroes,  who  are  extremely 
fond  of  its  flesh  in  the  Autumn,  when  it  is  fat, 
tender,  and  flavored  like  that  of  a sucking-pig; 
the  sport  begins  after  dark,  and  is-  prosecuted 
with  the  assistance  of  a few  dogs,  torches,  and 
axes  for  felling  the  trees  in  which  the  animal 
takes  refuge.  It  is  in  best  condition  after  the 
first  frost  has  ripened  the  persimmons,  and 
about  that  time  it  is  found  occasionally  in  the 
markets.  The  full  grown  opossum  is  about  as 
large  as  a ten-pound  pig.  It  should  be  dressed 
as  soon  after  having  been  killed  as  possible, 
and  never  purchased  when  at  all  stale. 

Prepare,  cook,  and  serve  like  Rabbit  or 
Roast  Pig.  A good  stuffing  for  it  is  made  by 
pounding  the  liver  and  heart  with  about  the 
same  quantity  of  bacon  and  mixing  with  it  two 
or  three  teaspoonfuls  of  chopped  parsley,  a 
piece  of  grated  nutmeg,  salt  and  pepper,  and 
six  small  onions  fried  in  butter. 

ORANGE.— There  are  many  varieties  of 
this  most  delicious,  wholesome,  and  refreshing 
fruit.  The  largest  and  best  are  from  Florida, 
and  sell  at  the  highest  prices.  The  Havana 
oranges  are  equal  in  flavor,  but  have  a thick 
and  rough  rind  ; the  pulp  of  either  is  very  juicy 
and  delicious.  The  Maltese  oranges  have  also 
a very  thick  and  spongy  rind,  and  are  some- 
times almost  juiceless.  The  Sicilian  fruit,  com- 
monly called  Messina  oranges,  have  a thin 
rind  and  a sour  taste,  but  are  usually  most 
abundant  and  cheap.  The  Florida  and  West 
India  oranges  are  in  market  from  October  till 
April,  and  those  from  the  Mediterranean  from 
January  until  May,  after  which  periods  they 
lose  flavor  and  become  dry  and  spongy. 

The  Seville  or  bitter  orange  is  of  the  same 
variety  as  the  sweet,  but  it  cannot  be  eaten  raw, 
and  is  used  only  in  marmalades,  candy,  etc., 
and  for  the  same  purpose  as  the  lemon.  It  is 
not  brought  to  this  country  to  any  considerable 
extent. 

Essence  of  Orange-Peel.  ( See  Essence.) 

Fool  (Orange). — Mix  the  juice  of  three 
§eville  oranges,  three  eggs  well  beaten,  a pint 
of  cream,  and  a little  nutmeg  and  cinnamon ; 
sweeten  to  taste.  Set  the  whole  over  a slow 
fire,  and  stir  it  till  it  becomes  as  thick  as 
cream,  but  do  not  let  it  boil ; then  pour  it  into 
a dish  and  set  it  by  till  cold.  This  is  an  ex- 
cellent dessert  dish. 

Fritters  (Orange).— After  having  stripped  the 
outer  rind  from  the  oranges,  remove  carefully 
the  white  inner  skin,  and  in  slicing  them  take 
out  the  seed ; dip  the  slices  into  batter  pre- 
ared  as  for  ordinary  fritters,  and  fry  them  in 
ot  lard  or  butter  to  a pale  brown ; let  them  be 
very  dry.  Serve  them  heaped  high  upon  a 
folded  napkin,  and  strew  sifted  sugar  over  them. 

Ice-Cream  (Orange).  (See  Ice-Cream.) 

Oranges  Filled  with  Jelly. — This  is  one  of 
the  fanciful  dishes  which  make  a pretty  ap- 
pearance on  a supper  table,  and  are  acceptable 
when  much  variety  is  desired.  Take  some  very 


fine  juicy  oranges,  and  with  the  point  of  a 
small  knife  cut  out  from  the  top  of  each  a round 
about  the  size  of  a shilling;  then  with  the  small 
end  of  a tea  or  egg  spoon,  empty  them  entire- 
ly, taking  great  care  not  to  break  the  rinds. 


Oranges  Filled  with  Jelly. 


Throw  these  into  cold  water,  and  make  jelly  of 
the  juice,  which  must  be  well  pressed  from  the 
pulp,  and  strained  as  clear  as  possible.  Color 
one-half  a fine  rose  color  with  prepared  cochi- 
neal, and  leave  the  other  very  pale ; when  it  is 
nearly  cold,  drain  and  wipe  the  orange  rinds, 
and  fill  them  with  alternate  stripes  of  the  two 
jellies ; when  they  are  perfectly  cold  cut  them 
into  quarters,  and  dispose  them  tastefully  in  a 
dish  with  a few  light  branches  of  myrtle  between 
them.  Calf’s  feet  or  any  other  variety  of  jelly, 
or  different  blanc-manges,  may  be  used  at  choice 
to  fill  the  rinds;  the  colors,  however,  should 
contrast  as  much  as  possible. 

Salad  (Orange). — Take  off  the  outer  rinds, 
and  then  strip  away  entirely  the  white  inner 
skin  from  some  fine  oranges ; slice  them  thin, 
removing  the  seeds  and  thick  skin  of  the  cores  ; 
strew  over  them  plenty  of  white  sifted  sugar, 
and  pour  on  them  a glass  of  rum  or  brandy ; 
when  the  sugar  is  dissolved  serve  the  oranges. 
Powdered  sugar  candy  used  instead  of  sugar  is 
an  improvement  to  this  salad ; and  the  substi- 
tution of  port,  sherry,  or  Madeira  for  the 
brandy  is  often  considered  so. 

Syrup  (Orange).  — Select  ripe  and  thin- 
skinned  oranges  ; squeeze  the  juice  through  a 
sieve,  and  to  every  pint  add  a pound  and  a half 
of  powdered  loaf-sugar ; boil  it  slowly  and  skim 
as  long  as  any  scum  rises  ; then  take  it  off,  and 
when  it  becomes  cold,  bottle  it  and  secure  the 
corks  well.  Two  tablespoonfuls  of  this  syrup 
mixed  in  melted  butter  make  a good  sauce  for 
plum  or  batter  pudding.  It  also  imparts  a fine 
flavor,  especially  to  punch ; and  is  so  useful 
and  so  easily  made  that  no  housekeeper  should 
be  without  it. 

Tincture  of  Orange-peel.  (See  Essence.) 

Wine  (Orange). — To  each  gallon  of  water 
allow  three  and  a half  pounds  of  loaf-sugar; 
boil  them  together,  and  take  off  the  scum. 
When  cold  add  (for  each  gallon  of  water)  the 
juice  of  twelve  or  fourteen  good  oranges,  and 
one-third  of  the  peel  cut  thin.  Let  it  stand  for 
twenty-four  hours.  Then  work  it  with  a piece 


ORANGEADE 


OXALIS 


373 


of  toast  spread  with  yeast.  Let  it  stand  two 
days,  and  take  out  the  peel  before  putting  it 
into  the  cask.  The  addition  of  the  juice  and 
rind  of  three  or  four  lemons  is  considered  by 
some  a great  improvement. 

ORANGEADE. — This  is  made  in  precisely 
the  same  way  as  lemonade,  simply  substituting 
oranges  for  lemons,  and  using  less  sugar.  It 
is  very  useful  in  a sick-room,  as  affording  a 
variety  in  the  beverages  of  feverish  patients. 

ORGANDIE. — A species  of  muslin  or  cot- 
ton fabric  extremely  light  and  nearly  transpa- 
rent. It  is  used  only  for  ladies’ dresses,  etc. 
The  French  is  the  best. 

ORGEAT. — A beverage  made  of  syrup  of 
almonds  mixed  with  water  that  has  boiled  and 
become  cold,  in  the  quantity  most  agreeable  to 
the  palate ; a tablespoonful  of  the  syrup  in  a 
tumbler  of  water  makes  a very  agreeable  drink. 
Syrup  of  almonds  may  be  made  thus  : — Blanch 
and  pound  in  a Wedgewood  mortar  a pound  of 
Jordan  almonds  and  one  ounce  of  bitter 
almonds  ; add  a tablespoonful  or  two  of  orange- 
flower  water.  Mix  a pint  of  rose-water  with  a 
pint  of  clear  water,  add  this  to  the  almonds, 
and  pass  the  whole  through  a lawn  sieve. 
Then  boil  three  pints  of  clarified  syrup,  and 
when  it  boils  pour  in  the  almond-mixture  and 
let  the  whole  boil  one  minute ; when  cold,  put 
it  into  bottles  and  cork  tightly.  To  make  it 
quickly  for  immediate  use,  pound  the  almonds 
as  above  ; mix  them  with  a quart  of  water,  one 
of  milk,  and  one  of  clarified  syrup  or  capillaire  ; 
pass  through  a sieve. 

ORMOLU. — A name  given  to  an  alloy  of 
5 2 parts  zinc  and  48  copper,  so  colored  as  to 
represent  burnished  gold.  Furniture  orna- 
mented with  it  came  into  fashion  in  the  reign 
of  Louis  XV,  and  until  lately  attained  a prodig- 
ious popularity.  At  present  it  is  sought  after 
only  by  the  rich  virtuosi. 

ORTOLAN. — The  little  bird  which  is  called 
ortolan  in  this  country  is  commonly  known  as 
the  snow-bunting , or  white  snow-bird.  It  is 
delicious  eating,  but  bears  only  a slight  resem- 
blance to  the  ortolans  which  are  so  famous  in 
European  gastronomy  and  which  are  fattened 
in  great  numbers  by  a peculiar  process  espe- 
cially for  the  table.  The  season  for  the  Ameri- 
can ortolan  begins  in  December,  but  it  is  much 
better  and  fatter  in  January  and  February.  It 
may  either  be  broiled  or  roasted. 

Broiled  Ortolans. — Clean  and  wash  thor- 
oughly in  cold  water ; spread  some  butter  over 
them  inside  and  out ; put  on  a gridiron  over  a 
clear  fire  with  the  inner  side  down,  and  broil 
till  done,  turning  it  over  when  one  side  is  brown  ; 
when  done,  season  with  salt  and  pepper,  and 
serve  on  toast.  It  will  take  about  ten  minutes 
to  broil  them. 

Roast  Ortolans. -Dip  some  oysters  in  melted 
butter  and  then  roll  them  in  bread-crumbs  sea- 
soned with  pepper  and  salt,  and  put  one  in  each 
bird  after  it  has  been  cleansed  and  washed  in 
cold  water.  Roast  them  about  twelve  minutes 
before  a good  fire,  basting  with  butter  and  water  ; 
dish  on  toast,  and  baste  freely  with  melted  butter. 


OTTER. — This  animal  is  now  scarce  except 
in  the  far  north  and  west,  and  is  seldom  offered 
in  the  market,  especially  for  food.  The  flesh, 
however,  is  quite  good  eating  and  should  not  be 
rejected  when  it  can  be  obtained  ; the  only  ob- 
jection to  it  is  that  it  has  a somewhat  fishy 
flavor.  But  this  is  not  rank  enough  to  be 
disagreeable  except  in  a very  old  otter.  Prepare, 
cook,  and  serve  in  the  same  way  as  Rabbit. 

OVERSHOES. — This  is  perhaps  the  most 
common  of  the  numerous  terms  applied  to  the 
india-rubber  shoes  designed  for  wearing  over 
the  ordinary  ones  in  wet  weather.  Where  the 
ordinary  shoes  are  of  proper  stoutness  it  is 
best  to  wear  no  overshoes  at  all ; but  when 
these  latter  are  worn  they  should  be  worn  only 
out  of  doors  and  left  off  immediately  on  enter- 
ing the  house.  Never  wear  overshoes  in  two 
widely-different  temperaUtres  on  the  same  day. 
Carelessness  in  this  respect  is  one  of  the  most 
fruitful  causes  of  winter  colds  and  their  long 
train  of  ills.  Another  objection  to  overshoes  is 
that  if  worn  long  at  a time  they  “ draw  ” the 
feet  to  an  extent  which  is  often  painful  and 
sometimes  productive  of  frost-bite. 

OXALIC  ACID. — Poison. — Sytnpto7ns : 
Great  distress  of  the  stomach.  Treatment : 
give  a tablespoonful  or  two  of  pulverized  chalk 
or  magnesia,  in  a little  water  or  milk.  If  not 
at  hand,  give  slacked  lime,  even  plaster  from 
the  walls  ground  fine,  will  help.  Vomiting 
usually  takes  place.  If  it  does  not,  produce  it 
by  giving  warm  water.  Do  not  use  the  stomach 
pump  or  give  alkalis. 

An  organic  acid  found  present  in  many 
plants  ; it  gives  the  acidity  to  sorrel  and  rhu- 
barb, hence  these  plants  are  used  as  articles  of 
diet.  The  oxalic  acid  of  commerce  is  drawn 
from  these  and  other  plants,  and  having  great 
cleansing  properties  is  in  almost  constant  use 
in  the  household  for  removing  stains  from 
clothing,  for  cleansing  marbles,  polishing 
brass,  etc.  It  is  one  of  the  most  deadly  of 
poisons  if  taken  in  any  quantity,  and  as  it  bears 
a close  resemblance  to  Epsom  salts  care  should 
be  taken  to  have  it  kept  where  no  mistake  can 
occur. 

OXALIS. — A beautiful  winter  and  spring 
flowering  bulb  belonging  to  the  family  of  Cape 
Bulbs.  They  flourish  either  in  pots  in  the 
window  or  out  of  doors.  The  culture  is  the 
same  as  that  of  Ixia  (which  see).  In  pots  the 
soil  should  be  sandy  peat  and  leaf-mould,  and 
the  pots  should  be  well  drained. 

Among  the  choice  varieties  are  : O.  Boweana, 
which  should  be  potted  in  September  ; it  pro- 
duces large  clusters  of  bright  red  flowers  for 
several  months.  O.  Carnosa , should  be  allowed 
to  dry  off  during  the  winter  and  bedded  out  in 
summer,  when  it  will  bloom  profusely  (flowers 
pink)  for  about  four  months.  O.  Flonbunda, 
should  be  treated  in  the  same  way.  O.  Capium 
(yellow  flowers)  ; pot  in  October.  O.  Deppn , 
summer-bloomer,  lilac-rose  flowers ; does  well 
bedded  out.  O.  Luxula  (pink)  and  O.  Luxula 
alba  (white),  are  very  pretty  varieties  ; pot  in 
September.  So  are  : O.  Alba , Cupea,  Elegans 


374 


OYSTER 


Elongata,  Flabefolia , Hirta,  Hirtella,  Lesi- 
andra,  Multiflora,  Palmata , and  Speciosa. 
The  O.  Versicolor  is  the  finest  of  all ; it  has 
flowers  white,  with  yellow  eye,  and  rosy  pink 
or  crimson  outside.  Plant  six  or  eight  large 
bulbs  (the  largest  do  not  exceed  a pea  in  size) 
in  a five  inch  pot.  The  plants  are  a mass  of 
bloom  from  January  to  April. 

OYSTER. — When  spawning,  oysters  are 
milky,  watery,  and  poor  ; and  are  unwholesome 
food.  The  months  of  spawning  are  May, 
June  and  July;  but  they  require  a month 
longer  to  fatten,  and  are  seldom  in  good  con- 
dition before  September. 

Wholesale  dealers  usually  have  four  quali- 
ties or  sizes  of  oysters  for  sale.  The  best  are 
known  as  extras , the  second  best  as  box , and 
then  follow  callings  and  bushels.  Retail  deal- 
ers usually  open  them  and  sell  them  by  the 
hundred,  gallon,  or  quart,  in  any  quantity  de- 
sired. Other  dealers  make  a large  business 
of  pickling  them  for  home  and  foreign  con- 
sumption, and  packing  them  for  inland  places. 

The  largest  oysters  are  not  always  the  best, 
especially  for  eating  raw  and  for  stewing ; 
those  of  medium  size  are  generally  preferred 
by  epicures.  Nor  are  those  found  in  clusters 
as  good  as  the  single  oysters.  Oysters  are 
not  good  when  dead.  To  ascertain  whether 
they  are  or  not,  as  soon  as  opened  and  when 
one  of  the  shells  is  removed,  touch  the  edge 
of  the  oyster  gently,  and,  if  alive,  it  will  con- 
tract. 

Broiled  Oysters. — Wipe  them  dry,  sprinkle 
them  with  salt  and  pepper,  and  broil  them  on 
a wire  gridiron  over  a clear,  hot  fire.  In  dish- 
ing, put  a small  piece  of  butter  on  each.  The 
oysters  are  often  dredged  with  flour,  or  bread- 
crumbed,  after  being  seasoned  ; this  forms  a 
crust,  and  is  thought  to  preserve  the  juices. 

Catsup  (Oyster). — Open  one  hundred  oys- 
ters and  preserve  all  their  liquor;  add  to  them 
one  pound  of  anchovies,  three  pints  of  white 
wine,  and  one  lemon  sliced  with  half  the  peel; 
let  this  boil  gently  half  an  hour;  then  strain  it 
through  muslin,  add  to  it  cloves  and  mace,  a 
quarter  of  an  ounce  each,  and  one  grated  nut- 
meg; let  it  boil  a quarter  of  an  hour  more, 
then  add  to  it  two  ounces  of  eschalots.  When 
cold,  bottle  it  with  the  spice  and  eschalots. 
This  is  rather  expensive,  but  it  gives  a deli- 
cious flavor  to  white  gravies  and  sauces,  and 
is  an  excellent  condiment  for  cold  meats. 

Curried  Oysters. — Drain  the  liquor  from  a 
quart  of  oysters,  and  put  it  into  a saucepan ; 
mix  a quarter  of  a pound  of  butter  with  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  flour,  and  stir  this  into  the 
liquor ; add  one  tablespoonful  of  curry  pow- 
der. Let  the  whole  come  to  a boil ; put  in  the 
oysters  ; boil  up  once,  and  serve  hot. 

Fried  Oysters. — Select  the  largest  and 
fattest  oysters  to  be  had  ; place  them  in  a col- 
ander and  let  them  drain  half  an  hour,  and 
then  wipe  them  dry;  dip  them  one  by  one  in 
beaten  egg,  and  roll  in  bread  crumbs  ; fry  to  a 
crisp  brown  in  plenty  of  hot  lard.  Serve  with 
tomato  catsup.  The  oysters  are  greatly  im- 


proved if  dipped  a second  time  in  the  egg  and 
bread-crumbs  after  an  interval  of  half  an  hour. 

Omelette  (Oyster).— -Chop  into  small  pieces 
half  a dozen  large  oysters.  Throw  a pinch  of 
salt  upon  them  and  let  them  stand  in  their  own 
liquor  for  half  an  hour.  Beat  six  eggs,  the 
yolks  and  whites  separately ; the  former  to  a 
smooth  thick  paste;  the  latter  to  a stiff  froth. 
Add  to  the  yolks  a tablespoonful  of  rich  stock, 
pepper  and  salt  to  taste,  and  then  lightly  stir 
in  the  whites. 

Drop  into  a hot  pan  a lump  of  fresh  butter 
the  size  of  a hen’s  egg.  When  it  is  thoroughly 
melted,  and  begins  to  fry,  pour  in  your  egg 
mixture,  and  add,  as  quickly  as  possible,  the 
oysters.  Do  not  stir;  but  with  a broad-bladed 
omelette-knife,  lift,  as  the  eggs  set,  the  ome- 
lette from  the  bottom  of  the  pan,  to  prevent  it 
from  scorching.  In  six  minutes,  it  will  be  done. 

Place  a hot  dish,  bottom  upwards,  over  the 
omelette,  and  dexterously  turn  the  pan  over, 
bringing  the  omelette  with  the  brown  side  up- 
permost upon  the  dish.  Eat  without  delay. 

Patties  (Oyster). — Line  some  small  patty- 
pans with  rich  puff-paste,  and  make  covers  of 
the  same  ; pinch  and  trim  the  edges,  and  bake 
in  a brisk  oven.  Drain  a quart  of  small  oys- 
ters from  their  liquor;  put  into  a sauce-pan  an 
ounce  of  butter  and  a teaspoonful  of  flour ; 
shake  them  round  over  a gentle  fire,  and  let 
them  simmer  two  or  three  minutes  ; throw  in  a 
little  salt,  pepper,  and  half  a teaspoonful  of 
pounded  mace,  then  add  by  degrees  two  or 
three  tablespoonfuls  of  rich  cream ; let  these 
boil,  and  pour  in  the  strained  liquor  of  the 
oysters  ; next  add  the  oysters  and  keep  at  the 
boiling-point  for  a couple  of  minutes.  Raise 
the  covers  from  the  patties  and  fill  them  with 
the  oysters  and  their  sauce  ; replace  the  covers 
and  serve  at  once  before  the  juice  has  had 
time  to  soak  through  the  crust. 

Another  way  is  to  prepare  the  oysters,  etc., 
as  above ; let  them  just  come  to  the  boiling- 
point  and  fill  the  patties  (not  baked) ; then  put 
in  a quick  oven  and  bake  twenty  minutes. 

Pickled  Oysters. — Take  out  the  oysters, 
and  for  every  quart  of  the  liquor  add  a tea- 
spoonful of  black  pepper,  a pod  of  red  pepper 
broken  into  bits,  two  blades  of  mace,  a teaspoon- 
ful  of  salt,  two  dozen  cloves,  three  tablespoon- 
fuls of  white  wine,  and  half  a pint  of  white 
vinegar.  Simmer  the  oysters  gently  in  this 
five  minntes,  then  take  them  out  and  put  them 
into  jars;  then  boil  the  pickle,  skim  it,  and 
pour  it  over  them.  Keep  them  in  a dark,  cool 
place,  and  when  a jar  is  opened  use  up  its  con- 
tents as  quickly  as  possible.  Oysters  pickled 
in  this  way  will  keep  three  or  fourweeks. 

Pie  (Oyster). — I.  Line  the  pie-dish  half 
way  up  with  good  pie-crust  ; fill  the  dish  with 
pieces  of  stale  bread,  place  a cover  of  paste 
over  this,  arfd  bake  about  fifteen  or  twenty 
minutes  in  a brisk  oven.  Takeoff  the  crust; 
have  ready  some  oysters  prepared  as  for  pat- 
ties, fill  the  pie  with  them,  and  put  on  the 
crust.  Serve  at  once. 

II.  Line  a pie-dish  (a  deep  soup-plate  will 


OYSTER 


OYSTER-PLANT 


375 


answer  as  well)  with  a good  puff -paste ; lay  an 
extra  layer  around  the  edge  of  the  dish,  and 
bake  in  a brisk  oven.  When  done,  fill  the  dish 
with  oysters ; season  with  pepper,  salt,  and  an 
ounce  or  so  of  butter ; dust  over  a little  flour, 
and  cover  with  a thin  crust  of  puff-paste.  Bake 
quickly;  when  the  top  crust  is  done  the  oysters 
should  be.  Serve  promptly,  as  the  crust 
quickly  absorbs  the  gravy.  This  pie  is  excel- 
lent cold,  and  and  is  an  admirable  dish  for  pic- 
nics or  for  travelling. 

Poulette  (Oysters  a la). — Prepare  a sauce 
by  working  together  butter  and  flour,  and 
thinning  it  with  warm  chicken  broth  to  the 
consistency  of  thick  cream.  To  each  tureen, 
add  the  yolk  of  an  egg,  stirred  in.  Season 
to  taste  with  salt  and  lemon  juice.  Keep  this 
warm. 

Wash  the  oysters,  stew  them  till  the  beards 
curl,  in  equal  parts  of  any  light  white  wine  and 
water,  remove  them  and  serve  in  the  sauce 
prepared  as  above. 

Raw  Oysters. — The  best  way  to  serve  raw 
oysters  is  on  the  “ half-shell.”  Wash  the  out 
sides  of  the  oysters;  open  them,  detaching  the 
flat  shell;  then  detach  them  from  the  deep 
shell,  but  leave  them  on  it.  Serve  five  or  six 
on  a plate  with  quarter  of  a lemon  in  the  centre. 
Eat  with  salt,  pepper  and  lemon-juice,  or  vin- 
egar. 

In  serving  them  without  the  shells,  the  most 
attractive  way  is  in  a dish  of  ice  made  by  freez- 
ing water  in  a tin  form  shaped  like  a salad 
bowl. 

Roast  Oysters. — Wash  and  wipe  the  oysters 
(in  the  shell);  lay  them  in  a quick  oven,  on  the 
top  of  the  stove,  or  in  the  coals ; when  they 
open  they  are  done.  Pile  in  a dish  or  in  a pan 
and  send  to  table,  or  take  them  out  and  lay 
them  on  toast,  pouring  over  all  the  liquor  that 
accumulates  while  opening  them,  with  a little 
butter  melted  in  it,  and  seasoned  to  taste. 

Scalloped  Oysters. — Separate  two  quarts 
of  oysters  from  their  liquor ; pound  very  fine 
eight  crisp  crackers,  or  grate  a loaf  of  stale 
bread  butter  a deep  pie  dish,  put  in  a layer 
of  crumbs,  and  then  a layer  of  oysters,  and  so 
on  till  the  dish  is  filled ; have  the  top  layer  of 
bread-crumbs  thicker  than  the  others,  and  stick 
bits  of  butter  over  it.  Pour  over  it  a teacup- 
ful of  the  oyster  liquor,  or  oyster  liquor  and 
milk  mixed  in  equal  quantities.  Bake  in  a 
moderate  oven  thirty  or  forty  minutes.  Pour 
in  a glass  of  champagne  before  cooking,  if  you 
care  to. 

Steamed  Oysters. — Lay  some  oysters  in  the 
shell  in  some  air-tight  vessel,  placing  the  upper 
shell  downwards  so  the  liquor  will  not  run  out 
when  they  open.  Set  them  over  a pot  of  boil- 
ing water  (where  they  will  get  the  steam),  and 
boil  hard  for  twenty  minutes  ; if  the  oysters  are 
open  then  they  are  done,  if  not,  steam  till  they 
do  open.  Serve  at  once  and  eat  hot,  with  salt 
and  a bit  of  butter. 

Stewed  Oysters. — Separte  a quart  of  oys- 
ters from  their  liquor,  and  set  the  latter  in  a 
sauce-pan  over  the  fire,  seasoning  with  a little 


salt  and  pepper;  let  it  just  come  to  a boil,  and 
add  a teacupful  of  milk.  Stir  together,  boil  up 
once,  and  then  put  in  the  oysters,  with  a large 
tablespoonful  of  butter,  rubbed  smoothly  with 
the  same  quantity  of  flour.  Stew  gently  a few 
minutes : tastes  vary  regarding  the  time.  Serve 
at  once,  with  oyster  crackers  or  crisp  cream 
crackers. 

OYSTER-PLANT  (Salsify).— A vegetable 
with  a grassy  top,  and  a long,  tapering,  white 
root,  somewhat  like  a carrot,  which,  when 
cooked,  has  a flavor  very  similar  to  that  of  the 
oyster.  The  tops,  when  young,  are  sometimes 
used  as  greens,  but  the  root  is  the  best  portion 
of  the  plant,  and  furnishes  an  excellent  dish 
throughout  the  winter.  In  the  cultivation  of 
the  oyster  plant,  a good,  deep,  mellow  soil 
is  needed,  as  the  roots  extend  deep  into  the 
ground.  The  beds  should  be  in  an  open  sit- 
uation, and  the  seed  sown  in  the  spring  in 
drills  about  six  inches  apart  and  half  an  inch 
deep  ; after  planting,  smooth  the  bed  nicely 
with  the  back  of  the  spade  or  with  a light  roller. 
On  coming  up,  if  the  plants  are  too  thick,  they 
should  be  thinned  to  three  or  four  inches  in- 
tervals. In  the  autumn,  when  the  roots  are 
dug,  let  them  be  exposed  to  the  air  for  a few 
hours,  and  then  pack  them  separately  in  dry 
sand,  whence  they  may  be  taken  for  use  during 
the  winter.  As  sold  in  the  markets  they  are 
usually  bound  up  in  bundles  of  half  a dozen 
roots  together. 

Boiled  Oyster-plant.  — Wash  the  roots, 
scrape  off  the  outside  skin,  and  throw  them 
immediately  into  cold  water  to  prevent  them 
from  turning  black : cut  them  into  lengths  of 
three  or  four  inches,  and  when  all  are  ready 
put  them  into  plenty  of  boiling  water,  with  a 
little  salt,  a small  bit  of  butter,  and  a couple  of 
tablespoonfuls  of  white  vinegar  or  the  juice  of 
a lemon  ; they  will  be  done  in  from  three-quar- 
ters of  an  hour  to  an  hour.  Try  them  with  a 
fork,  and  when  perfectly  tender,  drain,  and 
serve  them  with  melted  butter,  or  with  rich 
brown  gravy. 

Fried  Oyster-plant. — Boil  the  roots  tender, 
as  directed  above,  drain,  and  then  press  them 
lightly  in  a soft  cloth ; throw  them  into  a tol- 
erably thick  batter ; take  the  pieces  out  sepa- 
rately and  fry  them  in  plenty  of  hot  lard  to  a 
light  brown  ; then  place  in  a colander  to  drain; 
dish,  sprinkle  fine  salt  over  them,  and  send  to 
table  hot. 

Or,  after  boiling,  mash  the  roots  to  a smooth 
paste,  make  them  into  round  cakes,  dip  them 
in  beaten  egg  and  then  in  bread-crumbs,  and 
fry  as  before. 

Stewed  Oyster-plant. — Scrape  the  roots, 
and  cut  them  into  pieces  one  inch  long;  put 
these  into  a sauce-pan  with  hot  water  enough 
to  cover  them,  and  stew  till  quite  tender;  turn 
off  nearly  all  the  water,  add  a teacupful  of  milk, 
and  stew  ten  minutes  after  it  begins  to  boil; 
cut  a tablespoonful  of  butter  into  bits,  roll 
them  in  flour,  and  add  them  to  the  stew  ; pep- 
per and  salt  to  taste ; then  boil  up  once,  and 
serve  hot. 


376 


PAEONY 


PAINTING 


P 


P2EONY. The  familiar  name  of  a num- 

ber of  species  of  highly  ornamental  garden 
plants,  which  blossom  through  several  weeks  of 
the  early  part  of  the  floral  season.  The  paeo- 
nies  are  divided  into  two  groups,  those  which 
are  herbaceous  and  those  which  are  shrubby; 
but  the  woody  stems  of  the  latter  (commonly 
called  Tree  Paeonies)  are  of  a herbaceous 
character,  with  very  large  pith.  The  several 
sorts  may  be  cultivated  in  the  open  air,  cover- 
ing the  plants  in  winter  in  the  colder  latitudes, 
and  where  heavy  snows  might  break  the 
branches,  with  a perforated  barrel,  cask,  or 
box,  a method  that  secures  the  flowering  for 
the  next  season,  which  sometimes  fails.  In 
pot  culture,  the  chief  point  is  not  to  allow  the 
plants  to  start  suddenly  into  growth  and  push 
their  flower-buds  immaturely.  If  kept  in  the 
shady  part  of  the  greenhouse  or  conservatory, 
and  not  too  near  the  window  in  the  parlor 
the  display  of  flowers  will  be  longer  pre- 
served. The  best  soil  for  them  is  a good  loam 
mixed  with  a little  leaf  mould;  and  in  the  gar- 
den a good  loamy  soil,  with  occasional  prunings 
of  the  plants,  will  be  found  the  best  mode  of 
cultivation.  The  pieony  is  easily  propagated 
by  division  of  the  roots  and  by  seeds  ; and  cut- 
tings may  be  taken  in  August  or  September 
(with  a portion  of  the  old  wood  attached).  In 
selecting  the  seed  for  sowing,  the  smaller  ones 
in  the  capsules  are  the  best. 

Herbaceous  paeonies. — The  common  red 
paeony  used  to  be  found  in  every  garden,  its 
large  and  brilliant  red  flowers  rendering  it  very 
conspicuous,  and  delighting  all  lovers  of  gorge- 
ous colorings.  It  is  only  a few  years  since  the 
white  variety  was  introduced  and  shortly  after- 
wards the  pink ; now  over  a hundred  distinct 
varieties  are  given  in  the  catalogues.  Among 
the  choicest  of  them  are  the  following: — Alba 
Plenaia,  double  flower,  white  ; Albicans  Plena , 
rosy  pink  ; Amabilis , outer  petal  rose  color, 
inner  ones  creamy  white;  Baron  Rothschild, 
pale  rose  ; Duchesse  de  Nemours,  rose  lilac ; 
Duchcsse  d’ Orleans,  outer  petals  violet-rose, 
centre,  salmon-buff ; Festiva,  white  shaded  to 
carmine  in  the  centre  ; Maidens  Blush,  bright 
pink ; Pompadoura,  dark  crimson ; Pomponia, 
purplish  pink,  salmon  centre  ; Pattsia,  purplish 
crimson  ; Queen  Victoria,  rose  ; Rubra  Striata, 
richest  rosy  crimson ; Tenuifolia,  funnel- 
shaped  leaves,  flowers  deep  crimson ; Virgin- 
ialis,  pure  white  ; Whitteyi,  very  fragrant,  white 
with  yellow  centre. 

Tree  Paeonies. — There  are  many  varieties 
of  these,  but  after  the  poppy-flowered  and  the 
double  blush  they  differ  but  little.  They  bloom 
in  May  and  are  always  ornamental.  Elizabeth 
and  Roi  Leopold  arc  magnificent  varieties. 


PAINT. — (To  Clean.)  Scour  with  a soft 
brush,  using  warm  (but  not  hot)  soap-suds ; 
wash  the  soap  off  immediately  with  old  flannel 
dipped  in  clear  water,  and  wipe  dry  with  a linen 
cloth.  The  entire  process  should  be  gone 
through  with  quickly,  so  that  the  water  will  not 
dry  upon  and  streak  the  paint.  ( See  Clean- 
ing.) 

To  Remove  Paint. — Apply  either  spirits  of 
turpentine  or  benzine,  with  a piece  of  woollen 
cloth ; the  turpentine  may  afterwards  be  gotten 
rid  of  by  continuing  the  friction  with  a clean 
piece  of  cloth,  or,  if  necessary,  follow  it  up 
with  soap  and  water  or  spirits  of  wine.  When 
paint  is  suffered  to  get  hard  and  dry,  it  is  very 
difficult  to  get  rid  of  it  entirely,  but  by  perse- 
verance with  either  of  the  above  solvents  it 
may  generally  be  removed. 

PAINTING. — Painting  as  applied  to  house- 
building consists  in  the  application  to  woods 
and  other  materials  of  artificial  colors  com- 
pounded with  oil,  oil  and  turpentine,  or  water. 
It  is  founded  upon  the  power  possessed  by  oil 
and  varnishes  and  white  lead,  of  preventing  the 
injurious  action  of  the  atmosphere  upon  wood, 
iron,  stucco,  and  even  stone,  while  at  the  same 
time  it  is  capable  of  considerable  decorative 
effect. 

In  painting  woods,  especially  pine  or  deal, 
the  knots  must  first  be  killed ; otherwise  they 
are  constantly  giving  out  turpentine,  and  thus 
destroying  the  effect  of  the  paint.  The  com- 
position for  this  purpose  is  made  with  red  and 
white  lead,  ground  fine  with  water  on  a stone, 
and  mixed  with  warm  double  glue  size ; it 
should  be  brushed  on  the  knots  while  warm. 
A second  coat  of  white  lead  ground  in  oil  with 
the  addition  of  a dryer,  as  red  lead  or  litharge 
(one  quarter  as  much  of  the  dryer  as  of  the 
white  lead)  will  generally  be  necessary  unless 
the  wood  has  been  thoroughly  seasoned.  This 
should  be  allowed  to  become  quite  dry,  and 
then  should  be  rubbed  down  with  pumice- 
stone.  After  this  knotting  is  completed,  the 
next  process  is  to  prime.  The  paint  for  this 
is  composed  chiefly  of  white  lead  mixed  with  a 
very  small  quantity  of  red  lead  in  raw  linseed 
oil;  it  should  be  laid  on  very  thin,  so  that  a 
pound  ought  to  cover  eighteen  or  twenty  square 
yards.  Another  coat  is  generally  laid  on  after- 
wards still  thinner  than  the  first;  and  in  this 
condition  the  work  is  said  to  be  primed  and 
one  coat,  rctidy  for  painting,  which  will  require 
two  coats  more.  All  the  nail-holes  and  other 
irregularities  should  now  be  filled  up  with  put- 
ty, and  the  whole  surface  brought  to  the  de- 
sired condition  of  smoothness.  After  this,  a 
regular  coat  of  paint  of  the  intended  color  is 
laid  on,  and  in  a day  or  two  subsequently  the 


PALSY 


PAPER-WARE 


377 


finishing  one.  When  a large  proportion  of 
turpentine  is  used  in  this  last  coat,  the  paint 
looks  dull  and  has  a delicate  bloom  ; this  is 
called  flatting. 

The  colors  and  combinations  of  colors  pos- 
sible in  painting  are  practically  innumerable, 
and,  with  the  methods  of  preparing  them,  consti- 
tute too  large  a subject  to  be  entered  upon  here. 
(A  few  of  those  most  commonly  employed  are 
given  under  Pigments).  Those  processes,  a 
knowledge  of  which  can  probably  be  utilized 
in  the  household,  are  treated  of  in  their  proper 
places.*  (See  Kalsomining,  Staining,  Var- 
nish, and  Whitewash.) 

The  best  time  for  painting  the  exterior  of 
buildings  is  late  in  the  autumn  or  during  the 
winter.  Paint  then  applied  will  endure  twice  as 
long  as  when  applied  in  early  summer,  or  in 
hot  weather.  In  the  former  it  dries  slowly  and 
becomes  hard,  like  a glazed  surface,  not  easily 
affected  afterwards  by  the  weather,  or  worn  oft 
by  the  beating  of  storms.  But  in  very  hot 
weather  the  oil  in  the  paint  soaks  into  the  wood 
at  once,  as  into  a sponge,  leaving  the  lead  near- 
ly dry,  and  nearly  ready  to  crumble  off.  This 
last  difficulty,  however,  may  be  guarded  against, 
though  at  an  increased  expense,  by  first  going 
over  the  surface  with  raw  oil.  By  painting  in 
cold  weather  another  serious  objection  to  paint- 
ing in  summer  may  be  avoided,  namely,  the 
collection  of  small  flies  on  the  fresh  paint. 

Measurement  of  Painter’s  Work. — When 
this  kind  of  work  is  not  done  by  the  job  it  is 
done  by  measurement.  In  the  latter  case,  the 
work  is  always  measured  by  the  yard  super- 
ficial, and  the  dimensions  are  taken  in  yards, 
inches,  and  tenths.  Every  part  passed  over 
by  the  brush  is  measured,  consequently  the  di- 
mensions must  be  taken  in  a line  that  girts  over 
the  moulding,  etc.  Ornamental  and  carved 
work  are  charged  extra. 

PALSY.  (See  Paralysis.) 

PANADA. — This  is  excellent  for  the  sick- 
room. Break  into  a sauce-pan  a piece  of  bread 
a little  larger  than  an  egg ; cover  it  with  water, 
or  milk  and  water;  boil  five  minutes,  stir- 
ring all  the  while.  Then  add  a saltspoonful  of 
salt,  one  ounce  of  butter,  and  a couple  of  raw 
egg-yolks.  Stir  well  together,  and  serve  in  a 
bowl. 

Chicken  Panada. — Make  according  to  above 
receipt,  reducing  the  quantity  of  bread,  and 
substituting  for  it  the  white  meat  of  chicken 
minced  very  fine.  The  egg-yolks  may  be 
omitted  or  not. 

Cracker  Panada. — Split  some  Boston  crack- 
ers, and  pile  them  in  a bowl  in  layers,  sprink- 
ling sugar  and  a little  salt  over  each ; cover 
with  boiling  water,  put  a close  top  over  the 
bowl,  and  set  in  a warm  place  where  it  may 
steep  about  an  hour.  Eat  from  the  bowl  with 
sugar,  and  flavor  with  a little  nutmeg. 


* Haw  to  Paint  (New  York,  S.  R.  Wells),  is  an  excellent 
little  manual  in  which  a practical  painter  gives  all  the  instruc- 
tion on  the  various  branches  of  the  art  that  an  amateur  can 
apply. 


PANCAKES.— Commonly  used  for  dessert; 
made  by  frying  a thin  batter  in  large  cakes. 
They  are  buttered  and  served  hot;  sometimes 
spread  with  raspberry  jam ; in  either  case  they 
are  rolled  and  sifted  with  powdered  sugar. 

For  Dessert. — Mix  a pint  of  flour  with  half 
a pint  of  milk  and  half  a teaspoonful  of  salt ; 
add  four  eggs,  and  beat  until  very  light ; add 
gradually  a pint  of  milk ; grease  a small  frying- 
pan,  and  put  in  some  two  or  three  spoonfuls 
— barely  enough  to  cover  the  pan.  When 
done,  roll  each  one  separately,  and  place  across 
a platter,  kept  hot  in  the  mouth  of  the  oven ; 
send  to  the  table  when  the  platter  is  covered, 
with  a little  butter  over  the  whole.  Have  an- 
other plate  ready  to  follow  the  first ; serve  with 
plain  butter,  sugar,  and  cinnamon.  (See  Buck- 
wheat Cakes  and  Slap-jacks.) 

Apple  Pancakes. — Make  a batter  as  for 
common  pancakes,  adding  to  it  a few  apples, 
peeled,  cored,  and  chopped  very  fine  ; these 
must  be  stirred  up  in  the  batter  each  time  a 
pancake  is  taken  from  it.  Apple  renders  the 
pancakes  light  and  delicate ; but  too  much 
makes  them  fall  to  pieces  in  frying. 

German  Pancakes. — Beat  half  a pound  of 
butter  to  a cream  ; mix  with  it  half  a pound  of 
flour,  half  a pound  of  sugar,  the  yolks  of  twelve 
eggs,  and  a pint  of  lukewarm  cream ; beat  the 
whites  of  the  eggs  to  a stiff  froth,  and  add 
them,  together  with  a little  powdered  cinnamon 
and  lemon-peel  chopped  very  fine.  Fry  the 
pancakes  on  one  side  only,  and  place  them  in  a 
pile,  one  above  the  other,  so  as  to  form  a cake, 
sugar  and  cinnamon  being  strewn  between  each 
layer.  The  pile  should  be  cut  downwards  like 
a cake,  and  served  with  wine  or  jelly  sauce. 

PANSY. — Also  called  Heartsease  and  Gar- 
den Violet.  This  flower  is  a universal  favorite, 
and  a garden  is  seldom  found  in  which  it  does 
not  fill  some  quiet,  shady  spot  with  its  rich, 
velvety  blossoms.  It  is  a perennial — that  is,  it 
dies  down  every  year  when  nipped  by  the  frost 
and  springs  up  again  in  the  spring  from  the  old 
roots  or  from  seif-sown  seeds.  The  spot  se- 
lected for  a pansy  bed — the  plants  are  too  small 
to  plant  separately — should  be  shady,  or  at 
least  protected  from  the  noonday  sun ; and  the 
soil  should  be  rich  and  mouldy.  Pansies  are 
gross  feeders,  and  can  scarcely  be  manured  too 
strongly ; they  will  bloom  better  if  watered  at 
least  once  a week  during  the  summer  with  a 
tablespoonful  of  guano  dissolved  in  a gallon  of 
water.  Water  should  also  be  given  them  very 
freely  every  day.  Pansies  can  be  obtained  of 
every  color,  from  the  deepest  purple  and  bright- 
est yellow  to  the  faintest  buff,  and  when  grouped 
have  a very  pretty  effect.  They  may  be  grown 
from  seeds  by  starting  them  in  pots  early  in  the 
spring,  and  afterward  transplanting  them  to  the 
garden ; but  the  easier  way  is  to  procure  the 
plants  of  the  florist  already  in  growth. 

PAPER- WARE. — Under  the  name  of  Jap- 
anese paper-ware,  a species  of  household  uten- 
sils have  been  recently  introduced,  embracing 
tea-trays,  waiters,  pans,  pitchers,  bowls,  slop- 
buckets,  churns,  etc.,  etc.  They  are  made  of 


378 


PAPER-HANGINGS 


PARAFFINE 


compressed  paper,  glazed  on  the  surface  so  as 
to  resemble  earthenware  (how  much  better  it 
would  be  if  decorated  according  to  its  own 
character,  instead  of  being  made  a poor  imi- 
tation of  anything  !),  and  are  low-priced  and 
light,  and  said  to  be  water-tight  and  durable. 

PAPER-HANGINGS.— Of  all  wall-cover- 
ings, paper-hangings  are  the  most  popular,  and 
are  used  everywhere.  The  styles  and  qualities 
are  numberless,  the  best  being  French  impor- 
tations, though  the  American  papers  are  very 
nearly  as  good,  and  somewhat  cheaper  in  the 
same  grades.  The  artistic  principles  upon 
which  wall-papers  should  be  selected  are  point- 
ed out  in  the  article  on  DECORATION.  The 
more  complicated  the  colors,  the  more  expen- 
sive is  the  pattern,  each  color  requiring  a separ- 
ate impression.  For  the  more  expensive  papers 
a lining  paper  is  required,  especially  for  crim- 
sons. In  choosing  papers,  when  economy  is  an 
object,  short  patterns  should  always  be  selected, 
as  they  match  with  much  less  waste  than  longer 
ones  ; or,  better  still,  plain  neutral  tints.  Avoid 
green  papers,  as  they  are  frequently  colored 
with  Paris  green,  an  arsenical  pigment,  which 
is  poisonous.  The  paper  is  manufactured  of 
various  widths,  though  twenty-one  inches  is  the 
most  common,  and  is  sold  by  the  piece  or  roll 
of  twelve  yards.  The  French  papers  are  only 
eighteen  inches  wide. 

Measuring.  Measure  the  circumference  of 
the  room,  multiply  the  feet  by  twelve,  and  di- 
vide by  the  number  of  inches  in  the  width 
of  the  paper  ; this  will  give  the  number  of 
breadths  ; then  take  the  height  of  the  room  in 
feet,  measuring  from  the  cornice  to  the  base- 
board, and  allowing  for  the  matching  of  the 
pattern;  multiply  this  by  the  number  of  breadths, 
and  divide  by  thirty-six.  II.  Multiply  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  room  in  feet  by  the  height 
in  feet,  and  divide  the  result  by  three  times  the 
width  of  the  paper  in  inches.  Either  way  will 
give  the  number  of  pieces  that  would  be  re- 
quired if  there  were  no  windows,  doors,  or 
mantel-piece.  Deduct  for  these  in  their  pro- 
portion. 

The  price  of  paper-hangings  is  from  twelve 
cents  to  three  dollars  per  piece;  and  of  border- 
ings,  from  three  to  thirty  cents  a yard.  An 
excellent  American  satin  paper  can  be  had  at 
one  dollar  per  piece. 

Paper-Hanging.  — The  first  step  in  hang- 
ing paper  is  to  have  the  wall  well  cleaned, 
the  old  paper  or  whitewash  being  scraped  off, 
and  all  cracks  filled  with  plaster  of  Paris  and 
allowed  time  to  dry.  Then  a sizing , made  by 
adding  eight  ounces  of  dissolved  glue  to  an  or- 
dinary pailful  of  hot  water,  should  be  applied  to 
the  wall  with  a whitewash  brush,  particular  care 
being  taken  to  touch  every  part,  especially  the  top 
and  bottom.  Allow  it  to  dry  a little ; then  with 
a sharp  pair  of  scissors  cut  the  blank  strip 
from  the  left  side  of  the  paper,  the  blank  strip 
on  the  other  side  forming  the  lap ; or,  if  heavy 
flocked  paper,  both  edges  should  be  cut  and 
the  paper  put  on  the  wall  without  overlapping. 
Next,  having  cut  the  paper  of  the  required  | 


length,  lay  it  face  downward  on  a table  or 
board,  and  apply  the  paste  (made  as  below)  with 
a paste-brush  or  common  whitewash  brush  ; 
spreading  it  evenly,  and  as  quickly  as  possible. 
Then  place  it  in  position  on  the  wall,  beginning 
to  press  it  gently  down  to  the  same  with  a damp 
cloth,  at  the  top,  following  down  until  the  bot- 
tom is  reached.  Continue  in  this  manner, 
being  careful  to  match  the  figures,  until  the 
whole  is  covered  ; then  cut  out  the  border  and 
paste  it  on,  and  the  work  is  complete.  It  is 
usual  to  have  the  strips  of  paper  a little  longer 
than  is  necessary,  so  that  they  can  be  cut  off 
neatly  at  the  base-board  after  they  are  put  on, 
as  the  base-board  is  not  always  straight  or  par- 
allel with  the  ceiling. 

Paste  for  Paper-Hanging.  — For  a room 
which  will  require  eight  or  nine  pieces  of  paper, 
four  pounds  of  flour  will  be  sufficient.  This 
should  be  beaten  to  a stiff  batter  with  clear 
cold  water.  Then,  having  a vessel  full  of  boil- 
ing water  at  hand,  and  a vessel  containing  the 
batter,  large  enough  to  contain  two  pails  full, 
pour  the  boiling  water  upon  the  batter,  stirring 
it  briskly,  and  it  will  be  observed  that  the  bat- 
ter will  swell  and  its  white  color  change  to  a 
yellowish  hue.  When  this  occurs,  stop  pouring 
in  the  boiling  water,  and  a fine  smooth  paste 
will  be  found,  suitable  for  any  description  of 
paper  hanging.  Some  persons  add  alum  to  the 
paste,  others  resin,  but  it  will  be  found  that  the 
scalded  flour  will  stick  as  well,  and  no  injury 
can  occur  to  the  paper,  as  is  frequently  the 
case  when  using  flocked  paper-hangings,  with 
alum  or  resin  in  the  paste.  Another  method  of 
making  paste,  but  not  as  certain  of  good  re- 
sults, is  to  mix  the  flour  with  cold  water  to  the 
consistency  of  milk,  and  heat  it  to  the  boiling 
point  over  a slow  fire.^ 

PAPIER  MACHE. — As  its  name  implies, 
this  consists  of  paper  mashed  and  softened  and 
mixed  with  gum ; it  is  pressed  into  certain 
forms  and  covered  with  an  ornamental  surface. 
It  makes  excellent  and  very  pretty  tea-boards, 
trays,  etc.,  and  was  formerly  much  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  household  ornaments,  such  as 
cornices,  picture-frames,  and  the  like.  But  in 
most  of  the  articles  of  furniture,  which  are  now 
sold  under  this  name,  the  foundation,  instead 
of  being  of  papier  mache , is  of  wood,  as  for  in- 
stance chairs,  tables,  etc.  Paper  would  not  be 
strong  enough  for  such  articles,  and  hence  is 
not  available ; but  it  is  absurd  to  call  them 
papier  inachL  The  surface  of  the  papier  mac  hi 
is  generally  covered  with  a thick  black  varnish, 
in  which  are  embedded  pieces  of  mother-of- 
pearl  : and  when  the  whole  is  thoroughly  hard 
and  dry,  it  is  rubbed  until  the  pearly  surface 
appears,  after  which  it  is  painted  or  tinted  in  a 
fanciful  manner.  On  the  whole,  the  rapid  sub- 
stitution of  other  decorative  materials  for  papier 
mache  is  not  to  be  regretted.  Although  occa- 
sionally a piece  has  been  found  in  good  taste, 
such  has  not  been  the  rule. 

PARAFFINE. — A waxy  substance,  obtain- 
ed by  the  distillation  at  a low  temperature  of 
coal-tar,  peat,  petroleum,  and  other  similar  sub- 


PARALYSIS 


379 


stances.  Its  most  abundant  source  is  Bog- 
head coal,  from  which  it  is  now  extracted  in 
enormous  quantities  for  the  manufacture  of 
candles,  which  are  superior  in  every  way  to 
those  made  of  the  finest  wax  or  the  best  stear- 
ine. 

The  term  is  also  applied  to  an  oil  which  is 
one  of  the  products  of  the  distillation,  and 
which  is  used  to  some  extent  for  burning  in 
lamps.  It  is  a very  dangerous  source  of  illumi- 
nation. 

PARALYSIS. — This  term  is  generally  used 
to  signify  a loss  of  motion  in  some  part  of  the 
body  ; but  as  the  nerves  supplying  most  parts 
of  the  body  are  of  a mixed  character — that  is 
motor  and  sensory — the  idea  usually  conveyed 
implies  also  a loss  of  sensation.  Paralysis 
may,  however,  be  motor  or  sensory , or  both. 
Moreover,  it  may  be  complete  when  there  is  a 
total  loss  of  power  and  sensation,  or  partial , 
when  these  are  partly,  not  wholly,  lost.  Some- 
times the  word  partial  is  used  to  imply  that 
only  certain  parts  of  the  body  are  affected,  but 
for  this  purpose  the  term  local  seems  prefera- 
ble. General  paralysis  implies  that  the  whole 
body  is  affected,  but  the  term  “ general  paralysis 
of  the  insane  ” expresses  one  particular  form  of 
malady  which  is  an  accompaniment  of  insanity. 
The  two  most  common  forms  of  paralysis,  and 
the  only  ones  which  it  is  worth  while  to  treat  of 
specially  in  a book  of  domestic  medicine,  are 
hemiplegia  and  paraplegia.  Hemiplegia  is  that 
form  of  paralysis  which  affects  one  lateral 
half  of  the  body  without  the  other  side  being 
affected : hence  hemiplegia  is  right  or  left. 
Paraplegia  on  the  other  hand  means  paralysis 
of  the  lower  half  of  the  body ; but  there  is  no 
right  or  left  paraplegia  — it  must  affect  both 
sides,  if  not  quite  equally,  at  all  events  to  some 
extent. 

Hemiplegia. — This  is  much  the  most  com- 
mon form  of  paralysis.  In  most  cases  it  is 
produced  by  an  injury  to  one  side  of  the  brain, 
and  then  if  the  right  side  of  the  brain  is  in- 
jured, the  left  side  of  the  body  is  affeeted  and 
■vice  versa.  But  all  forms  of  hemiplegia  do 
not  depend  on  brain  mischief — some  arise  from 
injury  to  the  spinal  cord,  affecting  only  one 
side  of  it ; and  so  we  may  have  cerebral  or 
brain  hemiplegia,  and  spinal  hemiplegia.  Any 
influence  which  interferes  with  the  due  supply 
of  blood  to  a certain  area  of  the  brain  will 
cause  hemiplegia : softe?iing,  cerebral  hemor- 
rhage, a clot  of  fibritie  obstructing  the  vessels, 
disease  of  the  coats  of  the  vessels  from  fatty 
change  and  epileptic  attacks  will  cause  this 
form  of  paralysis.  An  ordinary  attack  of  apo- 
plexy, when  the  patient  has  recovered  from  the 
shock,  leaves  the  individual  in  this  state ; it  is, 
in  short,  a symptom  of  mischief  in  the  brain, 
and  not  the  disease  itself.  Hemiplegia  may 
come  on  suddenly  without  any  warning  or  in- 
sensibility, as  when  it  is  caused  by  a very  small 
clot ; more  generally  the  two  symptoms  are 
present,  and  when  sensibility  returns  the  pa- 
tient finds  that  he  has  lost  the  use  of  his  arm 
and  leg.  Sometimes  there  is  stiffness  or  rigidity 


f 

/ 


of  the  arm  and  leg  as  well  a 
and  this  seems  to  depend  on 
injury  to  the  brain;  in  most 
the  limbs  lie  useless,  flaccid, 
drop  at  once  when  left  unsupported. 

Treatment. — This  is,  of  course,  a disease  in 
which  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  best  medical 
advice.  When  the  patient  has  recovered  some- 
what from  the  first  shock,  friction  may  be  ap- 
plied to  the  extremities,  or  a galvanic  current, 
or  rubbing  with  rough  towels  after  a stream  of 
cold  water  has  been  applied ; this  should  not 
be  done  until  three  or  four  weeks  after  the 
disease  has  begun,  and  then  only  when  the  pa- 
tient is  in  a fit  state  for  it.  Improvement  may 
be  known  by  the  patient  being  able  to  perform 
simple  movements,  or  raise  the  limb  a short 
distance  from  the  side  ; but  for  many  weeks  or 
months  the  strength  of  that  side  will  be  much 
impaired,  and  evefi  in  favorable  cases  complete 
restoration  can  hardly  be  expected.  In  every 
case  the  treatment  and  chance  of  recovery  de- 
pend upon  the  nature  of  the  original  injury. 

Paraplegia. — This  denotes  loss  of  power,  as 
we  have  said,  over  the  lower  extremities  and 
lower  half  of  the  body,  and  is  always  depend- 
ent upon  some  change  in  the  nervous  system, 
and  generally  some  disease  in  the  spinal  cord. 
The  causes  are  : inflammation  of  the  spinal  cord 
or  its  membranes  ; cancer  of  the  cord,  or  any 
other  tumor  pressing  upon  it  or  growing  into 
its  substance ; fracture  or  dislocation  of  the 
bones  forming  the  spinal  column  ; a wound  of 
the  spine  ; and  hemorrhage  into  or  softening 
of  the  spinal  cord.  It  may  also  come  on  in 
cases  of  hysteria  without  there  being  any  true 
paralysis  at  all.  The  symptoms  are  in  most 
cases  tingling  and  numbness  of  the  legs  and 
feet,  with  occasional  twitchings,  followed  by  loss 
of  the  power  of  moving  them ; sensation  is 
generally  interfered  with  but  not  wholly  gone. 
If  the  paralysis  be  due  to  an  accident  it  may 
appear  at  once  ; if  to  cancer  or  a tumor,  the 
symptoms  may  come  on  gradually  ; if  to  inflam- 
mation, the  paralysis  may  come  on  in  a very 
few  days,  and  often  terminates  fatally  from  its 
extending  upwards  and  involving  vital  parts. 
In  most  cases  the  bladder  is  also  paralysed,  so 
that  there  is  retention  of  urine,  which  con- 
stantly dribbles  away.  The  patient  generally 
loses  power  over  his  bowels,  and  the  stools 
pass  away  unconsciously.  If  the  affection 
spreads  upwards  the  abdominal  and  intercostal 
muscles  become  involved,  and  there  is  great 
distress  in  breathing;  presently  the  arms  are 
paralyzed  and  the  patient  dies  of  suffocation, 
as  he  cannot  expand  his  chest.  This  happens 
chiefly  in  inflammatory  cases,  while  if  the  pa- 
ralysis be  due  to  other  causes,  the  parts  affected 
will  be  below  the  seat  of  injury  and  the  sufferer 
may  go  on  for  months  and  even  years — though 
in  most  cases  he  is  an  invalid  and  can  hardly 
help  himself  about  at  all.  Those  cases  which 
arise  from  a syphilitic  state  of  the  constitution 
may  generally  be  much  benefited,  if  not  cured, 
by  the  use  of  iodide  of  potassium.  The  dan- 
ger of  paraplegia  depends  upon  the  cause.  Any 


s loss  af/ power, 
the 
cases, 

and,  if  raised  up. 


380 


PARALYSIS 


PARROTS 


fracture  or  dislocation  of  the  spine  is  always 
serious,  but  even  then  life  may  be  prolonged 
for  months  ; as  a rule  the  higher  the  injury  the 
greater  the  danger.  A tumor  of  the  cord  will 
gradually  make  its  way  onwards  and  finally 
kill.  Inflammation  of  the  cord  is  generally  fatal 
within  a week  or  a fortnight  ; otherwise  a slow 
recovery  may  be  looked  for.  In  hysterical 
cases,  the  patient  is  generally  of  the  female 
sex,  very  emotional  and  excitable  in  her  nature, 
and  not  unfrequently  the  subject  of  deep  re- 
ligious impressions.  There  is  no  true  disease 
of  the  spinal  cord,  but  the  patient  will  not  or 
cannot  exercise  her  will  to  move  the  limbs. 

Treatment. — In  all  cases  of  paraplegia,  the 
patient  should  lie  on  a water-bed,  if  possible, 
so  as  to  prevent  the  formation  of  bed-sores, 
which  are  very  liable  to  form  in  this  disease. 
Great  cleanliness  must  be  observed,  and  any 
excreta  removed  when  passed.  A draw-sheet 
must  be  placed  beneath  the  patient,  and  re- 
moved when  required.  The  urine  must  be 
drawn  off  by  a catheter,  at  least  twice  a day,  if 
the  patient  cannot  pass  it,  or  if  it  dribbles 
away  ; often,  too,  it  is  a good  thing  to  wash  the 
bladder  out  night  and  morning  with  warm 
water.  The  feet  should  be  kept  warm  in  hot 
flannels,  but  the  heat  must  not  be  too  great,  or 
the  feet  are  very  liable  to  blister  in  this  affec- 
tion. The  diet  must  be  light  and  nourishing, 
and  modified  to  suit  the  patient’s  palate  in  long 
standing  cases.  No  bleeding  must  be  used; 
no  mercury  is  to  be  given,  except  in  cases  of  a 
syphilitic  origin,  and  not  always  then ; no 
blisters  need  be  applied,  as  they  do  no  good. 
For  acute  cases,  an  ice-bag  may  be  laid  along 
the  spine,  and  this  gives  relief  sometimes.  In 
chronic  cases,  when  the  paralysis  is  made  out 
clearly  to  be  incurable,  the  only  thing  one  can 
do  is  to  make  the  rest  of  life  as  easy  as  possi- 
ble for  the  patient.  In  hysterical  cases,  treat- 
ment is  of  much  avail.  It  is  too  common  for 
people  to  look  upon  a case  of  hysteria  as 
synonymous  with  a case  of  shamming  ; but 
this  is  a totally  wrong  view.  It  is  very  com- 
mon among  both  sexes,  and  especially  amongst 
young  women,  to  find  cases  in  which  the  emo- 
tional faculties  seem  developed  out  of  propor- 
tion to  the  intellectual  ones ; such  people  are 
what  are  ordinarily  called  of  a nervous  and 
excitable  temperament ; they  often  indulge 
in  emotional  excitement,  and  this  often  as- 
sumes a religious  aspect,  varying  in  its  devel- 
opment according  to  the  people  who  associated 
with  the  patient  in  ordinary  life.  Intense  men- 
tal worry,  great  grief,  loss  of  a relation,  and 
numerous  other  causes  tend  to  produce  an 
excitement  of  the  emotional  faculties,  while  at 
the  same  time  they  are  not  duly  balanced  by  a 
well-taught  intellect;  this  is  what  is  meant  by 
“giving  way  to  the  feelings.”  In  some  cases, 
this  goes  on  to  such  a degree  that  the  will  is 
not  exerted  by  the  patient,  and  cannot  be  ex- 
erted unless  some  strong  stimulant,  as  elec- 
tricity, etc.,  is  given  to  the  nervous  system.  At 
one  time,  the  voice  is  lost,  or  an  arm  is  palsied  ; 
in  another  case  the  leg  is  paralyzed,  and  it  is 


put  down  often  as  hip-joint  disease.  And  these 
cases  do  not  occur  because  the  patient  won’t 
use  the  limb ; it  is  because  she  cannot,  unless 
you  apply  a shock.  The  best  treatment  for 
such  cases  is  not  to  oppose  their  views,  nor,  on 
the  other  hand,  sympathize  with  them  too 
much.  Daily  reading  some  sensible  book,  re- 
moving all  trashy  novels,  trying  to  engage 
the  mind  on  some  amusing  topic,  avoiding  all 
excitement,  and  some  light  occupation,  as  sew- 
ing, knitting,  or  wool  work,  will  be  most  likely 
to  do  good.  Cold  bathing,  electricity  for  a 
short  time  every  morning,  and  firm  but  kind 
dicipline,  will  promote  a cure. 

Palsy. — Sometimes  called  “ shaking  palsy  ” 
(Paralysis  Agitans).  It  consists  in  a want  of 
power  of  using  the  muscles,  and  also  of  keep- 
ing them  at  rest.  The  shaking  commonly  be- 
gins by  affecting  the  hands  and  arms,  but  later 
it  may  affect  any  part  of  the  trunk  or  limbs. 
Very  often  the  head  is  affected ; later  it  ex- 
tends even  to  the  jaws.  This  agitation  is  in- 
creased by  any  mental  effort,  especially  to  call 
into  play  the  muscles  affected.  The  disease 
is  progressive,  and  by-and-by  the  entire  body 
becomes  affected,  so  that  the  patient  can  hardly 
walk,  being  always  disposed  to  run.  All  this 
time  the  faculties  are  unimpaired,  and  the  pa- 
tient is  acutely  sensible  of  his  misfortunes, 
which  often  sadly  interferes  with  his  occupa- 
tion. His  bodily  powers  become  impaired  after 
a time,  from  the  inability  to  sleep  or  take  food 
in  comfort,  on  account  of  the  incessant  shak- 
ing. These  cases  commonly  occur  in  men  ad- 
vanced in  life,  and  in  them  little  benefit  is  to 
be  hoped  for ; but  it  may  occur  earlier,  and 
then  it  can  be  alleviated,  if  not  cured,  by  the 
judicious  use  of  strychnine,  iron,  and  galvan- 
ism, especially  of  the  continuous  current. 

PAREGORIC  ELIXIR. -Poison,  if  in  very 
large  doses.  Symptoms , sleepiness.  Treat- 
ment, same  as  in  opium,  which  see.  The  com- 
pound tincture  of  camphor ; a popular  medicine, 
used  as  an  anodyne  and  antispasmodic  ; it  allays 
cough  in  cases  of  asthma  and  catarrh,  and  re- 
lieves slight  pain  in  the  stomach  and  bowels. 
It  is  often  given  to  children  under  the  belief 
or  pretence  that  it  contains  no  opium,  but  the 
modern  paregoric  elixir  contains  one  grain  of 
| opium  in  each  half  ounce  of  the  elixir,  and  is 
therefore  unfit  for  indiscriminate  domestic  use. 
The  practice,  once  common,  but  now  happily 
dying  out,  of  giving  it  to  infants  as  an  ano- 
dyne, is  a most  dangerous  one.  A teaspoon- 
ful of  paregoric  is  the  full  dose  for  an  adult. 

PARLOR.  (See  Furniture.) 

PARQUETRY. — Inlaid  woodwork  in  geo- 
metric patterns,  generally  composed  of  two 
different  tints,  and  generally  used  for  floors. 
As  formerly  made,  this  was  rather  expensive 
decoration,  but  in  the  modern  form  of  wood 
carpeting,  etc.,  it  is  economical  and  can  be 
made  very  tasteful  and  pretty.  (See  Floors.) 

PARROTS. — The  parrot  family  comprise  six 
divisions ; the  principal  are  the  Macaw,  which 
includes  the  cockatoos  and  the  toucan  ; the  Par- 
rots, including  the  paroquet;  and  the  Lories. 


PARROTS 


381 


The  Macaws  are  distinguished  from  the  true 
parrots  by  having  the  cheeks  bare  of  feathers, 
and  the  tail  very  long.  They  are  extremely 
graceful  in  form  and  motion,  have  rich  plum- 
age, are  lively  and  very  noisy,  occupying  a 
great  part  of  their  time  in  discordant  screech- 
ing. In  the  hall  or  drawing-room  they  are  ex- 
tremely ornamental,  from  the  beautiful  metallic 
reflections  which  play  over  their  plumage.  The 
macaws  are  mostly  natives  of  tropical  South 
America,  where  they  nestle  in  decayed  trees, 
which  some  specially  excavate,  as  do  our  wood- 
peckers. The  food  of  the  macaws  is  chiefly 
dry  seeds,  or  the  fruit  of  the  palm,  and  in  the 
coffee-growing  lands  they  eat  coffee-berries ; but 
here,  in  confinement,  we  must  nourish  them 
differently.  The  red  and  yellow  macaw  must 
have  white  bread  soaked  in  milk,  and  mois- 
tened biscuit ; it  is  injured  by  meat,  pastry  or 
sweetmeats.  It  has  admirable  powers  of  articu- 
lation, while  the  blue  and  yellow  macaw  imitates 
the  mewing  of  cats,  barking  of  dogs,  bleating  of 
sheep,  etc.,  with  great  facility  and  accuracy. 
The  great  green  macaw — of  a beautiful  bright 
grass-green,  diversified  with  blue  and  red,  and 
shaded  with  black  or  deep  blue — is  valued  for 
its  variety,  as  well  as  for  its  beautiful  plumage 
and  exceedingly  docile  and  amiable  temper  ; it 
will  repeat  almost  any  lesson  immediately,  call 
persons  whom  it  is  accustomed  to  see  by  their 
several  names,  and  is  fond  of  children — as 
the  other  macaws  are  not. 

The  Cockatoos  may  be  recognized  by  the 
beautiful  crest  of  feathers  on  the  head.  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  loud  and  distinct  call- 
note  of  some  of  the  species,  sounding  like 
“ Cock-a-too,”  very  distinctly  uttered.  These 
birds  come  from  Australia  and  the  Indian  isles  ; 
they  live  on  seeds  and  fruits,  and  can  crack  the 
stones  of  the  hardest  fruits ; their  color  is 
mostly  white,  tinged  with  rose-red  or  sulphur- 
yellow  ; they  are  not  capable  of  speaking  more 
than  “cock-a-too.”  The  great  white  cockatoo 
should  have  a wire  bell-shaped  cage,  or  be 
chained  to  a perch  in  the  open  air,  if  the 
weather  be  warm.  Feed  it  with  all  kinds  of 
nuts,  mealy  seeds,  and  bread  and  milk.  The 
sulphur-crested  cockatoo  is  a most  agreeable 
pet  — playful,  jocular  and  affectionate.  The 
great  red'-crested  cockatoo  is  the  largest  and 
handsomest  of  the  species.  Some  of  the 
feathers  of  its  crest  are  six  inches  long,  of  a 
rich  orange  color  at  the  base.  This  is  not  so 
gentle  a bird  as  the  more  common  cockatoo.  It 
has  a loud,  trumpet-like  voice,  with  which  it 
shrieks  out  its  own  name,  and  calls  “ Der- 
deney,  ” clapping  its  wings  the  while  like  a 
cock,  whose  crow,  as  well  as  the  cluck  of  the 
hen,  and  the  various  cries  of  different  animals, 
it  readily  imitates.  It  is  not  a delicate  bird, 
and  may  be  easily  reared  and  kept. 

The  Toucans  are  known  at  once  by  their 
enormous  bills,  which  are  curved  and  hooked, 
and  toothed  at  the  edges,  and  are  thus  formid- 
able weapons.  In  their  native  haunts  in  Guiana 
and  Brazil  they  go  in  little  flocks  of  from  six  to 
ten ; and,  although  heavy  fliers,  will  reach  the 


tallest  forest  trees,  where  they  are  fond  of 
perching.  They  will  eat  almost  anything.  Their 
mode  of  eating  solid  food  is  very  peculiar — 
when  the  morsel  is  presented  they  take  it  on 
the  point  of  the  bill,  throw  it  upwards,  and  then 
catch  it  in  the  open  mouth  so  dexterously  that 
it  goes  at  once  into  the  aperture  of  the  gullet, 
and  is  swallowed  without  difficulty.  The  tou- 
cans are  so  sensible  to  cold  that  they  dread  the 
night  air,  even  in  tropical  climates  ; it  is  neces- 
sary, therefore,  to  keep  them  in  a warm  tem- 
perature. They  do  not  speak — their  utterance 
is  merely  a kind  of  croak.  The  preacher  tou- 
can has  a singular  cry,  which  it  almost  constantly 
utters.  It  is  easy  to  tame  and  keep. 

The  True  Parrots  are  less  elegant  than  the 
macaw  tribe — less  splendid  in  color  than  the 
lories — but  are  excellent  imitators,  and  can  ar- 
ticulate words  and  sentences  very  distinctly. 
The  ash-colored  or  grey  parrot  is  one  of  the 
commonest,  largest  and  most  tractable  of  its 
tribe.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a pigeon.  It  is 
an  African  bird  ; it  will  eat  anything ; but  the 
best  food  for  it  is  bread  and  milk.  The  memory 
of  the  grey  parrot  is  most  extraordinary ; it  will 
retain  entire  verses  and  passages  of  consider- 
able length.  Some  grey  parrots  live  to  fifty, 
sixty,  seventy,  or  even  a hundred  years.  It 
moults  regularly  once  a year. 

The  Paroquets  are  smaller  than  the  true  par- 
rots— more  slender,  and  elegantly  proportioned, 
with  long,  pointed  tails ; several  from  Africa 
and  Asia  have  rings  round  their  necks.  Thus 
the  paroquets  may  easily  be  distinguished  from 
the  parj-ots,  which  are  all  stout,  heavy  birds, 
with  short  and  even,  or  slightly  rounded  tails. 

The  Lories  are  so  named  from  the  call- 
note  of  some  of  the  species.  They  are  gorge- 
ously beautiful,  but  exceedingly  difficult  to 
preserve  in  a cold  climate.  There  are  many 
varieties,  but  here  we  shall  only  mention  the 
purple-capped  lory — a very  rare  and  costly  bird, 
— of  resplendent  tints.  It  utters  “ Lorie,  ” 
squeaks  incessantly,  and  as  hollow  as  a ventrilo- 
quist ; imitates  everything,  and  in  clear,  round 
tones ; but  it  requires  to  be  constantly  amused 
and  caressed.  It  is  a truly  wonderful  bird — the 
most  highly  endowed  of  the  whole  parrot  race. 

In  keeping  parrots  it  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  they  require  large,  roomy  cages,  and  the 
larger  birds  open  perches ; the  eating  and 
drinking  vessels  should  be  not  of  zinc  or  pew- 
ter, but  of  glass  or  porcelain ; coarse  sand 
should  be  sprinkled  on  the  floor;  and  in  warm 
weather  the  cage  should  be  cleaned  out  every 
day,  in  cold  weather  twice  a week.  Carefully 
guard  all  kinds  of  parrots  from  cold,  but  give 
them  plenty  of  sunshine  and  fresh  warm  air. 
Let  them  out  amid  flowers,  shrubs,  or  in  a green- 
house ; and,  in  teaching  them,  never  threaten 
to  punish,  but  repeat  the  lesson  frequently,  and 
reward  with  choice  morsels.  Take  care  the 
bread  and  milk  be  not  sour,  and  vary  it  with 
biscuit,  grain,  nuts,  and  fruits ; and  for  the 
small  birds,  add  hemp  and  canary-seed  and 
millet.  Give  no  meat ; and  be  very  chary  of 
pastry  and  sweets. 


382 


PARSLEY 


PARTRIDGE 


PARSLEY. — This  is  the  herb  most  used  in 
cookery  and  for  garnishing.  There  are  two 
sorts,  the  plain-leaved  and  the  curly.  The 
latter  is  much  to  be  preferred,  being  prettier 
whether  growing  or  on  the  dish,  and  more  easily 
distinguished  from  the  Aethusia,  or  fool’s  pars- 
ly— ; a species  of  hemlock  which  is  poisonous. 
The  best  mode  of  cultivating  it  is  by  seed, 
sowing  where  it  is  to  remain  any  time  between 
the  middle  of  March  and  the  middle  of  June; 
and  if  the  stalks  are  cut  down  occasionally,  to 
prevent  their  seeding,  it  will  last  for  several 
years.  The  seed  should  be  buried  about  an 
inch  deep.  Parsley  is  always  in  season  except 
at  short  intervals  through  the  winter  months ; 
if  dried  and  preserved  in  bottles  from  which 
the  air  is  excluded,  it  retains  its  flavor  a long 
time.  Besides  its  usefulness  for  cooking  and 
garnishing,  parsley  chewed  has  the  property  of 
destroying  any  fcetor  in  the  breath,  or  the 
smell  imparted  to  it  from  spirits,  onions,  or 
other  substances.  The  roots  also  are  edible, 
boiled  like  carrots,  but  are  not  much  used. 

Fried  Parsley. — This  is  an  excellent  gar- 
nish for  fish,  etc.  To  prepare  it,  wash  and 
pick  the  parsley  and  throw  it  into  clean  water, 
and  then  into  boiling  fat,  when  it  will  instantly 
become  crisp  and  must  be  taken  up. 

PARSNIP. — This  wholesome  and  nourish- 
ing root  has  the  advantage  of  being  in  season 
during  the  winter  and  spring  months  when 
other  table  vegetables  are  scarce.  It  contains 
a good  deal  of  sugar,  and  this  gives  it  a pecu- 
liar sweetish  taste  which  many  like,  but  which 
to  some  is  very  insipid.  Those  are  sweetest 
which  are  grown  in  rich  soils,  while  those 
grown  in  stiff  clayey  soils  have  a much  milder 
flavor.  In  cultivating,  sow  the  seeds  in  the 
spring  in  rows  eighteen  inches  apart,  burying 
the  seeds  about  an  inch  deep;  thin  them  out 
to  intervals  of  six  or  eight  inches.  Among 
the  best  varieties  are  the  “Guernsey”  and  the 
“ Large  Hollow  Crown.”  Parsnips  are  im- 
proved by  standing  until  after  heavy  frosts  and 
in  dry  soils  ; they  keep  perfectly  in  the  ground 
until  Spring,  but  they  must  then  be  dug  before 
the  new  growth  begins. 

Boiled  Parsnips. — According  to  their  size 
and  the  time  of  year  (they  require  long  cook- 
ing in  cold  weather)  parsnips  will  take  from  20 
minutes  to  more  than  an  hour  to  boil.  Every 
speck  or  blemish  should  be  cut  from  them  after 
they  are  washed  and  scraped,  and  the  water  in 
which  they  are  boiled  should  be  salted  and  well 
skimmed.  If  they  are  large,  slice  them  down 
the  middle  before  boiling;  if  young  and  tender, 
boil  them  whole.  When  quite  tender,  dish 
them,  and  serve  either  whole  (with  butter 
spread  over  them)  or  mash  like  potatoes,  adding 
a little  milk  and  butter,  and  seasoning  with 
pepper  and  salt. 

Buttered  Parsnips. — Wash  and  scrape,  and 
then  boil  as  above  till  tender.  Slice  length- 
wise into  pieces  about  a quarter  of  an  inch 
thick,  season  with  pepper  and  salt,  and  put 
them  into  a sauce-pan  with  three  tablcspoonfuls 
of  melted  butter  and  a little  chopped  parsley; 


put  over  a moderate  fire  until  the  mixture  boils ; 
then  arrange  the  parsnips  on  a dish,  pour  the 
sauce  over  them,  and  garnish  with  parsley,  and 
serve. 

Fried  Parsnips. — I.  Prepare  as  for  buttered 
parsnips.  Dredge  the  slices  with  flour,  and 
fry  them  in  hot  lard,  turning  when  one  side  is 
browned.  Drain  off  the  fat,  season  with  pep- 
per and  serve  hot. 

II.  Boil  them  until  they  are  about  half  done, 
lift  them  out  and  let  them  cool;  slice  length- 
wise in  thick  slices,  sprinkle  them  with  fine  salt 
and  white  pepper,  and  fry  them  a pale  brown 
in  good  butter.  Serve  with  roast  meat  or  dish 
them  under  it. 

Wine  of  Parsnips. — Wash,  scrape,  and 
slice  the  parsnips  very  thin ; for  every  three 
pounds  of  the  parsnips  allow  a gallon  of  water  ; 
boil  an  hour  and  a half,  and  strain  the  liquor 
without  bruising  the  parsnips  ; then  measure 
the  liquor  and  make  up  any  deficiency  (under 
the  original  quantity)  with  boiling  water.  To 
each  gallon  of  the  liquor  add  three  pounds  of 
sugar  and  one  ounce  of  crude  tartar;  when 
nearly  cold,  put  it  into  a cask,  add  a tablespoon- 
ful of  yeast,  and  keep  it  in  a warm  place ; stir 
daily  until  the  fermentation  subsides,  which 
may  be  in  ten  days  or  a fortnight,  and  then 
bung  it  down.  It  may  be  racked  and  fined  in 
three  or  six  months,  and  bottled  in  six  months 
more.  Wine  made  thus  is  thought  to  be  but 
little  inferior  to  Madeira  of  equal  age.  Spirits 
may  be  added  if  it  is  liked  strong. 

PARTRIDGE. — It  is  said  that  we  have  no 
genuine  partridge  in  this  country ; and  it  is 
certain  that  the  birds  sold  as  partridges  in  our 
markets  are  very  different  from  the  English 
partridge.  Moreover,  the  birds  known  as 
quails  at  the  North  are  called  partridges  at  the 
South,  while  the  southern  pheasant  is  the 
ruffed  grouse,  which  is  the  Northern  partridge. 

The  partridge,  pheasant , or  ruffed  grouse , 
are  very  plentiful  in  our  markets  from  about 
the  1st  of  September  to  the  1st  of  January; 
but  they  are  best  in  October  and  November. 
After  January  1st  it  is  not  safe  to  eat  them, 
especially  if  the  winter  has  been  very  severe, 
as  they  are  then  deprived  of  their  ordinary 
food  and  are  forced  to  feed  upon  the  leaves  of 
the  poisonous  evergreens.  They  have  been 
found  with  their  crops  filled  with  the  green 
laurel,  and  if  their  flesh  be  eaten  under  such 
circumstances  the  result  may  be  serious.  An 
old  partridge  has  a white  bill  and  bluish  legs ; 
when  young  the  bill  is  of  a rather  dark  gray- 
ish color,  and  the  legs  are  yellowish.  As  long 
as  the  rump  does  not  turn  blue,  the  bird  is 
fresh  enough. 

Baked  Partridge. — Clean  and  wash  out  the 
inside  with  soda-water,  afterwards  rinsing  it  in 
fresh  water.  Cut  off  the  claws  to  about  half 
their  length  ; truss  it,  and  cover  its  breast  with 
a thin  slice  of  fat  salt  pork,  tying  the  pork  on 
with  twine.  Place  the  partridge  on  its  back  in 
the  baking-pan  with  a piece  of  butter  the  size 
of  a walnut  on  it ; set  it  in  a quick  oven,  baste 
often,  and  serve  when  rather  underdone. 


PARTRIDGE 


PASTILLES 


383 


Boiled  Partridge. — Clean  the  partridges, 
and  tie  down  the  legs  very  closely.  Put  a 
pound  of  salt  pork  into  a pot  and  boil  it  an 


Spread  thin  slices  of  corned  ham  or  pork  over 
the  entire  bird  and  bind  them  on  with  twine ; 
roast  before  a hot  fire  about  40  minutes,  bast- 


Partridge. 


hour ; then  put  in  the  birds  and  boil  20  min- 
utes. Serve  with  parsley  and  butter,  or  with 
bread  sauce. 

Broiled  Partridge.  — For  broiling  select 
oung  birds ; clean,  wash,  and  split  down  the 
ack ; soak  in  cold  water  half  an  hour ; then 
wipe  dry  on  a towel,  season  with  salt  and  pep- 


Partridge  trussed  with  head. 


per,  and  broil  on  a gridiron  over  a hot  fire, 
turning  them  when  brown  on  one  side.  Serve 
on  a hot  dish,  spreading  butter  liberally  both 
inside  and  outside.  Quails  are  broiled  in  the 
same  way. 

Roast  Partridge.  — I. 

Prepare,  stuff,  and  truss 
as  directed  for  chickens  ; 
lard  well  with  fat  pork ; 
and  roast  at  a hot  fire, 
basting  well  with  butter 
and  water.  They  require 
25  or  30  minutes  to  cook. 

To  make  the  gravy,  put 
the  drippings  into  a "sauce- 
pan with  a piece  of  butter 
about  the  size  of  an  egg,  and  a little  flour  and 
hot  water.  Let  it  boil  up  once,  and  serve  in  a 
boat. 

II.  (With  Bacon).  — Prepare  as  before. 


ing  it  at  first  with  butter  and  water  and  then 
with  the  drippings.  Dish  with  the  bacon  (or 
ham)  laid  about  the  body  of  the  bird.  Skim 
the  gravy,  thicken  with  browned  flour,  and 
season  with  pepper  and  the  juice  of  a lemon ; 
let  it  boil  up  once. 

PASSION  FLOWER. — The  common  pas- 
sion flower  (/’.  ccerulea)  is  a native  of  Brazil, 
where  it  grows  to  the  thickness  of  a man’s 
arm,  and  the  height  of  thirty  feet.  Here  it  is 
quite  a moderate  sized  garden  plant.  The 
flowers  are  large  and  beautiful,  blue  externally, 
white  and  purple  within ; they  continue  in 
bloom  but  one  day.  P.  incarnata , the  flesh- 
colored  passion  flower,  is  found  from  Ohio  to 
Florida.  The  former  bears  an  edible  berry, 
pale  yellow,  of  the  size  of  an  apple,  called 
Granadilla.  Other  species  also  bear  eatable 
fruit,  as  the  Water  Lemon,  Sweet  Calabash, 
etc.  All  are  easy  of  cultivation.  They  will 
grow  in  any  good  garden  soil,  and  are  propa- 
gated by  cuttings. 

PASTE. — Directions  for  making  an  excel- 
lent sticking-paste  for  paper-hanging  and  simi- 
lar purposes  are  given  under  Paper-Hanging. 

Paste  for  Labels  on  Bottles,  etc. — An  ex- 
cellent paste  for  fixing  labels  on  glass,  wood,  or 
paper  may  be  prepared  by  dissolving  1 1 parts, 
by  weight,  of  common  glue,  soaked  a day  be- 
fore in  cold  water,  7 parts  of  gum  arabic,  and 
some  rock  candy,  in  56  parts  of  water,  at  a 
gentle  heat,  with  continued  stirring  until  the 
mass  is  uniform.  Labels  brushed  with  this 
and  dried  will  adhere  firmly,  if  simply  mois- 
tened with  saliva  when  used. 

PASTILLES.— Pleasant  odoriferous  pastilles 
for  fumigating  purposes  may  be  made  as  fol- 
lows : gum  benjamin,  one  ounce ; cloves,  half  an 


Partridge  trussed  without 
head. 


384 


PASTRY 


PEA 


ounce  ; cinnamon,  two  drachms  ; a stick  of  cal- 
amus ; and  mucilage  enough  to  make  the  parts 
adhere  together.  Mix,  and  then  make  into 
shapes  and  dry. 

Mr.  Piesse,  in  his  excellent  “ Art  of  Per- 
fumery,” considers  that  the  burning  of  woods, 
barks,  or  aromatic  seeds,  in  pastiles,  produces 
far  from  a pleasant  odour ; and  that  charcoal 
itself  is  inodorous,  and  does  not  in  any  way  in- 
terfere with  the  fragrance.  Mr.  Piesse  prefers 
the  following  recipe  : willow  charcoal,  quarter 
of  a pound ; benzoic  acid,  three  ounces ; oil  of 
thyme,  carraway,  rose,  lavender,  cloves,  and 
santal,  of  each  fifteen  drops.  Before  mixing, 
dissolve  half  an  ounce  of  nitre  in  a quarter  of 
a pint  of  rose  water;  with  this  solution  wet  the 
charcoal,  and  then  dry  it  in  a warm  place. 
Next  pour  over  it  the  mixed  oils,  and  stir 
in  the  flowers  of  benzoin  : mix  by  sifting  (bet- 
ter for  mixing  powders  than  the  pestle  and 
mortar),  then  beat  the  whole  up  in  a mortar 
with  gum  water  to  bind  it. 

PASTRY. — Under  this  term  are  included 
pies,  tarts,  and  all  productions  of  cookery  in 
which  flour-paste  is  a principal  ingredient. 
Directions  for  making  these  are  given  under 
the  respective  articles ; and  we  shall  only  re- 
fer here  to  the  practice,  becoming  more  and 
more  common  in  cities,  of  purchasing  pastry  at 
the  baker’s  instead  of  making  it  at  home.  This 
of  course  is  sometimes  necessary,  as  on  special 
occasions  when  social  duties  call  for  some  unu- 
sual display,  or  on  ordinary  occasions  where 
the  regular  cook  is  not  also  a pastry-cook. 
When  neither  of  these  reasons  applies,  home- 
made pastry  is  not  only  more  economical  but 
also  more  wholesome  than  that  bought  at  the 
shops,  where  the  butter  and  other  ingredients 
used  are  nearly  always  inferior.  They  look 
very  well,  but  the  stomach  discovers  the  impos- 
ture, and  its  owner  pays  the  penalty.  Only 
the  best  butter,  etc.,  should  be  used  in  making 
pastry,  especially  when  children  are  to  eat  it. 

PATE.  ( See  Patty.) 

PATTY. — Patties  are  made  of  rich  puff 
paste,  and  baked  in  patty-pans,  with  a piece  of 
bread  inside ; after  the  crust  is  done,  the  piece 
of  bread  is  removed,  the  proper  contents  are 
inserted,  and  the  patty  is  served  either  hot  or 
cold.  Almost  any  kind  of  meat,  or  poultry,  or 
fish  can  be  used. 

Lobster  Patties.  — Make  these  With  the 
same  seasoning  as  for  oysters,  adding  a little 
cream  and  a very  small  piece  of  butter. 

Oyster  Patties. — Prepare  the  pastry  as 
directed  under  patties.  Thicken,  over  boiling 
water,  half  a pint  of  cream  with  two  even  table- 
spoonfuls of  flour  rubbed  with  one  ounce  of 
butter  ; ^vdd  half  a teaspoonful  of  mace,  a 
teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  a pinch  of  cayenne. 
Stew,  until  plump,  a quart  of  oysters  in  their 
own  liquor,  with  an  even  teaspoonful  of  salt; 
drain,  and  stir  them  into  the  hot  cream ; fill  the 
patties  and  serve.  ( See  also  under  Oyster.) 

Podovies  or  Beef  Patties. — Shred  under- 
done roast  beef,  with  a little  of  the  fat ; season 
with  pepper  and  salt,  and  a little  shalot  or  | 


onion.  Make  a plain  paste,  roll  it  thin,  and 
cut  it  in  shape  like  an  apple-puff ; fill  it  with 
the  mince,  pinch  the  edges,  and  fry  to  a nice 
brown. 

Turkey  Patties. — Mince  some  of  the  white 
part  of  roast  turkey;  season  with  salt,  white 
pepper,  nutmeg,  and  a little  grated  lemon-peel ; 
add  a little  cream,  and  a very  little  melted  but- 
ter ; fill  the  patties  and  warm,  or  serve  cold. 

Chicken  patty  can  be  made  in  the  same  way. 

Veal  Patties. — Mince  some  veal  that  is  not 
quite  done  with  a little  parsley ; season  with 
salt,  a grate  of  nutmeg,  and  a bit  of  grated 
lemon-peel ; add  a little  cream  and  gravy,  let 
it  stew  gently  a few  minutes,  then  fill  the  pat- 
ties. This  dish  is  improved  by  the  addition  of 
a little  minced  ham. 

PAW-PAW. — The  paw-paw  or  custard  ap- 
ple grows  wild  in  great  abundance  in  the  South- 
ern and  Western  States.  In  form  and  color  it 
resembles  a small  cucumber  when  ripe.  Its 
pulp  is  almost  too  luscious  to  be  agreea- 
ble, although  it  is  liked  by  many;  the  fla- 
vor is  like  that  of  custard,  the  color  is  saf- 
fron, and  it  is  quite  full  of  hard  seeds  which 
look  like  those  of  the  water-melon,  but  are 
larger.  It  is  best  when  touched  by  frost ; but 
some  like  it  best  when  boiled  in  a green  state. 
The  paw-paw  ripens  about  the  middle  of  Sep- 
tember. They  are  not  often  found  in  the  mar- 
kets. 

PEA. — The  garden  pea  is  one  of  the  best 
and  most  extensively  used  of  all  our  table-veg- 
etables, and  is  not  less  popular  in  Europe  than 
with  us.  In  cultivating,  sow  the  seeds  in  double 
rows  about  four  feet  apart  as  soon  as  the 
frost  is  out  of  the  ground  ; the  drill  should  be 
about  two  inches  deep.  By  planting  different  va- 
rieties at  proper  intervals,  a succession  of  green 
peas  can  be  secured  during  the  entire  summer. 
Landreth’s  Extra  Early  is  said  to  be  the  earli- 
est for  garden  use,  and  the  best.  Philadel- 
phia Extra  Early  is  also  desirable.  Little 
Gem  is  very  dwarf,  and  of  fine  flavor,  growing 
only  one 'foot  high.  Hundred-fold,  or  Cook’s 
Favorite,  is  a first-class  variety,  early  and  very 
prolific.  Laxton’s  Supreme  is  the  earliest 
wrinkled  pea,  and  has  the  largest  pods  of  any 
kind.  The  Champion  of  England,  though  a 
late  variety,  is  very  luxuriant  and  much  the 
best  family  sort  raised.  The  Marrowfats,  though 
deficient  in  flavor,  are  excellent  for  early  sum- 
mer use.  Green  peas  should  always  be  pur- 
chased in  the  pods,  which  should  feel  cool  and 
dry.  If  closely  packed  they  have  a mashed  or 
wet  appearance,  and  a warm  feeling,  which 
much  injures  their  natural  flavor ; and  when 
the  shells  or  pods  begin  to  turn  to  a lighter 
shade,  or  to  look  rusty,  the  peas  have  usually 
a black  spot  upon  them  and  are  too  old  to  be 
good.  But  to  have  them  in  the  greatest  per- 
fection, they  should  be  picked  very  young  and 
should,  if  possible,  be  cooked  almost  immedi- 
ately after  being  taken  from  the  vines.  The 
first  new  peas  that  reacli  the  market  are  gener- 
ally in  small  quantities  at  high  prices.  They 
come  from  the  Bermudas  about  the  1st  of 


PEACH 


385 


April ; from  Charleston  and -Norfolk  about  the 
middle  of  May;  from  southern  New  Jersey 
about  the  1st  of  June  ; and  from  Long  Island, 
etc.,  about  the  middle  of  June.  They  are  in 
season  till  September. 

Large  quantities  of  dry,  soaked,  and  split 
peas  are  sold  throughout  the  winter  season ; 
the  Japan  and  the  “lady  pea  ” are  the  best  va- 
rieties. These  all  require  to  be  boiled  with 
salt  meat  to  give  them  a flavor. 

Boiled  Green  Peas. — Shell  them  and  soak 
in  cold  water  until  the  time  for  cooking  them; 
then  put  into  salted  boiling  water  and  boil  them 
twenty  minutes  if  young  and  tender,  half  an 
hour  if  old.  The  English  always  put  in  a lump 
of  sugar,  which  improves  both  the  flavor  and 
the  color.  When  done,  drain  well,  dish,  stir 
in  a good  lump  of  butter,  season  with  a little 
pepper  and  serve  hot. 

Stewed  old  Peas. — Steep  them  in  wa- 
ter all  night  if  very  dry,  otherwise  half  an 
hour  will  do;  put  them  into  just  enough 
water  to  cover  them,  with  a piece  of  salt  beef 
or  pork  ; stew  gently  till  the  peas  are  soft  and 
the  meat  is  tender.  If  the  meat  is  not  salt,  add 
salt  and  a little  pepper.  Dish  them  around  the 
meat. 

PEACH. — Of  this,  perhaps  the  most  delicious 
of  all  our  native  fruit,  there  are  a great  many 
varieties,  but  they  are  generally  classified  un- 
der two  principal  names — the  freestones  and 
the  clingstones.  Among  the  best  varieties  of 
the  freestones  are  the  early  York,  Crawford 
early,  rare-ripes,  Morris  whites,  melocoton,  and 
honest  John;  and  of  the  clingstones,  the  lemon 
cling,  orange  cling,  white  heath,  Oldmixon, 
late  heath,  and  blood  cling.  Peaches  first  make 
their  appearance  from  the  Bermudas  about  the 
25th  April,  in  small  quantities  and  at  high 
prices  ; from  the  Southern  States  about  the 
end  of  June  or  first  of  July;  and  from  lower 
New  Jersey  about  the  20th  of  July.  They  do 
not  appear  in  large  quantities,  however,  until 
about  the  middle  of  August,  when  they  com- 
mence to  be  plentiful  and  continue  so  until  the 
20th  of  September ; they  then  gradually  de- 
crease until  in  October  and  November,  only 
the  hard  winter  peaches  are  to  be  found.  After 
this  they  are  found  in  a dried  state.  ( See  Com- 
pote, Jelly,  Marmalade,  Pickles,  Pies, 
and  Preserves.) 

Brandied  Peaches. — Select  fine  ripe  peaches 
free  from  bruises,  and  wash  them;  allow  three- 
quarters  of  a pound  of  sugar  to  a pound  of 
peaches ; use  as  little  water  as  possible  for  the 
syrup ; boil  the  peaches  in  it  ten  minutes. 
When  they  are  done,  measure  out  a pint  of 
white  brandy  to  a quart  of  the  syrup  ; lay  the 
peaches  while  they  are  hot  into  the  cold  brandy, 
and  when  they  are  cold  put  them  into  a jar, 
strain  the  syrup  through  a fine  sieve  into  the 
brandy,  pour  the  whole  on  the  peaches  and 
cover  up  tight. 

Candied  Peaches. — Make  a rich  syrup  of 
one  pound  of  granulated  or  crushed  sugar  to 
one  gill  of  water.  Heat  this  over  boiling  wa- 
ter until  the  sugar  is  dissolved.  Pare  and  halve 
25 


fine  ripe,  but  firm  peaches  ; put  them  in  the 
syrup  in  a shallow  vessel,  as  the  fruit  should  be 
in  one  layer;  cook  slowly  until  clear;  drain 
from  the  syrup,  place  on  plates  and  dry  in  a 
heater  or  in  a very  moderately  heated  oven. 

Placed  in  the  heater  belonging  to  a cooking 
stove,  the  fruit  will  be  sufficiently  dry  in  twenty- 
four  hours,  to  pack  in  jars. 

Plums  and  cherries  may  be  done  in  the  same 
way,  after  stoning.  Bartlett  pears  too  are  ex- 
cellent, but  do  not  require  so  rich  a syrup. 

Dried  Peaches. — Pare  the  ripe  fruit,  cut  it 
in  large  slices  from  the  stone,  spread  these  on 
wood  or  cloth,  and  dry  thoroughly  in  the  sun. 
This  will  take  several  days,  and  they  must  be 
brought  in  or  covered  over  at  night.  In  the 
Northern  and  Western  States  it  is  generally 
best  to  have  a small  room  heated  with  stoves,  in 
which  the  fruit  can  be  dried,  the  sun  not 
being  powerful  enough.  When  thoroughly 
dried,  store  in  bags  in  a cool  dry  place.  In 
buying  dried  peaches  choose  those  that  look 
brown  and  clean  and  dry ; the  whitish  colored 
have  less  flavor,  and  the  damp  ones  are  seldom 
good. 

Peach  (Leather). — Allow  a pound  of  sugar 
to  a pound  of  fruit,  pare  and  halve  ripe  peaches; 
crack  a dozen  stones  for  a peck  of  peaches, 
chop  the  kernels  after  blanching  them,  and 
throw  them  over  the  fruit,  which  must  now  be 
put  in  the  preserving  pan,  heated  slowly  and 
boiled  to  a pulp.  Add  the  sugar  (granulated 
or  crushed)  and  boil  until  clear  ; then  spread 
on  plates  and  dry  in  quite  a cool  oven  until  so 
stiff  that  it  can  be  eaten  from  the  fingers.  Tear 
the  sheets  into  bits  and  pack  in  jars  with  pow- 
dered sugar  between  the  layers.  Stretch  clean, 
well-soaked  bladder  over  the  top  and  tie  secure- 
ly ; or  it  may  be  packed  in  air-tight  fruit  cans. 

Salad  of  Peaches. — Pare  and  slice  half  a 
dozen  fine  ripe  peaches,  arrange  them  in  a dish, 
strew  them  with  pounded  white  sugar,  and 
pour  over  them  two  or  three  wineglassfuls  of 
champagne.  Other  wine  may  be  used,  but 
champagne  is  best ; persons  who  prefer  brandy 
can  substitute  it  for  wine,  using  a smaller 
quantity.  The  quantity  of  sugar  must  be  pro- 
portioned to  the  sweetness  of  the  fruit. 

Stewed  Peaches. — I.  Should  the  peaches  not 
be  perfectly  ripe  throw  them  into  boiling  water 
and  keep  it  just  simmering  until  the  skin  can 
be  easily  Stripped  off.  Have  ready  half  a 
pound  of  fine  sugar  boiled  to  a light  syrup  with 
three-quarters  of  a pint  of  water;  throw  in  the 
peaches,  let  them  stew  softly  until  quite  tender, 
and  turn  them  often  that  they  may  be  equally 
done  ; after  they  are  dished,  add  a little  strained 
lemon-juice  to  the  syrup,  and  reduce  it  by  a 
few  minutes’  very  quick  boiling.  The  fruit  is 
sometimes  pared,  divided,  and  stoned,  then 
gently  stewed  until  it  is  tender. 

II.  Take  a quart  of  dried  peaches,  cover 
them  with  water,  add  half  a pound  of  sugar, 
and  stew  gently  until  the  peaches  are  reduced 
almost  to  pulp.  More  or  less  sugar  can  be  used 
according  to  taste.  Peaches  prepared  in  this 
way  are  an  excellent  corrective  for  costiveness. 


386 


PEA-FOWL 


PEAR 


Suedoise  of  Peaches. — Pare  and  divide 
four  fine,  ripe  peaches,  and  let  them  just  sim- 
mer from  five  to  eight  minutes  in  a syrup  made 
with  the  third  of  a pint  of  water  and  three 
ounces  of  very  white  sugar,  boiled  together  for 
fifteen  minutes ; lift  them  out  carefully  into  a 
deep  dish,  and  pour  about  half  the  syrup  over 
them,  and  into  the  remaining  half  throw  a 
couple  of  pounds  more  of  quite  ripe  peaches, 
and  boil  them  to  a perfectly  smooth  dry  pulp 
or  marmalade,  with  as  much  additional  sugar  in 


Suedoise  of  Peaches 


fine  powder,  as  the  nature  of  the  fruit  may  re- 
quire. Lift  the  other  peaches  from  the  syrup, 
and  reduce  it  by  very  quick  boiling,  more  than 
half.  Spread  a deep  layer  of  the  marmalade  in 
a dish,  arrange  the  peaches  symmetrically  round 
it,  and  fill  all  the  spaces  between  them  with  the 
marmalade  ; place  the  half  of  a blanched  peach- 
kernel  in  each,  pour  the  reduced  syrup  equally 
over  the  surface,  and  form  a border  round  the 
dish  with  Italian  macaroons,  or,  in  lieu  of  these, 
with  candied  citron,  sliced  very  thin,  and  cut 
into  leaves  with  a small  paste-cutter.  A little 
lemon-juice  brings  out  the  flavor  of  all  prepara- 
tions of  peaches,  and  may  be  added  with  good 
effect  to  this.  The  better  to  preserve  their 
form,  the  peaches  are  sometimes  merely  wiped, 
and  then  boiled  tolerably  tender  in  the  syrup 
before  they  are  pared  or  split.  Half  a pint  of 
water,  and  from  five  to  six  ounces  of  sugar 
must  then  be  allowed  for  them.  If  any  of  those 
used  for  the  marmalade  should  not  be  quite 
ripe,  it  will  be  better  to  pass  it  through  a sieve, 
when  partially  done,  to  prevent  its  being  lumpy. 

PEA-FOWL. — Pea-fowls  or  Peacocks  are 
ornamental  birds  only,  for  though  good  for  the 
table,  they  have  such  wild  habits  and  eat  so 
much  food  that  they  are  never  kept  for  the  sake 
of  their  produce.  When  old,  or  even  when 
mature,  the  pea-fowl  is  tough  and  rank;  but 
■when  young,  the  flesh  is  both  tender  and  agree- 
able in  flavor,  some  pronouncing  it  superior  to 
that  of  the  turkey.  Cook  and  serve  as  directed 
for  turkey. 

PEA-NUT.  — Also  called  Earth-nut , Pin- 
dar-nut,  and  Ground-pca.  This  very  common 
nut  is  raised  in  immense  quantities  in  the 
Southern  States,  especially  in  North  Carolina, 
and  is  sometimes  imported  from  Africa.  It  is 
found  chiefly  in  fruit-stores,  and  after  having 
been  roasted,  everywhere — in  the  markets,  on 
the  street  corners,  apple-stands,  etc.  The  fresh 
or  new  nuts  arrive  in  our  markets  from  Novem- 
ber to  June ; but  they  rather  improve  by 
keeping,  and  can  be  had  at  all  seasons  of  the 
year.  A valuable  oil  is  expressed  from  the 


nut,  which  is  said  to  be  superior  to  whale-oil 
as  a lubricant  for  machinery.  One  of  the  qual- 
ities of  this  oil  is  employed  in  medicine ; an- 
other is  used  for  illuminating  purposes.  While 
a third  makes  an  excellent  salad  condiment. 

PEAR. — -The  best  swnmer  pears  are  the 
Bartlett,  summer  Doyenne,  Madelaine,  Sugar, 
Bloodgood,  Brandywine,  and  Small  Harvest. 
The  autumn  pears  are  the  Duchesse  d’An- 
gouleme,  Bartlett,  Vcrgalcin,  or  white  Doy- 
enne, Sheldon,  gray  Doyenne,  Seckel,  Buffam, 
Flemish  Beauty,  Louise  Bonne  de  Jersey, 
Washington,  Bell,  etc.  The  winter  pears  are 
the  winter  Nellis,  Pound,  Columbia,  Vicar  of 
Winkfield,  Lawrence,  and  Easter  Beurre.  The 
first  pears  usually  appear  in  June, but  are  seldom 
good.  The  best  for  eating  purposes  ripen  in 
August,  September,  and  October.  Many  of 
the  common  kinds  are  used  for  baking,  stew- 
ing, preserving,  etc.,  and  a drink  called  Perry 
(which  see).  Several  of  the  winter  varieties 
will  keep  well  through  the  winter,  until  April, 
if  stored  in  a dry  cool  closet.  ( See  Compote 
and  Preserves.) 

Baked  Pears. — Select  large,  sound  pears, 
not  fully  ripe;  arrange  them  on  a dish  with  the 
stalk-end  upwards,  put  them  into  the  oven 
as  the  fire  is  dying  down,  and  let  them  remain 
all  night.  If  well  baked  they  will  be  excellent, 
and  much  finer  in  flavor  than  those  which  are 
stewed  or  baked  with  sugar. 

Or,  cut  some  large  pears  in  half  lengthwise, 
put  them  into  a deep  dish,  with  a very  little 
water,  sprinkle  them  with  sugar,  and  put  a few 
cloves,  or  bits  of  cinnamon,  or  a pinch  of 
ground  ginger  among  them.  Cover  closely, 
and  bake  till  tender  in  a moderately  hot  oven. 

Or,  wash  the  pears,  leave  the  stems  on, 
put  them  into  a two-quart  stone  crock  with  a 
gill  of  water  and  half  a pint  of  sugar;  cover 
the  crock  with  a piece  of  dough  made  of  coarse 
flour  and  water,  and  rolled  about  half  an  inch 
thick ; bake  them  two  hours  or  more,  accord- 
ing to  the  ripeness  of  the  fruit. 

Brandied  Pears. — Pare  the  pears  very 
neatly,  boil  them  in  water  fifteen  minutes,  and 
lay  them  on  an  open  dish  to  cool ; make  a 
syrup  half  the  weight  of  the  fruit,  boil  the 
pears  in  it  fifteen  minutes,  and  again  set  them 
to  cool;  put  into  the  jars,  and  fill  half  full  of 
the  syrup  and  the  rest  with  brandy. 

Candied  Pears. — Peel  large  white  pears,  cut 
off  the  stem  half  way;  then  drop  them  into 
cold  water,  with  a little  lemon  juice,  to  keep 
them  white.  Put  cold  water  in  a deep  pan, 
add  the  juice  of  a lemon  to  every  two  quarts, 
drop  the  pears  in,  and  boil  gently  till  quite  ten- 
der; then  takeoff,  drain,  and  drop  in  cold 
water,  which  is  to  be  changed  two  or  three 
times  without  stopping ; then  drain  again,  place 
the  pears  in  a large  bowl,  and  proceed  the 
same  as  for  candied  peaches.  ( See  Candied 
Peaches.) 

Salad  of  Pears. — Peel  pears  of  any  good 
crisp  flesh  variety,  cut  them  in  thin  slices,  and 
remove  the  pips  and  cores;  put  them  in  a dish, 
dust  them  well  with  pounded  sugar,  and  mois- 


PECAN-NUT 


PEPSINE 


387 


ten  with  brandy  or  rum,  which  may  be  added 
in  large'  or  small  quantity  according  to  taste. 
This  is  an  excellent  dessert-dish,  but  it  must 
not  be  made  until  just  before  it  is  served ; the 
sliced  pears  turn  brown  if  kept. 

Stewed  Pears. — Pare,  cut  in  halves,  and 
core,  a dozen  fine  pears,  put  them  into  a close- 
shutting stew-pan  with  some  thin  strips  of 
lemon-peel,  half  a pound  of  sugar  in  lumps,  as 
much  water  as  will  nearly  cover  them,  and 
should  a very  bright  color  be  desired,  a dozen 
grains  of  cochineal,  bruised  and  tied  in  mus- 
lin; stew  the  fruit  as  gently  as  possible  four  or 
five  hours,  or  longer,  should  it  not  be  perfectly 
tender.  Wine  may  be  added  if  the  taste  is  liked. 

Or , if  the  pears  are  small,  cut  out  the  blos- 
som end  without  paring  or  coring,  and  stew 
them  whole,  in  enough  water  to  cover  them. 
When  quite  tender  add  half  a teacupful  of  white 
sugar  for  every  quart  of  pears,  and  boil  ten 
minutes  ; then  dish  the  pears,  add  a few  cloves 
or  a pinch  of  ginger  to  the  syrup,  boil  ten  min- 
utes, and  pour  over  the  fruit  hot. 

PEARLASH.  (See  Potash.) 

PECAN-NUT. — A species  of  hickory-nut 
which  grows  abundantly  in  the  Southern  States, 
especially  Texas,  and  in  some  parts  of  the 
West.  It  is  about  an  inch  in  length,  of  oblong 
shape,  with  a smooth,  hard  shell,  and  about  as 
large  as  a common-sized  finger.  Pecan-nuts  are 
of  an  agreeable  taste,  and  wholesome,  and  make 
an  excellent  dessert.  The  fresh  nuts  begin  to 
come  in  in  December,  and  are  in  season  till 
April ; they  are  best  when  they  have  been  kept  a 
month  or  two. 

PELARGONIUM. — A species  of  plant  very 
similar  to  the  geranium,  under  which  it  is  gen- 
erally included  in  popular  speech.  The  leaves  of 
the  plant  are  more  pleasantly  perfumed  than 
those  of  the  geranium,  and  have  no  zonal,  or 
horse-shoe  markings,  but  are  of  a rich  vivid 
green.  The  flowers  are  much  sought  after  on 
account  of  their  perfect  coloring;  no  descrip- 
tion can  convey  an  idea  of  their  beauty.  There 
are  all  shades  of  scarlet,  crimson,  pink,  purple, 
and  white  ; the  lower  leaves,  and  frequently  the 
upper  ones,  are  veined  and  blotched  with  the 
darkest  crimson,  purple,  and  red,  beautifully 
veined  with  the  lighter  shades.  They  are  the 
most  showy-flowered  of  all  the  bedding-out 
plants,  except  the  Scarlet  Salvia,  and  should 
find  a place  even  in  the  smallest  garden.  They 
are  propagated  both  from  cuttings  and  seeds. 
They  require  a light,  sandy  loam,  well  enriched 
with  cow-manure,  and  if  they  are  not  plentiful- 
ly supplied  with  water,  their  buds  will  wither 
away.  They  need  more  sunlight  than  the 
geranium  to  bloom  in  perfection.  The  different 
colors  and  sizes  may  be  grouped  together  in  a 
bed,  so  as  to  produce  a very  beautiful  effect ; 
some  of  them,  however,  are  tall  in  growth  and 
produce  a good  effect  planted  singly  on  the 
lawn.  The  treatment  for  indoor  plants  is  the 
same  as  for  the  geranium. 

There  are  hundreds  of  varieties  of  Pelar- 
gonium, and  many  novelties  are ’added  every 
season.  The  following  are  a few  of  the  best 


Cloth  of  Silver,  petals  of  silvery  whiteness 
blotched  with  delicate  rose  ; Belle  of  Paris , rich 
violet  crimson,  upper  petals  spotted,  an  im- 
mense cluster  of  flowers ; Competitor,  black, 
edged  with  rose  ; Crimson  King,  rich  crimson, 
beautifully  veined  and  blotched ; Dr.  Andre, 
pink  and  white,  petals  fringed  ; Eclipse,  clear 
white  petals  marked  with  maroon ; Eligible, 
pink  crimson  with  white  edges  and  violet  mark- 
ings ; Emperor  of  Pelargonium,  very  large 
snow-white  flower  spotted  with  violet  and  tinged 
with  rose,  petals  finely  fringed  ; Gen.  Taylor, 
rich  crimson  blotched  with  very  dark  red ; and 
Niagara,  white,  striped  and  blotched  with  crim- 
son. 

PELISSE. — Originally  a furred  robe  or  coat, 
now  a silken  coat  or  habit  worn  by  ladies, 
mostly  as  a part  of  their  travelling  costume. 
Pelisse  cloth  is  a woolen  fabric,  twilled  and 
made  quite  soft;  it  is  usually  seven  quarters 
wide. 

PENNYROYAL. — A species  of  mint  which 
grows  wild  in  great  abundance  in  many  parts 
of  the  United  States,  and  is  sometimes  culti- 
vated for  making  an  essential  oil  which  is  used 
in  medicine.  Its  odor  seems  to  be  very  annoy- 
ing to  certain  insects,  especially  ticks  and  fleas  ; 
and  in  this  way  it  may  be  made  useful.  It  is 
generally  for  sale  in  the  markets  during  the 
autumn  months,  sometimes  in  large  quantities  ; 
and  it  is  put  up  in  packages  and  sold  in  a dried 
state  at  the  drug  stores.  The  essential  oil  is 
used  in  medicine  for  the  same  purposes  as  pep- 
permint and  spearmint ; the  reputation  of  the 
herb  as  an  abortive  is  altogether  fallacious. 

PEONY.  (See  P.EONY.) 

PEPSINE. — An  organic  secretion  in  the 
stomach  of  animals,  which  is  regarded  as  an 
active  agent  in  digestion.  In  all  healthy  stom- 
achs it  exists  in  sufficient  quantity  for  the  ac- 
complishment of  its  purpose,  but  in  many  cases 
of  gastric  disorder  it  must  be  introduced  arti- 
ficially. The  best  medicinal  pepsine  is  made 
from  pigs’  stomachs  and  is  called  Pepsina  por- 
ci;  it  is  free  from  acid  and  starch,  and  has  a not 
disagreeable  odor.  It  should  be  given  during 
or  after  a meal.  The  best  way  of  administering 
it  is  in  a dose  of  five  to  ten  grains  along  with 
food,  and  thereafter  to  take  dilute  nitric  acid, 
in  a dose  of  five  drops,  in  a wineglass  of 
water,  with  sugar.  In  cases  of  great  debility 
of  the  stomach,  especially  in  old  people,  the 
habitual  use  of  pepsine  may  render  life  easy 
where  before  it  was  unendurable.  It  is  also 
valuable  in  cases  of  the  regurgitation  of  half- 
digested  or  half-putrid  food,  and  in  cases  of 
obstruction  at  the  passage  from  the  stomach 
to  the  intestines.  After  a time,  a dose  of 
five  grains  of  salicylic  acid  may  be  given  to 
prevent  putrefaction  of  what  remains.  For 
it  has  been  tolerably  clearly  proved  that  sub- 
stances which  are  digested  in  the  stomach  are 
absorbed  there,  so  that  if  albumen  be  convert- 
ed into  peptone  and  there  absorbed;  there  will 
be  no  necessity  for  it  to  pass  on  into  the  intes- 
tines, nor  will  there  be  time  for  it  to  undergo 
decomposition. 


388 


PEPPER 


PERITONITIS 


The  dilute  nitric  acid  should  be  taken  through 
a tube.  The  salicylic  acid  can  be  taken  as  any 
other  powder.  Sulphite  of  soda  or  of  magne- 
sia, taken  in  doses  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  grains, 
is  also  good  to  arrest  decomposition  in  the 
stomach. 

PEPPER— This  most  generally  used  of  all 
the  spices,  is  the  produce  of  two  allied  plants 
(known  as  Piper  nigrum  and  Piper  lotigum), 
which  grow  chiefly  in  the  East  Indies;  the 
part  used  is  the  berry  dried  in  the  sun.  Black 
and  white  pepper  are  both  obtained  from  the 
berry  of  Piper  nigrum  j the  former  being  the 
entire  berry  ground,  while  the  latter  is  made 
from  the  berry  after  it  has  been'  deprived  of  its 
outer  covering  or  husk.  Long  Pepper , the 
berry  of  the  Piper  longum , is  not  ground,  and 
is  not  much  used  at  the  present  day  ; it  is  not 
so  aromatic  as  the  black,  but  more  pungent. 
Peppercorns  is  the  name  given  to  the  whole 
berries  ; the  best  are  those  which  are  not  too 
small  nor  too  much  shrunk  in  drying,  but  which 
feel  heavy  in  the  hand  and  sink  in  water.  Pep- 
per is  universally  employed  as  a condiment, 
and  from  its  promoting  the  secretion  of  the 
gastric  juice,  it  aids  the  digestive  powers  of  the 
stomach  ; but  even  in  small  quanties,  it  is  hurt- 
ful in  inflammatory  habits.  Its  use  should  be 
prohibited  to  invalids  and  children. 

Pepper,  both  black  and  white,  is  adulterated 
with  a variety  of  articles — as  the  flour  of  lin- 
seed, mustard,  wheat,  sage,  and  arrowroot. 
Also  by  “ pepper-dust,”  being  the  sweepings  of 
the  floors  of  the  warehouses.  These  adultera- 
tions can  only  be  detected  under  the  micro- 
scope, and  it  is  best,  therefore,  to  buy  the 
peppercorns,  and  grind  or  powder  them  at 
home. 

Cayenne  Pepper  is  a totally  different  sub- 
stance, and  is  the  most  heating  and  stimulating 
spice  known.  (See  Cayenne.)  The  pods  of 
the  capsicum , from  which  the  cayenne  is  made, 
are  grown  throughout  the  southern  part  of  the 
United  States;  when  green  they  are  much 
used  for  pickling,  and  when  dried  in  the  sun 
they  are  strung  and  sold  in  all  the  markets. 
Bell  pepper  (C.  grossum).  is  the  largest  and 
best  variety,  and  is  easily  raised  from  the 
seeds. 

PEPPERMINT. — A variety  of  mint  which 
is  usually  found  growing  wild  in  damp  soils. 
It  is  sometimes  used  in  cookery,  but  its  chief 
use  is  for  distillation  in  the  manufacture  of 
the  oil  of  peppermint,  of  which  great  quantities 
are  used  by  confectioners,  druggists,  liquor- 
dealers,  etc.  It  should  be  gathered  in  August 
and  September. 

Drops  (Peppermint.)  — Pound  and  sift 
four  ounces  of  double  refined  sugar,  and  beat 
it  with  the  whites  of  two  eggs  until  perfectly 
smooth  ; then  add  sixty  drops  of  the  oil  of  pep- 
permint, beat  it  well,  with  a small  stick,  drop  it 
on  white  paper,  and  dry  at  a distance  from  the 
fire. 

Essence  of  Peppermint.  (See  Essences.) 

PEPPER-SAUCE.  (See  Sauces.) 

PERCH.  — There  are  numerous  varieties  of 


this  fish,  most  of  them,  however,  being  known 
by  other  names.  The  best  variety,  commonly 
called  black  perch,  are  in  reality  black  bass, 


Perch. 


and  have  been  treated  of  under  Bass.  They 
weigh  from  a pound  and  a half  to  three  pounds, 
and  are  in  season  during  the  months  of  May, 
June,  and  July.  The  white  perch  and  the  yel- 
low-bellied perch  are  the  kinds  usually  sold  as 
perch.  They  are  in  season  in  the  winter  and 
spring  months,  and  so  small  — they  seldom 
weigh  more  than  a quarter  of  a pound  each — 
that  they  are  only  fit  for  frying. 

Fried  Perch. — Clean,  wash  and  dry  the  fish ; 
sprinkle  them  with  salt  and  dredge  them  with 
flour;  and  fry  to  a light  brown  in  hot  butter, 
lard,  or  dripping.  Serve  hot. 

PERFUMES. — The  use  of  perfumes  about 
the  person  is,  of  course,  a matter  of  individual 
taste ; but  they  are  useful  as  deodorizers  in  the 
sick-room,  under  circumstances  when  fresh  air, 
which  is  by  far  the  best  means  for  the  purifi- 
cation of  a room,  cannot  be  immediately  intro- 
duced. In  such  cases  the  use  of  perfumes  is 
beneficial,  not  only  because  they  hide  the  bad 
odor,  but  because  they  act  as  a prophylactic  in 
the  atmosphere.  The  odorous  substance  of 
flowers  is  antiseptic  in  a high  degree,  and  being 
diffused  in  an  atmosphere  charged  with  foul 
gases,  moderates  their  poisonous  influence.  It 
must  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  in  overcom- 
ing a bad  odor  by  an  agreeable  one,  the  causes  of 
the  former  are  neither  removed  nor  destroyed. 
The  only  really  efficient  means  of  removing  a 
bad  smell  is  proper  ventilation.  Receipts  for 
making  the  choicer  kinds  of  the  perfumes  which 
are  within  the  resources  of  domestic  manufac- 
ture are  given  in  the  proper  places. 

PERITONITIS. — Inflammation  of  the  peri- 
toneum, or  the  membrane  which  lines  the  cav- 
ity of  the  stomach  and  covers  the  intestines. 
Its  danger  varies  with  its  cause.  It  maybe 
produced  by  a stab  or  gunshot  wound  in  the 
abdomen  ; these  cases  are  often  fatal.  Cancer 
and  tubercle  may  bring  it  on,  but  this  is  gener- 
ally only  a part  of  the  malady,  and  the  chief  seat 
of  disease  is  elsewhere.  Any  tumor  of  any  or- 
gan in  the  pelvis  or  abdomen  may  cause  it ; 
stricture,  hernia,  and  ulceration  of  the  intestinal 
canal  will  bring  it  on  ; and  it  is  often  associated 
with  typhoid  fever.  It  is  perhaps  most  often 
a sequence  of  child-bearing.  The  chief  symp- 
toms of  Peritonitis  are  pain  over  the  abdomen, 
vomiting,  and  a raised  temperature  ; the  pulse 
is  quick  and  small,  the  countenance  anxious 
and  sunken,  the  legs  drawn  up  so  as  to  relieve 
the  pain.  The  pain  is  worse  on  any  movement, 
and  is  very  wearing  to  the  patient.  In  some 


PERIWINKLES 


PHLOX 


389 


cases  of  blood-poisoning,  as  in  certain  forms  of 
puerperal  fever,  etc.,  there  may  be  peritonitis, 
and  yet  no  pain.  Colic,  which  often  comes  on 
in  lead  poisoning,  must  not  be  mistaken  for 
this  disease ; in  the  former  case,  there  will  be 
no  fever,  and  the  patient  will  have  a blue  line 
around  the  gums.  Some  cases  of  hysteria  may 
simulate  peritonitis  ; here,  again,  the  tempera- 
ture is  normal,  and  there  are  the  usual  signs  of 
hysteria. 

' Treatment. — Perfect  rest  in  bed  must  be  en- 
joined ; hot  fomentations,  made  as  light  as  pos- 
sible, must  be  applied  over  the  abdomen  ; the 
weight  of  the  bed-clothes  should  be  taken  off 
the  patient  as  far  as  possible.  Opium  must  be 
given  to  relieve  the  pain,  and  for  this  purpose, 
large  doses  are  frequently  required.  Cooling, 
saline  drinks,  and  iced  water  may  allay  the  thirst 
and  nausea,  while  milk  and  beef-tea  must  be 
iven  every  three  hours  or  oftener,  so  as  to 
eep  up  the  patient’s  strength.  Each  case,  of 
course,  will  vary  so  with  the  cause  as  to  require 
a somewhat  different  line  of  treatment ; and  for 
this  competent  medical  advice  must  be  sought. 
Peritonitis  often  forms  a serious  complication 
in  cases  of  typhoid  fever.  ( See  Typhoid 
Fever.) 

PERIWINKLES.— These  are  small  shell- 
fish, of  which  several  varieties  are  occasionally 
found  in  our  markets.  They  are  not  highly  es- 
teemed as  an  article  of  food,  being  somewhat 
rank-flavored  ; but  they  are  sometimes  eaten  by 
the  poor  who  live  near  the  coast.  They  are 
in  season  in  the  summer  and  fall  months.  Boil 
and  pickle  them  like  Cockles. 

PERRY. — A very  pleasant  drink  made  from 
pears.  Any  of  the  commoner  kinds  of  pears 
will  answer,  but  they  must  be  just  ripe  without 
being  mellow  or  in  the  least  degree  decayed  ; 
when  they  are  not  sufficiently  ripe  an  excess  of 
fermentation  cannot  be  prevented,  and  when 
they  are  too  ripe  the  liquor  rarely  ferments  kind- 
ly and  is  exceedingly  apt  to  become  sour.  In 
making  perry  the  pears  are  mashed  and  pressed 
in  exactly  the  same  way  as  apples  in  making 
cider.  The  subsequent  management  of  the 
perry  is  also  the  same  as  cider  {see  Cider),  ex- 
cept that  a few  days  after  the  liquor  is  pressed 
out  it  should  be  drawn  off  from  the  lees,  and 
fermented  in  another  vessel.  An  excess  of  fer- 
mentation is  prevented  by  the  means  used  in  the 
making  of  cider,  and  the  liquor  can  be  rendered 
bright,  if  necessary,  by  isinglass.  Perry  will  not 
do  well  in  situations  where  it  is  exposed  to 
change  of  temperature  ; and  it  should  be  bot- 
tled if  it  remains  sound  and  perfect  at  the  con- 
clusion of  the  first  succeeding  summer. 

PETROLEUM.— An  exceedingly  inflammable 
oil  obtained  in  a natural  state  from  the  earth  in 
various  parts  of  the  United  States.  It  does  not 
enter  in  its  crude  form  into  any  of  the  domestic 
arts,  but  at  least  two  valuable  articles  are  made 
from  it.  {See  Benzine  and  Kerosene  Oil.) 

PEWTER-WARE. — Pewter  is  an  alloy  of 
tin,  antimony,  and  lead  ; but  its  composition  is 
not  always  uniform.  There  are  three  kinds  of 
pewter  in  common  use,  called  plate  metal , 


triple,  and  ley.  Plate  metal  is  said  to  be  formed 
of  1 12  parts  tin,  6 or  7 of  antimony,  and  a small 
portion  of  brass  or  copper  to  harden  it ; it  is  the 
best  kind  and  is  used  for  making  dishes.  The 
sort  called  triple  is  used  for  alehouse  pots,  cheap 
dishes,  spoons,  etc.,  and  is  composed  of  lead 
and  tin,  with  a little  brass.  The  ley  pewter  used 
for  wine  and  spirit  measures  has  more  lead. 
Lead  being  a cheaper  metal  than  tin  it  is  the 
interest  of  manufacturers  to  employ  as  much  of 
it  as  they  can,  and,  consequently,  pewter  is  apt 
to  contain  too  much  of  it.  Lead  being  a nox- 
ious metal,  danger  was  apprehended  from  its 
employment  in  this  way;  and  the  French  gov- 
ernment appointed  a commission  of  some  very 
able  chemists  to  examine  the  subject.  They 
found  that,  when  wine  or  vinegar  is  allowed  to 
stand  in  vessels  composed  of  an  alloy  of  tin  and 
lead  in  different  proportions,  the  tin  is  first  dis- 
solved, while  the  lead  is  not  sensibly  acted  upon 
by  these  liquors,  except  at  the  line  of  contact  of 
the  air  and  the  liquor ; and  no  sensible  quantity 
of  lead  is  dissolved  even  by  vinegar,  after  stand- 
ing some  days  in  vessels  that  contain  no  more 
than  18  per  cent,  of  lead.  Hence  it  was  con- 
cluded that,  as  no  noxious  effect  is  produced  by 
the  very  minute  quantity  of  tin  which  is  dis- 
solved, pewter  may  be  considered  as  a safe 
material  when  it  contains  about  80  per  cent,  of 
tin  ; and,  where  vessels  are  intended  merely  for 
measures,  a much  less  proportion  of  tin  maybe 
allowed.  But  the  common  pewter  of  Paris  was 
found  to  contain  no  more  than  25  to  30  per 
cent,  of  tin,  and  the  remainder  was  lead  ; there 
is  reason  to  fear  that  this  is  also  the  composition 
of  our  common  pewter ; if  so,  malt  liquor,  and 
particularly  porter,  always  containing  more  or 
less  acetic  acid,  cannot  fail  to  dissolve  some  of 
the  deleterious  metal.  The  use  of  pewter  for  any 
vessels  in  which  food  or  drink  is  prepared 
should  therefore  be  avoided  ; and  in  fact  the  in- 
vention of  the  Britannia  and  similar  wares  which 
make  up  in  superior  durability  for  their  slightly 
greater  cost,  has  now  rendered  it  unnecessary. 

PHEASANT. — There  is  no  genuine  pheas- 
ant in  this  country,  what  is  called  pheasant  in 
the  Northern  markets  being  really  the  ruffed 
grouse,  which  is  also  called  partridge  at  the 
South.  ( See  Grouse  and  Partridge.) 

PHLOX. — This  is  another  of  the  peren- 
nials, the  beauty  of  which  should  secure  it  a 
place  in  every  garden.  It  is  perfectly  hardy, 
and  its  brilliant  clusters  of  flowers,  comprising 
all  colors  from  white  to  crimson  and  purple, 
striped  and  mottled,  have  few  superiors  among 
hardy  plants.  It  will  thrive  in  almost  any  soil, 
but  enjoys  fresh  loam  and  new  quarters  every 
two  or  three  years.  It  increases  rapidly  from 
the  roots,  and  will  also  grow  easily  from  cut- 
tings or  layers.  The  Phloxes  are  a large 
family,  containing  many  species  and  fine  va- 
rieties. The  latter  are  numbered  by  hundreds, 
and  we  can  only  mention  here  a few  of  the 
most  desirable.  For  Early  Spring  Flower- 
ing : — P.  Divaricata , light  and  dark  purple ; 
P.  Nivalis,  white  ; P.  Stonolifera,  deep  red  ; 
P.  Tubalala,  pink,  white,  purple,  and  eyed  va- 


390 


PIANO  FORTE 


PICKLES 


rieties.  For  Summer  Flowering  : — P.Beppo, 
purple  or  crimson  ; P.  Comtess  of  Home,  white, 
crimson,  eye  ; P.  Henri  Lierval , purplish  crim- 
son ; P.  Louis  Van  Houtte,  striped  ; P.  Ma- 
culata,  red  ; P.  Madame  Wagner,  whitish 
rose,  rosy  eye ; P.  Rival,  white  ; P.  Roi  Leo- 
pold, white,  striped  with  purple  ; P.  Speculum, 
white,  with  red  eye ; P.  Dianthiflora,  rose 
and  white  ; P.  Hersine,  purple  and  white  ; P. 
Le  Croix  de  St.  Louis,  rose  and  white ; P. 
Madame  Basseville,  rosy  white,  red  eye  ; P. 
Madame  le  Cerf,  pure  white  ; P.  Oculata,  lilac, 
white  centre  ; P.  Osirus,  white,  with  red  eye  ; 
P.  Mr.  Regel,  violet,  purple,  and  crimson  ; P. 
Souvenir  de  la  Mer,  white,  violet  centre. 

PIANOFORTE  (Care  of  the). — A piano 
should  be  tuned  at  least  twice  a year  by  an  ex- 
perienced tuner.  If  it  be  allowed  to  go  too 
long  without  tuning,  it  usually  becomes  flat, 
and  troubles  a tuner  to  get  it  to  stay  at  concert 
pitch,  especially  in  the  country.  Never  place 
the  instrument  against  an  outside  wall,  or  in  a 
cold,  damp  room,  particularly  in  a country 
house.  There  is  no  greater  enemy  to  a piano- 
forte than  damp.  Close  the  instrument  imme- 
diately after  finishing  practice ; by  leaving  it 
open,  dust  fixes  on  the  sound-board,  and  cor- 
rodes the  movements,  and  if  in  a damp  room, 
the  strings  soon  rust.  Should  the  piano  stand 
near  or  opposite  to  a window,  guard,  if  possi- 
ble, against  its  being  opened,  especially  on  a wet 
or  damp  day  ; and  when  the  sun  is  on  the  win- 
dow, draw  the  blind  down.  Avoid  putting  me- 
tallic or  other  articles  on  or  in  the  piano  ; such 
things  frequently  cause  unpleasant  vibrations, 
and  sometimes  injure  the  instrument.  The 
more  equal  the  temperature  of  the  room,  the 
better  the  piano  will  stay  in  tune. 

PICCALILI. — This  is  a name  given  to  mixed 
pickles  which  may  contain  almost  any  combina- 
tion of  the  vegetables  usually  made  use  of  for 
pickling.  The  following  makes  an  excellent 
pickle: — Take  gherkins,  cucumbers,  cauliflower, 
radish-pods,  French  beans,  samphire,  celery, 
white  cabbage,  carrots,  capsicums  and  button 
onions.  Soak  them  in  brine  for  twenty-four 
hours;  drain  them  and  dry  with  towels,  then 
place  them  in  glass  cans  and  pour  over  them, 
boiling  hot,  the  following  prepared  mixture  : To 
one  gallon  of  vinegar  add  four  ounces  of  bruised 
ginger,  two  ounces  of  whole  black  pepper,  two 
ounces  of  whole  allspice,  three  ounces  of  curry, 
and  half  a pint  of  sweet  oil;  boil  them  together  for 
half  an  hour,  and  then  pour  them  over  the  vege- 
tables, having  mixed  a little  turmeric  and  mus- 
tard in  a bowl  with  a small  quantity  of  vinegar, 
which  should  also  be  poured  in.  Some  persons 
prefer  straining  the  vinegar,  but  the  spice  ma- 
terially improves  the  flavor  of  the  pickle  in 
keeping ; and  at  last  the  liquor  makes  an  ex- 
cellent sauce  for  cold  meats.  Put  up  in  glass 
jars. 

PICKEREL. — This  fish  is  known  in  Phila- 
delphia as  “ Pike,”  and  in  Virginia  and  the 
Southern  States  as  “Jack.”  It  is  one  of  the 
most  delicious  of  the  fresh-water  fish,  being  es- 
teemed hardly  inferior  to  trout.  When  in  good 


condition  it  is  very  firm-fleshed,  sweet,  and 
well-flavored  ; it  is  best  in  the  winter  and  spring 
months,  from  September  to  March,  and  during 
that  time  is  generally  quite  plentiful  in  the  mar- 
kets. The  pickerel  is  a long,  square-backed 
fish,  with  one  fin  on  the  back  near  the  tail ; the 
upper  jaw  has  somewhat  the  appearance  of  a 
duck’s  bill,  and  the  eyes  are  very  small ; the 


Pickerel. 


color  on  the  back  is  of  a bluish  gray,  and  some- 
times of  a greenish  cast ; the  sides  are  of  a 
muddy  yellow  and  quite  full  of  dark,  irregular 
marks.  There  is  a smaller  variety,  called 
“brook  pickerel,”  which  are  different  in  shape 
and  smaller ; they  are  not  so  desirable  as  the 
regular  pickerel.  Prepare,  cook  and  serve 
pickerel  in  the  same  way  as  trout.  The  smaller 
fish  only  should  be  used  for  frying  and  broil- 
ing, and  the  larger  ones  for  boiling,  baking  and 
roasting. 

PICKLES. — With  the  exception  of  walnuts, 
which,  when  softened  by  keeping,  are  the  least 
objectionable  of  any  pickle,  these  are  not 
very  wholesome  articles  of  diet,  consisting,  as 
so  many  of  them  do,  of  crude,  hard  vegetables, 
or  of  unripe  fruit.  Those  which  are  commonly 
sold  in  the  shops  are  especially  objectionable, 
as  in  most  cases  they  are  so  injured  by  adultera- 
tion as  to  become  dangerous  to  persons  who 
partake  of  them  often  or  largely.  Color  is  of 
great  moment  in  pickling ; and  the  fine  green 
color  of  many  of  the  prepared  pickles  is  secured 
by  the  addition  of  sulphate  of  copper,  or  blue- 
stone,  directly  to  the  vinegar,  and  where  this  is 
not  done,  they  are  made  in  copper  or  brass 
vessels.  A very  simple  and  effective  way  of 
testing  whether  such  “greening”  has  been 
ventured  upon,  is  to  put  a few  drops  of  the 
suspected  vinegar  on  the  blade  of  a knife,  or 
cut  the  pickles  with  it  ; add  a drop  of  sulphuric 
acid  (oil  of  vitriol),  and  heat  the  under  surface 
of  the  knife  over  the  flame  of  a candle ; the 
vinegar  in  evaporating  will  deposit  the  copper 
upon  the  knife-blade,  if  any  be  present.  The 
best  plan,  however,  is  to  make  the  pickles  at 
home,  for  then  they  can  be  relied  upon  as  at 
least  pure. 

For  home  pickling  we  subjoin  a few  leading 
rules.  Acids  dissolve  the  lead  contained  in  the 
tinning  of  saucepans,  and  corrode  copper  and 
brass  ; consequently,  if  vinegar  is  kept  in  them 
for  any  length  of  time,  it  becomes  highly  poi- 
sonous. This  danger,  therefore,  is  easily 
avoided  by  heating  the  liquor  in  a stone  jar  on 
a stove ; but  glazed  stone  jars  should  not  be 
used  for  pickles,  as  salt  and  vinegar  dissolve 
the  lead  which  is  in  the  glaze.  Scalding  or 
parboiling  the  articles  to  be  pickled  in  salt  and 
water  will  cause  them  to  absorb  the  vinegar 
much  sooner;  but  this  docs  not  add  to  their 


PICKLES 


391 


crispness.  In  this  case  the  article*  ®hould  be 
cold  and  quite  dry  before  they  are  put  into  the 
vinegar.  Should  the  vinegar  become  thick,  it 
may  be  advisable  to  pour  it  off  the  pickles,  boil 
it  up  again,  and  pour  it  back.  Use  the  strong- 
est vinegar  for  pickling,  for  that  of  inferior 
quality  is  useless  ; it  should  be  scalding  hot,  as 
raw  vinegar  becomes  ropy,  and  will  not  keep ; 
but  it  should  be  remembered  that  neither 


vinegar,  nor  any  other  fermented  liquor,  can  be 
boiled  without  loss  of  strength.  Pickles  should 
be  kept  from  the  air,  otherwise  they  soon  spoil. 
They  should,  likewise,  be  touched  only  with  a 
dry  wooden  spoon  or  ladle ; and  as  it  is  an  ob- 
ject to  keep  the  jars  as  full  as  possible,  small 
jars  should  be  from  time  to  time  filled  up  from 
larger  ones.  The  pickles  should  always  be 
covered  with  vinegar,  at  least  two  inches  above 


their  surface.  The  least  quantity  of  water,  or 
a wet  spoon,  put  into  a jar  of  pickles,  will  spoil 
the  contents. 

Barberries. — Take  barberries,  when  not 
quite  ripe,  pick  out  the  stalks,  and  preserve 
the  finest  sprigs,  which  should  be  tied  together 
in  bunches,  as  they  may  be  wanted  for  garnish- 
ing; wash  them  in  salt  and  water  carefully, 
and  set  them  in  a sieve  to  drain  ; place  the 
berries  and  the  branches  of  sprigs  in  separate 
jars,  and  pour  over  them  a pickle  made  of  two 
pounds  of  common  salt  and  a gallon  of  water ; 
fill  the  jars  to  the  brim,  skim  the  pickle  as  long 
as  any  scum  rises,  then  pour  it  off  and  fill  the 
jars  again,  and  tie  over.  The  acidity  of  the 
barberry  renders  vinegar  unnecessary. 

Beans. — Pick  the  young  string  or  snap 
beans  just  before  they  change  color,  and  leave 
them  quite  whole.  Let  them  stand  two  weeks 
in  a brine  made  of  two  pounds  of  salt  to  a gal- 
lon of  water,  stirring  them  up  from  the  bottom 
every  day ; change  the  water  then  for  fresh 
and  let  them  remain  in  that  another  day ; they 
are  now  ready  for  pickling.  Line  a kettle  with 
a thick  layer  of  green  vine-leaves,  put  the 
beans  into  it,  add  a half-teaspoonful  of  pow-' 
dered  alum  for  every  gallon  of  water,  fill  the 
kettle  with  cold  water,  put  another  layer  of 
vine-leaves  over  the  top,  and  cover  with  a close- 
fitting  lid  ; simmer  over  a slow  fire  for  five  or 
six  hours,  without  allowing  it  to  come  to  a boil. 
When  the  pickles  are  of  a bright  green  re- 
move the  leaves,  and  drop  the  beans  into  very 
cold  water,  leaving  them  there  while  the  follow- 
ing pickle  is  prepared : — To  one  gallon  of  the  i 


best  cider  vinegar  add  a teacupful  of  sugar, 
three  dozen  peppercorns,  three  dozen  cloves 
a dozen  and  a half  of  allspice,  and  a dozen 
blades  of  mace  ; boil  five  minutes,  then  put 
the  beans  into  a stone  jar  and  pour  the  vine- 
gar over  them  scalding  hot.  Set  away,  closely 
covered.  Two  days  afterward  scald  the  vine- 
gar again  and  return  to  the  pickles,  and  repeat 
this  process  three  times  more  at  intervals  of 
two  or  three  days.  Then  cover  over  tightly, 
and  set  in  a cool  place  : they  will  be  ready  for 
eating  in  a couple  of  months,  but  improve  with 
age. 

Radish-pods  are  often  pickled  along  with  the 
beans,  and  it  improves  them.  The  pods  should 
be  gathered  just  before  maturity. 

Beet-roots. — Select  roots  of  blood-red  color ; 
wash  them  well,  boil  them  till  tender;  then 
peel  them  and  cut  them  into  cross  slices,  not 
too  thin  ; put  them  in  layers  into  jars  with  a 
little  mace,  whole  pepper,  cloves,  horse-radish, 
salt,  and  bruised  ginger,  and  fill  up  with  the 
best  vinegar.  Tie  the  jars  closely  with  blad- 
der. 

Cabbage  (Red).— Take  a large  closely-grown 
cabbage,  strip  off  the  outside  leaves, which  cut  in 
thin  slices  into  a dish,  sprinkling  salt  over  them. 
Cover  them  with  a cloth,  and  let  them  lie 
twenty-four  hours.  Next  drain  the  cabbage  on 
a sieve,  and  put  it  into  a clean  jar  with  allspice, 
whole  pepper,  and  sliced  ginger;  pour  over  it 
cold  vinegar,  and  tie  it  closely  over ; a little 
bruised  cochineal  will  brighten  the  red  color, 
but  is  not  requisite.  The  jar  should  be  com- 
pletely filled. 


392 


PICKLES 


Cabbage  (White). — Take  off  the  outside 
leaves,  quarter  it,  cut  out  the  stalk,  shred  the 
cabbage  and  sprinkle  it  liberally  with  salt;  let 
it  stand  a day,  then  put  it  into  a jar,  and  pour 
over  it,  boiled  but  cold,  spiced  vinegar,  which 
will  insure  its  crispness,  though  it  will  not  keep 
so  long  as  when  pickled  with  boiling  vinegar. 
A little  turmeric  may  be  added. 

Capsicums,  or  Red  Pepper. — Soak  green 
capsicums  three  or  four  days  in  a strong  brine, 
drain  them,  put  them  into  jars  with  mace  and 
allspice,  and  fill  up  with  cold  boiled  vinegar. 
Red  capsicums  will  not  require  soaking.  Chilies 
may  be  pickled  in  the  same  way. 

Cauliflower. — Choose  a hard,  white  cauli- 
flower; puH  it  into  small  pieces,  which  put 
into  a stewpan  with  salt  and  water,  and  boil. 
Then  take  out  the  pieces,  dry  them  before  the 
fire,  and  pour  on  them  spiced  vinegar : a little 
turmeric  will  give  the  cauliflower  a fine  yellow 
color,  and  will  also  improve  the  flavor. 

A nice  spiced  vinegar  for  cauliflower,  or  any 
similar  pickle,  may  be  made  as  follows : — To 
one  gallon  of  vinegar,  add  a teacupful  of  white 
sugar,  a tablespoonful  of  celery  seed,  a dozen 
blades  of  mace,  two  dozen  white  peppercorns, 
a tablespoonful  of  coriander-seed,  a table- 
spoonful of  whole  mustard,  and  some  bits  of 
red  pepper.  Boil  five  minutes. 

Celery.— Prepare  a pickle  of  an  ounce  and 
a half  of  salt,  half  an  ounce  of  ginger,  and  as 
much  whole  white  pepper,  to  each  quart  of 
vinegar,  and  set  it  to  boil.  Having  picked  and 
washed,  and  cut  into  small  pieces,  fine  fresh 
celery,  put  it  into  the  boiling  pickle,  and  when 
the  whole  has  boiled  two  minutes,  put  it  into 
dry  stone  jars ; or  let  it  cool,  and  then  put 
it  into  bottles.  It  will  remain  good  for  a long 
time,  and  the  vinegar  will  make  good  salad- 
dressing.  A few  button  onions  may  be  thrown 
into  the  vinegar. 

Cherries. — Leave  about  an  inch  of  their 
stems  on  some  fine,  sound  cherries,  which  are 
not  over  ripe  ; put  them  into  a jar,  cover  them 
with  cold  vinegar,  and  let  them  stand  three 
weeks;  pour  off  two-thirds  of  the  liquor  and 
replace  it  with  fresh  vinegar  ; then,  after  hav- 
ing drained  it  from  the  cherries , boil  it  whole 
with  an  ounce  of  coriander-seed,  a small  blade 
of  mace,  a few  grains  of  cayenne,  or  a teaspoon- 
ful of  white  peppercorns,  and  four  bruised 
cochineals  to  every  quart ; the  spices  should 
be  tied  loosely  in  a piece  of  muslin.  Let  the 
pickle  become  quite  cold  before  it  is  added  to 
the'eherries.  In  a moath  they  will  be  fit  to 
use.  The  vinegar  which  is  poured  from  the 
fruit  makes  a good  syrup  of  itself,  when  boiled 
with  a pound  of  sugar  to  the  fruit,  but  it  is 
improved  by  having  some  fresh  raspberries, 
cherries,  or  currants  ‘previously  infused  in  it 
for  three  or  four  days. 

Cucumber. — I.  Select  small  cucumbers — 
none  should  be  over  a finger  in  length ; they 
should  also  be  perfectly  sound.  Pickle  them 
in  the  manner  previously  directed  for  Beans  ; 
but  the  cucumbers  may  be  kept  either  a week 
or  a month  in  the  brine,  according  as  they  are 


liked  salty  or  otherwise.  Soft  ones  when 
taken  from  the  brine  should  be  thrown  away. 

II.  (Grated.) — Pare  and  halve  full-grown  cu- 
cumbers, take  out  the  seeds;  grate,  strain,  and 
press  the  pulp  until  the  water  is  nearly  extract- 
ed. Season  highly  with  pepper  and  salt,  mix 
with  vinegar  to  taste;  seal  in  small  bottles. 

III.  (Sliced.)— Slice  large  cucumbers  length- 
wise and  boil  an  hour  in  just  enough  vinegar 
to  cover  them;  set  them  aside  in  the  hot  vinegar. 
Then  make  a strongly-spiced  vinegar  (adding 
a pound  of  sugar  to  each  gallon),  put  the  cu- 
cumbers into  it,  and  stew  them  two  hours. 
This  pickle  is  ready  for  use  as  soon  as  made. 

Elder  Pickle. — Cut  the  tender  shoots  of 
the  elder-tree,  peel  them,  and  soak  them  twelve 
hours  in  brine  ; drain  and  dry  them;  then  boil 
in  two  quarts  of  vinegar,  two  ounces  of  whole 
ginger,  two  ounces  of  whole  black  pepper,  and 
the  same  of  allspice ; pour  it  boiling  upon  the 
elder  shoots  in  a jar,  and  cover  up. 

Eschalots. — For  a quart  of  ready-peeled 
eschalots,  add  to  the  same  quantity  of  the  best 
pale  white  wine  vinegar,  a dessertspoonful  of 
salt,  and  an  ounce  of  whole  white  pepper ; 
bring  these  quickly  to  a boil,  take  off  the  scum, 
throw  in  the  eschalots,  simmer  them  for  two 
minutes  only,  turn  them  into  a clean  stone  jar, 
and  when  they  are  quite  cold,  tie  a skin,  or  two 
folds  of  thick  paper  over  it. 

French  Pickle. — Take:- Green  tomatoes,  i 
peck  ; green  peppers,  6 ; onions,  6 ; salt,  ]/2  pt ; 
brown  sugar,  i pt;  horse  radish  (grated),  ]/2  pt; 
ground  cloves, ground  allspice,  ground  cinnamon, 
i tablespoonful  each ; mustard  seed,  celery 
seed,  2 or  3 tablespoonfuls  each  ; pepper  corns, 
*2  gill. 

Slice  the  tomatoes,  onions  and  peppers  (hav- 
ing taken  the  seeds  from  the  latter)  sprinkle 
the  salt  over  them  and  let  them  stand  all  night. 
Then  pour  off  the  water  and  add  the  other  in- 
gredients ; mix  well ; put  it  in  a large  porcelain 
lined  kettle,  cover  with  good  vinegar  and  boil 
slowly  until  well  cooked;  this  requires  several 
hours.  A fewred  peppers  may  be  added,  if  liked. 

Gherkins. — Pickle  these  exactly  as  directed 
for  cucumbers.  The  smaller  gherkins  make 
the  choicest  pickles. 

Higdom. — Peel  and  take  the  seeds  from  large 
green  cucumbers  ; chop  them  and  to  two  quarts 
add  one  of  chopped  onion  ; mix  them,  adding  3 
tablespoonfuls  of  salt ; after  turn  hours  hang 
them  in  a thin  cloth,  to  drain  for  twelve  hours  ; 
put  them  in  a preserving  kettle,  season  with 
cayenne  and  black  pepper,  cover  with  vinegar, 
heat  slowly  and  boil  ten  minutes. 

Kalamazoo  Pickles. — Take  .•-small  cucum- 
bers (2  or  3 inches  long)  y bush. ; brown  sugar,  1 
qt ; white  mustard  seed,  y2  pt ; broken  cinnamon, 

1 oz  ; alum,  2 oz  ; celery  seed,  i oz  ; vinegar,  7 qts. 

Wipe  the  withered  flowers  from  the  end  of 
the  cucumbers  ; cover  with  a brine  made  of  two 
gallons  of  water  and  a pound  of  salt ; let  them 
stand  twenty-four  hours ; drain  them  ; boil  the 
vinegar,  alum  and  spices  ; put  the  cucumbers 
in  glass  cans,  rinsed  in  hot  water,  pour  in  the 
boiling  vinegar  and  spices,  and  close  at  once. 


PICKLES 


393 


Mangoes.— T ake  the  latest  growth  of  mangoes 
of  not  more  than  a third  or  half  their  full  size. 
Keep  them  in  brine  several  weeks ; then  soak 
them  for  two  days  in  cold  water  changing  the  wa- 
ter frequently ; boil  them  in  vinegar  with  a small 
piece  of  alum,  three  quarters  of  an  hour;  stand 
them  in  the  vinegar  (well  covered)  for  a week. 
Remove  the  seeds  and  fill  with  this  mixture : one 
pound  of  ginger  soaked  in  brine  for  a day  or  two, 
or  until  soft  enough  to  slice,  whole  black  pepper, 
cloves,  mace,  allspice  and  tumeric,  one  ounce 
each  ; half  a pound  of  garlic,  soaked  for  a day  or 
two  in  brine,  and  then  dried  ; grated  horse  radish, 
black  mustard  seed  and  white  mustard  seed,  one 
pint  each.  Bruise  the  spices  and  mix  them  with 
a teacupful  of  olive  oil.  For  each  mango  add 
a teaspoonful  of  brown  sugar.  This  is  suffi- 
cient for  four  dozen  large  mangoes.  Having 
chopped  six  or  eight  imperfect  ones  to  mix  with 
the  stuffing,  tie  up  and  pour  over  them  the 
best  cider  vinegar.  Set  in  a light  dry  place 
to  be  cured.  After  a month  add  three 
pounds  of  brown  sugar  to  the  vinegar;  scald 
and  pour  it  over  them  hot;  keep  them  dry 
and  light. 

Mixed. — Take  some  very  tender  string 
beans,  some  very  small  onions,  a cauliflower 
broken  into  bits,  a red  pepper  cut  fine,  a few 
long  green  peppers,  and  some  small  tomatoes  ; 
scald  them  in  salt  and  water  and  let  them  stand 
about  twenty-four  hours.  Drain  them  well,  put 
them  into  a jar  or  pan,  and  turn  boiling  spiced 
vinegar  over  them ; let  them  stand  till  cool, 
then  put  them  into  glass  jars  and  stop  them 
tight.  The  proportions  of  the  different  ingredi- 
ents in  this  pickle  can  be  varied  to  suit  the 
taste. 

Monrcel. — Keep  very  small  cucumbers  in 
brine  for  twenty-four  hours  ; drain  them  and  put 
them  in  a jar  ; cover  with  boiling  water  allowing 
an  ounce  of  alum  to  five  quarts.  Leave  them  on 
a warm  hearth  several  hours  ; drain  and  cover 
with  boiling  vinegar  seasoned  with  cloves, 
whole  peppers,  mace  and  a little  sugar. 

Mushrooms  (Brown). — Take  a quart  of 
large  mushroom  buttons,  and  wash  them  in 
vinegar  with  a piece  of  flannel ; take  three  an- 
chovies and  chop  them  small,  a few  blades  of 
mace,  a teaspoonful  of  salt,  a little  pepper  and 
ginger,  and  three  cloves  of  shalots.  Put  them 
into  a saucepan  with  as  much  vinegar  as  will 
half  cover  them ; then  set  them  on  the  fire 
and  let  them  stew  till  they  shrink  pretty'  well. 
When  cold  put  them  into  bottles,  pour  the 
vinegar  over  them,  cork  and  tie  them  up.  This 
pickle  will  make  a fine  addition  to  brown  sauces, 
and  is  much  liked. 

Mushrooms  (White). — Put  the  mushrooms 
in  equal  quantities  of  cold  milk  and  water, 
and  rub  them  with  a piece  of  flannel ; have 
ready  hot  milk  and  water,  and  boil  them  in  it 
a few  minutes ; take  them  out  carefully  and 
put  them  into  a jar  with  a little  salt,  and 
cover  them  closely  with  a cloth  ; let  them  stand 
till  next  day,  then  boil  up  the  vinegar  and  pour 
over  them. 

Onions. — Choose  fine  white  ones,  not  too 


large,  peel  them,  and  let  them  stand  in  strong 
salt  and  water  three  days,  changing  the  brine 
on  the  second  day.  Heat  more  brine  to  a boil, 
throw  in  the  onions,  and  boil  three  minutes  ; 
then  drain  off  the  brine,  and  throw  the  onions 
into  cold  water,  leaving  them  there  several 
hours.  Pack  in  jars,  season  with  cloves,  mace, 
and  whole  pepper,  and  fill  up  with  scalding 
vinegar  in  which  sugar  has  been  dissolved  in 
the  proportion  of  a teacupful  to  every  gallon. 
Cork  while  hot.  They  can  be  used  in  a month, 
but  improve  with  keeping. 

Onions  (Sliced)  and  Cucumbers. — Slice 
but  do  not  peel  large  cucumbers,  and  peel  and 
cut  in  thick  slices  large  onions  ; soak  them  in 
brine  for  a day  : then  drain  them,  put  them  into 
jars,  and  pour  on  boiling  vinegar,  with  ginger, 
allspice,  and  whole  black  pepper,  three  succes- 
sive days.  This  is  a cheap  and  good  pickle. 

Peaches. — Take,  at  their  full  growth  just  be- 
fore they  begin  to  ripen,  six  large  or  eight  mod- 
erate sized  peaches  ; wipe  the  down  from  them 
and  put  them  into  brine  that  will  float  an  egg. 
In  three  days  take  them  out,  and  drain  on  a 
reversed  sieve  for  several  hours.  Boil  in  a 
quart  of  vinegar  for  ten  minutes,  two  ounces 
of  whole  white  pepper,  two  of  ginger  slightly 
bruised,  a teaspoonful  of  salt,  two  blades  of 
mace,  half  a pound  of  mustard-seed  and  half  a 
teaspoonful  of  cayenne  tied  in  a bit  of  muslin. 
Lay  the  peaches  into  a jar,  and  pour  the  boil- 
ing pickle  on  them.  In  two  months  they  will 
be  fit  for  use. 

Peaches  (Sweet).  — Put  four  pounds  of 
pared  peaches  into  a kettle  with  two  pounds  of 
sugar,  and  heat  slowly  to  a boil ; add  half  a 
pint  of  good  vinegar  strongly  spiced  with 
cloves,  mace,  and  cinnamon,  and  boil  for  five 
minutes  ; take  out  the  fruit  with  a perforated 
skimmer  and  spread  upon  dishes  to  cool.  Pack 
the  fruit  in  glass  jars,  boil  the  syrup  thick  and 
pour  it  on  scalding  hot.  Look  into  the  jars 
every  few  days  for  a month  or  so  and  if  there 
are  any  signs  of  fermentation,  set  the  jars  in  a 
kettle  of  water  and  heat  until  the  contents  are 
scalding  hot. 

Pears,  plums,  and  other  fruits  may  be  pickled 
in  this  way. 

Piccalili.  (See  Picalili.) 

Sweet  Pickles. — Almost  any  kind  of  fruit 
may  be  used  in  making  sweet  pickles.  To  two 
pounds  of  fruit  allow  a pint  of  vinegar,  and  a 
pound  of  sugar ; put  on  the  vinegar  and  sugar 
and  let  them  boil  fifteen  minutes,  skimming 
carefully ; then  put  in  the  fruit  and  let  tt  boil 
till  about  half  cooked ; put  it  in  jars,  and  cork 
tight.  For  peaches  a little  cinnamon  and 
mace  may  be  boiled  with  the  vinegar ; for 
plums,  or  dark  fruit,  allspice  or  cloves. 

Tomatoes  (Green).  — Slice  without  peel- 
ing, two  gallons  of  green  tomatoes,  and  also 
slice  a dozen  medium-sized  onions  ; add  half  a 
gallon  of  vinegar,  a pound  of  sugar,  two  table- 
spoonfuls each  of  salt,  black  pepper,  and 
ground  mustard,  and  one  tablespoonful  each  of 
cloves  and  allspice.  Put  on  the  fire  and  stew 
I until  the  tomatoes  and  onions  are  quite  tender, 


394 


PICKLING  MEAT 


PIES 


stirring  often  from  the  bottom;  when  cold  put 
into  glass  jars.  This  is  one  of  the  best 
pickles  to  serve  with  meat  and  fish. 

Tomatoes  (Ripe). — To  two  gallons  of  ripe 
tomatoes,  sliced  without  peeling,  add  a pint  of 
vinegar,  and  two  pounds  of  sugar ; season 
with  cinnamon,  mace,  and  nutmeg ; put  on 
the  fire  and  simmer  slowly  for  an  hour.  Put 
up  in  glass  jars. 

Walnuts  .—I.  Gather  the  walnuts  while  soft 
enough  to  be  pierced  by  a needle.  Prick 
each  with  a large  needle  (hold  the  walnuts  in 
a cloth  during  this  process  to  avoid  staining 
the  hands);  cover  them  with  strong  salt  and 
water;  let  them  stand  two  or  three  days, 
changing  the  water  every  day.  Then  pour 
over  them  a strong  brine  made  of  salt  dissolved 
in  boiling  water  (let  it  get  cold  before  using), 
stand  three  days,  and  then  repeat  the  process. 
Drain  and  expose  them  to  the  sun  until  they 
are  black.  Put  them  into  a jar,  and  pour  over 
them  as  much  good  vinegar  as  will  cover  them. 
To  each  hundred  walnuts  allow  six  spoonfuls 
of  mustard  seed,  one  ounce  of  whole  black 
pepper,  two  or  three  shalots,  two  ounces  of 
whole  ginger  crushed,  a few  cloves,  and  a blade 
or  two  of  mace.  Tie  them  down  closely  for  six 
months.  At  the  end  of  that  time  drain  off  the 
vinegar,  and  use  as  ketchup.  Fill  up  the  jars 
with  fresh  vinegar,  and  add,  if  necessary,  a 
few  more  peppercorns.  In  six  months  more 
they  will  be  ready  for  use. 

II.  Soak  in  salt  water  and  brine  as  before  ; 
but  instead  of  laying  them  in  the  sun,  put  them 
in  cold  water  for  half  a day,  and  then  pack 
them  in  small  jars.  Measure  out  enough  vine- 
gar to  cover  them  well,  and  for  each  gallon  al- 
low a teacupful  of  sugar,  three  dozen  each  of 
whole  cloves  and  allspice,  a dozen  and  a half  of 
allspice,  and  a dozen  blades  of  mace  ; boil  five 
minutes,  and  pour  over  the  walnuts  scalding  hot. 
In  three  days  draw  off  the  vinegar,  heat  it  to 
boiling,  and  again  pour  it  over  the  walnuts  ; 
and  at  the  end  of  three  days  more  repeat 
the  process.  Walnuts  pickled  thus  will  be  fit 
to  eat  in  a month. 

Butternuts  can  be  pickled  by  either  of  the 
methods  given  above. 

PICKLING  MEAT.— This  consists  in  keep- 
ing meat  immersed  in  a strong  brine,  to  which 
other  ingredients  are  sometimes  added.  This 
mode  of  preserving  does  not  render  the  meat 
so  salt  as  dry  rubbing,  nor  is  it  so  well  calcu- 
lated for  keeping  it  for  a great  length  of  time, 
being  chiefly  limited  to  small  pieces ; it  is 
thought,  however,  to  be  less  injurious  to  the 
nutritious  qualities  of  the  meat.  Full  directions 
for  pickling  beef,  tongues,  pork,  etc.,  etc.,  are 
given  under  the  respective  articles. 

PICTURES  (Cleaning).  Castile  soap  and 
water  can  be  used  on  oil  paintings  without 
danger,  care  being  taken  of  course  not  to 
wet  the  back,  or  let  water  through  cracks. 
There  are  few  other  things  that  can  except  by 
experts.  For  the  ordinary  dusting  of  pictures 
a silk  handkerchief  should  be  used. 

Framing.— Heavy  gilt  frames  are  appro- 


priate to  oil  paintings.  On  chromos,  they  sug- 
gest a dishonest  (and  consequently  untasteful) 
attempt  to  make  the  chromo  appear  what  it  is 
not— an  oil  painting.  An  engraving  would  be 
made  to  appear  cold  by  a bright  or  heavy  gilt 
frame,  though  sometimes  a plain  unburnished 
one  looks  well.  Of  course  a margin  of  white 
paper  is  needed  between  the  printed  surface 
and  the  frame,  so  as  not  to  make  the  contrast  of 
brilliancy  too  violent.  Moreover,  if  the  frame 
be  dark,  the  margin  prevents  the  monotonous 
continuation  of  dark  color,  and  if  it  be  of  col- 
ored wood,  the  margin  prevents  a harsh 
contrast. 

Gay  colored  wood  frames  brighten  up  a 
room  which  sometimes  needs  it,  and  if  of  ap- 
propriate colors,  do  not  jar  on  the  taste.  One 
would  hardly  select  pale  blue  to  frame  a bat- 
tle scene,  however,  or  blood-red  for  a Ma- 
donna. 

Chromos  should  honestly  express  what 
they  are— color  printed  on  paper,  and  should 
not  be  made  to  represent  paint  and  canvas  by 
smearing  the  color  unreasonably  thick  and  em- 
bossing the  paper.  Such  chromos  deceive  no 
one  but  the  owner.  Chromos  had  best  have  a 
margin,  as  association  of  ideas  requires  it  in 
paper.  Light  frames  of  dead  gilt,  or  uncolored 
wooden  ones  should  be  the  only  styles  used  on 
them. 

Passe-partouts  are  good  for  all  small  engrav- 
ings and  honest  chromos. 

In  framing  engravings  or  chromos,  see  that 
no  knots  are  in  the  boards  at  the  back,  as 
resinous  exudations  are  apt  to  strike  from  them 
through  the  paper.  If  knots  are  found,  glue 
over  them  bits  of  sheet  rubber. 

Hanging.— Use  copper  wire.  Moths  eat 
out  the  inside  of  cord.  Nails  damage  walls, 
and  fresh  ones  are  needed  for  all  changes. 
P arthe  best  way  of  suspending  pictures  is  from 
hooks  sliding  on  rods  of  painted  gas-pipe  or 
burnished  brass,  fastened  into  the  wall  near  the 
ceiling.  A wooden  moulding  grooved  in  its 
inner  upper  edge  so  that  hooks  shaped  like  the 
letter  S can  curve  over  its  top,  answers  admira- 
bly for  light  pictures.  Where  one  is  rid  of  nails, 
it  is  certainly  best  to  hang  the  picture  from 
wire  on  each  side  depending  from  separate 
hooks.  The  lines  of  the  wires  correspond 
better  with  the  general  lines  of  the  walls,  and 
give  a feeling  of  greater  strength.  It  is  but 
little  more  trouble  to  do  this  than  to  use  the 
single  wire,  provided  two  nails  are  not  needed. 

Protecting  from  insects. — Water  in  which 
onions  have  been  boiled,  rubbed  lightly  over 
the  frames,  will  keep  insects  away  from  them. 

PIES. — Whether  pies  are  healthy  or  the 
contrary  depends  chiefly  upon  the  character  of 
the  crust,  and  in  order  to  make  good  crust  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  use  only  the  best  ma- 
terials. The  flour  must  be  thoroughly  dry 
and  white  {See  Bread);  and  the  butter,  in 
particular,  should  be  the  best  that  can  be  pro- 
cured. The  using  of  inferior  butter — “cook- 
ing butter  ” as  it  is  called — is  the  most  com- 
mon mistake  in  the  making  of  pies ; and  yet  it 


PIES 


395 


requires  but  little  experience  to  show  that  bad 
butter  is  sure  to  reveal  all  its  worst  qualities 
in  pie-crust.  Butter  intended  for  pastry  should 
be  washed  carefully  in  several  clean,  cold 
waters,  and  kneaded  while  under  water  in 
order  to  extract  the  salt ; then  wipe  it  dry  and 
lay  it  in  a cool  place  till  the  time  comes  for 
working  it  in.  The  board  on  which  the  butter 


Raised  Pie-mould. 


is  rolled  should  be  hard  and  smooth,  and  it 
should  not  be  used  for  any  other  purpose.  It 
is  harder  to  make  good  pastry  in  warm  weather 
than  in  cold,  on  account  of  the  tendency  of 
butter  to  oil,  and  thus  render  the  crust  heavy 
and  solid. 

Pie-Crust.  I. — Take  .'-Sifted  flour,  i lb  ; 

butter,  X lb ; cream  tartar,  two  teaspoonfuls  ; 
soda  one  teaspoonful ; ice-water. 

The  butter  should  be  stiff  and  firm ; cut  it 
into  the  smallest  possible  bits,  and  add  half  of 
it  to  the  flour,  with  which  the  soda  and  cream 
tartar  should  have  been  previously  well-mixed  ; 
work  with  ice-water  into  a stiff  dough  ; then 
roll  it  out  thin,  spot  it  over  with  one-third  of  the 
remaining  butter,  fold  it  up  closely  into  a long 
roll,  flatten  and  roll  out  again;  repeat  this 
operation  three  times,  until  all  the  butter  has 
been  worked  in,  and  it  will  then  be  ready  for 
use.  In  forming  the  pie,  roll  out  the  crust 
thin,  butter  the  pie-plates,  lay  the  paste  lightly 
over  them  and  press  it  down  so  as  to  take  the 
shape  of  the  plates  ; then  cut  it  off  evenly 
around  the  edges,  saving  the  scraps  to  roll  out 
into  another  sheet.  Now  fill  the  plates  with 
fruit,  or  whatever  is  to  form  the  inside  of  the 
pie,  lay  the  paste  over  this,  trim  as  before,  and 
press  the  edges  of  the  upper  and  lower  crusts 
together  with  a spoon,  key,  or  jagging-iron,  so 
as  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  juice.  Pies 
should  be  baked  to  a light-brown,  in  a mode- 


Paste  pincers. 

rately  hot  oven,  and  great  care  should  be  taken 
to  have  the  heat  as  high  at  the  bottom  of  the 
oven  as  at  the  top — otherwise  the  bottom  crust 
will  be  raw  and  doughy. 

II. — Take  .--Flour,  i lb;  butter,  io  oz;  lard, 
6oz;  salt. 

Mix  the  lard  (which  should  be  pure  and  firm) 
with  the  flour,  and  work  them  into  a smooth 
paste  with  cold  water;  press  the  buttermilk 


from  the  butter,  and  form  the  latter  into  a ball 
by  twisting  it  in  a clean  cloth ; roll  out  the 
paste,  put  the  ball  of  butter  in  the  middle,  close 
it  like  an  apple  dumpling,  and  roll  it  very 
lightly,  until  it  is  less  than  an  inch  thick ; then 
fold  the  ends  into  the  middle,  dust  a little  flour 
over  the  board  and  the  roller,  and  roll  the 
paste  thin  a second  time,  then  set  it  aside  for  a 
few  minutes  in  a very  cool  place  ; give  it  two 
more  turns  (or  folds),  rolling  it  out  each  time, 
and  set  it  away  again  for  a few  minutes  ; roll  it 
out  twice  more,  and  it  ought  to  be  fit  for  use. 
The  sooner  this  crust  is  sent  to  the  oven  after 
it  is  made,  the  lighter  it  will  be  ; if  allowed  to 
remain  long  before  it  is  baked,  it  will  be  tough  . 
and  heavy. 

Cream  Crust.—  Take  .--Flour,  i lb;  salt,  one 
small  saltspoonful  (more  for  meat  pies)  ; rich 
cream,  X to  X pint ; butter,  40Z  (for  richest 
crust,  6 oz). 

Stir  the  salt  thoroughly  into  the  flour,  and 
mix  the  cream  in  till  a smooth  paste  is  formed; 
roll  it  out  thin  and  add  the  butter  minced  fine ; 
re-roll  it  three  or  four  times.  Handle  this 
crust  as  lightly  as  possible  in  making  it,  and 
send  it  to  the  oven  as  soon  as  it  is  ready.  It 
may  be  used  for  pies,  fruit  tarts,  puffs,  and 
other  varieties  of  small  pastry,  or  for  good 
meat  pies.  A good  crust  for  ordinary  family 
use  may  be  made  by  omitting  the  butter,  but 
the  butter  improves  it  greatly ; six  ounces  of 
butter  to  the  pound  of  flour  will  give  a very 
rich  crust. 

Puff-paste. — Take  .--Flour  2 lbs  ; butter  1 lb. 
10  oz;  a little  salt. 

Break  eight  ounces  of  the  butter  lightly  into 
the  flour  (sifted);  add  a pinch  of  salt,  and 
enough  cold  water  to  make  the  paste  ; work  it 
as  quickly  and  as  lightly  as  possible,  until  it  is 
smooth  and  pliable,  then  level  it  with  the  paste 
roller  until  it  is  three-quarters  of  an  inch  thick, 
and  place  regularly  upon  it  six  ounces  of  but- 
ter in  small  bits;  fold  the  paste  like  a bolster 
pudding,  roll  it  out  again,  lay  on  it  six  ounces 
more  of  butter,  repeat  the  rolling,  dusting  each 
time  a little  flour  over  the  board  and  paste,  add 
again  six  ounces  of  butter,  and  roll  the  paste 
out  thin  three  or  four  times,  folding  the  ends 
into  the  middle.  If  very  rich  paste  be  required, 
equal  portions  of  flour  and  butter  must  be 
used  ; and  the  latter  may  be  divided  into  two, 
instead  of  three  parts,  when  it  is  to  be  rolled 
in. 

French  Puff-paste. — Take  .--Flour  and  but- 
ter, equal  weights  ; to  each  pound  of  these,  the 
yolks  of  two  eggs,  and  a small  saltspoonful  of  salt. 

This,  -when  made  by  a good  French  cook,  is 
the  perfection  of  rich  light  paste,  and  will  rise 
in  the  oven  from  one  to  six  inches  in  height j 
but  some  practice  is,  without  doubt,  necessary 
to  accomplish  this.  In  summer  it  is  a great 
advantage  to  have  ice  at  hand,  and  to  harden 
the  butter  over  it  before  it  is  used  ; the  paste 
also  between  the  intervals  of  rolling  is  improved 
by  being  laid  on  an  oven-leaf  over  a vessel  con- 
taining ice.  Take  an  equal  weight  of  good 
butter  free  from  the  coarse  salt  which  is  found 


396 


PIES 


in  some,  and  which  is  disadvantageous  for  this 
paste,  and  of  fine,  dry,  sifted  flour;  to  each 
pound  of  these  allow  the  yolks  of  two  eggs, 
and  a small  teaspoonful  of  salt.  Break  a few 
small  bits  of  the  butter  very  lightly  into  the 
flour,  put  the  salt  into  the  centre,  and  pour  on 
it  sufficient  water  to  dissolve  it  (we  do  not  un- 
derstand why  the  doing  this  should  be  better 
than  mixing  it  with  the  flour,  as  in  other  pastes, 
but  such  is  the  method  always  pursued  for  it) ; 
add  a little  more  water  to  the  eggs,  moisten 
the  flour  gradually,  and  make  it  into  a very 
smooth  paste,  rather  lithe  in  summer,  and  never 
exceedingly  stiff,  though  the  opposite  fault,  in 
the  extreme,  would  render  the  crust  unmanage- 
able. Press,  in  a soft  thin  cloth,  all  the  moist- 
ure from  the  remainder  of  the  butter,  and 
form  it  into  a ball ; but  in  doing  this  be  careful 
not  to  solten  it  too  much.  Should  it  be  in  an 
unfit  state  for  pastry,  from  the  heat  of  the 
weather,  put  it  into  a basin,  and  set  the  basin 
into  a pan  of  water  mixed  with  plenty  of  salt 
and  saltpetre,  and  let  it  remain  in  a cool  place 
for  an  hour,  if  possible,  before  it  is  used. 
When  it  is  ready  (and  the  paste  should  never 
be  begun  until  it  is  so),  roll  the  crust  out 
square,  and  large  enough  to  enclose  the  but- 
ter, flatten  this  a little  upon  it  in  the  centre, 
and  then  fold  the  crust  well  over  it,  and  roll  it 
out  thin  as  lightly  as  possible,  after  dredging 
the  board  and  the  paste  roller  with  a little  flour: 
this  is  called  giving  it  one  turn.  Then  fold  it 
in  three,  give  it  another  turn,  and  set  it  aside 
where  it  will  be  very  cool,  for  a few  minutes  ; 
give  it  two  more  turns  in  the  same  way,  rolling 
it  each  time  very  lightly  but  of  equal  thickness, 
and  to  the  full  length  that  it  will  reach,  taking 
always  especial  care  that  the  butter  shall  not 
break  through  the  paste.  Let  it  again  be  set 
aside  to  become  cold  ; and  after  it  has  been 
twice  more  rolled  and  folded  in  three,  give  it  a 
half-turn,  by  folding  it  once  only,  and  it  will  be 
ready  for  use. 

Short-crust  for  Sweet  Pastry. — Take: — 
Flour,  i lb  ; butter,  y2  lb  ; sugar  (sifted),  2 oz ; 
milk,  and  salt. 

Break  the  butter  very  small  and  add  it  to  the 
flour  ; mix  well  with  these  a pinch  of  salt  and 
the  sugar,  and  add  enough  milk  to  make  them 
up  into  a smooth  and  somewhat  firm  paste. 
Bake  this  slowly  to  a very  light  brown.  It  will 
be  found  an  admirable  crust  if  well  made  and 
lightly  handled,  and  will  answer  for  many 
dishes  much  better  than  puff-paste ; it  will  rise 
in  the  oven  too,  and  be  extremely  light.  Ten 
ounces  of  butter  will  make  it  very  rich,  but 
eight  is  enough. 

Economical  Short-crust. — Take : — Flour, 
1 lb;  mixed  dripping  and  lard  (or  all  dripping 
alone  will  do),  ]/z  lb;  cold  water. 

Mix  the  dripping  and  lard  into  the  dry  flour 
well,  either  with  the  thumb  and  fingers,  or  with 
a fork  or  spoon  ; add  just  enough  cold  water  to 
wet  it  and  make  a paste  ; roll  it  out  three  times. 
After  covering  the  dish,  wet  the  crust  with 
milk,  or  the  white  of  an  egg,  and  sift  crystal- 
lized or  •*  crushed  lump  ” sugar  over  it.  This 


recipe,  without  the  sugar,  and  with  a little  salt 
mixed  with  the  flour,  answers  very  well  for 
meat-pies. 

Suet-crust. — Take  .-Flour,  2 lb;  beef  or 
veal  kidney-suet,  12  to  1 6 oz;  salt  (for  fruit  pies), 
]/z  teaspoonful ; (for  meat  pies,  one  teaspoonful.) 

In  many  families  this  is  preferred,  both  for 
pies  and  tarts,  to  crust  made  with  butter,  as 
being  much  more  wholesome  ; but  it  should 
never  be  served  unless  especially  ordered,  as 
to  some  persons  it  is  peculiarly  distasteful. 
Chop  the  suet  extremely  small,  and  add  from 
six  to  eight  ounces  of  it  to  a pound  of  flour, 
with  a few  grains  of  salt ; mix  these  with  cold 
water  into  a firm  paste,  and  work  it  very 
smooth.  Some  cooks  beat  it  with  a paste- 
roller,  until  the  suet  is  perfectly  blended  with 
flour  ; but  the  crust  is  lighter  without  this.  In 
very  sultry  weather  the  suet,  not  being  firm 
enough  to  chop,  may  be  sliced  as  thin  as  pos- 
sible, and  well  beaten  into  the  paste  after  it  is 
worked  up. 

Apple  Pie. — I.  Select  ripe  and  rather  tart 
winter  apples  ; pare  and  core  them,  and  slice 
rather  small ; line  the  pie-plate  with  crust,  put 
in  the  fruit,  and  cover  with  a top  crust;  bake 
in  a moderate  oven  till  the  crust  is  light  brown 
and  the  fruit  tender.  Then  take  from  the 
oven,  remove  the  upper  crust  without  break- 
ing, and  add  sugar  and  nutmeg,  cinnamon,  or 
rose-water  to  taste.  Some  prefer  the  season- 
ing added  before  baking.  A little  orange  peel 
chipped  fine  and  added  before  baking,  gives  a 
pleasant  flavor. 

II.  Pare,  core,  and  quarter  the  apples ; put 
into  a preserving-kettle  with  four  tablespoon- 
fuls of  powdered  sugar  to  a pie,  and  add  water 
enough  to  make  a thin  syrup ; add  a few  blades 
of  mace,  and  boil  the  apple  (a  few  pieces  at  a 
time,  so  as  to  avoid  breaking  them)  in  the  syrup 
till  tender;  as  they  get  done,  take  them  care- 
fully from  the  kettle  and  lay  them  in  dishes. 
When  enough  apples  for  the  number  of  pies  to 
be  made  are  ready,  add  to  the  syrup  cinnamon 
and  rose-water,  or  any  other  spice,  enough  to 
flavor  it  well,  and  divide  it  among  the  pies. 
Put  the  contents  of  each  pie  into  a pie-plate 
without  a bottom  crust,  line  the  rim  with  paste, 
and  cover  with  a top  crust;  bake  to  a light 
brown  in  a moderate  oven.  This  is  an  excel- 
lent recipe. 

Beefsteak  Pie. — Line  a large  pie-dish  with 
a good  crust ; pour  into  it  a teacupful  ot‘  highly- 
seasoned  stock  or  gravy;  cut  the  steak  into 
pieces  of  convenient  size  for  serving  to  each 
person,  and  dust  them  on  both  sides  with  flour, 
pepper,  and  salt ; arrange  them  in  the  dish,  in- 
termingling with  them  a small  proportion  of 
fat.  A few  pieces  of  veal,  with  two  or  three 
hard-boiled  eggs  in  quarters,  make  an  agree- 
able variety  in  the  contents  of  the  pie.  Pour 
over  these  half-a-teacupful  more  of  well-sea- 
soned stock  or  gravy,  cover  with  a good  stout 
crust,  and  bake  an  hour  or  more  in  a moderate 
oven.  Beefsteak  pie  is  best  hot,  but  is  an  en- 
joyable dish  cold  for  travelling  and  picnics. 
A pie  composed  of  beefsteak  only  is  almost 


PIES 


397 


too  solid  a dish  for  ordinary  appetites  ; but  any 
pie  composed  of  meat,  fowl,  or  game,  is  the 
better  for  having  a layer  of  beef  steak  at  the 
bottom,  on  which  the  other  ingredients  are 
afterwards  placed.  The  bottom  of  the  pie-dish 
being  in  contact  with  the  floor  of  the  oven,  the 
steak  intercepts  the  heat  which  might  other- 
wise overcook  the  tenderer  meats  ; it  likewise 
enriches  the  gravy.  ( See  also  under  Beef.) 

Blackberry  Pie. — Line  a deep  plate  with 
paste  ; fill  it  about  half  full  of  blackberries, 
previously  picked  and  washed  ; add  half  a tea- 
cupful of  sugar,  a tablespoonful  of  butter,  and 
a little  cinnamon  ; fill  up  the  plate  with  berries, 
add  a little  more  sugar,  cover  with  a good 
crust,  and  bake  an  hour  in  a moderate  oven. 
A few  currants  improve  this  pie. 

Carrot  Pie. — Scrape  the  carrots,  boil  very 
soft,  and  mash  them  through  a sieve.  To  a 
pint  of  the  strained  pulp  and  six  eggs  well 
beaten,  add  three  pints  of  boiling  milk,  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  melted  butter,  the  juice  of 
half  a lemon,  the  grated  rind  of  a whole  one, 
and  sugar  to  the  taste  (some  of  it  mixed  with 
the  lemon-juice),  and  bake  in  deep  pie-plates 
without  an  upper  crust. 

Cherry  Pie. — Make  like  blackberry  pie, 
omitting  butter,  and  regulating  the  quantity  of 
sugar  by  the  sweetness  of  the  cherries.  Best 
cold,  with  white  sugar  sifted  over  the  top. 

Cocoanut  Pie. — I.  Cut  off  the  brown  part 
of  the  cocoanut — grate  the  white  part,  mix  it 
with  milk,  set  it  on  the  fire,  and  let  it  boil 
slowly  eight  or  ten  minutes.  To  a pound  of 
the  grated  cocoanut  allow  a quart  of  milk, 
eight  eggs,  four  tablespoonfuls  of  sifted  white 
sugar,  a glass  of  wine,  a small  cracker,  pounded 
fine,  two  tablespoonfqls  of  melted  butter,  and 
half  a nutmeg.  The  eggs  and  sugar  should 
be  beaten  together  to  a froth,  then  the  wine 
stirred  in.  Put  them  into  the  milk  and  cocoa- 
nut,  which  should  be  first  allowed  to  get  quite 
cool ; add  the  cracker  and  nutmeg ; turn  the 
whole  into  deep  pie-plates,  with  a lining  and 
rim  of  puff  paste.  Bake  them  as  soon  as 
turned  into  the  plates. 

II.  Cut  away  the  brown  part  of  the  cocoa- 
nut  as  before,  and  grate  the  white  part ; beat  1 2 
ounces  of  powdered  sugar  and  six  ounces  of 
butter  to  a light  cream,  adding  a wineglassful 
of  white  wine,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  rose-water, 
and  a teaspoonful  of  nutmeg ; then  stir  in  half 
a pound  of  the  grated  cocoanut,  and  finally  the 
whites  of  five  eggs,  whipped  to  a stiff  froth. 
Line  the  plates  with  paste,  fill  with  the  above 
mixture,  and  bake  without  a top  crust.  Eat 
cold,  with  sugar  sifted  over  the  top. 

Cranberry  Pie. — Make  exactly  like  ripe 
currant  pies,  but  stew  the  cranberries  till  well 
done  before  straining  them  through  the  sieve. 
The  pies  may  be  made  without  any  top  crust, 
or  narrow  strips  of  paste  may  be  interlaced 
across  the  top. 

Currant  (Green)  Pie. — Gather  the  currants 
when  they  are  just  beginning  to  turn  red,  pick 
off  the  stems,  and  wash  them  in  cold  water. 
Line  a pie-plate  with  good  paste,  fill  it  about 


half  full  of  the  currants,  and  add  half  a teacup- 
ful of  sugar,  a tablespoonful  of  butter,  and  a 
little  ground  cinnamon  ; fill  up  the  plate  with 
currants,  add  nearly  half  a cupful  more  of 
sugar,  and  cover  with  a crust ; bake  half  an 
hour  in  a moderate  oven.  These  pies  may  be 
eaten  either  hot  or  cold.  If  the  foregoing  re- 
cipe makes  them  too  sweet,  use  less  sugar. 

Currant  (Ripe)  Pie. — Stem  and  wash  the 
currants;  stew  them  ten  minutes,  and  strain 
them  through  a sieve ; add  plenty  of  sugar 
while  they  are  hot,  and  set  them  away  to  cool. 
Line  small  pie-plates  with  paste,  fill  them  with 
the  currrants,  and  bake  in  a moderate  oven 
until  J.he  crust  is  done.  No  top  crust  is  put 
over  th^se  pies. 

Custard  Pie. — I.  (Apple) — Stew  the  apples 
till  quite  soft,  adding  sugar  enough  to  make 
them  very  sweet ; when  done,  set  them  away 
to  cool.  Beat  up  six  eggs,  the  whites  ana 
yolks  separately,  and  mix  the  yolks  with  three 
teacupfuls  of  the  stewed  apple  ; stir  in  a quart 
of  milk,  and  then  the  whites  of  the  eggs  ; line 
pie-plates  with  a light  crust,  fill  with  the  mix- 
ture, and  bake  without  a top  crust. 

II.  (Corn-starch). — Put  three  pints  of  milk 
on  the  fire,  and  when  it  comes  to  a boil,  stir 
in  two  tablespoonfuls  of  corn-starch  wet  in  a 
little  cold  milk,  and  boil  one  minute  ; remove 
from  the  fire,  and  when  nearly  cold  stir  in  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  white  sugar,  the  yolks  of  six 
eggs,  and  the  whites  of  two,  and  flavor  with 
two  teaspoonfuls  of  essence  of  bitter  almonds ; 
line  pie-plates  with  paste,  fill  with  the  custard, 
and  set  in  a moderate  oven  ; whip  up  the  re- 
maining whites  of  eggs  with  two  tablespoonfuls 
of  white  sugar  and  a teaspoonful  of  vanilla,  and 
as  soon  as  the  custard  has  “ set,”  draw  the  pies 
to  the  edge  of  the  oven  and  spread  the  mixture 
quickly  over  them. 

Arrowroot  or  rice-flour  may  be  substituted 
for  the  corn-starch  in  this  recipe. 

III.  (Peach.) — Pare  some  nice  ripe  peaches 
and  remove  the  stones  ; stew  them  in  a little 
water  till  thoroughly  done,  then  mash  them 
smooth  and  flavor  with  nutmeg;  set  aside  to 
cool.  Line  pie-plates  with  paste,  fill  with  the 
peach,  and  bake  in  a moderate  oven  until  the 
crust  is  just  done.  Make  a meringue  by  whip- 
ping to  a stiff  froth  the  whites  of  three  eggs  for 
each  pie ; sweeten  with  a tablespoonful  of 
powdered  sugar  for  each  egg,  flavor  with  vanilla 
or  rose-water,  and  beat  to  a very  stiff  froth  ; 
then  spread  it  nearly  an  inch  thick  over  the 
pies,  and  set  them  back  into  the  oven  until  the 
meringue  is  well  set.  To  be  eaten  cold. 

Gooseberry  Pie. — Pick  off  all  the  stems 
and  little  blossoms  from  the  berries.  Line 
some  pie-plates  with  paste,  and  fill  half  full  of 
berries ; add  plenty  of  sugar,  a tablespoonful 
of  butter,  and  a little  ground  cinnamon  ; then 
fill  the  plate  with  the  berries,  add  more  sugar, 
and  cover  with  a light  crust ; bake  until  the 
crust  is  done,  then  open  the  oven  door,  and  let 
the  pies  stand  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  before 
removing. 

Grape  Pie. — Grapes  make  good  pies  only 


398 


PIES 


when  they  are  young  and  tender.  If  not  very 
small,  stew  and  strain  them  to  get  out  the 
seeds ; sweeten  them  to  the  taste  when  stewed 
— they  do  not  require  any  spice.  If  made  into 
a pie  without  stewing,  put  to  each  layer  of 
grapes  a thick  layer  of  sugar,  and  a tablespoon- 
ful of  water. 

Huckleberry  Pie. — Make  exactly  like  a 
Blackberry  pie. 

Lemon,  or  Mock-Apple  Pie. — L For  one 
large  plate,  pour  half  a pint  of  cold  water  on 
two  square  soda  crackers  broken  in  small 
bits,  add  a small  piece  of  salt,  the  grated  yel- 
low rind  and  the  juice  of  one  lemon,  also  a pint 
of  coffee-sugar  and  one  well-beaten  egg;  mix 
and  bake  with  an  upper  as  well  as  a lower 
crust. 

II.  Take  two  good-sized,  large  lemons;  grate 
the  yellow  rind,  squeeze  the  juice  and  chop  the 
white  skin  and  pulp  as  fine  as  possible;  mix 
two  and  a half  even  tablespoonfuls  of  corn- 
starch with  a little  cold  water  and  stir  it  in  one 
gill  of  boiling  water;  add  this  to  the  lemon 
with  half  a pint  of  coffee-sugar;  mix  well,  pour 
on  paste-lined  plates, cover  with  pastry,  and  bake 
half  an  hour  or  more.  If  less  flavor  of  the 
rind  is  liked,  grate  but  one  lemon,  throwing 
away  the  thin  yellow  rind  of  the  other.  The 
various  lemon  puddings  called  pics  are  not  so, 
strictly  speaking,  as  they  have  no  upper  crust, 
neither  should  a pie  be  called  a pudding  or  a 
tart,  both  of  which  are  uncovered. 

Lemon  Cream  Pie. — Place  on  fire,  in  a thick 
stew-pan,  i qt  milk,  2 blades  mace,  i inch  cinna- 
mon, 3 cloves,  rind  of  2 lemons  pared  thin,  and 
a pinch  of  salt.  When  it  boils,  strain  ; return  to 
fire  with  4 tablespoonfuls  corn  starch  dissolved 
in  a little  cold  milk,  and  6 oz  sugar ; boil,  and  re- 
move ; add  5 yolks  ofeggs,  juice  of  3 lemons,  4 oz 
butter.  Line  pie-plate  with  paste,  work  up  a high 
rim.  Pour  in  the  cream ; bake  without  top  crust. 

Marlborough  Pie. — Pare  and  grate  some 
nice  sweet  apples.  Beat  a couple  of  eggs  to  a 
froth,  and  stir  in  enough  brown  sugar  to  make 
the  pie  sweet ; add  a pint  of  milk  and  a pint 
of  the  grated  apple  pulp,  the  grated  peel  of  a 
lemon,  and  half  a wineglassful  of  brandy;  stir 
all  well  together.  Bake  in  deep  plates,  without 
any  upper  crust.  A little  stewed  pumpkin 
mixed  with  the  apples  is  considered  an  im- 
provement to  these  pies. 

Mince  Pies. — Directions  for  making  mince- 
meat are  given  under  Mince-meat  and  Mock 
Mince-meat.  Mince  pies  should  have  a very 
light  crust  both  top  and  bottom,  and  be  well 
baked.  Eat  either  hot  or  cold,  with  sugar 
sifted  over  the  top. 

Orange  Pie. — Beat  a level  teacupful  of  white 
sugar  and  two  tablespoonfuls  of  butter  to  a light 
cream;  add  the  juice  and  half  the  grated  rind 
of  one  orange,  and  the  juice  and  grated  peel  of 
half  a lemon ; beat  together  well,  and  add  the 
yolks  of  three  eggs  beaten  to  a froth  ; season 
to  taste  with  nutmeg.  Line  a pie-plate  with 
light  paste,  fill  it  with  the  above  mixture,  and 
bake  without  a top-crust ; beat  up  the  whites  of 
the  eggs  with  two  tablespoonfuls  of  powdered 


sugar,  and  when  the  pies  are  done,  spread 
over  them  and  return  to  the  oven  for  three 
minutes  or  so. 

Peach  Pie. — I.  Peel  and  stone  the  peaches, 
and  cut  them  into  thin  slices  ; line  a deep  pie- 
plate  with  a thin  paste,  fill  up  with  the  fruit 
and  sweeten  liberally,  though  very  ripe  peaches 
will  not  require  much  sugar;  allow  three  peach- 
kernels,  chopped  fine,  to  each  pie  ; cover  with 
a puff  paste,  and  bake  three-quarters  of  an 
hour  in  a moderate  oven.  Instead  of  the  top 
crust,  cross-bars  of  the  paste  may  be  laid  across 
the  top. 

II.  Peel  some  peaches,  cut  them  in  halves, 
and  put  them  into  a saucepan,  with  a very  little 
water  and  sugar ; simmer  until  the  peaches  are 
tender;  lift  the  peaches  out  and  set  them  aside 
to  cool  ; add  a little  more  sugar  to  the  juice, 
and  let  it  simmer  till  it  thickens.  Line  a pie- 
plate  with  paste,  lay  in  the  peaches  carefully, 
and  turn  the  juice  over  them;  cover  with  a 
rich  puff  paste,  or  omit  the  top  crust  entirely  ; 
bake  twenty  minutes.  (See  Custard  Pie, 
(Peach.) 

Plum  Pie. — Put  the  plums  in  a little  sugar 
and  water,  and  simmer  until  they  are  tender ; 
then  take  them  out  and  put  them  in  a dish  ; add 
more  sugar  to  the  juice,  and  boil  it  till  it  begins 
to  thicken ; then  turn  it  over  the  plums,  and 
set  aside  to  cool.  When  cold,  line  tin  pie-plates 
with  a rich  paste,  fill  them  with  the  plums  and 
juice,  cover  with  a puff  paste,  and  bake  half  an 
hour. 

Potato  Pasty. — A tin  mould  of  the  con- 
struction shown  in  the  cuts,  with  a perforated 
moveable  top,  and  a small  valve  to  allow  the 
escape  of  the  steam,  must  be  had  for  this  pasty, 
which  is  a good  family  dish,  and  which  may  be 
varied  in  numberless  ways.  Arrange  at  the 
bottom  of  the  mould  from  two  to  three  pounds 
of  mutton  cutlets,  freed,  according  to  the  taste, 
from  all  or  from  the  greater  portion  of  the  fat, 
then  washed,  lightly  dredged  on  both  sides  with 
flour,  and  seasoned  with  salt  and  pepper,  or 
cayenne.  Pour  to  them  sufficient  broth  or 
water  to  make  the  gravy,  and  add  to  it  at  pleas- 
ure a tablespoonful  of  mushroom  catsup  or  of 
Harvey’s  sauce.  Have  ready  boiled,  and  very 
smoothly  mashed,  with  about  one  ounce  of 
butter,  and  a spoonful  or  two  of  milk  or  cream 


to  each  pound,  as  many  good  potatoes  as  will 
form  a crust  to  the  pasty  of  quite  three  inches 


PIES. 


399 


thick ; put  the  cover  on  the  mould  and  arrange 

these  equally  upon  it,  leaving  them  a little 

rough  on  the  surface. 

Bake  the  pasty  in  a 

moderate  oven  from 

three-quarters  of  an  hour 
to  an  hour  and  a quarter, 
according  to  its  size  and 
its  contents.  Pin  a fold- 
ed napkin  neatly  round 
the  mould,  before  it  is 
served,  and  have  ready 
a hot  dish  to  receive  the 
cover,  which  must  not  be  lifted  off  until  after 
the  pasty  is  on  the  table. 

Potato  (Irish)  Pie. — Boil  mealy  Irish  po- 
tatoes until  they  are  perfectly  done,  then  peel 
them,  and  mash  them  through  a colander. 
To  one  pound  of  the  potatoes,  put  a quart  of 
milk,  three  tablespoonfuls  of  melted  butter, 
four  beaten  eggs,  and  a wineglassful  of  wine: 
sweeten  with  sugar  to  taste,  and  season  with 
nutmeg  and  mace.  Bake  without  any  top 
crust,  and  let  them  cool  before  eating. 

Potato  (Sweet)  Pie. — Boil  some  mealy 
sweet  potatoes  till  about  half  done,  and  when 
quite  cold  grate  them.  Beat  half  a teacupful  of 
butter,  and  not  quite  a teacupful  of  sugar,  to  a 
light  cream  ; add  the  beaten  yolks  of  four  eggs, 
the  juice  and  grated  rind  of  a lemon,  a table- 
spoonful of  cinnamon,  and  a teaspoonful  of 
nutmeg;  stir  together,  and  add  by  degrees  a 
pound  of  the  grated  potato,  beating  them  in 
well ; then  add  a wineglassful  of  brandy,  and 
the  whites  of  the  eggs  whipped  to  a light  froth. 
Line  some  deep  pie-plates  with  a rich  paste, 
fill  with  the  mixture,  and  bake  without  any  top- 
crust.  Eat  cold. 

Pumpkin  Pie. — L,  Cut  the  pumpkin  in 
half,  remove  the  seeds,  and  rinse  out  the  in- 
side ; cut  into  small  strips  and  stew  them,  over 
a moderate  fire,  in  just  enough  water  to  pre- 
vent their  burning  to  the  bottom  of  the  pot. 
When  it  has  stewed  soft,  turn  off  the  water, 
and  let  the  pumpkin  steam  over  a slow  fire  for 
fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  taking  care  that  it 
does  not  burn ; remove  it  from  the  fire,  and 
when  cool  press  it  through  a sieve.  If  you 
wish  to  have  the  pies  very  rich,  put  to  a quart 
of  the  stewed  pumpkin  two  quarts  of  milk,  and 
twelve  eggs.  If  you  like  them  plain,  put  to  a 
quart  of  the  pumpkin  one  quart  of  milk,  and 
three  eggs.  The  thicker  the  pie  is  of  the 
pumpkin,  the  less  will  be  the  number  of  eggs 
required ; one  egg,  with  a tablespoonful  of 
flour,  will  answer  for  a quart  of  the  pumpkin, 
if  very  little  milk  is  used.  Sweeten  the  pumpkin 
with  sugar,  and  very  little  molasses — the  sugar 
and  eggs  should  be  beaten  together.  Ginger, 
the  grated  rind  of  a lemon,  or  nutmeg,  is  good 
spice  for  the  pies.  Pumpkin  pies  require  a 
very  hot  oven.  The  rim  of  the  pies  is  apt  to 
get  burnt  before  the  inside  is  baked  sufficiently  ; 
on  this  account,  it  is  a good  plan  to  heat  the 
pumpkin  scalding  hot  when  prepared  for  pies, 
before  turning  it  into  the  pie-plates.  The  pies 
should  be  baked  as  soon  as  the  plates  are  filled, 


or  the  under  crust  to  the  pies  will  be  clammy. 
The  more  the  number  of  eggs  in  the  pies,  the 
less  time  will  be  required  to  bake  them. 

If  you  have  pumpkins  that  have  begun  to 
decay,  or  that  are  frozen,  they  can  be  kept 
several  months,  in  cold  weather,  by  cutting  the 
good  part  up,  stewing  it  till  soft,  then  stirring 
it,  and  adding  sugar  and  molasses,  to  make  it 
very  sweet.  Make  it  strong  of  ginger,  then 
scald  the  seasoning  in  well.  Keep  it  in  a stone 
jar  in  a cool  place  ; whenever  you  wish  to  use  any 
of  it  for  pies,  take  out  the  quantity  you  wish, 
and  put  milk  and  eggs  to  it. 

H.  (Rich).  To  one  quart  of  strained  pumpkin 
add  two  quarts  of  milk  and  a pint  of  cream  ; 
one  teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  four  teaspoonfuls 
of  ginger ; two  teaspoonfuls  each  of  nutmeg, 
mace,  and  pounded  cinnamon,  and  ten  eggs, 
well  beaten.  Mix  together  well,  and  sweeten 
to  taste.  Line  a pie-plate  with  good  paste,  fill 
with  the  pumpkin,  and  bake  (without  a top 
crust)  till  the  pie  is  solid  in  the  centre. 

Squashes  may  be  used  instead  of  pumpkins 
in  making  these  pies.  ( See  Squash  Pudding.) 

Raspberry  Pie. — Like  cherry  pie. 

Rhubarb  Pie. — L Peel  the  stalks  of  rhu- 
barb, and  cut  them  in  very  small  pieces ; line  a 
deep  pie-plate  with  paste,  fill  it  half  full  of  the 
rhubarb,  and  put  in  plenty  of  sugar ; season 
with  a little  pounded  cinnamon ; then  fill  up 
the  plate  with  rhubarb,  add  more  sugar,  and  a 
teaspoonful  of  butter  ; cover  the  whole  with  a 
good  crust,  and  bake  till  the  crust  is  done  ; then 
open  the  oven  door  and  let  the  pies  stand 
ten  or  fifteen  minutes. 

IL  Cut  the  stalks  of  the  rhubarb  into  small 
pieces,  and  stew  them  with  some  lemon-peel 
till  tender;  strain  them,  sweeten  to  taste,  and 
add  eggs,  more  or  less,  according  as  you  want 
the  pies  rich  or  otherwise.  Bake  without  an 
upper  crust. 

Rice  Pie. — To  a quart  of  boiling  water  put 
a small  teacupful  of  rice  ; boil  it  till  very  soft, 
then  take  it  from  the  fire,  and  add  a quart  of 
cold  milk  ; add  also  a teaspoonful  of  salt,  a grat- 
ed nutmeg,  and  five  eggs  beaten  to  a froth ; 
sweeten  to  taste  and  press  the  whole  through 
a sieve.  Bake  in  deep  pie-plates  with  an  un- 
der-crust and  rim  of  paste  but  no  top-crust.  A 
few  raisins  improve  this  pie. 

Strawberry  Pie. — Pick  the  berries  care- 
fully. Line  a pie-plate  with  good  paste,  put  in 
a layer  of  the  strawberries,  and  sprinkle  plen- 
tifully with  sugar  ; then  another  layer  and  more 
sugar,  till  the  plate  is  full.  Fill  very  full  as 
strawberries  shrink  greatly  in  cooking.  Cover 
with  a light  crust,  and  bake  in  a moderate 
oven. 

Tomato  Pie. — Take  green  tomatoes  turn 
boiling  water  on  them,  and  let  them  remain  in 
it  a few  minutes  ; then  strip  off  the  skin,  cut  the 
tomatoes  in  slices,  and  lay  them  in  deep  pie- 
plates,  lined  with  paste  ; sprinkle  sugar  over 
each  layer,  and  a little  ground  ginger ; cover 
with  a thick  crust,  and  bake  slowly  for  about 
an  hour.  Grated  lemon-peel  and  the  juice  of 
a lemon  will  improve  these  pies. 


400 


PIG 


PIGEONS 


PIG. — The  young  pig  is  not  changed  in 
name,  like  the  full-grown  hog,  by  the  fact  of 
slaughtering;  living  or  dead  it  is  called  a 
pig,  a roaster,  or  more  commonly  a “ roasting- 
pig.”  When  desired  for  a choice  dish,  it  should 
not  be  less  than  three  nor  more  than  six  weeks 
old.  The  skin  of  the  roasting-pig  should  be 
white  (this  color  being  preferred  to  all  others) 
plump,  hard,  and  well-cleaned.  The  flanks, 
where  it  is  opened,  should  be  thick  and  fat, 
and  it  ought  to  weigh  from  eight  to  fourteen 
pounds.  The  best  season  for  it  is  during  the 
fall  and  winter  months. 

Baked  Pig. — Prepare  the  pig  exactly  as  for 
roasting;  truss  and  place  it  in  the  dish  in 
which  it  is  to  be  sent  to  the  oven,  and  anoint 
it  thickly  in  every  part  with  whites  of  eggs 
which  have  been  slightly  beaten  ; it  will  require 
no  basting,  nor  further  attention  but  turning, 
and  will  be  well  crisped  by  this  process.  It 
will  take  from  one  to  two  hours  to  bake. 

Roast  Pig. — After  the  pig  has  been  scalded 
and  prepared  for  the  spit,  wipe  it  as  dry  as 
possible,  and  put  into  the  body  about  half  a 
pint  of  fine  bread-crumbs,  mixed  with  three 
heaped  teaspoonfuls  of  sage,  minced  very 
small,  three  ounces  of  good  butter,  a large 
saltspoonful  of  salt,  and  two-thirds  as  much  of 
pepper  or  some  cayenne.  Sew  it  up  with  soft, 
but  strong  cotton ; truss  it  with  the  fore  legs 
skewered  back,  and  the  hind  ones  forward ; 
lay  it  to  a strong  clear  fire,  but  keep  it  at  a 
moderate  distance,  as  it  would  quickly  blister 
or  scorch  if  placed  too  near.  So  soon  as  it  has 
become  warm,  rub  it  with  a bit  of  butter  tied 
in  a fold  of  muslin  or  thin  cloth,  and  repeat 
this  process  constantly  while  it  is  roasting. 
When  the  gravy  begins  to  drop  from  it,  put 
basins  or  small  deep  tureens  under,  to  catch  it 
in.  As  soon  as  the  pig  is  of  a fine  light  amber 
brown  and  the  steam  draws  strongly  towards 
the  fire,  wipe  it  quite  dry  with  a clean  cloth, 
and  rub  a bit  of  cold  butter  over  it.  When  it 
is  half  done,  a pig-iron,  or  in  lieu  of  this,  a 
large  flat-iron  should  be  hung  in  the  centre  of 
the  grate,  or  the  middle  of  the  pig  will  be  done 
long  before  the  ends.  When  it  is  ready  for 
table  lay  it  into  a very  hot  dish,  and  before  the 
spit  is  withdrawn,  take  off  and  open  the  head 
and  split  the  body  in  two,  chop  together  quickly 
the  stuffing  and  the  brains,  put  them  into  half  a 
pint  of  good  veal  gravy  ready  thickened,  add  a 
glass  of  Madeira  or  of  sherry,  and  the  gravy 
which  has  dropped  from  the  pig ; pour  a small 
portion  of  this  under  the  roast  and  serve  the 
remainder  as  hot  as  possible  in  a tureen ; a 
little  pounded  mace  and  cayenne,  with  a squeeze 
of  lemon-juice,  may  be  added,  should  the 
flavor  require  heightening.  Fine  bread  sauce 
and  plain  gravy  should  likewise  be  served  with 
it.  Some  persons  still  prefer  the  old-fashioned 
currant  sauce  to  any  other  ; and  many  have  the 
brains  and  stuffing  stirred  into  rich  melted 
butter,  instead  of  gravy  ; but  the  receipt  which 
we  have  given  has  usually  been  so  much  ap- 
proved, that  we  can  recommend  it  with  some 
confidence,  as  it  stands.  Modern  taste  would 


perhaps  be  rather  in  favor  of  rich  brown  gravy 
and  thick  tomato  sauce. 

It  will  take  from  an  hour  and  a quarter  to 
an  hour  and  three-quarters  to  roast  a pig  of 
ordinary  size. 

In  dishing  the  pig  lay  the  body  flat  in  the 
middle,  and  the  head  and  ears  at  the  ends  and 


sides.  When  very  pure  oil  can  be  obtained 
it  is  preferable  to  butter  for  the  basting : it 
should  be  laid  on  with  a bunch  of  feathers. 

If  the  pig  is  small  it  is  more  ornamental  to 
dish  and  send  it  to  the  table  whole,  garnished 
with  the  green  leaves  of  whatever  vegetables 
are  in  season. 

In  carving  the  pig,  cut  the  head  off  first; 
then  split  down  the  back,  take  off  hams  and 
shouiders,  and  separate  the  ribs.  Serve  some 
of  the  dressing  to  each  person. 

PIGEONS. — The  old  pigeons  are  rather 
dry  eating  as  compared  to  some  other  birds ; 
but  the  flesh  is  well  flavored,  and  if  they  are 
cooped  up  and  fed  well  a few  days  before  kill- 
ing it  will  be  more  delicate  and  tender.  The 
young  pigeons,  or  squabs,  are  rightly  esteemed 
a great  delicacy,  and  their  nutritiousness  makes 
them  an  excellent  food  for  the  sick.  They  are 
found  in  the  markets  all  the  year  round. 

Wild  Pigeons,  both  alive  and  dead,  are  to 
be  had  in  the  markets  throughout  the  winter 
months,  and  are  generally  very  plentiful  and 
cheap  in  September  and  October,  when  they 
are  at  their  best.  The  wild  squabs,  when  fat 
and  fresh,  are  a very  delicate  and  savory  food ; 
the  cooped  bird  is  also  good,  though  the  flesh 
is  rather  dry ; but  an  old  or  poor  wild-pigeon 
is  very  indifferent  eating,  even  if  well  cooked. 
The  tame  and  the  wild  birds  are  dressed  and 
served  alike. 

Baked  Pigeons. — Clean,  and  prepare  as  for 
roasting ; lay  them  in  a bake-pan  on  their 
backs,  and  place  on  the  breast  of  each  a thin 
slice  of  salt  pork  or  bacon ; cover  the  bottom 
of  the  pan  with  cold  water,  and  set  in  a hot 
oven ; baste  often  till  done.  Place  the  birds 
on  their  backs  in  the  dish,  garnish  with  water- 
cress, sprinkle  with  lemon-juice  all  over,  and 
serve  warm. 

Boiled  Pigeons. — Truss  them  like  boiled 
chickens,  drop  them  into  plenty  of  boiling 
water,  and  throw  in  a little  salt ; in  fifteen 
minutes,  lift  them  out,  dish,  pour  parsley  and 
butter  over  them,  and  send  a tureen  of  it  to 
table  with  them. 

Broiled  Pigeons. — Young  pigeons  or  squabs 


PIGMENTS 


401 


are  best  for  broiling.  Clean  and  wash  them 
carefully  and  then  wipe  them  dry ; split  them 
down  the  back  and  lay  them  breast  downwards 
on  a gridiron  over  a clear  fire ; when  brown  on 
one  side  turn  them  over.  Dish  them,  spread 
them  liberally  inside  and  out  with  butter,  and 
season  with  pepper  and  salt.  This  is  one  of 
the  best  of  dishes  for  a sick-room  when  meat 
is  permitted  ; it  is  almost  always  relished. 

Fried  Pigeons. — Clean  and  wash  four 
pigeons,  and  cut  each  in  four  pieces  ; put  two 
ounces  of  butter  in  a frying-pan,  set  it  on  the 
fire,  and  when  it  has  melted  put  the  pigeons 
in  with  two  or  three  sprigs  of  parsley,  a pinch 
of  allspice,  salt  and  pepper,  and  half  a pint  of 
broth  ; take  the  pigeons  off  when  about  half 
done,  and  as  soon  as  they  are  cool,  dip  each 
piece  in  beaten  egg  and  roll  it  in  bread-crumbs  ; 
strain  the  butter  left  in  the  frying-pan,  add 
about  an  ounce  more,  and  fry  the  birds  two  or 
three  minutes.  Serve  plain,  or,  for  an  orna- 
mental dish,  garnish  with  parsley  and  water- 
cress. 

Pie  (Pigeon). — Clean  and  wash  the  pigeons ; 
cut  off  the  heads  and  necks,  and  put  them 
aside  with  the  livers  and  gizzards ; boil  these 
down  for  gravy,  with  a piece  of  beef,  adding 
pepper,  salt,  and  mace.  Some  cooks  put  the 
pigeons  whole  into  the  pie-dish  ; but  they  are 
more  convenient  to  help  at  table  if  divided 
into  quarters  by  first  splitting  them  lengthwise 
down  the  back  and  along  the  breast-bone,  and 
then  cutting  them  across.  Line  a deep  pie- 
dish  with  a thin  puff  paste  ; set  an  inverted 
cup  in  the  centre  of  the  dish  to  retain  the 
gravy ; at  the  bottom  of  the  dish  put  a layer  of 
lean  beefsteak,  or  veal,  or  ham  and  bacon,  as 
may  be  preferred ; on  the  steak  (or  other  meat) 
lay  the  quartered  pigeons  until  the  dish  is  full ; 
have  ready  some  hard-boiled  eggs,  peeled  from 
the  shell,  halve  them  crosswise,  and  use  them 
to  fill  up  any  hollows  that  may  be  left  between 
the  pigeons,  with  the  view  of  giving  to  the 
crust  as  level  an  outside  surface  as  possible  ; 
pour  in  the  gravy  over  all,  and  cover  with  a 
stout  crust.  Bake  an  hour  or  more  in  a tol- 
erably quick  oven.  This  pie  may  be  eaten  hot, 
but  is  better  cold. 

Wild  pigeons  are  better  for  making  pies  than 
the  tame;  they  should  be  parboiled  a few 
minutes  before  being  cut  up. 

Roast  Pigeons. — Take  off  the  heads  and 
necks,  and  cut  off  the  toes  at  the  first  joint ; 
draw  them  carefully,  and  pour  plenty  of  water 
through  them ; wipe  them  dry,  and  either  stuff 
like  chicken,  or  put  into  each  bird  a small 


Pigeons  Trussed  for  Roasting. 

bit  of  butter  dipped  into  a little  cayenne 
pepper;  truss  the  wings  over  the  backs,  and 
26 


roast  them  at  a brisk  fire,  basting  constantly 
with  butter.  Roast  20  or  25  minutes  if  large, 
and  about  15  minutes  if  very  young.  Serve 
with  brown  gravy,  and  a tureen  of  parsley  and 
butter. 

St  ewed  Pigeons. — Draw  and  wash  care- 
fully) and  stuff  like  chickens ; put  them  into  a 
good-sized  pot,  pour  in  enough  of  cold  water 
to  cover  them,  set  on  the  fire,  and  stew  gently 
for  an  hour,  or  until  tender  ; then  season  with 
salt,  pepper,  a tablespoonful  of  butter,  a little 
sweet  marjorum,  and  a few  blades  of  mace  ; 
stew  gently  five  minutes  longer,  then  stir  in  a 
tablespoonful  of  browned  flour,  and  boil  up 
once  more ; dish,  pour  the  hot  gravy  over 
them,  and  serve  at  once. 

PIGMENTS  — Practical  directions  for  ordi- 
nary house-painting  will  be  found  under  Paint- 
ing. The  pigments  or  colors  most  com- 
monly employed  by  house-painters  to  mix  with 
the  white-lead,  are  the  following : — 

Blacks. — Lamp  black,  the  soot  of  oil  burned 
in  lamps.  Ivory  black,  ivory  or  bone  burned 
to  charcoal.  Blue  black,  the  charcoal  of  ivy 
twigs,  or  some  other  plants. 

Blues. — Prussian  blue  is  a preparation  of 
Prussic  acid  and  iron.  Blue  verdihire,  a 
color  from  copper  precipitated  upon  chalk. 
Indigo,  a color  extracted  from  plants  in  India. 
Small,  a glqp  colored  by  cobalt,  and  ground 
to  a fine  powder. 

Browns. — Burned  umber,  a native  earth. 
Aspkaltum,  a native  bitumen.  Bistre,  a kind 
of  soot  from  peat  smoke.  Cologne  earth , a 
native  pigment  dug  up. 

Greens. — Verdigris,  a carbonate  of  copper. 
Prussian  green,  a composition  similar  to  the 
blue  of  that  name.  Terre  verte,  a native 
earth. 

Orange  Color. — Orange  lake,  the  tinging 
part  of  anatto. 

Reds. — Vermilion,  a bright  scarlet  prepared 
from  sulphur  and  quicksilver,  being  a sul- 
phuret  of  mercury.  Red  lead  is  lead  calcined 
till  it  becomes  a red  oxide.  Venetian  red  is  a 
native  ochre.  Spanish  brown,  also  a native 
earth.  Lake  is  alumina,  the  basis  of  alum, 
tinged  with  a dye  from  cochineal  or  Brazil 
wood : it  differs  much  in  quality.  Rose  pink 
is  similar  to  the  last,  but  inferior.  Red  ochre 
is  produced  by  burning  yellow  ochre.  Burned 
Terra  di  Vienna,  the  raw  Sienna  burned. 

Whites. — Flake  white,  a superior  ceruse. 
White-lead,  carbonate  of  lead. 

Yellows. — Yellow  ochre,  called  often  stone 
ochre,  a native  earth  of  various  qualities. 
Dutch  pink,  chalk  colored  by  French  berries. 
King’s  yellow,  arsenic  combined  with  sulphur. 
Naples  yellow,  Raw  Terra  di  Sienna,  a native 
earth. 

Compound  Colors. — It  would  be  an  endless 
task  to  attempt  to  enumerate  all  the  colors 
and  tints  produced  by  the  mixture  of  other 
colors  ; but  the  following  table  showing  the 
simplest  method  of  making  the  various  tints 
most  frequently  used  will  probably  prove 
serviceable.  To  produce. 


402 


PILES 


Chrome  Yellow  to  White  Lead. 
Lampblack  and  Indigo  to  White. 
Carmine  or  Lake  to  White. 

Chrome  Green  to  White. 
Lampblack  to  White. 

Raw  Umber  to  White. 

Emerald  Green  to  White. 

Paris  Green  to  White. 

Umber  to  White. 

Yellow  Ochre  to  White. 

Red,  Umber  and  Yellow  to  White. 
Carmine  to  Straw  Color. 

Black  to  Chrome  Green. 

Red  and  Black  to  suit. 

Red  to  light  Blue. 

Blue  to  Lead  Color. 

Vermilion  to  Chrome  Yellow. 
Chrome  Yellow,  Blue,  Black,  and 
Red. 

White  to  Brown. 

Yellow  to  Brown. 

White,  tinted  with  Red  and  Yel- 
low. 

White,  tinted  with  Purple  Color. 
White,  tinted  with  Blue  and  Pur- 
ple. 

White,  tinted  with  Lead  Color 
and  Lake. 

White,  tinted  with  Black  and  Pur- 
ple. 

PIKE  (See  Pickerel). — Pike  are  simply 
large-sized  pickerel. 

PILES. — These  are  swellings,  situated  in  the 
region  of  the  anus,  which  by  their  size  and 
their  liability  to  irritation  and  inflammation, 
cause  much  trouble  and  uneasiness,  and  some- 
times intense  pain.  There  are  two  kinds  of 
piles,  the  external  and  the  internal.  External 
piles  consist  of  a collection,  just*without  the 
margin  of  the  anus,  of  rounded  hard  tumors 
covered  with  thickened  skin,  and  of  prominent 
ridges  of  skin.  These  growths  at  first  cause 
little  or  no  pain,  but  as  they  increase  in  size 
and  number  the  patients  complain  of  a diffi- 
culty in  passing  the  motions,  of  bearing  down 
pains,  of  a sense  of  weight  about  the  anus,  and 
of  a general  feeling  of  discomfort.  After  a 
time  one  or  more  of  these  piles  may  become 
irritated  and  inflamed,  and  then  they  give  rise 
to  very  acute  pain,  with  throbbing  and  a sense 
of  great  heat,  and  to  a constant  desire  to  go  to 
stool.  These  symptoms  pass  off  in  the  course 
of  three  or  four  days,  but  the  attacks  are  fre- 
quently renewed  and  the  piles  gradually  en- 
large and  invade  the  lower  portion  of  the 
intestine.  This  affection  originates  in  disten- 
sion of  the  veins  about  the  anus  in  consequence 
of  obstruction  to  circulation  ; but  it  is  met  with 
generally  in  those  engaged  in  sedentary  occu- 
pations, and  those  who,  in  consequence  of 
indulgence  in  highly-seasoned  food  and  alco- 
holic drinks,  suffer  from  congestion  of  the 
liver.  Much  riding  on  horse-back,  long-con- 
tinued standing  and  constipation,  are  also 
causes  of  external  piles.  The  presence  within 
the  anus  of  large  rounded  and  soft  tumors 
covered  by  red  mucous  membrane  is  called 
internal  piles,  which  are  much  more  serious. 
These  internal  piles  when  large  come  down 
through  the  anus  from  time  to  time,  generally 
when  the  patient  is  at  stool,  and  become  en- 
gorged with  blood  and  very  painful ; evacuation 
of  the  bowels  gives  rise  to  a burning  or  throb- 
bing -sensation,  and  as  the  piles  increase  in 
size  becomes  more  and  more  difficult;  a dull 


pain  across  the  loins  is  complained  of,  and  oc- 
casionally the  urine  cannot  be  passed  in  conse- 
quence of  irritation  at  the  neck  of  the  bladder. 
The  most  serious  symptom  is  bleeding,  which 
occurs  during  evacuation  of  the  bowels,  when 
the  piles  are  protruded  and  compressed  by  the 
anus  ; the  blood  is  red  and  arterial,  and  is  often 
passed  in  considerable  quantity.  Patients  often 
remain  ignorant  during  a long  period  of  this 
frequently  renewed  loss,  and  finally  suffer  from 
extreme  debility,  become  irritable  and  restless, 
and  present  a blanched  countenance  and  a weak 
and  quick  pulse.  In  addition  to  the  discharge 
of  blood  there  is  in  most  cases  a constant  flow 
of  thick,  slimy  or  purulent  fluid.  On  exam- 
ination of  the  region  of  the  anus  there  will  be 
seen  as  the  patient  bears  down,  one  or  more 
rounded  protrusions  of  a dark  red  or  livid  blue 
color,  and  varying  from  the  size  of  a currant  to 
that  of  a small  chestnut.  These  growths,  like 
external  piles,  are  sometimes  inflamed.  Then, 
in  addition  to  intense  pain  and  other  severe 
local  symptoms,  there  is  high  fever.  Inflam- 
mation of  internal  piles  sometimes  ends  in 
mortification  and  in  expulsion  of  the  mass  of 
abnormal  growths  from  the  rectum.  The 
causes  of  internal  are  similar  to  those  of  ex- 
ternal piles.  Congestion  of  the  liver  causing 
venous  obstruction  in  the  intestines,  and  direct 
irritation  of  the  walls  of  the  intestines,  are  the 
conditions  which  most  frequently  give  rise  to 
this  affection.  The  latter  condition  is  often 
due  to  an  immoderate  use  of  strong  purgatives, 
especially  aloes. 

Treatment. — The  general  treatment  of  piles, 
both  internal  and  external,  consists  in  remov- 
ing congestion  of  the  veins  of  the  liver  and 
intestines,  in  keeping  up  the  strength  and 
health  of  the  patient,  and  in  avoiding  or  alle- 
viating the  results  of  certain  conditions  favor- 
able to  the  development  of  the  disease.  The 
patient  should  restrict  himself  to  a carefully 
regulated  and  temperate  diet,  and  abstain  from 
highly  seasoned  dishes,  pastry,  and  spirits ; 
wine  and  beer  ought  not  to  be  taken  except  in 
moderation.  Walking  exercise  is  to  be  re- 
commended, and  during  the  summer  months, 
sitting  in  the  open  air,  but  violent  exercise, 
should'be  avoided.  The  affected  region  should 
be  well  bathed  every  morning  with  cold  water 
and  then  carefully  dried.  To  external  piles' 
may  be  applied  lead  lotion  or  a weak  solution  of 
alum.  For  both  external  and  internal  piles  the’ 
compound  gall  ointment  is  a very  useful  appli- 
cation. When  internal  piles  protrude  after 
every  evacuation,  they  should  then  be  sponged 
over  with  cold  water  or  a solution  of  alum,  or  be 
smeared  with  gall  ointment.  Great  attention 
should  be  paid  to  the  state  of  the  bowels,  which 
ought  to  be  kept  in  daily  action  by  some  mild 
aperient,  as  rhubarb  in  the  form  of  a pill  to  be 
taken  at  night,  or  confection  of  senna,  castor  oil, 
or  seidlitz  to  be  taken  in  the  morning  before 
breakfast.  The  half-grain  doses  of  aloes,  taken 
three  times  a day,  often  prove  curative.  I n cases 
of  inflammation  and  great  pain  in  external  and 
internal  piles,  leeches  should  be  applied  to  the 


Straw  Color 
Silver  Gray 
Rose  Color  I 
Pink  J 

Pea  Green 
Lead  Color 
Wood  Color 
Brilliant  Green 
Bright  Green 
Drab  Color 
Buff  Color 
Salmon  Color 
Flesh  Color 
Dark  Green 
Brown 
Purple 
Pearl  Color 
Orange 
Olive 


add 


Chestnut 
Chocolate 
Cream  White 

French  White 
Pearl  White 


Ashes  of  Roses 
French  Gray 


PIMENTO 


PIPES 


403 


skin  at  some  distance  from  the  anus,  and  bran 
poultices  or  poppy-head  fomentations  be  placed 
over  the  whole  of  the  affected  region.  When  a 
patient  with  external  piles  complains  of  almost 
intolerable  pain  in  one  pile  which  is  found  to 
be  swollen,  tense,  and  livid,  an  incision  into 
this  with  the  point  of  a sharp  knife  will  often 
let  out  a small  dark-red  clot  of  blood,  and  give 
immediate  and  total  relief.  By  these  means 
the  bad  effects  of  both  external  and  internal 
piles  may  be  much  relieved,  or,  as  occasionally 
takes  places,  the  disease  may  be  permanently 
cured.  When,  however,  in  spite  of  careful  at- 
tention to  diet,  to  local  ablution,  and  to  the 
working  and  venous  circulation  of  the  abdo- 
minal viscera,  the  affection  increases  in  extent 
and  intensity,  it  will  become  necessary  to  un- 
dergo some  surgical  operation  in  order  to  ob- 
tain permanent  relief.  External  piles  are  gene- 
rally treated  by  excision,  the  tumors,  together 
with  the  adjacent  ridges  of  thickened  skin, 
being  removed  with  large  curved  scissors.  In- 
ternal piles  have  been  treated  by  various 
operative  methods ; many  surgeons  apply  a 
ligature  round  the  base  or  contracted  portion  of 
each  pile  ; other  surgeons  prefer  to  cut  away  the 
pile  and  then  to  apply  to  the  raw  surface  the 
red-hot  iron.  Fuming  nitric  acid  is  often  ap- 
plied to  the  surfaces  of  small  internal  piles. 
In  cutting  operations  upon  external  piles,  the 
surgeon,  whilst  endeavoring  to  obtain  for  the 
patient  effectual  relief,  is  careful  not  to  take 
away  too  much  of  the  skin  lest  contraction  of 
the  anus  should  follow  the  shrinking  of  the 
scar.  In  these  operations,  but  more  especially 
in  those  consisting  in  excision  or  incision  of 
internal  piles  the  bleeding  is  very  free,  and, 
if  it  should  recur  in  the  absence  of  a medical 
man,  dangerous  to  life. 

PILLAW.  (See  Entrees.) 

PILLS.  (See  Drugs.) 

PIMENTO. — The  original  name  of  the  berry 
commonly  called  Allspice.  (See  Allspice.) 

PIMPERNEL. — The  common  pimpernel  (A. 
Arvensis),  well  known  as  “the  poor-man’s 
weather-glass,”  is  a little  trailing  plant  with  a 
pretty  scarlet  flower  and  violet  mouth,  common 
in  the  fields  throughout  the  country.  The 
flowers  open  about  eight  o’clock  in  the  morn- 
ing, and  close  in  the  afternoon,  and  they  are  so 
sensitive  to  light  that  in  cloudy  weather,  espe- 
cially when  there  is  moisture  in  the  air,  they 
remain  closed  altogether.  Like  their  glorious 
sisters,  the  morning-glories,  which  share  with 
them  the  misfortune  of  being  a native  wild- 
flower,  the  pimpernels  have  been  crowded  out 
of  our  gardens  to  make  room  for  more  showy 
and  novel  plants,  and  are  seldom  seen  in  culti- 
vation. A few  seeds  sown  in  the  early  spring 
will  produce  a constant  succession  of  the 
curious  little  flowers  year  after  year. 

PIMPLES. — These  are  simply  a surface 
eruption  indicating  a bad  condition  of  the  blood, 
and  their  treatment  is  to  be  sought  in  such 
medicines  and  such  a course  of  diet  as  will 
eliminate  the  objectionable  matter  from  the 
system  rather  than  in  local  applications,  which 


in  most  cases  are  ineffective  or  injurious,  or 
both.  The  most  favorably  known  of  these 
local  applications — Sir  William  Knighton's 
Lotion — is  made  as  follows: — Mix  together 
half  a dram  of  liquor  of  potass  and  three  ounces 
of  spirits  of  wine.  Apply  this  to  the  pimples 
with  a camel’s  hair  pencil;  if  it  causes  in- 
flammation or  irritation,  add  one-half  pure 
water  to  it. 

PINKS. — This  is  a popular  name  for  the 
flowers  more  commonly  called  carnations,  and 
is  applied  to  the  same  order  of  plants  as  the 
latter ; but  there  is  one  variety — the  Picotee 
or  Paisley  pinks — which  is  not  usually  ranked 
among  the  carnations.  The  culture  of  the 
Picotee  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  carnation 
(See  Carnation);  but  the  Picotee  is  the 
hardier  of  the  two,  and  will  endure  the  coldest 
winters  without  protection,  except  at  the  ex- 
treme north.  When  the  flower-stems  are  ten 
or  more  inches  high,  they  should  be  supported 
with  stakes,  and  when  the  flowers  appear,  if 
there  is  danger  of  their  bursting  the  calyx,  and 
thus  spoiling  their  symmetry,  it  is  well  to  tie  a 
bit  of  colored  worsted  yarn  about  them ; this 
gives  support,  and  retains  the  leaves  in  place. 
The  Picotee  is  a profuse  bloomer,  and  on  this 
account  makes  a desirable  house-plant. 

PINE- APPLE. — This  delicious  tropical  fruit 
is  very  abundant  in  our  markets  during  the  sea- 
son for  it,  which  commences  about  the  1st  of 
April  and  lasts  until  September.  There  are 
two  kinds  of  pine-apples,  known  among  dealers 
as  the  bird's-eye  and  the  sugar-loaf  ; the  first 
is  considered  best  for  dessert,  etc.,  the  latter 
for  preserving  in  different  ways.  In  buying 
the  fruit  for  immediate  consumption,  select 
those  which  look  yellowish  on  the  smooth  sur- 
faces, though  this  is  not  a conclusive  proof  of 
ripeness.  If  one  of  a lot  proves  green  set  the 
rest  aside  and  keep  them  a few  days  ; they  are 
not  likely  to  spoil  and  will  soon  mellow.  No 
pine-apple  should  be  eaten  unless  it  is  fully 
ripe,  as  the  unripe  juices  have  caustic  proper- 
ties, and  are  liable  to  irritate  the  coat  of  the 
stomach.  It  is  customary  in  this  country  to 
cut  pine-apples  in  horizontal  slices  ; but  in  the 
West  Indies  they  are  sliced  obliquely,  in  the 
direction  of  the  pips.  They  are  brought  to 
our  markets  from  Havana,  Nassau,  Matanzas, 
Jamaica,  etc.  Their  usual  weight  is  from  two 
to  five  pounds.  (See  Ice-cream,  Marmalade, 
and  Preserves.) 

Pine-apple  Water. — This  is  excellent  for 
flavoring,  and  it  also  makes  an  agreeable 
beverage.  Peel  and  slice  a moderate-sized 
pine-apple,  and  pound  it  to  a pulp  in  a mortar ; 
put  this  into  a bowl,  and  pour  in  a pint  of  boil- 
ing syrup  ; add  the  juice  of  a lemon,  stir  to- 
gether, cover  up,  and  set  it  aside  for  two  hours  ; 
then  filter  it  through  a silk  sieve  or  jelly-bag, 
and  add  a quart  of  clear  cold  water. 

PIPES  (Gas  and  Water).  In  the  article  on 
the  House  we  have  already  spoken  of  gas- 
pipes  and  of  the  lead  pipes  which  are  now 
universally  employed  for  small  water-pipes. 
For  the  larger  pipes,  especially  where  water  is 


404 


PISTACHIO  NUTS 


PLASTERING 


to  be  conveyed  for  long  distances,  cast-iron  is 
superior  in  strength  and  durability  to  any  other 
material.  The  popular  idea  that  iron  is  in- 
jurious to  the  salubrity  of  water  is  founded  on 
an  error ; for  a thin  black  oxide  soon  forms 
upon  the  inside  of  the  pipes,  forming  a sort  of 
black  japan,  and  this  protects  them  from  the 
action  of  the  water.  If  the  water  contains 
lime  the  latter  is  deposited  as  a fine  crust  over 
the  inside,  and  defends  them  from  corrosion  ; 
and  there  is  no  danger  that  iron  pipes  will  fill 
up  with  this  deposit,  since  the  water  only  de- 
posits the  stony  matter  from  the  attraction  of 
the  iron,  which  being  once  covered  with  a slight 
thickness  of  the  lime,  the  water  no  longer  has 
access  to  the  iron.  Some  have  put  lime  into 
the  water  purposely  at  first,  when  it  was  found 
that  the  water  was  so  corrosive  as  to  become 
tinged  in  running  through  iron  pipes  newly 
laid  down  ; a rapid  current  of  lime-water  being 
passed  through  the  whole  length  for  several 
days,  the  pipes  became  coated  on  the  inside 
with  calcareous  matter.  At  first,  after  this,  the 
water  tasted  of  lime,  but  it  became  pure  again 
in  a short  time.  Pottery  pipes  preserve  the 
water  perfectly  pure ; but  they  cannot  bear 
much  pressure  are  very  liable  to  be  broken  by 
accident,  and  are  expensive.  (See  Leak.) 

PISTACHIO  NCJTS. — These  nuts  are 
brought  from  Sicily  and  Syria,  where  they  grow 
upon  a kind  of  turpentine-tree.  They  are  oblong 
and  pointed,  about  the  size  and  shape  of  a fil- 
bert, and  have  a kernel  of  a pale  greenish 
color.  Their  taste  is  very  agreeable,  much  re- 
sembling that  of  sweet  almonds  ; but  they  are 
sweeter,  have  more  flavor,  and  are  more  oily. 
This  latter  quality  renders  them  liable  to  be- 
come rancid,  and  they  do  not  keep  well ; con- 
sequently they  are  not  imported  in  any  con- 
siderable quantity.  No  nut  is  superior  to  them 
for  dessert. 

PITCH. — Pitch  is  simply  tar,  from  which  the 
essential  oil  has  been  driven  off  by  boiling. 
Tar  differs  from  common  turpentine  in  having 
been  extracted  by  heat  and  blackened  in  the 
process,  whereas  the  latter  preserves  its  natural 
color ; but  both  contain  the  essential  oil  of 
turpentine,  though  this  can  only  be  obtained 
pure  from  the  turpentine.  To  convert  tar  into 
pitch,  boiling  is  all  that  is  necessary. 

PLAICE. — Same  as  Spotted  Turbot.  (See 
Turbot). 

PLAID. — This  term  is  often  applied  to  the 
color  of  stuffs,  whereas  it  means  a peculiar 
ancient  dress  worn  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland, 
and  was  merely  an  oblong  piece  of  cloth  wrap- 
ped round  the  body  to  protect  the  wearer  from 
rain  and  cold.  It  is  always  made  of  a check- 
ered pattern  of  various  colors,  there  called 
Tartan.  Tartan  is  the  name  of  the  color; 
plaid  is  that  of  the  dress.  Instead,  there- 
fore, of  saying  “ plaid  ribbons,”  we  should  say, 
“ Tartan  ribbons.”  The  true  Scotch  plaid  is  a 
coarse,  strong  stuff,  well  calculated  to  keep 
out  the  wet,  and  still  used  in  Scotland,  especially 
in  the  Highlands.  The  stripes  and  squares 
formerly  varied  in  their  patterns  and  colors 


according  to  each  clan  ; but  this  distinction  is 
now  little  attended  to.  Tartan,  or,  as  it  is 
called,  plaid,  of  wool,  is  manufactured  both  in 
this  country  and  in  England,  and  is  much  used 
as  a cheap,  warm,  and  durable  material  for 
cloaks,  dresses,  etc.  It  comes  in  pieces,  gen- 
erally a yard  wide.  It  should  be  shrunk  care- 
fully before  cutting. 

PLANTAIN. — The  plantain  is  allied  to  the 
banana,  with  which  it  is  commonly  confounded. 
It  is  about  the  size  of  ordinary  cucumbers,  but 
pointed  at  both  ends,  and  grows  in  clusters 
which  sometimes  weigh  as  much  as  forty 
pounds.  When  ripe,  it  turns  yellow,  is  sweet, 
of  a mealy  substance,  tasting  something  like  a 
melon,  luscious,  and  dissolving  in  the  mouth. 
It  is  very  nutritious,  is  one  of  the  most  whole- 
some of  fruits,  and  makes  an  excellent  dessert. 
It  may  also  be  fried  or  roasted,  converted  into 
tarts,  or  preserved  as  a sweetmeat.  Plantains 
are  brought  from  the  West  Indies,  and  are  in 
season  from  February  to  September. 

PLASTER  FIGURES.  (To  give  the  ap- 
pearance of  marble  or  to  varnish )— Dissolve 
one  ounce  of  pure  curd  soap,  grated,  in  four 
ounces  of  water,  in  a glazed  earthen  vessel; 
add  one  ounce  of  white  wax,  cut  in  thin  slices. 
When  the  whole  is  melted  and  mixed  together, 
it  is  ready  for  use.  Having  dried  the  plaster 
figure  before  the  fire,  suspend  it  by  a string, 
and  dip  it  in  the  mixture  ; when  it  has  become 
nearly  dry,  dip  it  a second  time,  and  that  gen- 
erally suffices  ; cover  it  carefully  from  the  dust 
for  a week ; then  rub  gently  with  soft  cotton- 
wool, and  it  will  have  a brilliant  shining  gloss. 
A coat  of  cream  tinted  paint  will  be  found  to 
answer  the  same  purpose. 

To  give  a metallic  surface  to  plaster  figures, 
take  half  an  ounce  of  tin  and  half  an  ounce  of 
bismuth  ; melt  in  a crucible  ; then  add  half  an 
ounce  of  mercury.  When  perfectly  combined, 
remove  the  mixture  from  the  fire,  and  let  it 
cool.  Mix  with  the  white  of  an  egg,  and  it 
forms  a beautiful  varnish.  The  figure  to  be 
dipped  in  it,  and  polished  when  dry. 

Either  of  these  methods  will  prevent  that 
peculiar  decay  and  discoloration  to  which  the 
best  of  plaster  casts  are  liable  when  exposed 
iO  the  air  and  dust,  and  especially  to  dampness. 

PLASTERING. — The  business  of  the  plas- 
terer begins  as  soon  as  the  brickwork  is  thor- 
oughly dry,  and  not  before,  otherwise  there 
will  be  danger  of  the  drying  and  finishing  of 
the  house  being  protracted.  The  process  of 
covering  the  house-walls  with  plaster  is  called 
rendering.  The  first  coat  laid  on  consists  of 
good,  common  mortar,  mixed  with  hair  from 
the  tan-yards,  to  prevent  its  cracking.  The 
second  coat,  called  setting,  is  made  of  a finer 
mortar,  consisting  of  lime  and  fine  sand.  The 
lime  used  in  this  case  is  called  jine  stuff,  and  is 
prepared  by  slacking  quicklime  with  very  little 
water,  and  afterwards  saturating  it  with  water 
to  excess,  and  putting  it  into  tubs  to  settle  and 
let  the  water  evaporate.  The  use  of  the  second 
coat  of  plastering  is  to  give  a perfectly  smooth 
surface  for  coloring  or  papering.  Sometimes, 


PLATED  WARE 


PLEURISY 


405 


if  the  work  is  required  to  dry  or  set  very 
soon,  a little  plaster  of  Paris  is  mixed  with  it,  and 
it  is  then  called  gauged  stuff.  In  order  to  se- 
cure the  perfect  dryness  of  plastering  in  brick 
houses,  the  walls  should  be  battened.  This  is 
fixing  on  them  upright  slips  of  wood  called 
battens,  on  which  laths  are  nailed  close  together 
horizontally,  thus  leaving  a cavity  between  the 
laths  and  the  walls.  The  plastering  being  laid 
upon  these  laths,  no  wet  or  dampness  that  may 
penetrate  the  walls  can  reach  the  plaster ; this 
kind  of  work  is  called  lath  and  plaster.  The 
lath  and  plaster  for  partitions  and  ceilings  is 
put  on  in  the  same  manner. 

PLATED  WARE. — The  best  plated-ware 
has  received  three  “coats,”  as  they  are  called, 
of  the  silver,  and  in  appearance  and  durability 
is  quite  equal  to  the  solid  silver-ware.  The 
demand  for  cheap  goods,  however,  and  the 
competition  between  rival  manufacturers  has 
rendered  it  common  to  prepare  ware  for  the 
market  with  only  one  coat  or  even  without  any 
genuine  silver  at  all  upon  it.  For  this  reason, 
the  following  process  of  testing  the  genuineness 
of  silver-plating  on  metals  may  be  of  value ; it 
should  be  applied  to  all  plated-ware  of  which 
the  price  is  very  low.  Cleanse  the  metallic  sur- 
face carefully,  and  place  upon  it  a drop  of  a 
cold,  saturated  solution  of  bichromate  of  potash, 
in  nitric  acid;  wash  it  off  immediately.  On 
silver,  a blood-red  spot  of  chromate  of  silver  is 
formed ; on  German-silver,  or  Britannia-metal, 
the  stain  is  brown  or  black.  Clean  plated-ware 
as  directed  for  silver-ware. 

PLEURISY. — An  inflammation  of  the  pleura 
or  serous  membrane,  which  covers  the  lungs 
and  lines  the  greater  part  of  the  cavity  of, the 
chest.  In  health  this  membrane  is  quite 
smooth,  and  is  lubricated  by  a small  quantity 
of  fluid,  so  that  the  lungs  can  move  upon  it 
with  the  least  possible  amount  of  friction ; but 
when  it  is  inflamed,  it  becomes  roughened,  and 
in  most  cases  a large  quantity  of  fluid  is 
secreted,  in  consequence  of  which  the  lung  on 
that  side  is  compressed  against  the  spine  and 
there  is  much  distress  in  breathing,  as  there  is 
then  only  one  lung  available  for  the  purposes 
of  respiration.  It  follows  that  in  those  cases 
in  which  both  sides  are  affected  with  pleurisy 
there  is  imminent  danger  of  suffocation,  as  the 
lungs  are  unable  to  aerate  the  blood  properly  ; 
and  so,  unless  relief  be  afforded,  or  the  inflam- 
mation subside  quickly,  death  is  very  likely  to 
ensue.  Fortunately  double  pleurisy  is  of  very 
rare  occurrence.  The  most  common  cause  of 
pleurisy  is  exposure  to  wet  and  cold;  but  it 
may  come  on  after  an  accident  in  which  the 
ribs  are  broken,  or  from  stabbing  or  gunshot 
wounds,  and  other  external  injuries.  In  nearly 
all  cases  of  pneumonia,  or  inflammation  of  the 
lung  itself,  there  is  more  or  less  pleurisy;  but 
then  very  little  fluid  is  effused.  The  first 
symptoms  of  pleurisy  are  a severe  catching  pain 
in  the  affected  side,  and  this  becomes  worse  in 
taking  a deep  inspiration,  or  coughing;  the 
pain  is  usually  confined  to  one  spot,  and  on 
listening  there  one  may  hear  a rubbing  sound 


due  to  the  roughened  surfaces  moving  on  each 
other.  There  is  also  a feeling  of  weakness 
and  lassitude,  the  pulse  quickens,  the  tongue  is 
coated  white  ; there  may  be  headache,  thirst, 
and  loss  of  appetite  ; the  temperature  of  the 
body  is  raised,  and  the  usual  febrile  symptoms 
appear.  In  a day  or  two  the  breathing  be- 
comes worse,  because  effusion  of  fluid  is  now 
going  on  ; the  patient  is  obliged  to  keep  to  his 
bed,  and  lie  on  his  back  in  a diagonal  position, 
so  as  to  enable  the  healthy  lung  to  expand, 
while  the  one  affected  is  too  sore  to  rest  on. 
These  symptoms  go  on  for  several  days  with- 
out much  change  being  observed,  but  they 
vary  in  intensity  according  to  the  amount  of 
the  effusion  ; in  some  very  bad  cases  there  is 
much  distress  and  anxiety  of  countenance,  the 
respirations  are  quick  and  shallow,  and  the 
face  pale,  while  the  lips  are  livid;  any  exertion, 
as  moving  in  bed,  or  talking,  increases  the 
discomfort.  In  less  severe  cases  the  distress 
lessens  as  the  fever  abates,  and  the  breathing 
becomes  more  regular.  Then  comes  the  time 
when  the  fluid  begins  to  be  reabsorbed,  and 
when  the  lung  commences  to  expand  again; 
but  this  takes  up  a very  variable  time,  so  that 
no  rule  can  be  laid  down  as  to  the  duration 
of  a pleurisy,  some  being  of  a very  slight  na- 
ture, while  others  may  take  weeks  or  even 
months  before  they  are  really  cured.  Long 
before  this,  however,  the  severe  symptoms 
have  abated,  and  the  chief  trouble  is  shortness 
of  breath  on  any  exertion.  In  most  cases  the 
patient  is  liable  to  pain  in  the  chest  afterwards, 
and  to  a recurrence  of  pleurisy  on  being  over- 
heated, or  on  exposure  to  cold  and  wet. 

Treatment.— The.  patient  must  be  at  once 
placed  in  bed  in  an  atmosphere  of  about  6o° 
-65°  Fahr.,  and  the  air  should  be  tolerably 
moist.  This  can  be  effected  by  boiling  some 
water  in  a kettle  in  the  room,  and  occasionally 
letting  the  steam  escape.  The  important 
thing  is  to  avoid  any  great  variations  of  tem- 
perature, and  especially  any  chills  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  body.  Nor  should  the  patient  be 
moved  about  from  one  room  to  another,  if  such 
movement  cause  any  distress,  nor  should  he  be 
allowed  to  talk  more  than  is  necessary.  Three 
or  four  leeches  applied  to  the  spot  where  the 
pain  is  greatest  will  afford  much  relief,  and 
when  the  bites  have  finished  bleeding,  a large 
hot  linseed-poultice  should  be  applied  to  the 
chest;  but  care  must  be  taken  that  the  bleeding 
does  not  recommence  on  applying  the  heat, 
as  too  much  blood  may  in  that  way  be  drawn, 
and  tend  to  exhaust  the  patient.  Cotton-wool 
may  also  be  applied  for  a similar  purpose.  It 
is  best  to  have  a mattress  on  the  bed,  rather 
than  a feather-bed  ; as  the  body  is  then  kept 
cooler,  and  it  is  easier  to  get  at  the  patient. 
Light  food  must  be  given,  and  milk  is  generally 
borne  the  easiest  in  the  early  or  febrile  stage 
of  the  disease  ; light  puddings,  eggs,  beef-tea, 
broth,  jelly  and  fish  maybe  given  when  the  ap- 
petite returns  and  the  tongue  begins  to  clean. 
Stimulants  should  be  given  very  sparingly,  as 
in  the  majority  of  cases  they  are  not  needed, 


406 


PLOVER 


PNEUMONIA 


and  if  given  in  excess  tend  to  depress  the 
patient  and  hurry  the  breathing.  Restlessness 
at  night  is  a common  symptom.  Opiates  in 
doses  sufficient  to  relieve  pain  are  well  borne, 
and  by  diminishing  the  difficulty  of  breathing 
contribute  thus  to  the  relief  of  the  disease.  Blis- 
ters should  not  be  applied  in  the  early  stage 
when  there  is  fever,  but  they  must  be  used 
later  on,  so  as  to  hasten  the  absorption  of  the 
fluid  ; or  tincture  of  iodine  may  be  painted  over 
the  affected  side  for  the  same  purpose.  In 
cases  of  double  pleurisy  it  may  be  necessary  to 
tap  the  chest  and  let  the  fluid  out,  and  in  some 
cases  bleeding  from  the  arm  may  then  be  at- 
tended with  benefit.  During  convalescence  the 
patient  should  be  careful  not  to  venture  out  too 
soon,  especially  if  the  weather  is  cold,  foggy, 
or  damp.  He  should  sit  up  at  first  in  the  after- 
noon, and  may  go  from  one  warm  room  to 
another ; but  no  exertion  must  be  persisted  in 
which  hurries  the  breathing.  Tonics  may  then 
be  given  to  improve  the  general  health,  and  the 
ordinary  diet  may  be  resumed.  All  patients 
should  be  careful  for  some  weeks  to  avoid  ex- 
posure to  bad  weather,  should  avoid  being  out 
after  sunset  if  possible,  should  not  get  over- 
heated, and  should  always  wear  flannel  next  the 
skin. 

PLOVER. — One  of  the  best  of  the  small 
birds  for  table  purposes.  There  are  several 
varieties  of  the  plover,  all  bearing  a gen- 
eral resemblance  to  each  other,  and  being 
about  equally  desirable.  The  gray  plover 
( sometimes  called  grass , field, , or  upland 
plover ) are  generally  found  in  the  markets 
in  June,  July,  August  and  September;  they 
are  considered  best  in  the  two  latter  months. 
Frost  plover  ( greenback  or  golden  plover)  are 
sometimes  called  “ frost-bird  ” and  sometimes 
“plover.”  They  appear  occasionally  in  num- 
bers in  April  and  May,  and  again  in  September 
and  October,  when  they  are  in  fine  condition, 
and  their  flesh  well-flavored.  Ring  plover,  or 
ring-neck , are  abundant  in  the  markets  in  Sep- 
tember and  October,  when  they  are  considered 
best  for  the  table.  Piping  plover  or  beach 
bird , are  found  in  small  numbers  from  April  to 
October,  but  in  September  and  October  they 
are  very  fat,  and  their  flesh  is  excellent.  Pre- 
pare, cook,  and  serve  Plover  as  directed  for 
Reed-birds. 

PLUMES.  (See  Feathers.) 

PLUMS. — There  are  numerous  varieties  of 
this  fine  fruit,  the  best  being  the  well-known 
green-gage  which  ripens  about  the  middle  of 
August  and  lasts  until  October.  Besides  the 
green-gage,  there  is  the  Washington,  the  Jef- 
ferson, white  and  purple  Damsons,  the  white, 
red,  blue,  and  frost  gage,  the  purple  and  yellow 
egg,  magnum  bonum,  apricot,  and  the  common 
blue,  or  horse-plum.  The  choicer  varieties  of 
plums  make  a most  delicious  dessert,  and  the 
inferior  kinds  make  excellent  pies,  puddings, 
marmalades,  preserves,  and  sweetmeats.  Eaten 
in  moderate  quantities  plums  are  very  whole- 
some ; but  excess  in  the  use  of  them  is  liable 
to  produce  colic,  diarrhoea,  or  even  cholera. 


The  danger  is  greater  if  they  are  eaten  before 
becoming  perfectly  ripe.  Plums,  in  some  of 
the  varieties,  are  generally  found  in  the  mar- 
kets from  the  latter  part  of  July  to  the  middle 
of  October.  (See  Marmalades,  Pies,  Pre- 
serves, and  Puddings.) 

PLUSH. — A kind  of  stuff  having  a nap 
resembling  that  of  velvet  on  one  side,  composed 
regularly  of  a woof  of  a single  woollen  thread, 
and  a double  warp — one  of  wool,  of  two  threads 
twisted,  and  the  other  of  goat’s  or  camel’s  hair. 
Some  plushes,  in  imitation  of  these,  are  made 
of  other  materials.  Plush  was  formerly  much 
used  for  liveries,  but  is  now  out  of  fashion  and 
seldom  used  for  clothing  in  any  form.  That  of 
English  manufacture  is  best. 

PNEUMONIA. — This  is  the  name  given  to 
inflammation  of  the  substance  of  the  lungs.  It 
may  come  on  of  itself  as  the  result  of  exposure, 
or  it  may  follow  in  the  course  of  some  other 
disease,  and  the  symptoms  may  then  differ  some- 
what. Pneumonia  is  often  associated  with  the 
fevers,  as  typhus,  typhoid,  and  measles,  also 
with  some  blood  disorders,  and  in  these  cases 
it  adds  to  the  gravity  of  the  original  disease ; 
but  the  main  symptoms  of  pneumonia  are  then 
either  masked  or  modified  by  the  associated 
disease  under  which  the  patient  is  suffering. 
Simple,  uncomplicated  pneumonia  of  one  lung, 
or  part  of  the  lung,  is  not  a formidable  affection, 
and  more  than  nine-tenths  recover  with  proper 
treatment.  The  first  symptoms  of  pneumonia 
are  shivering  or  severe  headache,  pain  on  one 
side  of  the  chest,  furred  tongue,  and  a high 
temperature  of  the  body;  in  the  course  of  a 
day  or  two  the  skin  becomes  very  hot,  the  lips 
dry,  and  the  tongue  covered  with  a white, 
moist  fur;  the  patient  breathes  quickly,  and  is 
glad  to  remain  quiet  in  bed,  and  not  be  dis- 
turbed by  talking;  he  feels  a sense  of  pain  and 
tightness  on  the  affected  side  of  the  chest,  has 
a troublesome  cough,  and  spits  up  frothy,  viscid 
phlegm,  tinged  with  blood;  the  urine  is  highly 
colored  and  diminished  in  quantity.  In  chil- 
dren the  nostrils  are  dilated  at  every  inspiration, 
and  they  breathe  very  rapidly.  In  four  or  five 
days  the  symptoms  are  about  at  their  height; 
on  the  seventh  or  eighth  day,  in  most  cases  of 
recovery,  the  temperature  falls  rapidly,  the 
febrile  symptoms  abate,  and  the  patient  feels 
much  better ; his  tongue  cleans,  the  appetite 
returns,  and  the  breathing  is  easier.  For  some 
time,  however,  he  feels  short  of  breath,  and 
several  weeks  may  elapse  before  the  lung  clears 
up  and  becomes  sound  again.  In  severe  cases 
so  speedy  a termination  must  not  be  looked  for  ; 
the  inflammation  may  spread  to  the  other  lung, 
causing  great  distress  of  breathing,  and  bring- 
ing on  a livid  appearance  of  the  lips  ; there  may 
be  much  delirium,  especially  in  those  of  in- 
temperate habits  ; and  occasionally  the  inflam- 
mation does  not  clear  up  at  all,  but  passes  into 
one  of  the  forms  of  consumption. 

Treatment. — The  patient  must  at  once  be 
put  to  bed  in  a room  with  a temperature  of  from 
6o°  to  C50  Fahr.,  and  the  air  should  not  be  too 
dry.  Hot  linseed-meal  poultices  or  hot  stupes 


POISONS  AND  ANTIDOTES 


407 


must  be  applied  to  the  chest,  and  changed  as 
often  as  they  become  cool.  If  there  is  much  pain, 
a few  leeches  to  the  side  will  give  relief.  For 
pneumonia  the  same  rules  as  to  diet,  medicines, 
and  precautions  during  convalescence  must  be 
observed  as  are  described  in  the  article  on 
Pleurisy.  In  very  severe  cases,  the  treat- 
ment must  vary  with  the  special  requirements 
of  each  case ; and  on  these,  of  course,  only  a 
competent  physician  can  decide. 

POISONS'  AND  ANTIDOTES.— Give  an 
emetic  instantly ! For  special  poisons  look  for 
their  names.  When  poison  has  been  swallowed 
it  is  very  difficult  to  fix  upon  any  particular 
symptoms  as  indicative  of  it;  but  it  may  be 
surmised  that  an  individual  has  swallowed 
poison  if,  shortly  after  food  or  drink,  he  be 
seized  with  violent  pain  in  the  stomach,  or  with 
vomiting  or  purging,  especially  if  convulsions 
or  paralysis  are  present,  or  if  the  individual 
suffer  from  great  giddiness  or  delirum,  or  if 
there  be  a strong  tendency  to  sleep.  Whenever 
these  symptoms  appear,  and  especially  when 
any  poison  is  known  to  have  been  taken, 
three  things  have  to  be  done: — ist,  To 
get  rid  of  the  poison.  2nd,  To  stop  its  effects. 
3rd,  To  remedy  the  evil  it  has  done.  It  does 
not  matter  which  of  the  first  two  is  attended  to 
first.  To  save  time  is  the  important  thing; 
“ whatever  is  readiest  is  best  ” is  emphatically 
the  rule  in  dealing  with  poisoning ; better  the 
poorest  remedy  given  at  the  moment,  than  the 
very  best  given  an  hour  later.  There  is  this, 
however,  to  be  said,  as  far  as  the  general 
public  are  concerned,  that  they  always  have  the 
means  of  getting  rid  of  the  poison  by  them,  but 
not  always  the  means  of  stopping  its  action 
or  remedying  its  effects ; so  that,  generally 
speaking,  the  former  should  be  attempted  in 
the  absence  of  medical  aid.  A considerable 
number  of  all  poisons  are  self-evacuating ; 
having  been  taken,  they  produce  vomiting  and 
purging  and  are  thereby  eliminated.  In  such 
cases  all  that  it  is  necessary  to  do  is  to  aid  the 
self-evacuating  process  ; especially  to  aid  the 
vomiting,  and  so  perhaps  get  rid  of  the  poison 
altogether.  Ordinarily  two  different  methods 
are  employed  to  get  rid  of  the  substance  in  the 
stomach  : these  are  the  stomach-pump  and  vom- 
iting. It  requires  considerable  skill  to  use  the 
stomach-pump,  and  usually  where  one  can  be 
obtained,  the  skilled  aid  necessary  for  its  em- 
ployment can  also  be  obtained.  In  passing  the 
tube  down  into  the  stomach  the  important  rule 
is  to  use  as  little  force  as  possible,  and  to  make 
the  point  of  the  tube  slide  along  the  posterior 
wall  of  the  gullet.  Grievous  accidents  have  re- 
sulted from  unskilful  use  of  this  instrument,  and 
so  any  one  not  acquainted  with  it  and  attempting 
to  use  it  should  attend  implicitly  to  the  foregoing 
rule.  There  are,  however,  certain  cases— as 
when  violent  corrosives  have  been  swollowed — 
where  the  tissues  are  so  much  softened  that 
an  attempt  to  pass  the  stomach-pump  would 
very  likely  end  in  driving  it  through  the  tissues, 
and  in  these  cases  such  attempts  must  be 
avoided  altogether.  The  advantage  of  the 


stomach-pump  is  that  it  enables  you  to  wash 
the  stomach  out  and  empty  it  without  any  action 
on  the  part  of  the  stomach  itself.  In  cases 
where  the  stomach  is  paralysed,  as  it  sometimes 
is  in  opium  poisoning,  this  is  of  very  great  im- 
portance. 

In  cases  where,  from  whatever  cause,  the 
stomach-pump  cannot  be  employed,  we  have 
left  to  us  the  self-evacuation  known  as  vomiting. 
This  sometimes  is  one  of  the  results  of  the 
poison  itself  ; in  others  It  must  be  excited.  If, 
as  most  irritants  do,  the  poison  have  given  rise 
to  vomiting,  it  may  only  be  necessary  to  en- 
courage it.  This  is  best  done  by  tickling  the 
fauces  with  a feather,  and  by  copious  draughts 
of  luke-warm  water.  This  process,  though  ex- 
hausting, must  be  continued  until  everything 
seems  expelled  from  the  stomach.  Sometimes, 
however,  there  is  no  vomiting,  and  then  some- 
thing must  be  given  to  cause  the  stomach  to  get 
rid  of  its  contents.  Here  the  same  rule  that 
the  readiest  is  best  prevails.  It  is  useless,  or 
worse  than  than  useless,  to  wait  till  an  emetic  is 
brought  from  the  druggist,  if  that  be  far  away  the 
resources  of  the  locality  must  suffice.  Three 
things  may  be  made  use  of  as  emetics,  which 
are  to  be  found  almost  everywhere.  These  are 
mustard,  salt,  and  smelling-salts,  besides  the 
stimulation  of  the  fauces  with  the  finger,  and 
the  use  of  lukewarm  water.  Smelling-salts  are 
not  suitable  for  all  cases,  but  are  good  in  a 
certain  number  of  cases  of  poisoning,  especially 
by  vegetable  substances,  which  give  rise  to 
narcotic  symptoms.  The  dose  of  this  is  a tea- 
spoonful given  in  a pint  of  lukewarm  water, 
and  followed  up  by  copious  draughts  of  the 
same.  Mustard  is  a better  emetic,  and  is  gen- 
erally to  be  had  ; its  use  is  limited  to  those 
cases  where  there  is  no  violent  irritating  effect 
produced  by  the  poison.  Usually  it  suits  best 
where  there  is  a sedative  effect  produced  by 
the  poison,  and  the  stomach  requires  a stimu- 
lant to  call  its  action  into  full  play.  The  dose 
of  mustard  is  a tablespoonful  mixed  up  with  a 
pint  of  lukewarm  water,  and  followed  by  copious 
draughts  of  the  same.  Salt  can  always  be  had, 
and  a handful  of  this  dissolved  in  water  will 
usually  suffice  to  produce  copious  vomiting, 
and  so  the  evacuation  of  the  stomach  contents. 
Ipecacuanha  is  a most  useful  emetic  in  cases 
where  the  stomach  has  been  already  irritated, 
and  it  is  desirable  to  effectually  get  rid  of  any 
irritant  substance  which  may  remain.  It  is 
best  given  as  ipecacuanha  wine  ; half  an  ounce 
for  a dose. 

When  the  poison  has  been  administered 
locally,  as  in  snake-bite,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
scarify  the  wound,  so  as  to  make  it  bleed  freely, 
to  suck  it,  and,  if  necessary,  to  apply  a ligature 
round  the  limb,  higher  up  and  nearer  the  heart, 
if  the  wound  be  so  situated  as  to  admit  of  this, 
so  as  to  prevent  the  passage  of  the  poison  up- 
wards towards  the  heart  and  nervous  centres. 
Washing,  too,  should  be  freely  employed,  es- 
pecially by  means  of  a heavy  stream  of  water. 

Frequently,  however,  the  simple  plan  of  get- 
ting rid  of  the  poison  will  not  suffice.  Its  effects 


408 


POISON  PLANTS. 


have  to  be  neutralized  or  remedied.  That 
means  practically,  that  some  antidote  must  be 
given.  Now,  no  single  antidote  is  suited  to  all 
emergencies, — the  antidote  must  be  adapted  to 
the  particular  poison ; the  subject,  therefore, 
naturally  distributes  itself,  at  this  point,  into 
the  different  poisonous  substances  which  are 
used  about  the  house  in  one  shape  or  another. 
These  are  treated  of  separately  in  their  proper 
places. 

POISON  PLANTS.— The  only  poison 
plants  worth  taking  into  account  in  the  popu- 
lated parts  of  the  United  States,  are  the 
poison  ivy  (sometimes  called  Poison  Oak)  and 
the  poison  sumach  (sometimes  called  Poison 
Dogwood). 


Poison  Ivy.  (Poison  Oak)  in  flower,  Branch,  natural  size- 
Below,  berry  of  the  natural  size- 

Poison  ivy  appears  in  two  forms.  One  is 
a low  shrub  seldom  over  three  feet  high,  ex- 
cept in  California  where  it  is  said  to  have 
attained  the  dimensions  of  a tree,  with  a 
trunk  six  inches  thick.  In  this  form  of  a 
shrub  or  tree,  the  plant  is  generally  known 
as  Poison  Oak.  In  its  other  forms  it  is 
a vine,  clambering  over  walls  or  trees,  some- 
times to  a great  height.  In  either  form,  the 
leaves  grow  in  threes,  as  in  the  cut,  and  in  June 
and  July  it  ordinarily  puts  forth  greenish  white 
berries.  When  wounded,  it  exudes  a milky 
juice  which  becomes  black  on  exposure  to  the 
air,  and  does  not  wash  off. 

Poison  Sumach. — A plant  known  also  as 
swamp  sumach  and  as  poison  dogwood.  It 
flourishes  principally  in  marshy  ground  in 
various  parts  of  the  United  States  and  other 
countries  where  the  temperature  is  not  exces- 
sive in  either  direction.  It  is  not  to  be  con- 
founded with  the  beautiful  plant  generally 
known  as  sumach,  with  light  green  leaves  and 
bunches  of  bright  red  berries. 

Poison  sumach  is  a beautiful  shrub  or 
small  tree  varying  in  height  from  six  to  eigh- 
teen feet.  The  bark  is  dark  grey.  The 
flowers  (which  of  course  are  not  visible  upon 
it  at  all  seasons)  arc  small  and  of  a greenish 
white  color,  and  it  bears  nearly  round  pale- 
green  or  whitish  berries.  These  are  gen- 
erally to  be  seen  only  in  June  or  July. 


The  number  of  leaves  on  the  separate 
stalks  varies  from  seven  to  thirteen. 

Symptoms. — The  sumach  is  more  poison- 
ous than  the  ivy.  The  juice  of  these  plants 
applied  to  the  skin  produces  some  inflammation 
and  is  apt  to  cause  the  appearance  of  small 
water-blisters.  But  perhaps  their  damaging  ef- 
fects are  most  frequently  conveyed  by  some  vo- 
latile principle  pervading  the  air  to  the  distance 
of  several  feet,  though  the  distance  at  which 
one  person  can  be  affected  is  not  a very  relia- 
ble guide  for  another.  It  is  asserted  that  some 
people  can  handle  the  plants  (or  even  chew  the 
ivy)  with  impunity.  In  other  persons,  how- 
ever, they  produce  an  affection  not  unlike 
erysipelas.  The  worst  effects  are  general- 
ly in  the  face.  They  begin  with  redness  and 
itching,  followed  by  swelling,  water-blisters, 
and  the  peeling  off  of  the  skin. 

The  symptoms  appear  within  a day  of  ex- 
posure, and  generally  decline  within  a week. 


Poison  Sumach  (in  fruit),  Fi".  J/£  natural  size*  Below,  fruit  of 
the  natural  size. 

Treatment. — A good  dose  of  Rochelle 
salts,  and  keeping  the  irritated  surface  moist 
with  a solution  of  one  drachm  of  acetate  of 
lead  in  a pint  ofwater 

Prof.  Proctor  recommends  a solution  of  a 
teaspoonful  of  baking  soda  in  a pint  of  water, 
to  be  applied  immediately  after  exposure,  with-' 
out  waiting  for  symptoms  to  develope. 

The  well  known  extract  of  Witch  Hazel  has 
also  been  recommended  as  awash.  A child — 
a patient  of  the  writer,  was  bathed  in  it  fre- 
quently after  an  ugly  water  blister  from  poison 
oak  had  displayed  itself,  and  no  farther  incon- 
venience was  suffered  ; but  the  probability  is 
that  the  patient  was  not  very  susceptible  to 
the  poison. 

Whatever  application  is  made,  it  is  well  to 


POMADES 


PORGEE 


409 


anoint  the  whole  body  on  the  plan  of  a pre- 
ventive, as  suggested  by  Prof.  Proctor. 

Eradication  of  the  plants  should  of  course 
be  effected  when  they  are  at  all  likely  to  be 
approached  by  people,  but  this  is  not  as  easy 
as  would  at  first  appear.  When  cut  down  or 
even  covered  with  stones,  they  are  apt  to 
reappear,  and  they  like  to  climb  between 
stones.  Dr.  Squibb  recommends  covering  the 
spot  with  ashes.  Others  recommend  salt. 

POMADES. — Pomades,  or  pomatums,  are 
preparations  for  softening  the  skin  and  hair,  and 
consist  of  fats  or  oils,  with  the  addition  of  some 
perfume.  It  is  necessary  to  choose  such  fats 
as  do  not  become  rancid;  the  best  are  clarified 
beef  suet,  or  clarified  beef  marrow , and  hog's 
lard.  Beef  or  mutton  suet  and  hog’s  lard  are 
clarified  from  the  raw  materials  by  chopping 
them  fine,  and  rolling  them  out  to  break  the 
cells  in  which  the  fat  is  lodged,  then  melting 
the  fat  in  a water-bath,  or  by  other  gentle  heat, 
and  straining  it  while  warm.  It  should  then 
be  put  into  bladders,  to  keep  it  from  the  air. 
Or  it  may  be  made  by  boiling  it  in  water,  and 
skimming  it  off  when  cold  ; but  by  this  method 
it  contains  water,  and  does  not  keep  so  well  as 
when  melted  by  itself.  Purified  beef  marrow 
is  considered  preferable  to  hog’s  lard,  and  is 
thought  by  some  to  make  the  hair  grow. 

l.  Common  soft  pomatum  is  made  of  equal 
parts  of  beef  or  mutton  suet  and  hog’s  lard 
melted  together;  while  they  are  liquid  add  a 
little  oil  of  bergamot,  or  any  other  perfume 
that  may  be  agreeable,  beat  the  whole  well  to- 
gether, and  then  pour  the  mixture  into  pots. 

n.  Another  method  is  to  soak  in  water  for 
two  or  three  days  half  a pound  of  clean  beef  mar- 
row and  a pound  of  fresh  hog’s  lard,  changing 
the  water  and  beating  every  day.  Put  it  into 
a sieve  to  drain,  and,  when  dry,  into  a jar,  and 
the  jar  into  a saucepan  of  boiling  water  ; when 
melted,  pour  it  into  a bowl,  and  beat  it  with 
two  teaspoonfuls  of  brandy ; drain  off  the 
brandy,  and  add  bergamot  or  any  other  per- 
fume. 

m.  Another  still : melt  together  an  ounce  of 
hog’s  lard,  one  of  beef  marrow,  one  of  sperma- 
ceti, and  a pint  of  almond  oil ; add  oil  of  berga- 
mot and  oil  of  roses,  or  any  other  perfume. 

Castor-oil  Pomatum. — Take  tuberose  po- 
matum, one  pound ; castor-oil,  half  a pound ; 
almond-oil,  half  a pound;  otto  of  bergamot,  one 
ounce.  Melt  the  grease,  then  beat  it  up  with 
a whisk  or  wooden  spoon  for  half  an  hour  or 
more,  as  the  grease  cools ; minute  vesicles  of 
air  are  inclosed  by  the  pomatum,  which  not 
only  increase  the  bulk  of  the  mixture,  but  im- 
part a peculiar  mechanical  aggregation,  render- 
ing the  pomatum  light  and  spongy. 

Hard  Pomatum  is  made  by  melting  togeth- 
er two  parts  of  beef  suet  and  one  part  of  mut- 
ton suet,  and  making  it  up  into  rolls  with  paper 
around  them. 

Sultana  Pomade. — Melt  together  half  a 
pound  of  beef  suet,  the  same  of  bear’s  grease, 
an  ounce  of  white  wax,  and  two  ounces  of  olive- 
oil  ; and  add  to  it,  tied  up  loosely  in  muslin,  one 


ounce  of  bruised  cloves,  half  an  ounce  of  cin- 
namon, two  bruised  tonquin  beans,  and  four 
grains  of  musk ; strain  and  put  into  pots.  The 
article  called  bear’s  grease,  usually  sold  in  the 
shops,  is  little  else  than  perfumed  beef-marrow  ; 
and  the  many  oils  offered  for  restoring  and 
softening  the  hair  are  chiefly  olive  or  almond 
oil  perfumed  with  different  scents. 

POPLIN. — A cloth  composed  of  a warp  of 
silk  and  a weft  of  worsted,  but  containing  more 
silk  than  bombazine,  which  is  similar.  It  is  much 
used  for  ladies’  dresses.  There  are  several  va- 
rieties. Irish  poplin  has  long  been  celebrated, 
and  is  unsurpassed  for  richness  by  any  other 
fabric ; it  is  manufactured  in  Dublin.  Besides 
the  Irish,  there  are  brocaded  poplins,  figured 
poplins,  and  watered  poplins.  Poplin  is  gen- 
erally a yard,  and  sometimes  a yard  and  a half, 
wide. 

POPPY  CAPSULES.  — The  capsules  or 
fruit  of  the  opium  poppy  grown  in  this  country 
and  gathered  before  they  are  quite  ripe.  They 
contain  some  opium,  and  the  numerous  seeds 
in  their  interior,  called  maw-seeds,  contain  a 
bland  oil;  consequently  a decoction  of  these 
capsules  possesses  a doubly-soothing  property 
from  the  opium  and  from  the  oil.  A warm 
fomentation  is  prepared  by  boiling  some  of  the 
capsules  in  water ; any  injured  part  may  be 
bathed  in  this  fluid  while  it  is  warm.  Some- 
times a poultice  is  made  with  the  fluid,  and  ap- 
plied to  bruises  and  other  injured  parts  where 
the  skin  is  whole.  The  quantity  of  opium  con- 
tained in  the  capsules  is  very  variable ; and  on 
this  account  no  preparation  of  the  capsules 
ought  to  be  used  internally,  though  there  are 
two  medical  preparations  of  them  which  are  in- 
tended for  this  purpose,  — an  extract  and  a 
syrup.  This  syrup  used  to  be  given  to  children, 
but  it  is  dangerous  and  should  be  banished 
from  medical  practice. 

PORCELAIN.  ( See  Earthenware.) 

PORGEE. — B\gporgee(orporgy,  scup,scup- 
paug)  is  a fish  which  would  be  more  valued,  per- 
haps, if  it  were  less  abundant.  It  is  a little  dry, 
but  is  well  flavored  and  savory  when  properly 


cooked.  They  begin  to  appear  in  the  markets 
in  April,  but  their  regular  season  begins  in 
May  and  lasts  until  December;  they  are  best 
in  the  fall  months.  They  weigh  from  half  a 
pound  to  two  pounds,  the  average  being  less 
than  one  pound. 

The  Sand  Porgee  is  smaller  and  has  five 
or  six  dusky  bars  across  the  back.  It  weighs 
about  six  ounces,  and  is  very  good  for  frying. 
In  season  in  the  months  of  August  and  Sep- 
tember. Prepare,  cook  and  serve  porgee  as 
directed  for  Mackerel. 


410 


PORK 


PORK. — Pigs  or  hogs  when  killed  under 
six  weeks  old,  are  called  “roasting  pig,”  or 
“roaster.”  {See  Pig.)  those  older  than  six 
weeks,  but  under  one  year,  are  called  shoats , 
and  their  meat  shoat-pork.  The  meat  of  the 
full-grown  hog  is  called  pork,  when  it  is  fresh, 
and  when  cured,  bacon,  ham,  etc.  Shoats  or 
hogs  should  be  penned  up  two  or  three  months 
before  slaughtering  and  fed  well.  The  hog  is 
indolent  naturally  and  filthy  in  its  habits ; 
yet  on  the  growth  of  no  domestic  animal  is 
the  advantage  of  cleanliness  more  obvious. 
The  kind  of  food  given  has  a very  great  in- 
fluence on  the  quality  of  the  flesh.  Skimmed 
milk,  or  butter  milk  and  peas,  oats  and  barley- 
meal,  rank  first  in  excellence  as  food  for 
making  delicate  pork.  Milk  alone  will  fatten 
hogs  and  milk-fed  pork  is  the  most  delicate 
of  any.  Grain-fed  pork  is  next  in  value ; 
peas,  oats,  barley,  and  Indian-corn  being 
best.  Pork  fed  on  beans  is  hard  and  ill-flavor- 
ed ; that  fed  on  grains  exclusively  has 
the  fat  spongy ; potatoes  make  a light,  in- 
sipid flesh ; and  butcher’s  offal  causes  the 
flesh  to  be  full  of  gravy,  but  to  have  a disgust- 
ingly strong  taste  and  smell.  As  good  a diet 
as  can  be  devised  for  hogs  that  have  been 
penned  previous  to  slaughtering,  is  to 
feed  them  at  first  on  swill,  vegetables,  and 
wet  grain  of  any  kind,  and  towards  the  end  to 
give  a considerable  proportion  of  dry  Indian 
corn. 

Pork  differs  from  beef  and  mutton,  not  in 
flavor  only,  but  in  the  larger  proportion  of  fat 
to  lean  flesh.  This  is  due  both  to  the  nature  of 
the  animal  and  its  tendency  to  store  up  fat, 
and  to  the  habit  of  so  feeding  and  treating  it 
that  this  tendency  may  be  fully  developed. 
As  to  its  relative  value  as  food,  Dr.  Edward 
Smith  says  : “ Pork  having  so  very  large  a pro- 
portion of  fat  cannot  be  regarded  as  equal  to 
beef  or  mutton  in  nourishing  the  system  of 
those  who  make  much  muscular  exertion. 
Moreover,  there  is  a peculiarity  about  pork  by 
which  it  is  believed  to  be  less  digestible  than 
other  kinds  of  flesh,  and  it  appears  to  me  that 
this  is  due  to  the  greater  hardness  of  the  mus- 
cular fibre,  by  which  the  mastication  of  it  is 
rendered  so  difficult  that  much  of  it  is  swal- 
lowed in  pieces  too  large  for  immediate  solu- 
tion in  the  juices  of  the  stomach.  This  attends 
the  eating  of  pork  by  all  persons,  but  particu- 
larly by  those  who  habitually  masticate  quickly, 
or  who  have  defective  powers  of  mastication, 
or  who  are  careless  in  performing  the  act  of 
mastication — classes  embracing  the  old  and  the 
young,  and  no  inconsiderable  proportion  of 
those  of  intermediate  ages.”  Owing  to  its  ex- 
cessive fatness,  fresh  pork  is  considered  un- 
wholesome during  the  hot  months,  and  it  should 
be  eaten  sparingly,  perhaps,  at  any  time. 

In  butchering  for  the  markets,  the  pork  is 
cut  up  into  pieces,  as  shown  in  the  accompany- 
ing engravings. 

The  choicest  pieces  are  the  leg  and  shoulder, 
and  for  roasting,  the  loin-pieces.  The  brisket 
is  generally  used  for  corning;  the  chine  for 


Shoat  Pork. 

1.  Leg  of  pork.  5.  Flank  of  pork. 

2.  Loin  of  pork.  ) often  cut  6.  Hocks. 

3.  Chine  of  pork,  j together.  7.  Pig’s-head. 

4.  Brisket  of  pork.  8.  Pig’s  feet. 


roasting,  or  the  ribs  for  rib-chops,  up  as  far  as 
the  blade-bone,  and  the  rest  for  pork-steaks  ; 
some  prefer  the  chine  (after  taking  out  all  the 
bones)  for  sausage-meat. 

In  choosing  pork,  take  a thin  piece  of  the 
lean  between  the  finger  and  thumb,  and  if  of 
good  quality  it  will  readily  yield  to  a smart 
squeeze.  The  color  ought  to  be  pale  rather 
than  deep  red.  The  rind  also  should  be  thin 
and  delicate.  The  freshness  is  indicated  by 
the  transparency  and  freedom  from  any  green 
tint  or  unwholesome  smell.  Measly  pork  is 
known  by  the  fat  containing  enlarged  glands, 
called  kernels,  and  by  the  lean  yielding  little 
specks  of  matter  on  pressure.  This  is  not 
wholesome,  or  indeed  fit  for  human  food. 
{See  Bacon,  Ham,  Lard,  and  Sausage.) 

Beans  and  Pork. — Take  a pound  of  salt 
“ middling”  of  bacon,  parboil  it,  and  score  it 
thin.  Soak  a quart  of  dried  beans  over  night 
in  lukewarm  water,  changing  the  water  once  or 
twice;  put  them  on  to  boil  in  cold  water,  and 
when  they  have  boiled  soft,  drain  off  the  liquor, 
put  the  beans  into  a deep  dish  or  baking  pan, 
scoop  out  a hole  and  bury  the  bacon  in  the 
middle,  and  add  a very  little  warm  water  ; bake 
in  a moderate  oven  to  a crisp  brown. 

Boiled  Leg  of  Pork. — Take  a leg  that  has 
been  salted  or  pickled  for  about  ten  days,  rinse 
it  well  in  cold  water,  and  let  it  drain.  Boil  it 
exactly  as  directed  for  hams,  only  for  a shorter 
time  ; about  three  hours  from  the  time  of  boil- 
ing up  will  suffice  to  cook  a moderate-sized  leg 
of  Pork  thoroughly.  When  once  the  boiling 
point  is  attained,  the  more  slowly  it  is  boiled 


PORK 


411 


the  better.  When  done,  place  the  leg  on  a 
dish  and  peel  off  the  skin,  which  ought  to  be 
so  tender  as  not  to  come  away  entire  ; after  it 
is  peeled,  either  spot  the  surface  of  the  pork 
with  patches  of  ground  allspice — an  ornament 
not  unpleasing  to  the  eye  or  to  the  palate — or 
sprinkle  bread-crumbs  over  the  surface  and  set 
it  in  an  oven  to  brown.  I n either  case,  after  trans- 
ferring it  to  the  hot  dish  on  which  it  is  to  be  sent 
to  table,  garnish  with  sprigs  of  fresh  parsley. 

Boiled  Leg  of  Pork  is  improved  by  being 
stuffed  with  parsley.  Chop  the  parsley  as  fine 
as  possible,  and  mix  with  it  a little  pepper  and 
allspice.  Insert  a sharp-pointed  knife  into  the 
knuckle-end  of  the  leg,  close  to  the  bone ; let 
it  follow  the  bone  for  nearly  its  whole  length, 
so  as  just  not  to  come  out  at  the  other  end. 
By  working  the  knife,  detach  the  flesh  from 
the  thigh-bone,  so  as  to  form  a sort  of  pocket, 
into  which  stuff  chopped  parsley  as  firm  as  you 
can  ram  it.  The  leg  must  then  be  boiled  and 
finished  off  as  before.  It  will  be  much  the 
better,  both  in  flavor  and  appearance,  for  this 
stuffing  of  parsley,  especially  when  cold;  and 
the  orifice  made,  allowing  the  boiling  water  to 
penetrate  to  the  central  parts  of  the  leg,  will 
tend  to  further  its  thorough  cooking. 

Brawn. — Take  a pig’s-head  weighing  five  or 
six  pounds,  clean  and  wash  it  carefully,  and  set 
it  in  a pot  on  the  fire,  with  enough  cold  water 
to  cover  it ; add  a pound  of  lean  beef,  and  stew 
until  the  meat  on  the  pig’s-head  will  fall  away 
from  the  bones ; then  drain  off  the  liquor,  re- 
move the  bones  and  chop  the  meat  very  fine 
while  it  is  hot;  season  with  a small  onion 
minced  fine,  a teaspoonful  of  salt,  a half  tea- 
spoonful each  of  black  pepper,  cayenne  pepper 
and  mace,  and  a pinch  of  pounded  cloves  ; 
mix  well  into  the  meat,  and  pour  all  into  a 
mould  that  has  been  previously  rinsed  out  in 
cold  water.  This  is  very  nice. 

Broiled  Corned  Pork. — Take  some  nice 
slices  of  corned  pork,  and  broil  quickly  over  a 
hot  fire  ; mix  some  pepper  and  salt  with  a tea- 
spoonful of  mixed  mustard  and  a little  vinegar, 
add  a tablespoonful  of  butter,  and  spread  the 
whole  over  the  pork.  Serve  hot  for  breakfast. 

Chops  and  Steaks. — Chops  from  the  chine, 
and  steaks  from  the  loin  are  best.  Remove 
the  skin,  and  trim  away  the  superfluous  fat ; 
dust  on  both  sides  with  pepper  and  salt,  and 
broil  or  fry  them.  They  may  also  be  dipped 
in  egg  and  bread-crumbs  and  fried.  A good 
way  is  to  broil  them  without  seasoning,  and 
when  dished,  add  salt,  pepper,  a pinch  of 
sage,  and  another  of  minced  onion ; then 
cover  closely  and  set  in  the  oven  five  minutes 
till  the  aroma  of  the  seasoning  flavors  the 
meat.  Tomato  catsup  is  the  best  condiment 
for  pork  chops  or  steaks ; or  they  may  be 
served  with  apple  sauce. 

Italian  Pork  Cheese. — Chop,  not  very  fine, 
one  pound  of  lean  pork  with  two  pounds  of  the 
inside  fat ; strew  over  and  mix  thoroughly  with 
them  three  teaspoonfuls  of  salt,  one  and  a 
half  teaspoonfuls  of  pepper,  half  a teaspoon- 
ful of  mace,  one  small  nutmeg,  and  half  a tea- 


spoonful of  mixed  parsley,  thyme,  and  sage,  all 
minced  extremely  small.  Press  the  meat 
closely  and  evenly  into  a shallow  tin,  and  bake 
it  in  a very  gentle  oven  from  an  hour  to  an 
hour  and  a half.  It  is  served  cold  in  slices. 
Should  the  proportion  of  fat  be  considered  too 
great,  it  can  be  diminished  on  a second  trial. 

Pickled  Pork. — Make  the  brine  and  treat  the 
pork  exactly  as  directed  for  Pickled  Beef. 

Pie,  (Pork) — I.  Take  three  parts  (in  weight) 
of  lean  spare-rib  or  loin  of  pork,  and  one  of 
veal ; cut  all  the  meat  away  from  the  bones, 
divide  it  into  dice,  and  mix  it  together,  season- 
ing well  with  salt,  pepper,  and  allspice.  Break 
the  bones,  and  boil  them,  together  with  a few 
sweet-herbs,  until  all  the  substance  is  out  of 
them  ; strain  off  the  broth,  and  reduce  it  by 
boiling  if  too  much  in  quantity.  If  the  pie  is 
to  be  served  in  the  baking-dish,  there  is  no 
need  of  an  undercrust ; otherwise  butter  the 
bottom  and  sides  of  the  dish,  and  line  it  with 
a good  stiff  paste.  Spread  over  the  bottom  of 
the  dish  a few  very  thin  slices  of  ham ; then 
put  in  the  chopped  meat,  adding  at  pleasure 
hard-boiled  eggs  quartered,  and  small  force- 
meat balls.  Pour  in  enough  of  the  broth  to 
moisten  the  meat  but  not  to  soak  it ; cover  the 
whole  with  a top-crust ; and  bake  thoroughly  in 
a slow  oven.  This  pie  is  to  be  eaten  cold.  It 
is  very  nice  for  travelling  or  picnics. 

II.  (Pork  and  Apple) — Take  pork-chops, 
and  remove  as  much  of  the  fat  as  possible  ; 
cut  each  into  three  or  four  pieces,  leaving  the 
bone  attached  to  the  meat ; roll  them  in  flour, 
and  season  with  salt,  pepper,  and  allspice.  Peel, 
quarter,  core,  and  slice  some  apples,  in  quan- 
tity about  half  that  of  the  pork.  Pour  a tea- 
cupful of  cider  or  broth  into  the  pie-dish  ; at 
the  bottom  put  a layer  of  pork,  then  a layer 
of  apples,  then  another  layer  of  pork  and  so  on, 
finishing  with  sliced  apples  at  the  top ; pour  in 
another  teacupful  of  cider  or  broth  ; cover  with 
a solid  crust,  not  too  rich  in  butter  or  fat ; and 
bake  thoroughly  in  a slow  oven.  This  old- 
fashioned  dish  is  palatable  and  wholesome,  and 
may  be  partaken  of  fearlessly  by  those  who 
are  afraid  of  pork  in  most  of  its  other  shapes. 

III.  Pot-pie. — The  chine  is  best  for  this,  but 
it  may  be  made  of  any  lean  pork ; cut  the  meat 
into  strips  as  wide  and  half  as  long  as  the 
middle  finger,  and  break  the  bones  ; grease  the 
inside  of  a pot  which  is  round  at  the  bottom, 
and  line  it  with  a light  paste  ; put  in  first  a layer  of 
the  meat,  then  a layer  of  potatoes,  parboiled  and 
cut  in  half,  and  seasoned  with  pepper  and  salt ; 
proceed  in  this  way  till  the  pot  is  nearly  full,  then 
pour  in  a quart  of  cold  water,  and  cover  with  a 
stiff  top-crust;  cut  a round  hole  in  the  top  through 
which  hot  water  maybe  added  should  the  gravy 
boil  away  too  fast.  Put  on  the  lid  of  the  pot, 
and  boil  from  one  hour  and  a half  to  two  hours. 
When  done,  remove  the  upper  crust  carefully, 
turn  out  the  meat,  etc.,  into  a bowl,  lift  out  the 
lower  crust  and  place  it  upon  a hot  dish  ; ar- 
range the  meat,  etc.,  in  order  upon  it,  pour  the 
gravy  over  it,  cover  it  with  the  top  crust,  and 
serve.  This  is  good  either  hot  or  cold. 


412 


PORK 


Pig’s-Ears. — I.  {Boiled.) — Soak  the  ears  in 
warm  water  for  a few  minutes,  then  wash  and 
clean  them  well,  and  scrape  off  the  hair.  Drop 
them  into  boiling  water  for  two  minutes  and 
take  from  the  fire ; add  four  onions  for  four 
ears,  one  carrot,  salt,  and  pepper ; leave  just 
water  enough  to  cover  the  whole,  and  boil  till 
tender  ; then  drain  and  serve. 

II.  ( Broiled ). — Prepare  and  cook  as  above; 
then  dip  them  in  beaten  eggs,  roll  in  bread- 
crumbs, place  on  a gridiron  over  a clear  fire, 
and  broil  about  two  or  three  minutes.  Serve 
with  a maitre  d’ hotel  sauce. 

Pig's-Feet. — {Fried.) — Make  a batter  with  a 
little  flour,  one  egg,  water,  and  a little  salt,  dip 
the  feet  in  till  they  are  well  covered  ; have  some 
fat  scalding  hot,  and  fry  them  in  it  until  quite 
brown.  Serve  with  drawn  butter,  and  a little 
vinegar. 

Pig’s-Head. — {Roasted.) — Take  the  head  of 
a half-grown  pig;  clean  and  split  it,  taking  out 
the  brains  and  setting  them  aside  in  a cool 
place.  Parboil  the  head  in  salted  water,  drain 
off  this,  wipe  the  head  dry,  and  wash  all  over 
with  beaten  egg;  dredge  thickly  with  bread- 
crumbs, seasoned  with  pepper,  sage  and  onion, 
and  roast,  basting  twice  with  butter  and  water; 
then  with  the  liquor  in  which  the  head  was 
boiled ; at  last  with  the  gravy  that  runs  from 
the  meat.  Wash  the  brains  in  several  waters 
until  they  are  white  ; beat  to  a smooth  paste, 
add  one  quarter  pint  fine  bread-crumbs,  and 
season  with  pepper  and  salt;  make  into  balls, 
binding  with  a beaten  egg ; roll  in  flour,  and 
fry  in  hot  fat  to  a light  brown.  Arrange  about 
the  head  when  it  is  dished.  Skim  the  gravy 
left  in  the  dripping-pan,  thicken  with  brown 
flour,  add  the  juice  of  a lemon,  and  boil  up 
once.  Pour  it  over  the  head,  and  serve. 

Pig’s-Head  Cheese.  {See  Souse,  below). — 

Pig’s-Liver  {Fried). — Cut  the  liver  in  slices 
half  an  inch  thick;  pour  boiling  water  over 
them  and  then  drain  it  off;  put  into  a frying- 
pan  and  let  the  liver  cook  in  its  own  juices, 
turning  it  till  it  looks  brown  on  both  sides. 
Take  it  up,  and  pour  into  the  frying-pan  enough 
cold  water  to  make  the  desired  quantity  of 
gravy;  put  in  an  onion  minced  fine,  add’a  bit  of 
butter,  and  a little  salt  and  nutmeg,  and  let  it 
boil  up  once;  put  back  the  liver  for  one  minute, 
then  dish  it,  pour  the  gravy  over  it,  and  serve  hot. 

Roast  Pork. — The  following  are  the  best 
for  roasting,  in  the  order  in  which  they  are 
named:  leg,  loin,  shoulder,  spare-rib,  and  chine. 
When  the  skin  is  left  on  the  joint  which  is  to 
be  roasted,  it  must  be  scored  in  narrow  strips 
of  equal  width,  before  it  is  put  to  the  fire,  and 
laid  at  a considerable  distance  from  it  at  first, 
that  the  meat  may  be  heated  through  before 
the  skin  hardens  or  begins  to  brown  ; it  must 
never  stand  still  for  an  instant,  and  the  basting 
should  be  constant.  Pork  is  not  at  the  present 
day  much  served  at  very  good  tables,  particu- 
larly in  this  form  ; and  it  is  so  still  less  with  the 
old  savoury  stuffing  of  sage  and  onions,  though 
some  eaters  like  it  always  with  the  leg:  when 
it  is  ordered  for  this  joint,  therefore,  prepare  it 


as  directed  under  Stuffings,  and  after  having 
loosened  the  skin  from  the  knuckle  insert  as 
much  as  can  well  be  secured  in  it.  A little 
clarified  butter  or  salad  oil  may  be  brushed 
over  the  skin  at  first,  particularly  should  the 
meat  not  be  very  fat,  but  unless  remarkably 
lean,  it  will  speedily  yield  sufficient  dripping 
to  baste  it  with.  Joints  from  which  the  fat  has 
been  pared,  will  require,  of  course,  far  less  roast- 
ing than  those  on  which  the  crackling  is  re- 
tained. Brown  gravy,  and  apple  or  tomato 
sauce,  are  the  usual  accompaniments  to  all 
roasts  of  pork.  Spare-ribs  and  chine-pieces 
are  dryer  and  consequently  require  more  care- 
ful basting  (with  butter  if  necessary)  than  the 
other  joints. 

A leg  of  pork  weighing  8 lbs  will  require 
three  hours  to  roast;  loin  or  shoulder  of  from 
5 to  6 lbs,  with  the  skin  on,  two  to  two  and  a 
quarter  hours ; spare-ribs  of  6 or  7 lbs,  an  hour 
and  a half ; chine,  about  twenty  minutes  to  the 
pound. 

Souse  of  Pig’s  Ears  and  Feet. — Take  pig’s 
ears  and  feet,  clean  them  thoroughly,  and  soak 
them  in  salt  and  water  several  days.  Boil  them 
till  tender  and  split  them,  and  they  are  then 
ready  for  frying.  If  it  is  desired  to  keep  them 
some  time,  soak  as  above  in  salt  and  water,  and 
then  turn  boiling  vinegar  over  them,  strongly 
spiced  with  pepper-corns  and  mace  ; cloves  im- 
prove the  taste  but  turn  them  a dark  color. 
They  will  keep  good  in  this  pickle  five  or  six 
weeks.  Either  fry  them  plain  in  hot  fat;  or 
make  a batter  with  milk,  egg,  flour,  and  butter, 
and  dip  them  in  it  before  frying;  or  dip  each  in 
beaten  egg  and  then  in  pounded  cracker.  The 
feet  are  excellent  eaten  cold. 

Souse  of  Pig's  Head. — Boil  a pig’s  head 
(with  the  ears  on)  until  the  bones  come  out,  and 
then  chop  the  meat  up  very  fine;  pound  about 
eight  soft  crackers  very  small,  and  mix  them 
with  the  meat  (or  the  crackers  may  be  omitted 
altogether)  ; season  to  taste  with  sweet  herbs, 
spices,  salt,  pepper,  and  a little  vinegar ; mix 
the  seasoning  in  thoroughly,  put  the  souse  into 
a mould,  and  press  it  for  two  or  three  days. 
The  souse  is  then  ready  for  use,  but  if  it  is  de- 
sired to  keep  it  several  weeks,  take  it  from  the 
moulds,  set  it  in  stone  jars  and  cover  it  with 
cold  vinegar.  It  will  keep  then  a month  or  six 
weeks ; if  it  proves  too  acid,  pare  away  the  out- 
side. This  souse  is  usually  sliced  thin  and 
eaten  cold ; but  the  slices  may  be  warmed  in 
a frying-pan  with  a little  butter,  or  dipped  in 
egg  and  cracker-crumbs  and  fried. 

Stewed  Pork. — Bits  of  lean  that  cannot  be 
used  in  any  other  way  will  answer  for  stewing. 
Cut  the  pork  in  pieces  about  an  inch  square, 
put  them  into  a pot  and  pour  on  enough  cold 
water  to  cover  them;  cover  closely,  and  stew 
about  forty  minutes;  then  add  a few  Irish 
potatoes,  parboiled,  skinned,  and  cut  in  thick 
slices;  season  with  salt  and  pepper,  a minced 
shalot,  a bunch  of  sweet  herbs,  and  a table- 
spoonful of  catsup ; cover  again  and  stew 
twenty  minutes  longer,  or  until  the  pork  is 
quite  tender. 


PORRIDGE 


POTATOES 


413 


PORRIDGE. — Set  a pint  each  of  milk  and 
water  over  the  fire ; make  a thin  batter  of  a 
tablespoonful  of  Indian  meal  and  a tablespoon- 
ful of  flour,  and  pour  it  into  the  boiling  milk 
and  water;  salt  it  to  the  taste,  and  boil  ten 
minutes.  This  is  excellent  for  the  sick-room 
when  stronger  food  cannot  be  tolerated.  For 
oatmeal  porridge,  see  oatmeal. 

PORT  WINE. — Pure  Port  is  a dark  purple, 
astringent,  and  full-bodied  wine  brought  from 
Oporto  in  Portugal;  but  it  is  so  generally,  we 
might  almost  say  so  universally  adulterated, 
that  it  would  probably  not  be  possible  to  obtain 
in  this  country  a bottle  of  it  absolutely  pure. 
Even  the  London  dock  Port,  which  claims  to 
be  the  wine  as  shipped  from  Oporto,  has  been 
shown  by  Dr.  Hassell  to  be  adulterated  and 
“ doctored  ” to  a shocking  degree ; and  it  is 
said  that  more  Port  is  sold  in  London  alone 
than  the  entire  vintage  ever  amounts  to.  The 
qualities  of  good  Port  are  : richness  of  flavor 
bordering  upon  sweetness  ; brightness  of  color, 
hue  neither  purple  nor  reddish,  nor  too  deep ; 
a generous,  fruity  taste ; and  oiliness  rather 
than  dryness.  It  should  run  smooth  on  the 
palate,  and  be  free  from  all  heat,  harshness,  and 
acidity.  The  wine  purchased  in  bottles  should 
be  of  the  right  age,  neither  too  green  nor  too 
light  (see  W i nes)  ; they  should  be  clear  and 
bright,  supposing  the  crust  or  deposit  undis- 
turbed. The  beeswing  is  of  little  moment ; it 
is  a natural  deposit,  in  which  potash  predom- 
inates, and  can  be  produced  at  any  time  in  new 
Port  by  putting  the  bottles  into  warm  water, 
raising  it  to  the  boiling  point,  and  then  placing 
them  in  a cool  cellar.  Perhaps  the  most  easily 
applied  test  of  good  Port  is  this  : The  cork, 
when  it  has  dried,  that  is  to  say,  an  hour  after 
it  has  been  drawn,  should  be  covered  on  its 
under  surface,  and  part  of  its  cylindrical  sur- 
face, with  crystals  of  tartar.  If  a good  stock 
be  wanted  buy  in  the  wood,  and  manage 
it  yourself;  if  but  little,  buy  in  the  bottle. 
The  Port  manufactured  in  England  (and  this 
is  the  kind  usually  sold  here)  requires  to  be 
kept  three  or  four  years  in  the  wood  and  as 
many  more  in  the  bottle,  in  order  to  destroy 
the  fiery  strength  of  the  brandy  with  which  it 
is  mixed ; but  before  that  time  elapses  the 
vinous  characteristics  are  often  completely  lost. 

Port  should  be  drunk  at  about  the  temper- 
ature of  the  room ; at  dinner,  with  or  after 
dessert. 

Mulled  Port. — Put  half  a pint  of  water  into 
a sauce-pan,  with  three  ounces  of  sugar  and  a 
little  nutmeg  and  cloves  ; boil  all  together  for  a 
few  minutes  ; then  add  from  six  to  twelve  wine- 
glassfuls  of  rich  port  wine,  and  let  it  boil  up 
once  ; pour  into  a pitcher  and  it  is  ready  for 
use. 

POSSET,  Ale. — Boil  a pint  of  new  milk  with 
a slice  of  toasted  bread  ; pour  a bottle  of  mild 
ale  into  a bowl,  sweeten  and  add  spices,  and 
then  pour  the  boiling  milk  over  it.  A fine  bead 
or  froth  should  rise. 

Sack  Posset. — Boil  a pint  of  cream  with 
some  grated  sweet  biscuits ; add  sugar  and 


season  with  cinnamon  and  nutmeg;  warm  two 
wineglassfuls  of  sherry,  and  stir  into  the  cream ; 
then  pour  the  whole  rapidly  from  one  vessel  to 
another  until  it  is  perfectly  smooth.  Or  it  may 
be  made  with  eggs  beat  up  in  milk  instead  of 
cream. 

Treacle  (Molasses)  Posset. — Set  half  a pint 
of  new  milk  and  half  a pint  of  water  on  the  fire 
in  a sauce-pan,  stir  in  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
molasses,  and  boil  up.  Or  it  may  be  made  of 
milk  without  water  if  desired  very  rich. 

PORTER. — Porter  is  made  almost  exactly 
like  ale  (see  Brewing),  the  chief  difference  be- 
tween it  and  ale  being  that  the  former  derives 
a dark  color  and  astringent  taste  from  the  use 
of  brown  or  highly  dried  malt  ; that  it  contains 
more  hops  than  ale,  and  that  the  saccharine 
matters  have  been  more  exhausted  in  the  fer- 
mentation. Porter,  as  compared  with  ale,  may 
be  considered  a dry  malt  liquor.  It  is  con- 
sidered more  wholesome  and  nourishing  than 
ale,  when  pure ; but  it  is  also  believed  to  be 
more  generally  adulterated  ; that  is,  the  charac- 
teristic dark  color  is  no  longer  produced  by  the 
use  of  brown  or  dried  malt,  but  by  coloring 
substances  and  drugs.  The  common  American 
porter  has  about  the  same  percentage  of  alcohol 
as  ale,  and  is  mild  as  compared  with  English 
porter. 

Brown  Stout  is,  or  ought  to  be,  a superior 
kind  of  porter;  but  nothing  can  be  inferred  as 
to  its  quality  from  its  color,  as  that  is  artificial. 
London  porter  and  Dublin  stout  are  excellent 
porters,  the  latter  being  generally  preferred  in 
this  country.  All  these  porters  are,  of  course, 
imported,  and  are  sold  only  in  bottles. 

POTS.  (See  Ironware.) 

POTASH. — This  was  formerly  called  the 
vegetable  alkali,  because  it  is  obtained  from 
the  ashes  of  land  vegetables.  When  the  ashes 
are  mixed  with  water  the  potash  is  dissolved, 
and  the  earth  and  impurities  settle  to  the  bot- 
tom. This  water  is  then  evaporated  by  boiling 
in  iron  pots,  and  the  solid  substance  that  re- 
mains is  the  potash  of  commerce,  so  called 
from  the  manner  of  its  production.  When 
this  is  strongly  heated  in  a furnace,  it  becomes 
whiter  and  stronger,  and  is  then  Pearlash. 
These  substances,  however,  are  not  pure  pot- 
ash, for  they  are  united  with  carbonic  acid, 
being  thus  carbonate  of  potash.  Potash  de- 
prived of  the  carbonic  acid  by  another  process 
is  called  caustic  potash,  which  instantaneously 
acts  upon  and  corrodes  animal  substances,  and 
is  used  by  surgeons  in  some  of  their  operations. 
The  ordinary  potash  preserves  somewhat  of  its 
causticity,  as  may  be  observed  from  its  effects 
upon  the  skin  in  washing.  Potash,  both  mild 
and  caustic,  is  an  extremely  useful  substance, 
being  employed  in  medicine,  and  for  domestic 
purposes  in  a great  variety  of  ways,  which  are 
described  under  their  respective  heads.  It  is 
also  extensively  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
soap,  in  bleaching,  scouring,  etc.  Salt  of 
Tartar  is  an  impure  carbonate  of  potash. 

POTATOES. — Of  all  fresh  vegetables  grown 
in  temperate  climates  none  is  so  valuable  as 


414 


POTATOES 


the  potato  when  we  have  regard  to  its  agreeable 
flavor  and  its  nutritive  and  medicinal  qualities. 
A native  of  America,  and  unknown  in  Europe 
until  introduced  into  England  by  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh  in  1 584,  it  has  now  been  adopted  in 
almost  every  quarter  of  the  globe.  It  is  the 
more  valuable  as  it  grows  readily  in  nearly 
every  climate,  and  its  culture  is  extremely  easy. 
It  will  succeed  well  on  land  which  will  not  pro- 
duce grain,  and  under  favorable  conditions  a 
given  quantity  of  land  will  produce  many  times 
more  food  than  the  same  quantity  sown  with 
wheat.  The  best  qualities  of  potatoes  are 
grown  in  tolerably  rich  garden  soil.  Cut  the 
seed  potatoes  up  so  as  to  leave  an  “ eye  ” in 
each  piece,  and  plant  in  the  early  spring,  in 
rows  about  three  inches  deep  and  two  feet 
apart ; heap  the  earth  up  in  ridges,  and  when 
frost  comes  cover  them  with  straw, — or  when- 
ever the  tops  wither  they  may  be  dug  and  stored 
in  a dry  cool  place,  but  secure  from  frost.  Of 
the  many  varieties,  Early  Rose  is  as  yet  unsur- 
passed, both  in  its  early  ripening  and  in  its 
prolificness ; the  Peerless  is  one  of  the  best 
late  potatoes  in  cultivation : it  grows  to  a very 
large  size,  is  of  pearly  whiteness,  and  has  a 
delicious  flavor;  Jersey  Peach  Blows  are  al- 
ways good,  but  do  not  yield  so  plentifully.  Be- 
sides these  there  are  the  Carters , Kidneys 
(black  and  white),  Mercers , Buckeyes,  Prince 
Alberts,  Western  Reds,  Dikemans,  Yellow 
Pink-Eyes,  Jackson-whites,  Northern-whites, 
Junes,  Dovers,  etc. 

The  first  new  potatoes  received  in  the  New 
York  markets  in  the  Spring  are  the  Bermudas ; 
they  arrive  in  April.  About  the  first  of  June 
come  the  Charlestons ; about  the  20th,  the  Nor- 
folks , and  early  in  July  those  from  New  Jersey 
and  Long  Island.  The  old  potatoes  are  at 
this  time  scarce,  poor,  and  not  much  sought 
after. 

The  sooner  potatoes  are  placed  in  a dark 
cool  place  after  they  are  taken  out  of  the  ground, 
the  better  they  will  be  both  for  keeping  and 
eating;  if  exposed  to  the  light  and  to  drying 
winds,  they  lose  flavor  and  are  otherwise  in- 
jured. 

Potato-Jlour  is  in  fact,  dry  starch  powder 
procured  from  the  potato,  and  is  much  used  in 
French  cookery  in  fine  bread  and  pastry;  it  is 
also  sold  in  the  stores  here,  but  often  as  arrow- 
root,  to  which  it  is  inferior. 

Sweet  Potatoes. — The  sweet  potato  is  a 
tuberous  root,  of  quite  a different  species  from 
the  common  potato.  It  is  also  a lighter  food, 
but  is  sweet,  wholesome,  and  very  nutritious. 
There  are  many  varieties,  differing  in  size 
shape,  color  and  flavor;  but  it  is  seldom  that 
more  than  two  kinds  appear  in  our  markets — 
the  red  or  purple,  and  the  white  or  yellow.  The 
former  are  mostly  cultivated  in  the  Southern 
States,  and  are  esteemed  for  their  large  size, 
and  sweet  flavor : the  latter  are  grown  in  the 
Northern  States,  chiefly  in  New  Jersey.  Sweet 
potatoes  are  in  season  from  August  until  De- 
cember, after  which  they  begin  to  lose  their 
flavor,  and  towards  Spring  become  spongy,  and 


almost  uneatable.  They  will  keep  through  the 
winter,  however,  in  cool,  dry  cellars;  or,  as  in 
the  South,  banked  up  with  earth  to  keep  out  the 
frost. 

A la  Creme,  ( Potatoes .) — Cut  some  cold 
boiled  potatoes  into  small  pieces.  Put  into  a 
saucepan  three  tablespoonfuls  of  butter,  three 
tablespoonfuls  of  parsley  chopped  fine,  salt 
and  pepper;  stir  together  until  hot,  add  a tea- 
cupful of  milk  or  cream,  thicken  with  two  tea- 
spoonfuls of  flour,  and  stir  until  it  boils ; add 
the  cold  potatoes,  boil  up  once  and  serve. 

A la  Maitre  d’  Hotel.— Cut  cold  potatoes 
into  rather  thick  slices.  Put  two  tablespoon- 
fuls of  butter  into  a stew-pan  and  add  a tea- 
spoonful of  flour;  when  the  flour  has  boiled  a 
minute  or  two  in  the  butter  add  by  degrees  a 
teacupful  of  broth  or  water;  when  this  has 
boiled  up  put  in  the  potatoes,  with  chopped 
parsley,  salt,  and  pepper.  Let  the  potatoes 
stew  for  five  minutes,  then  take  them  from  the 
fire,  and  when  the  boiling  has  subsided,  add 
the  yolk  of  an  egg  beaten  up  with  a little  lemon- 
juice  and  a teaspoonful  of  cold  water  ; as  soon 
as  the  sauce  has  seL  dish  the  potatoes  and 
serve  hot. 

Baked  Potatoes. — Wash  and  put  them 
whole  and  unpeeled  into  the  oven  and  bake 
from  half  an  hour  to  an  hour.  Serve  immedi- 
ately. 

Baked  Sweet  Potatoes. — Bake  them  long- 
er than  Irish  potatoes.  Or,  boil  till  about  half 
done,  and  then  transfer  to  the  oven  and  bake. 
This  is  the  best  way  of  cooking  old. potatoes. 

Boiled  (Uew)  Potatoes. — Procure  them  of 
nearly  equal  size,  and,  if  young,  wash  them 
only ; if  older,  rub  off  the  skin  with  a scrub- 
bing brush  or  coarse  towel.  Drop  into  boiling 
water  and  boil  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  or  till 
tender;  when  dished,  sprinkle  a little  salt  over 
them,  put  in  a lump  of  butter,  shake  up,  and 
serve. 

Boiled  ( Old ) Potatoes. — Pare  or  merely 
wash  them  as  preferred,  and  put  them  into  a 
sauce-pan  of  cold  water  with  a teaspoonful  of 
salt ; boil  them  till  they  are  done,  which  can  be 
readily  ascertained  by  sticking  a fork  into  them ; 
then  drain  the  water  from  them  and  hold  the 
saucepan  (with  the  lid  off)  over  the  fire  for  two 
or  three  minutes,  shaking  well  at  the  end  of 
the  time  ; put  the  lid  on  loosely  so  as  to  allow 
the  steam  to  escape,  and  sprinkle  a very  little 
salt  over  the  potatoes.  Let  them  stand  till 
wanted  ; they  may  remain  in  this  half  an  hour  or 
more,  but  the  sooner  they  are  eaten  the  better. 

Boiled  (Sweet)  Potatoes. — Select  them  as 
nearly  the  same  size  as  possible,  wash  them, 
and  put  them  into  cold  water  without  any  salt ; 
boil  till  a fork  will  easily  pierce  the  largest  one  ; 
then  take  up  and  lay  in  the  oven  to  dry  for  a 
few  minutes.  Remove  the  skins  before  send- 
ing them  to  the  table. 

Broiled  Potatoes. — Parboil,  slice  length- 
wise, and  broil  on  both  sides.  Or,  parboil,  and 
then  set  them  whole  on  the  gridiron  over  a very 
slow  fire,  and  when  thoroughly  done  serve  them 
with  the  skins  on. 


POTATOES 


POULTICES 


415 


Potatoes  Sautes. — Heat  some  dripping  or 
lard  in  a frying-pan,  and  drop  in  some  slices,  or 
broken  pieces  will  do  quite  as  well,  of  cold 
boiled  potatoes ; stir  pretty  constantly  and  in 
about  ten  minutes  they  will  be  browned  enough  ; 
then  drain  off  the  superflous  fat,  season  with 
pepper  and  salt,  and  serve.  (See  Potato 
Chips,  below'.) 

Fried  (Sweet)  Potatoes. — Parboil,  skin,  and 
cut  them  into  thick  slices ; fry  until  tender  in 
butter  or  drippings.  Cold  boiled  potatoes  may 
be  sliced  and  fried  in  the  same  manner. 

Lyonnaise  Potatoes.— Slice  cold  boiled 
potatoes  and  fry  them  brown,  adding  pepper, 
salt,  a little  grated  onion,  and  parsley  chopped 
fine. 

Mashed  Potatoes. — To  two  pounds  of  hot 
potatoes  rubbed  through  the  colander,  add  a 
gill  of  hot  milk,  three  ounces  of  butter,  anti  salt 
to  the  taste ; beat  it  until  light.  Serve  as  a 
dish  or  a garnish.  If  wished,  it  may  be  brown- 
ed in  the  dish  in  which  it  is  to  be  served. 

Pastry  of  Potatoes. — See  under  Pies. 

Potato-Balls. — Mash  some  boiled  potatoes 
to  a smooth  paste  with  a little  cream  (or  butter 
and  milk)  and  a little  salt ; then  form  them  into 
flat  cakes  a half-inch  thick,  and  either  bake  or 
fry  them  brown. 

A very  ornamental  and  excellent  dish  can 
be  made  by  preparing  the  potato  as  above, 
and  then  forming  it  into  balls  the  size  of 
a peach  and  indented  like  one,  or  into  the 
shape  of  a pear ; w'arm  through  and  brown 
slightly  on  one  side  in  a quick  oven.  The 
pears  should  be  served  on  a napkin  with  the 
broad  end  downward,  and  a bit  of  stalk  stuck  in 
the  other  end  ; or  they  may  be  served  in  a well 
thickened  brown  gravy  poured  around,  but  not 
over  them. 

Potato-Chips. — Wash  and  peel  seme  raw 
potatoes,  and  slice  them  very  thin  on  the  pota- 
to cutter;  put  them,  in  a single  layer,  over  the 
surface  of  deep  hot  lard  ; turn  with  a skimmer, 
and  as  soon  as  they  are  a light  brown  place 
them  on  a folded  brown  paper  in  the  mouth  of 
the  oven ; continue  in  this  way  until  all  are 
cooked. 

Potato-Fritters. — Boil  two  large  potatoes, 
and  mash  them  well ; beat  the  yolks  of  four 
eggs  and  the  whites  of  three,  and  add  them  to 
the  potato,  with  a tablespoonful  of  cream,  an- 
other of  sweet  wine,  a squeeze  of  lemon-juice, 
and  a little  nutmeg.  Beat  this  half  an  hour; 
it  will  then  be  very  light.  Put  a good  quantity 
of  lard  into  a frying-pan,  and  drop  a spoonful 
of  the  batter  at  a time  into  it ; fry  them,  and 
serve  with  a sauce  composed  of  one  wineglassful 
of  white  wine,  the  juice  of  a lemon,  one  dessert- 
spoonful of  peach-leaf  or  almond  water,  and 
some  white  sugar  warmed  together. 

Roast  Potatoes. — Boil  till  about  half  done, 
take  off  the  skin,  and  roast  them  in  the  oven 
to  a light  brown.  Or,  put  them  with  the  peel 
on  in  the  ashes  of  a wood  fire.  This  latter  is 
an  excellent  method. 

Roast  (Sweet)  Potatoes.— Select  them  about 
the  same  size,  wash,  wipe  dry,  and  roast  until 


they  yield  readily  to  pressure.  Or,  roast  in  the 
ashes  as  directed  for  Irish  potatoes.  The  lat- 
ter is  the  better  way. 

Scooped  Potatoes. — Wash  and  wipe  some 
large  potatoes  of  a firm  kind,  and  with  a small 
scoop  form  as  many  diminutive  ones  as  will  fill 
a dish  ; cover  them  with  cold  water,  and  when 
they  have  boiled  very  gently  for  five  minutes 
pour  it  off,  and  put  more  cold  water  to  them  ; 
after  they  have  simmered  a second  time  for  five 
minutes,  drain  the  water  quite  away,  place  the 
cover  of  the  sauce-pan  so  as  to  leave  an  inch  or 
more  of  open  space  for  the  moisture  to  evapor- 


Potato  Scoop. 


ate,  and  let  them  steam  by  the  side  of  the  fire 
from  four  to  five  minutes  longer.  Dish  them 
carefully,  pour  white  sauce  over  them,  and 
serve  them  in  the  second  course.  Old  potatoes 
thus  prepared,  have  often  been  made  to  pass 
for  new  ones,  at  the  best  tables,  at  the  season 
in  which  the  fresh  vegetable  was  dearest.  The 
time  required  to  boil  them  will  of  course  vary 
with  their  quality. 

Stewed  Potatoes.  — Pare  the  potatoes, 
quarter  them,  and  soak  in  cold  water  for  half 
an  hour ; put  into  a stew-pan,  with  enough  cold 
salted  water  to  cover  them,  and  stew  until  ready 
to  crumble  to  pieces ; then  drain  off  half  the 
water,  and  add  a teacupful  of  milk  ; boil  three 
minutes,  stirring  pretty  constantly,  and  add  a 
tablespoonful  of  butter,  and  a little  salt  and 
pepper ; thicken  slightly  with  flour,  boil  up 
once,  and  serve  hot  in  a covered  dish. 

Stuffed  Potatoes. — Bake  some  large  mealy 
potatoes,  without  skinning  them.  Cut  a slice 
carefully  off  the  top  of  each,  and  take  out  the 
insides  without  breaking  the  skin ; mash  the 
potato  to  a smooth  paste,  and  flavor  with  cream 
or  milk,  or  butter,  and  salt ; return  this  mixture 
to  the  shells  again,  replace  the  piece  cut  off  the 
top,  and  roast  before  the  fire  for  a few  minutes 
before  serving.  Serve  on  a napkin. 

POT-AU-FEU. — The  following  is  M.  Soyer’s 
receipt  for  this  famous  French  dish:  Put  six 

pounds  of  beef  into  a pot  containing  four 
quarts  of  water,  set  it  near  the  fire  and  skim ; 
when  nearly  boiling  add  a teaspoonful  and  a 
half  of  salt,  half  a pound  of  liver,  two  carrots, 
four  turnips,  eight  young  or  two  old  leeks,  one 
head  of  celery,  two  onions  (one  of  them  burnt), 
with  a clove  stuck  in  each,  and  a piece  of  pars- 
nip. Skim  again,  and  simmer  four  or  five 
hours,  adding  a little  cold  water  now  and  then ; 
skim  off  part  of  the  fat,  put  slices  of  bread  into 
a soup-tureen,  lay  half  the  vegetables  over 
them,  and  pour  in  half  the  broth ; serve  the 
meat  separately  with  the  other  half  of  the 
vegetables. 

POTTERY.  ( See  Earthenware.) 

POULTICES.  When  poultices  are  ordered 


41G 


POULTRY-KEEPING 


by  the  physician,  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
that  they  should  be  well  made  and  properly  ap- 
plied ; and  before  being  put  on  the  skin  they 
should  be  smeared  with  sweet-oil  or  glycerine, 
to  prevent  any  particle  sticking.  For  bread 
and  linseed  poultices — the  ones  most  often  ap- 
plied— no  better  authority  need  be  wanted  than 
the  celebrated  Dr.  Abernethy.  The  bread-a?id- 
water  poultice  he  directs  to  be  made  as  follows  : 
“Put  half  a pint  of  hot  water  into  a bowl ; add 
to  this  as  much  of  the  crumbs  of  bread  as  the 
water  will  cover;  then  place  a plate  over  the 
bowl  and  let  it  remain  ten  minutes ; stir  the 
bread  about  in  the  water,  or,  if  necessary, 
chop  it  a little  with  the  edge  of  the  knife,  and 
draw  off  the  water  by  holding  the  knife  at  the 
top  of  the  bowl,  but  do  not  press  the  bread,  as 
is  usually  done;  then  take  it  out  lightly,  spread 
it  about  one-third  of  an  inch  thick  on  some  soft 
linen,  and  lay  it  upon  the  part.”  Linseed-meal 
poultices , says  the  same  authority,  should  be 
made  as  follows  : “ Scald  your  bowl  by  pour- 

ing a little  hot  water  into  it,  then  put  a small 
quantity  of  finely-ground  linseed-meal  into  the 
bowl,  pour  a little  hot  water  on  it,  and  stir  it 
around  briskly  until  you  have  thoroughly  incor- 
porated them ; add  a little  more  meal  and  a 
little  more  water,  and  then  stir  again.  Do  not 
let  any  lumps  remain  in  the  bowl,  but  stir  the 
poultice  well,  and  do  not  be  sparing  of  your 
trouble.  If  properly  made,  it  is  so  well  worked 
together  that  you  might  throw  it  up  to  the  ceil- 
ing, and  it  would  come  down  again  without 
falling  to  pieces ; it  is  in  fact  like  a pancake. 
What  you  do  next  is  to  take  as  much  of  it  out 
of  the  bowl  as  you  may  require,  and  lay  it  on  a 
piece  of  soft  linen ; let  it  be  about  a quarter  of 
an  inch  thick,  and  so  wide  that  it  may  cover 
the  whole  of  the  inflamed  part.” 

Bran  Poultice. — This  is  often  used  as  a 
fomentation.  A linen  or  flannel  bag  should  be 
made  of  the  size  required,  and  loosely  filled 
with  bran  ; then  boiling  water  should  be  poured 
upon  it  till  it  is  thoroughly  moist ; next  it  is  to  be 
wrung  out  in  a coarse  towel,  and  applied  as  di- 
rected. 

Yeast  Poultice. — This  is  made  by  taking 
one  pound  of  flour,  and  one  ounce  of  yeast, 
boiling  together,  and  spreading  on  linen.  ( See 
Hot-Water  Bag  and  Sponge  Poultice.) 

POULTRY-KEEPING.  — When  properly 
managed,  poultry  are  a source  of  considerable 
profit,  yielding,  when  kept  in  small  flocks,  more 
for  the  food  they  consume  than  any  other  do- 
mestic animals,  except  the  hog,  although  their 
value  is  not  always  fully  appreciated.  Full  di- 
rections for  selecting  and  preparing  the  differ- 
ent varieties  of  poultry  for  the  table  are  given 
under  the  proper  heads  ; here  we  propose  to 
indicate  the  more  important  rules  to  be  ob- 
served in  raising  poultry,  beginning  with 

Chickens. — These  are  the  most  profitable 
and  most  generally  useful  of  the  entire  feath- 
ered tribe.  The  hen  is  peculiarly  an  egg-pro- 
ducing bird ; she  has  the  same  predisposition 
for  laying  that  the  cow  has  for  secreting  milk. 
Some  breeds  are  better  layers  than  others ; but 


with  proper  food  and  favorable  conditions  all 
will  produce  a reasonable  quantity  of  eggs. 

The  food  of  chickens  may  consist  of  the 
different  kinds  of  grain,  either  broken,  ground, 
or  cooked ; roots,  and  especially  boiled  pota- 
toes are  nutritious  and  economical;  and  all 
kinds  of  green  vegetables,  such  as  cabbage, 
lettuce,  chickweed,  most  of  the  grasses,  clover, 
etc.,  are  eagerly  eaten  by  them.  Though  not 
absolutely  essential  to  them,  yet  nothing  con- 
tributes so  much  to  their  laying  as  unsalted 
animal  food.  This  is  a natural  aliment,  as  is 
shown  by  the  avidity  with  which  they  pounce 
on  every  fly,  insect,  or  earth-worm  which  comes 
within  their  reach.  It  would  not,  of  course, 
pay  to  supply  them  with  valuable  flesh,  but  the 
blood  and  offal  of  the  slaughter-house,  refuse 
meat  of  all  kinds,  and  especially  the  scraps  or 
cruddings  to  be  obtained  at  the  melters’  shops, 
after  soaking  for  a few  hours  in  warm  water, 
are  the  most  economical  of  foods  ; mixed  with 
boiled  meal,  the  last  is  extremely  fattening. 
Grain  is  better  for  them  when  cooked  ; they 
will  lay  more,  fatten  quicker,  and  eat  less, 
when  it  is  fed  to  them  in  this  state.  All  the 
grains  are  good  for  them,  including  millet,  rice, 
and  the  oleaginous  seeds,  as  the  sun-flower, 
flax,  etc.  It  is  always  better  to  afford  them  a 
variety  of  grains  which  they  can  procure  at  op- 
tion, and  select  as  their  appetite  craves.  They 
are  also  fond  of  milk,  especially  when  it  has 
become  curdled  ; and  indeed  scarcely  anything 
edible  escapes  their  notice.  It  is  better  to  give 
them  their  food  warm  (not  hot),  and  there  should 
always  be  a plentiful  supply  before  them  to 
prevent  gorging.  The  accompanying  cut  rep- 


Food  Fountain. 


resents  a “food  fountain,”  which  is  very  use- 
ful. The  grain  is  placed  in  the  hopper,  which 
is  closely  covered,  and  the  grain  falls  into  the 
bottom  below.  It  is  accessible  on  four  sides 
by  spring  doors,  which  are  thrown  open  by 
the  weight  of  the  fowl  on  the  connecting  spring. 
One  is  shown  as  opened  by  the  fowl  in  step- 
ping up  to  feed.  This  is  a protection  against 
dirt  and  vermin.  Besides  their  food,  chickens 
ought  to  be  at  all  times  plentifully  supplied 
with  clean  water;  also  with  egg-shells,  or 
pounded  oyster-shells,  old  mortar,  or  slaked 


POULTRY- 

lime.  If  not  allowed  to  run  at  large,  where 
they  can  help  themselves,  they  must  also  be 
furnished  with  gravel  to  assist  their  digestion  ; 
and  a box  or  bed  of  ashes,  sand,  and  dust,  is 
equally  essential  to  roll  in  for  the  purpose  of 
ridding  themselves  of  vermin. 

The  hen-house  should  be  perfectly  dry 
throughout,  properly  lighted,  and  capable  of 
being  made  warm  and  tight  in  winter,  while 
affording  complete  ventilation,  desirable  at  all 
seasons.  In  this  arrange  the  nests  in  boxes  on 
the  sides,  in  such  a manner  as  to  humor  the  in- 
stinct of  the  hen  for  concealment  when  she  re- 
sorts to  them.  When  desirable  to  set  the  hen, 
these  nests  may  be  so  placed  as  to  shut  out  the 
others,  yet  open  into  another  yard  or  beyond 
the  enclosure,  so  that  they  can  take  an  occa- 
sional stroll  and  help  themselves  to  food,  &c. 
This  prevents  other  hens  laying  in  their  nests, 
while  setting ; and  it  may  be  easily  managed  by 
having  their  boxes  placed  on  the  wall  of  the 
building,  with  a moveable  door,  made  to  open 
on  either  side  at  pleasure.  Hens  will  lay 
equally  well  without  a nest-egg,  but  when 
broken  up,  they  ramble  off  and  form  new  nests, 
if  they  are  not  confined.  They  will  lay  if  kept 
from  the  cock.  Hens  disposed  to  set  at  im- 
proper times,  should  be  dismissed  from  the 
common  yard,  so  as  to  be  out  of  reach  of  the 
nests,  and  plentifully  fed  till  weaned  from  this 
inclination.  Young  chickens  require  to  be 
kept  warm  and  dry  for  a few  days  after  hatch- 
ing, and  they  may  be  fed  with  hard-boiled  eggs, 
crumbs  of  bread  or  pudding,  and  milk  or  water, 
and  allowed  to  scratch  in  the  gravel  in  front  of 
the  hen,  which  should  be  confined  in  a coop  for 
the  first  three  or  four  weeks. 

The  diseases  of  chickens  are  not  numerous 
nor  complicated,  and  may  be  avoided  by  proper 
treatment  and  food,  and  by  being  kept  from 
wet  grass  or  damp  ground,  such  as  are  indi- 
cated in  the  foregoing  observations.  Gapes  or 
pip  is  generally  caused  by  drinking  unwhole- 
some or  dirty  water.  A feather  dipped  in  coal 
oil  or  a mild  solution  of  carbolic  acid,  thrust 
down  the  throat,  twisted  and  withdrawn,  is  a 
good  remedy.  Or  compel  the  bird  to  swal- 
low a large  lump  of  fresh  butter  mixed  with 
Scotch  snuff.  After  an  attack,  feed  for  a few 
days  with  light  food,  such  as  soaked  bran  and 
cabbage,  or  lettuce  chopped  fine. 

Roup , which  is  the  most  fatal  of  fowl  dis- 
eases, springs  from  dirty,  badly  kept  chicken- 
houses,  and  generally  attacks  ill-conditioned 
fowls.  It  resembles  glanders  in  the  horse,  is 
very  contagious,  attacking  all  barndoor  fowls ; 
with  geese  and  ducks  is  called  “ Gargle.”  The 
best  cure  is  prevention,  keep  the  fowls  in  better 
order  ; medicines  are  generally  useless,  the  best 
is  salt  and  water  as  an  emetic. 

Flux,  in  fowls  generally,  takes  the  form  of 
dysentery,  and  is  best  treated  by  feeding  with 
rice  or  unground  wheat. 

Megrim,  a very  common  disease  of  poul- 
try, brought  on  by  intestinal  troubles, — may  be 
recognized  by  dizziness,  turning  round,  the 
chicken  falling  on  its  back  and  kicking, — is  quite 
27 


-KEEPING  417 

unmistakable.  The  treatment  is  to  purge  gently 
with  castor  oil,  and  keep  in  a warm  place. 

Blindness  is  also  a common  disease  of 
poultry,  generally  accompanying  “ Roup  ” ; is 
readily  cured  by  dropping  a very  weak  solution 
of  laudanum  with  water  into  the  eye.  Finally, 
in  regard  to  the  diseases  of  poultry  it  should  be 
well  understood  that  they  arise  from  ill-kept 
houses,  and  require  better  management  either 
in  regard  to  cleanliness,  ventilation  or  food. 
Medicines  usually  do  no  good,  and  often  do 
much  harm. 

Of  the  many  varieties  of  chickens  the  Dorking 
is  esteemed  one  of  the  best,  being  large,  well 
formed  and  hardy,  good  layers  and  setters,  and 
excellent  for  the  table  ; they  are  both  white 
and  speckled,  and  generally  have  five  toes.  The 
Poland,  a very  large  breed,  from  8 to  10  pounds, 
is  both  white  and  black,  with  a large  tuft,  gen- 
erally of  white  feathers,  on  the  head  ; they  are 
of  good  size,  and  excellent  layers,  very  large 
eggs,  but  are  seldom  inclined  to  set, which  makes 
them  peculiarly  desirable  for  such  as  wish  eggs 
only.  The  Cochin  China,  is  admired  for  its 
large  size,  its  handsome  appearance,  and  the 
brightness  of  its  colors ; but  more  especially 
for  its  laying  qualities,  and  its  gentle  disposition. 
The  chickens  are  exceedingly  hardy.  A first- 
class  fowl  should  be  large,  square,  and  com- 
pact ; full  in  the  chest ; deep  in  the  keel,  and 
broad  across  the  loins  and  hind  quarters.  The 
head  is  delicately  shaped,  the  tail  short  and 
horizontal,  and  legs  very  short,  yellow,  and 
heavily  feathered.  The  Brahmapootra  is  a 
remarkably  useful  and  hardy  fowl,  Jaying  large 
eggs,  foraging  well  when  at  liberty,  and  good 
setters  and  mothers.  The  chickens  fledge 
early,  grow  fast,  and  are  very  hardy.  These 
birds  when  full-grown  weigh  from  ten  to  twelve 
pounds  each.  The  chief  objection  is  their 
tendency  to  roam, as  they  are  not  satisfied  unless 
they  have  some  acres  of  land  to  wander  over; 
but  when  thus  gratified  they  will  find  food  for 
themselves,  and  live  on  much  less  than  the 
Cochins,  which,  though  great  eaters,  must  have 
all  their  food  provided  for  them.  The  Domi- 
nique is  a speckled  fowl,  of  barely  medium 
size,  compact,  good  layers,  and  valuable  for  the 
table.  The  Bantam  is  but  little  larger  than  a 
pigeon,  and  is  usually  pure  white,  but  some- 
times speckled  ; it  is  very  domestic,  and  a 
pleasant  little  bird  around  the  premises,  and  is 
not  unprofitable.  It  is  generally  feathered  to 
the  toes,  but  may  be  bred  with  clean  legs. 
Should  not  weigh  over  one  pound.  The  Game 
fowlis  of  medium  weight,  and  yields  good  flesh, 
but  is  a poor  layer,  very  quarrelsome  (al- 
together the  best  fowl  to  keep  for  market), 
and  undesirable  to  have  where  there  are  other 
fowls.  Besides  these  there  are  many  fanciful 
varieties,  as  the  Creeper , with  excessively  short 
legs  ; the  Rump  less , without  a tail ; the  Friz- 
zled, with  irregular  feathers  turned  toward  the 
head ; the  Silky  or  Merino  fowl,  with  brown 
or  buff  down  instead  of  feathers  ; the  Negro, 
with  black  crest,  wattles,  legs,  and  feathers; 
several  varieties  of  the  Top-knot,  and  others. 


418 


POULTRY-KEEPING 


As  a rule  in  the  management  of  fowls,  keep 
the  dark  ones  for  laying,  and  fatten  the  light 
ones  for  the  table. 

Duck3. — The  common  or  tame  duck,  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  appears  to  be  a domesti- 
cated variety  of  the  mallard  or  wild-duck,  but 
With  one  important  difference,  consisting  in  the 
practice  of  polygamy  instead  of  the  invariable 
pairing  which  is  the  habit  of  the  wild  duck. 
Ducks  require  water  much  more  than  geese ; 
and  they  do  not  graze,  but  are  hearty  feeders, 
devouring  any  thing  that  comes  to  hand, 
whether  green  vegetables,  or  meal,  or  potatoes, 
or  meat— either  raw  or  dressed — or,  again, 
worms,  slugs,  and  the  larvae  of  insects.  A 
drake  should  be  allowed  four  or  five  ducks;  some- 
times, however,  six  or  seven  will  not  be  found 
too  many.  The  female  lays  for  more  than  three 
months,  sometimes  even  producing  as  many  as 
eighty  eggs.  The  average,  however,  is  not 
more  than  half  this  number.  She  will  cover 
about  twelve  or  fourteen,  and  is  generally  a 
steady  sitter.  Plenty  of  straw  should  be  allowed 
her,  as  she  always  covers  her  eggs  up  when 
she  leaves  them,  and  she  is  often  away  an  hour 
at  a time,  when  the  eggs  are  liable  to  be  chilled 
if  not  well  protected.  The  eggs  are  hatched  at 
the  end  of  a month,  and  the  ducklings  should 
be  kept  from  the  water  for  the  first  week  or  ten 
days.  They  are  easily  reared  on  barley-meal 
and  potatoes,  with  a little  boiled  cabbage  added 
occasionally. 

The  varieties  of  ducks  are  almost  innumer- 
able ; but  the  principal  ones  are  the  white 
Aylesbury , and  the  Rotten,  with  various  crosses 
of  these.  The  Aylesbury  should  be  large,  with 
a perfectly  white  plumage,  yellow  feet,  and  a 
flesh-colored  bill.  The  Rouen  is  a large  dark- 
colored  variety,  resembling  the  wild  duck  in 
all  respects  but  size.  But  the  most  profit- 
able for  domestic  use  is  the  common  black  duck, 
which  is  a prolific  layer. 

Geese. — The  common  goose  is  undoubtedly  a 
descendant  of  the  wild  grey-lag,  though  it  has  by 
long  domestication  lost  the  power  of  sustained 
flight  so  well  marked  in  that  bird.  Like  it,  how- 
ever, it  is  gregarious  ; and  when  many  flocks  are 
kept  together  they  separate  at  night  as  regu- 
larly as  different  families  of  children  coming 
home  from  school.  The  domestic  goose  is  too 
well  known  to  need  description.  One  gander 
is  required  to  three  or  four  geese,  which,  in 
mild  seasons,  lay  early  and  sit  well.  They  re- 
quire a warm,  dry  place  for  their  nests,  and 
when  undisturbed,  they  will  sit  steadily,  and 
if  the  eggs  have  not  been  previously  chilled 
or  addled,  they  will  generally  hatch  them  all, 
if  kept  on  the  nest.  To  insure  this,  it  is  some- 
times necessary  to  withdraw  the  first  hatched, 
to  prevent  the  old  ones  wandering  before  all 
arc  out.  The  young  should  be  kept  in  a warm 
sheltered  place  till  two  or  three  weeks  old,  if 
the  weather  be  cold  or  unsettled.  The  best 
food  for  the  goslings,  is  barley  or  oat,  or  boiled 
Indian  meal  and  bread.  Milk  is  also  good  for 
them.  They  require  green  food,  and  arc  fond 
of  lettuce,  young  clover,  and  fresh  tender  grass  ; 


and  after  a few  weeks,  if  they  have  a free  range 
on  this,  they  will  forage  for  themselves.  Geese 
are  not  profitable  birds  to  raise,  unless  in  places 
where  they  can  procure  their  own  subsistence, 
or  at  least  during  the  greater  part  of  the.  year. 
This  they  are  enabled  to  do  wherever  there  are 
extensive  commons  of  unpastured  lands,  or 
where  there  are  streams  or  ponds,  lakes  or 
marshes  with  shoal,  sedgy  banks.  In  these  they 
will  live  and  fatten  throughout  the  year,  if  un- 
obstructed by  ice.  They  may  be  fed  on  all  kinds 
of  grain  and  edible  roots,  but  it  is  more  econo- 
mical to  give  them  theirfood  cooked.  The  well- 
fattened  gosling  affords  one  of  the  most  savory 
dishes  for  the  table.  Geese  live  to  a great  age ; 
they  have  been  known  to  exceed  100  years,  if 
allowed  a free  range  on  good  food  and  clean 
water,  they  will  seldom  get  diseased.  When 
well  fed,  they  yield  nearly  a pound  of  good 
feathers  in  a season,  at  three  or  four  pluck- 
ings ; and  the  largest  varieties  even  exceed 
this  quantity. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  the  goose  ; but 
the  common  white  and  gray  arc  the  best.  The 
white  Bremcti  is  much  larger,  often  weighing  20 
pounds  net ; it  is  of  a beautiful  snowy  plumage, 
but  it  is  not  as  prolific  and  hardy  as  the  former. 
The  China  goose  is  small,  but  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  of  the  family,  possessing  much  of  the 
gracefulness  of  the  swan ; ’it  is  prolific  and 
tolerably  hardy.  The  Guinea  or  A fricatt  goose 
is  the  largest  of  the  species,  and  equals  the 
swan  in  size,  often  weighing  over  25  pounds 
when  ready  for  the  table. 

Guinea  Fowls. — The  guinea-fowl  is  a native 
of  Africa  and  the  southern  part  of  Asia,  where 
it  abounds  in  a wild  state.  Most  of  them  are 
uniformly  speckled  ; but  occasionally  they  are 
white  on  the  breast,  like  the  Pintados  of  the 
West  Indies,  and  some  are  entirely  white. 
They  are  very  noisy,  and  so  pugnacious  that 
it  is  nearly  impossible  to  keep  them  along  with 
the  poultry.  They  are  of  a roving  disposition, 
and  will  not  thrive  except  in  rural  districts.  The 
hen  must  be  closely  watched  when  about  to 
make  her  nest,  which  she  does  in  the  month  of 
May.  They  mate  in  pairs,  and  the  period  of 
incubation  is  26  days.  When  allowed  to  range 
at  liberty  over  arable  land,  they  require  very 
little  feeding,  and  hence  they  are  kept  by  many 
people ; but  their  habits  are  so  wild,  that  they 
give  an  immense  amount  of  trouble.  From 
the  great  mass  of  feathers,  the  guinea-fowl  looks 
larger  than  it  is,  as  when  plucked  its  size  is  not 
greater  than  that  of  a common  fowl. 

Pea-Fowls. — The  pea-fowl  is  an  ornamental 
bird  only,  and  though  good  for  the  table,  yet  its 
habits  are  so  rambling  and  it  eats  so  much  food, 
that  it  can  scarcely  be  kept  for  the  sake  of  its 
produce.  The  management  is  the  same  as  for 
the  turkey. 

Pigeons. — These  arc  kept  sometimes  in  the 
poultry  yard,  but  unless  they  are  allowed  full 
liberty  to  fly  at  large,  and  pick  up  part  of  their 
living  on  arable  land,  they  arc  not  profitable 
birds.  Their  varieties  are  so  numerous  as  to 
require  a handbook  to  themselves,  if  fully  des- 


POULTRY-KEEPING 

cribed  ; but  for  economical  purposes,  any  of  the 
common  sorts  will  be  found  to  answer  better 
than  the  fancy  pigeons. 

Turkey. — The  turkey  is  a native  of  America, 
and  is  found  wild  at  the  present  day  nearly  all 
over  the  temperate  parts  of  the  continent, 
where  it  is  irregularly  migratory  and  gregarious, 
and  forms  a most  valuable  article  of  food. 
The  domesticated  turkey  is  very  hardy,  and 
braves  our  winters  with  impunity,  preferring 
even  the  imperfect  shelter  of  any  convenient 
tree,  to  any  indoor  lodgings.  But  in  severe 
frost  they  are  not  to  be  left  out  with  impunity, 
as  their  legs  and  feet  are  liable  to  become 
frost-bitten ; they  should  therefore  be  com- 
pelled to  enter  some  outhouse  at  such  times. 
Turkeys  are  very  fond  of  roaming,  and  will  not 
long  thrive  without  being  allowed  to  wander 
over  farm-land,  where  they  pick  and  greedily 
devour  insects  of  all  kinds,  as  well  as  the  ten- 
der heads  of  turnips,  etc.  The  flesh  of  the 
turkey,  both  wild  and  domesticated,  is  exceed- 
ingly "delicate  and  palatable;  and  though  the 
former  does  not  possess  the  high  game-flavor 
of  the  smaller  wild-fowl,  it  exceeds  them  in  di- 
gestibility and  healthfulness.  The  turkey  is 
useful  chiefly  for  its  flesh,  as  they  seldom  lay 
more  than  a nestful  of  eggs  in  one  season, 
when  they  brood  on  these  and  bring  up  their 
young.  If  full-fed,  however,  and  their  first 
eggs  are  withdrawn  from  them,  they  frequently 
lay  a second  time. 

In  choosing  turkeys  for  breeding,  the  cock 
should  be  selected  with  a broad  breast,  clean 
legs, wings  and  tail  ample  and  well-proportioned, 
eyes  bright,  and  the  carniculated  skin  of  the 
head  and  neck  should  be  fully  developed  and 
changeable  in  color.  The  young  cock  is  suffi- 
ciently mature  for  breeding  purposes  at  a year 
old ; but  he  does  not  arrive  at  perfection  till 
three  years  old, and  lasts  till  he  is  double  that  age. 
The  hens  should  be  plump,  lively,  with  plumage 
similar  to  that  of  the  cock  with  which  they  are 
to  be  mated,  so  as  to  avoid  any  mixing  of  colors. 
One  vigorous  cock  will  suffice  for  a flock  of  ten 
or  twelve  hens.  The  laying  generally  com- 
mences in  March,  and  is  indicated  by  the  hen 
assuming  a degree  of  importance  and  restless- 
ness which  is  new  to  her.  She  should  now  be 
closely  watched,  otherwise  she  is  very  likely  to 
“ steal  her  nest,”  as  the  act  of  laying  in  an  out- 
of-the-way  place  is  called.  To  avoid  this,  a 
nest  of  straw,  lined  with  dry  leaves,  should  be 
made  in  some  quiet  out-house,  and  the  hen 
confined  there  every  morning  until  she  has  de- 
posited her  first  egg.  The  turkey  is  a good 
sitter,  and  will  sometimes  lay  one  or  two  eggs 
after  she  has  begun  to  sit ; these  should  be  re- 
moved, as  they  will  not  hatch  at  the  right  time. 
Scarcely  anything  will  induce  her  to  leave  her 
nest,  and  she  must  have  food  and  water  placed 
within  her  reach.  From  the  26th  to  the  31st 
day  the  hatch  takes  place,  and  the  chicks 
should  be  carefully  removed,  by  a person  to 
whom  the  old  bird  is  accustomed,  as  fast  as 
they  are  hatched,  and  kept  in  a warm  basket 
till  all  have  made  their  appearance.  The  young 


POWER  OF  ATTORNEY  419 

if ^ •>) 

may  be  allowed  to  remain  twenty-four  hours 
without  food,  but  should  then  be  fed  with  hard- 
boiled  eggs,  cut  fine,  or  with  crumbs  of  wheat 
bread.  Boiled  milk,  curds,  and  buttermilk  af- 
ford an  excellent  food.  As  they  get  stronger* 
oat  or  barley  meal  is  suitable,  but  Indian  mea|, 
uncooked,  is  hurtful  to  them  while  quite  young. 
They  are  very  tender,  and  will  bear  neither 
cold  nor  wet;  and  it  is  of  course  necessary  to 
confine  the  old  one. for  the  first  few  weeks. 

POWER  OF  ATTORNEY.— A power  of 
attorney,  or  letter  of  attorney,  as  it  is  some- 
times called,  is  an  instrument  ;n  writing,  under 
seal,  whereby  one  person  authorizes  another, 
called  the  attorney,  to  do  some  act  in  his  stead. 
It  may  be  in  the  following  form  : 

Know  all  Men  by  these  Presents: — 
That  I,  John  Doe,  of  the  City,  County  and 
State  of  New  York,  have  made,  constituted  and 
appointed,  and  by  these  Presents  do  make,  con- 
stitute and  appoint  Richard  Roe,  of  said  New 
York,  my  true  and  lawful  attorney  for  me,  and 
in  my  name,  place  and  stead,  to  ( here  insert  a 
particular  description  of  the  business  which  the 
attorney  is  to  transact ),  giving  and  granting 
unto  my  said  attorney  full  power  and  authority 
to  do  and  to  perform  all  and  every  act  and 
thing  whatsoever,  requisite  and  necessary  to 
be  done  in  and  about  the  premises,  as  fully 
to  all  intents  and  purposes,  as  I might  or 
could  do  if  personally  present,  with  full  power 
of  substitution  and  revocation,  hereby  ratify- 
ing and  confirming  all  that  my  said  attorney  or 
his  substitute  shall  lawfully  do  or  cause  to  be 
done  by  virtue  hereof.  In  witness  whereof,  I 
have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal  the  first 
day  of  May,  in  the  year  one  thousand,  eight 
hundred  and  seventy  six. 

Sealed  and  delivered  in  presence  of 
Andrew  Harking, 

Richard  Wright. 

John  Doe.  : l.  s. ; 


The  attorney  may  be  authorized  to  transact 
all  the  business  of  his  principal,  in  which  case 
he  has  a general  authority  ; or  to  do  some  par- 
ticular act  in  behalf  of  his  principal,  as  to  sell 
stock,  in  which  case  he  has  only  a special  au- 
thority. Important  legal  consequences  depend 
upon  this  distinction. 

The  act  of  the  attorney  will  bind  the  princi- 
pal, provided  it  is  within  the  scope  of  the 
authority  conferred  upon  him ; and  if  the  at- 
torney in  such  case  names  his  principal  upon 
entering  into  contracts  with  third  persons,  he 
will  not  be  personally  bound  thereby.  But  if 
an  attorney  assume  to  act  for  another  without 
authority,  or  if  he  exceeds  the  authority  con- 
ferred upon  him,  he  is  personally  liable  to  the 
person  with  whom  he  is  dealing,  although  he 
may  have  been  innocently  mistaken  as  to  the 
extent  of  the  authority  delegated. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  attorney  to  observe  the 
strictest  good  faith  in  his  dealings  for  and  in 
behalf  of  his  principal.  To  observe  faithfully 
the  instructions  received ; to  render  just  and 


420 


PRAIRIE  CHICKEN 


PRESERVES 


true  accounts  ; not  to  mix  the  property  of  his 
principal  with  his  own ; to  notify  his  principal 
of  acts  done  in  his  employment,  and  he  is  not 
allowed  to  retain  for  his  own  use  any  profit  he 
may  have  made  in  the  course  of  the  business 
upon  which  he  may  have  been  employed. 

Any  one  personally  competent  to  do  an  act 
may  authorize  an  attorney  to  do  the  act  in  his 
behalf.  Persons  under  twenty-one  years  of 
age,  and  married  women,  as  a rule,  are  incapa- 
ble of  appointing  an  attorney ; but  they  may 
act  as  attorneys  for  others. 

An  ordinary  power  of  attorney  may  be  re- 
voked at  any  time  by  the  principal,  and  his 
death  always  operates  as  a revocation.  If, 
however,  it  be  coupled  with  an  interest  in  the 
attorney,  as  if  he  be  authorized  to  transfer 
stock  standing  in  the  name  of  the  principal  as 
security  for  a debt  due  him  from  the  principal, 
it  is  irrevocable. 

PRAIRIE  CHICKEN.— Called  also  heath- 
hen  and  pinnated  grouse.  Somewhat  similar  to 
the  partridge  (ruffled  grouse), 
but  is  more  regularly  marked, 
or  barred,  on  the  breast. 
The  tail-feathers  are  fan- 
like, but  quite  short  and 
thick ; and  the  neck  has  on 
each  side  a feathery  mane 
hanging  down.  They  are 
in  season  with  the  partridge 
(which  see),  and  prepared 

in  the  same  way. 

PRAWNS. — Also  called  big  shrimps,  though 
quite  differently  formed,  having  a relatively 
larger  head  and  eyes,  with  a saw-like  beak  or 
crest  which  bends  upwards ; also  a sharp  back 
(especially  near  the  tail),  flat-sided,  and  the 
claws  quite  small.  In  season  from  April  to 
November.  Most  of  them  are  brought  from 
the  south  already  cooked,  and  sold  by  the 
measure.  Prepare,  cook,  and  serve  like 
shrimps. 

PRESERVES.— By  far  the  best  utensil  for 
preserving  purposes  is  the  porcelain-lined  ket- 


tle ; but  the  common  bell-metal  will  answer  if 
it  is  kept  scrupulously  clean , and  scoured  with 
hot  vinegar  each  time  it  is  used.  The  follow- 
ing general  directions  for  making  preserves 
apply  also  to  jams,  jellies  and  marmalades  : 

1.  Let  everything  used  for  the  purpose  be 
delicately  clean  ; cans  and  bottles  especially 
so. 

2.  It  is  best  not  to  place  a preserving-kettle 
flat  on  the  fire , as  this  renders  the  preserves 
[iable  to  burn  to  it.  In  the  ordinary  kitchen- 


range  what  is  called  a low  fire  will  answer,  and 
in  other  cases  some  contrivance  (as  a trivet) 
which  will  lift  the  bottom  of  the  preserving- 
kettle  an  inch  or  two  from  the  coals  should  be 
used. 

3.  Use  granulated  sugar  for  nice  preserves! 
brown  or  moist  sugar  will  affect  both  the  color 
and  the  flavor. 

4.  After  the  sugar  is  added  to  them  stir  the 
preserves  gently  at  first,  and  more  quickly 
toward  the  end,  without  quitting  them  until 
they  are  done;  this  precaution  will  prevent 
the  chance  of  their  being  spoiled  through 
burning. 

5.  All  preserves  should  be  carefully  cleansed 
from  the  scum  as  it  rises. 

6.  Fruit  which  is  to  be  preserved  in  syrup 
must  first  be  blanched  or  boiled  gently,  until  it 
is  sufficiently  softened  to  absorb  the  sugar; 
and  a thin  syrup  must  be  poured  on  it  at  first, 
or  it  will  shrivel  instead  of  remaining  plump, 
and  becoming  clear.  Thus,  if  its  weight  of 
sugar  is  to  be  allowed,  and  boiled  to  a syrup 
with  a pint  of  water  to  the  pound,  only  half  the 
weight  must  be  taken  at  first,  and  this  must  not 
be  boiled  with  the  water  more  than  fifteen  or 
twenty  minutes  at  the  commencement  of  the 
process  ; a part  of  the  remaining  sugar  must 
be  added  every  time  the  syrup  is  reboiled,  un- 
less it  should  be  otherwise  directed  in  the  re- 
ceipt. 

7.  Never  use  tin,  iron,  or  pewter  spoons,  or 
skimmers,  for  preserves,  as  they  will  convert 
the  color  of  red  fruit  into  a dingy  purple,  and 
impart,  besides,  a very  unpleasant  flavor. 

8.  Let  fruit  for  preserving  be  gathered 
always  in  perfectly  dry  weather,  and  be  free 
both  from  the  morning  and  evening  dew,  and  as 
much  so  as  possible  from  dust. 

9.  Put  up  preserves  in  small  jars  in  prefer- 
ence to  large,  and  when  made  keep  them  in  a 
dark,  cool  closet,  which  is  perfectly  dry. 

Apples. — -Select  tart  and  well-flavored  ap- 
ples ; peel  and  remove  the  cores  without  dividing 
them,  and  then  parboil  the  apples.  Make  a 
syrup  by  adding  to  the  apple-water  three-quar- 
ters of  a pound  of  sugar  to  every  pound  of 
apples;  boil  some  lemon-peel  and  juice  in  the 
syrup.  Put  the  apples  into  a preserving-kettle, 
pour  the  boiling  syrup  over  them,  and  let  them 
simmer  (not  boil,  as  that  breaks  the  fruit)  till 
they  are  tender  ; turn  them  gently  while  cook- 
ing. Put  them  into  jars,  and  cover  with  the 
boiling  syrup. 

Apricots. — -Choose  the  fruit  carefully,  large 
and  sound,  and  push  out  the  stones  at  the  stalk 
end  with  a piece  of  wood ; take  equal  weights 
of  fruit  and  sugar,  half  of  the  latter  in  powder 
to  be  strewn  over  the  apricots  and  let  remain 
twenty-four  hours.  Boil  them  gently  a few 
minutes,  and  when  cold,  repeat  the  boiling  at 
intervals  of  four  or  five  hours,  till  the  fruit  be- 
comes clear  and  bright.  Then  take  the  apricots 
out,  and  having  made  a thick,  clear  syrup,  boil 
them  in  it  five  minutes;  put  them  in  jars,  pour 
on  the  syrup,  and  tie  over. 

If  desired,  instead  of  putting  them  in  jars, 


PRESERVES 


421 


the  apricots  may  be  placed  on  wire  drainers  and 
put  into  a slow  oven  to  dry ; when  they  cease  to 
stick  to  the  fingers  if  touched,  they  may  be  put 
away  in  boxes,  with  white  paper  between  each 
layer. 

Barberries. — Pick  the  largest  bunches  of 
barberries,  and  put  them  with  water  to  make 
the  syrup  into  a pan,  and  boil  them  until  tender; 
then  strain  them  through  a sieve,  and  to  each 
pint  of  liquor  add  one  pound  and  a half  of 
loaf-sugar ; boil  and  skim,  and  to  each  pint  of  the 
syrup  put  half  a pound  of  the  fruit  in  bunches, 
and  boil  them  gently  till  bright.  When  cold 
put  them  in  jars,  pour  the  syrup  over  them,  and 
tie  down. 

Cherries. — Use  French  short-stemmed,  or 
Morellas ; stone  them  and  to  every  pound  of 
fruit  allow  a pound  of  granulated  sugar.  Heat 
the  cherries  slowly  and  stew  them  half  an  hour 
in  their  own  juice,  then  add  the  sugar  and  stew 
gently  until  clear,  pour  them  boiling  hot  into 
cans  taken  from  hot  water  and  screw  down  the 
covers. 

Crab-apples.— To  seven  pounds  of  fruit  al- 
low seven  pounds  of  granulated  sugar  and  one 
quart  of  hot  water.  Put  the  sugar  and  water  in 
the  preserving  kettle  and  leave  it  over  boiling 
water  to  dissolve  while  the  fruit  is  being  pre- 
pared. Rub  the  crab-apples  clean,  prick  them 
well  with  a coarse  needle,  nip  off  the  remains 
of  the  flower,  but  do  not  disturb  the  stem ; 
place  the  syrup  where  it  will  boil,  skim  it  well, 
then  add  the  fruit  and  boil  gently  until  it  is  so 
tender  that  a straw  will  reach  the  core.  Put  it, 
boiling  hot,  in  cans  taken  from  hot  water  and 
screw  down  the  covers  at  once.  A can  need 
not  be  heated  if  a silver  fork  is  first  placed  in 
it  and  allowed  to  remain  until  the  can  is  filled  ; 
it  must  be  immediately  withdrawn,  a spoonful 
of  the  boiling  syrup  added  and  the  cover  at 
once  made  fast. 

Cucumbers. — Pare  twenty  large  and  green 
cucumbers,  cut  them  into  pieces,  taking  out  the 
soft  part,  and  put  them  into  a jar,  with  salt  and 
water,  and  set  them  in  a warm  place,  to  become 
yellow.  Then  wash  them,  and  set  them,  cover- 
ed with  cabbage-leaves,  in  a pan  of  water,  on 
the  fire ; cover  the  pan,  to  keep  in  the  steam, 
and  simmer  them  till  of  a fine  green  color.  If 
requisite,  change  the  water  and  leaves,  and  sim- 
mer them  again.  Then  take  them  out,  and 
put  them  into  a sieve  to  cool,  and  put  them  into 
cold  water  two  days,  changing  the  water  four 
times.  Make  a syrup  of  four  pounds  of  loaf- 
sugar  and  one  quart  of  water,  boiling  and  skim- 
ming it  well ; add  the  rinds  of  four  lemons  pared 
thin,  with  three  ounces  sliced  ginger,  and  boil 
all  together  ten  minutes.  Remove  from  the 
fire,  and  when  cool,  put  in  the  cucumbers,  and 
boil  them  until  they  are  clear.  Then  put  them 
in  glasses  or  pots,  strain  the  syrup  over  them, 
when  cool ; and  tie  over. 

Damsons. — Pick  over  the  plums  carefully., 
but  leave  the  stems  on  ; allow  a pound  of  sugar* 
to  a pound  of  fruit ; put  the  plums  in  the  pre- 
serving kettle  ; heat  slowly;  stew  until  the  skins 
are  tender  ; add  the  sugar,  let  the  whole  sim-1 


mer  for  ten  minutes,  then  pour  into  glass  cans 
and  cover  instantly. 

Figs. — Take  ripe  figs,  with  the  stems  on,  and 
let  them  stand  over  night  in  cold  water;  then 
simmer  in  water  enough  to  cover  them,  until 
tender,  and  spread  out  upon  a sieve  to  cool. 
Allow  a pound  of  sugar  and  a teacupful  of  cold 
water  for  each  pound  of  the  fruit ; boil  them 
together  until  the  scum  stops  rising;  then  put 
in  the  figs,  and  simmer  ten  minutes.  Remove 
from  the  fire,  lift  the  figs  out  with  a skimmer 
and  spread  them  on  dishes  to  cool ; add  to  the 
syrup  the  peel  of  one  lemon  and  the  juice  of 
two,  and  a little  ginger  (for  three  pounds  of 
fruit)  and  boil  it  thick ; put  in  the  figs 
again,  and  boil  fifteen  minutes ; fill  the  jars 
nearly  full,  pour  in  the  syrup,  and  when  cold 
tie  up. 

Ginger. — Pare  green  ginger,  and  throw  it 
into  cold  water,  to  keep  its  color;  boil  it  tender 
in  three  waters,  at  each  change  putting  the 
ginger  into  cold  water.  For  each  pound  of 
ginger  allow  one  pound  of  refined  sugar ; when 
cold,  drain  the  ginger,  put  it  into  the  pan  with 
enough  of  the  syrup  to  cover  it,  and  let  it  stand 
for  two  days ; then  pour  the  syrup  to  the  re- 
mainder of  the  sugar,  and  boil  it  for  some  time  ; 
when  cold,  pour  it  upon  the  ginger  again,  and 
set  it  by  for  three  days  ; then  boil  the  syrup 
again,  and  pour  it  hot  over  the  ginger.  Pro- 
ceed thus  till  you  find  the  ginger  rich  and 
tender,  and  the  syrup  highly  flavored.  If  you 
at  first  pour  on  the  syrup  hot,  or  if  it  be  too 
rich,  the  ginger  will  shrink  and  not  take  the 
sugar. 

Preseved  ginger  is  now  imported,  in  large 
quantities,  from  China  and  the  West  Indies; 
the  best  is  that  sold  in  small  bottles.  The 
cheaper  sorts,  in  jars,  with  covers,  are  less 
delicate. 

Gooseberries.— Take  full-grown,  unripe  fruit. 
Follow  the  rule  for  damsons. 

Green-gages I.  Prick  them  all  over  with  a 

pin,  then  put  them  in  scalding  water,  let  them 
simmer  a few  minutes,  and  strain  them ; take 
their  weight  in  sugar,  put  it  into  a preserving- 
kettle  with  a quarter  of  its  bulk  of  water,  let  it 
boil  well,  and  skim  very  clear;  put  in  the  plums, 
let  them  boil  up  once,  take  them  off,  and  set 
them  aside  till  next  day ; then  take  them  out 
one  by  one  from  the  syrup,  boil  it,  and  skim- 
again ; put  in  the  plums  and  let  them  boil  very 
gently  for  twenty  minutes  ; take  them  off  as  be- 
fore, and  let  them  stand  till  cold ; then  put  them 
into  jars  and  tie  up  close. 

U.  Gather  the  largest  gages,  free  from 
specks,  and  just  before  ripe.  Lay  in  the  pan 
vine-leaves,  and  then  the  fruit  in  layers,  with 
leaves  between,  and  covering  them,  fill  up 
with  water,  and  set  itfto  get  hot  on  a moderate 
fire ; skim  them  and  put  the  fruit  in  a sieve  to 
cool ; then  peel  them  and  put  them  again  into 
the  water,  with  fresh  leaves,  and  boil  them 
three  minutes,  keeping  in  the  steam ; set 
them  at  a moderate  distance  from  the  fire,  six 
or  seven  hours,  until  they  become  green  ; then 
put  them  in  a sieve  to  drain,  and  boil  them  up 


422 


PRESERVES 


in  a clear  syrup  once  a day  for  three  successive 
days.  Take  the  gages  out,  put  them  in  glasses 
or  jars,  pour  over  them  the  syrup  when  nearly 
cold  ; and  tie  down. 

Groseilles. — Cut  the  stalks  and  tops  from  a 
gallon  or  more  of  ripe  gooseberries,  put  them 
into  a large  preserving-kettle,  and  boil  them  for 
ten  minutes  in  enough  water  to  cover  them, 
stirring  often  with  a wooden  spoon  ; then  pass 
both  the  juice  and  pulp  through  a fine  sieve,  and 
to  every  three  pounds  weight  of  these  add  half 
a pint  of  raspberry  juice,  and  boil  the  whole 
briskly  for  three-quarters  of  an  hour;  draw  the 
kettle  aside,  and  stir  in  two  pounds  of  sugar; 
when  it  has  dissolved,  renew  the  boiling  for 
fifteen  minutes  longer. 

Melon  (Citron). — Remove  the  soft  pulp;  cut 
according  to  fancy ; pare  smoothly  and  boil 
until  tender,  with  an  ounce  of  alum  to  four 
quarts  of  water.  Allow  a pound  of  sugar  and 
two  fresh  lemons  to  every  pound  of  melon.  Cut 
the  lemon  rind  in  thin  strips  or  in  leaves  and 
boil  until  tender.  Make  the  syrup,  allowing 
half  a pint  of  water  and  the  juice  of  the  lemons 
to  a pound  of  sugar.  When  boiling  and  well 
skimmed  add  the  melon  and  the  rind  of  the 
lemon  ; cook  until  clear.  Put  it  boiling-hot  into 
air-tight  cans.  ( See  Water-melon.) 

Mixed. — I.  Take  two  pounds  of  clear  red 
gooseberry  juice  and  boil  it  for  three-quarters  of 
an  hour;  add  one  pound  of  very  ripe  green-gages, 
weighed  after  they  have  been  pared  and  stoned  ; 
then  stir  to  them  a pound  and  a half  of  sugar, 
and  boil  again  for  twenty  minutes.  If  the 
quantity  be  much  increased,  the  time  of  boil- 
ing must  be  so  likewise ; this  had  better  be 
done  before  the  sugar  is  added.  » 

II.  Take  raspberries,  red  currants,  and  white 
currants,  in  any  proportion  that  may  be  con- 
venient, or  gooseberries  and  black  currants  in 
equal  quantities  ; heat  them  together  carefully, 
and  stew  them  slowly  for  twenty  minutes  or 
half  an  hour,  according  to  their  weight  ; then 
for  each  pound  of  fruit  add  three  quarters  of  a 
pound  of  common  moist  sugar,  dried  and  heated 
before  the  fire ; boil  five  minutes  longer,  and 
then  put  in  jars. 

Oranges. — Put  the  oranges  into  water  and 
boil  till  a straw  will  penetrate  the  rind  easily; 
allow  three-quarters  of  a pound  of  sugar  and 
not  quite  half  a pint  of  water  for  each  pound  of 
fruit,  and  make  a syrup  of  them;  take  the 
oranges  from  the  water  in  which  they  were 
boiled,  pour  the  hot  syrup  over  them,  and  let 
them  stand  in  it  till  next  day ; then  boil  them 
in  the  syrup  till  it  is  thick  and  clear ; put  them 
in  jars,  and  strain  the  syrup  over  them. 

Orange-peel. — Allow  a pound  of  sugar  for  a 
pound  of  fruit ; peel  the  oranges  carefully,  and 
cut  the  peel  into  narrow  strips ; boil  it  till 
tender,  changing  the  water  twice,  adding  hot 
water  each  time;  squeeze  the  oranges  thorough- 
ly, strain  the  juice,  and  add  it  to  the  sugar, 
which  put  on  to  boil;  when  it  is  heated  to 
the  boiling-point,  put  in  the  peel  and  boil 
twenty  minutes ; put  into  jars  and  pour  the 
syrup  over  it. 


Preserve  lemon-peel  in  the  same  way,  allow- 
ing a pound  and  a quarter  of  sugar  to  a pound 
of  fruit. 

Peaches. — I.  Pare  carefully  large  white 
Clingstones  and  remove  the  stones ; boil  till 
tender  in  a thin  syrup  made  of  one-third  of  a 
pound  of  sugar  to  a pound  of  fruit ; put  them  in 
a bowl,  pour  the  syrup  over  them,  and  let  them 
stand  two  days  in  a cool,  dry  place ; then  make 
a rich  syrup,  allowing  three-quarters  of  a pound 
of  sugar  to  a pound  of  the  fruit;  drain  the 
peaches  from  the  first  syrup,  put  them  into  the 
rich  syrup,  and  boil  them  until  they  are  clear. 
Fill  the  jars  about  three-quarters  full  of  the 
peaches  and  fill  up  with  the  syrup. 

II.  Select  the  largest  and  freshest  fruit  ; not 
too  ripe  ; rub  off  the  down  with  a piece  of  old 
linen,  and  divide  the  skin  at  the  seam  with  a 
penknife.  Put  them  into  a jar  of  French  brandy 
and  tie  them  down  for  eight  or  nine  days,  then 
take  out  the  fruit  and  boil  it  in  a fine  clear  syrup 
until  very  bright,  when  put  it  into  glasses,  pour 
the  syrup  over  it,  and  cover  closely. 

Pears. — Allow  three-quarters  of  a pound  of 
sugar  to  a pound  of  firm,  ripe  fruit ; halve  it  and 
avoid  the  stem,  core,  pare  and  boil  in  clear  water 
until  tender;  drop  the  fruit  into  a rich  boiling 
syrup  made  with  the  sugar  and  a little  of  the 
water  in  which  the  pears  were  boiled;  when 
clear,  put  the  fruit  in  glass  cans,  leaving  them 
in  boiling  water  while  the  syrup  boils,  until  thick- 
ened ; then  fill  the  cans  and  cover  at  once. 

Pine-apples.— I.  Select  those  that  are  ripe 
and  perfectly  fresh ; pare  and  cut,  shred  from 
the  core  with  a silver  fork,  in  large  or  small 
pieces  to  suit  the  taste  ; allow  a pound  of  gran- 
ulated sugar  to  every  pound  of  fruit ; heat  the 
pine-apple  slowly  and  let  it  stew  in  its  own  juice 
until  perfectly  tender  ; add  the  sugar  and  let  it 
simmer  five  minutes  ; put  the  fruit  in  glass  cans, 
and  leave  them  in  boiling  water  while  the  syrup 
is  thickened  by  rapid  boiling ; drain  the  thin 
syrup  from  the  cans,  fill  them  with  the  thick 
boiling  syrup,  and  close  at  once. 

II.  After  paring  off  all  the  rind,  grate  the 
pine-apples ; allow  a pound  of  sugar  to  a pound 
of  the  pulp ; and  boil  together  gently  for  half 
an  hour.  This  is  excellent. 

Pine-apples  fresh  for  Christmas. — Select 
large,  fresh  and  ripe  pine-apples,  pare  them 
carefully,  removing  every  eye ; shred  from 
the  core  with  a silver  fork;  allow  a pound 
and  a quarter  of  granulated  sugar  to  every 
pound  of  fruit ; put  them  in  layers  in  a large 
bowl,  stirring  occasionally  to  dissolve  the  sugar; 
then  put  it  in  glass  cans,  and  screw  down  the 
covers  as  tightly  as  possible. 

Plums  (Egg). — Pour  boiling  water  on  them, 
let  them  stand  five  minutes,  and  then  peel 
them  so  carefully  as  not  to  break  the  fruit ; 
make  a syrup  with  a pound  of  sugar  and  not 
quite  half  a pint  of  water  to  a pound  of  fruit ; 
boil  the  plums  in  it  till  clear  and  tender,  then 
remove  them  and  lay  them  on  a dish  to  cool ; 
when  cool  put  them  in  jars,  pour  the  hot  syrup 
over  them,  and  tie  up  closely. 

Plums,  (Purple). — Make  a rich  syrup,  allow- 


PRESERVES 


PRIMROSE 


423 


ing  a pound  of  sugar  and  not  quite  half  a pint 
of  water  to  a pound  of  the  plums ; boil  the 
plums  in  it  slowly  until  the  skins  begin  to  crack ; 
put  them  into  jars,  and  pour  the  syrup  over 
them.  In  three  days  boil  a second  time  gently, 
and  then  tie  them  up. 

Plums  ( White  or  Green'). — Preserve  as  di- 
rected for  egg  plums.  Or  they  can  be  preserv- 
ed with  the  skins  on  by  pricking  them. 

Prunes. — Pour  enough  boiling  water  on  them 
to  cover  them,  add  a lemon  cut  in  small  pieces, 
and  set  them  where  they  will  keep  hot  ; when 
swelled  out  to  nearly  the  original  size,  put  to 
each  pound  of  the  prunes  half  a pound  of 
brown  sugar,  and  a stick  of  cinnamon,  or  a tea- 
spoonful of  ground  cloves ; if  there  is  not 
enough  water  to  cover  the  prunes,  etc.,  add 
more,  and  stew  them  in  the  syrup  a quarter  of 
an  hour.  Add,  when  taken  from  the  fire,  a wine- 
glassful  of  wine  to  every  three  pounds  of  the 
prunes,  and  put  them  into  jars. 

Quinces. — I.  Peel  them,  carefully  taking 
out  the  parts  that  are  knotty  and  defective ; cut 
them  into  quarters,  or  into  round  slices ; put 
them  into  a preserving-pan,  and  cover  them 
with  the  parings  and  a little  water;  cover  them, 
and  boil  them  till  tender.  Take  out  the  quinces 
and  strain  the  liquor  through  a bag.  To  every 
pint  of  liquor  allow  a pound  of  loaf  sugar ; boil 
the  juice  and  sugar  together,  about  ten  minutes, 
skimming  it  well;  then  put  in  the  quinces,  and 
boil  them  gently  twenty  minutes.  When  the 
sugar  seems  to  have  completely  penetrated 
them,  take  them  out,  put  them  into  jars,  pour 
the  boiling  syrup  over  them  and  cover  immedi- 
ately. 

II.  ( Whole .) — Wash  the  quinces  and  steam 
them  until  they  can  be  pierced  to  the  core  with 
a straw  ; when  cold,  core  and  pare  them  as 
smoothly  as  possible.  To  every  pound  of  fruit 
allow  a pound  of  granulated  sugar,  made  into  a 
syrup  with  half  a pint  of  boiling  water  : boil  and 
skim  the  syrup,  lay  the  fruit  in  it,  cover  the  ket- 
tle and  boil  for  ten  minutes  ; remove  the  cover 
and  if  the  fruit  is  not  clear  leave  it  to  simmer 
uncovered  until  it  becomes  so.  Put  it  hot  in 
jars  and  cover  immediately  with  bladder.  It  is 
a great  inconvenience  that  none  of  the  glass 
fruit  cans  are  made  large  enough  to  admit  whole 
quinces,  large  pears  or  peaches.  Paper  dipped 
in  the  white  of  egg  makes  an  air-tight  covering, 
but  it  is  very  frail. 

Strawberries. — Take  equal  weights  of  the 
fruit  and  loaf-sugar ; lay  the  strawberries  in  a 
large  dish,  and  sprinkle  half  the  sugar,  in  fine 
powder,  over ; shake  the  dish,  that  the  sugar 
may  touch  the  under  side  of  the  fruit.  Next 
day  make  a thin  syrup  of  the  remainder  of 
the  sugar,  using  instead  of  water,  one  pint  of 
red  currant-juice  to  every  pound  of  strawber- 
ries ; in  this  simmer  them  until  sufficiently  jel- 
lied. 

Or,  put  the  fruit  and  sugar  together  into  a 
preserving  kettle  ; set  it  over  a slow  fire  until 
the  sugar  melts,  and  then  boil  slowly  until  rich 
and  clear  ; take  out  the  fruit  with  a perforated 
skimmer  and  put  it  into  jars,  filling  them  about 


three-quarters  full  ; boil  the  syrup  five  minutes 
longer,  pour  it  scalding  hot  on  the  fruit,  and 
seal  up  at  once. 

Tomatoes  (Green). — Take  three  pounds  of 
small  green  tomatoes,  and  pour  enough  cold 
water  on  them  to  cover  them  ; add  the  juice  and 
rind  of  two  lemons  (pare  the  rind  thin  so  as  to 
get  none  of  the  white  part),  a few  peach  leaves, 
and  half  an  ounce  of  powdered  ginger  (tied  up 
in  bags).  Boil  the  whole  together  gently  for 
% of  an  hour,  strain  the  liquor,  and  put  to  it  a 
pound  and  a half  of  white  sugar  to  a pound  of 
the  tomatoes— four  and  a half  pounds  in  all ; 
put  in  the  tomatoes  and  boil  gently  till  the  syr- 
up appears  to  have  penetrated  them.  In  the 
course  of  a week  turn  the  syrup  from  them, 
heat  it  scalding  hot,  and  turn  it  on  the  tomatoes. 
Tomatoes  preserved  in  this  manner  resemble 
West  India  sweetmeats. 

Tomatoes  (Ripe). — Procure  three  pounds 
of  round  yellow  tomatoes,  and  peel  them  : add 
three  pounds  of  sugar,  and  let  them  stand  to- 
gether till  next  day : then  drain  off  the  syrup, 
boil  it  till  the  scum  ceases  to  rise,  put  in  the 
tomatoes  and  boil  them  slowly  twenty  minutes ; 
take  them  out  with  a perforated  skimmer,  and 
lay  them  on  a dish;  boil  the  syrup  until  it  thick- 
ens, adding  at  the  same  minute  the  juice  of  a 
large  lemon ; put  the  tomatoes  into  jars,  and 
pour  the  hot  syrup  over  them.  Cover  at  once. 

Watermelon  rind. — This  as  usually  pre- 
served, is  not  only  very  troublesome  to  make, 
but  is  insipid  to  the  taste,  and  far  from  whole- 
some ; but  the  following  receipt  can  be  recom- 
mended : — Take  the  rind  of  a melon  not  quite 
ripe,  and  cut  it  into  moderate-sized  pieces  ; pare 
off  the  outside  “ skin,”  put  it  into  a pan  and 
cover  it  with  salt  water  for  three  days,  changing 
the  water  every  day ; then  put  it  into  clean 
water  for  three  days,  changing  the  water  twice. 
Then  make  a thin  syrup  (a  pound  of  sugar  to  a 
pint  of  water),  and  boil  the  melon  in  it  fifteen 
minutes  a day  for  three  days.  Next,  make  a 
rich  syrup  (a  pound  of  sugar  to  not  quite  half 
a pint  of  water),  add  the  juice  and  rinds  (the 
latter  cut  into  narrow  strips  and  boiled  tender) 
of  one  or  more  lemons  according  to  the  quanti- 
ty of  melon,  and  enough  of  the  best  white  gin- 
ger to  make  the  syrup  strong  of  it ; boil  this  till 
the  syrup  begins  to  thicken,  and  when  cold, 
pour  it  on  the  melon.  This  will  keep  a long  time 
and  be  better  the  second  year  than  the  first. 

PRIMROSE.  — An  early  flowering  plant, 
closely  allied  to  the  Cowslip.  There  are  many 
varieties,  as  the  white,  the  red,  the  yellow-flow- 
ered, etc.  The  Evening  Primrose,  which  is 
the  favorite,  has  odorous  yellow  flowers,  which 
open  in  the  evening ; it  grows  wild  in  many 
parts  of  the  United  States,  and  all  the  species 
are  very  easily  cultivated,  all  that  is  required 
being  to  sow  the  seeds  in  any  good  garden  soil 
early  in  the  spring. 

The  Chinese  Primrose,  of  which  there  are 
single  and  double  varieties,  with  white,  red, 
rosy,  lilac,  striped,  and  mottled  flowers,  is  an 
excellent  plant  for  house  culture.  Sow  the 
seed  in  July  in  a soil  composed  of  one  part 


424 


PRINCESSE  DRESS 


peat,  and  one  part  sand.  Be  sure  that  the 
pots  are  well  drained,  and  never  keep  the  plants 
very  wet.  By  January  the  plants  will  bloom, 
but  they  must  not  be  allowed  to  over-bloom,  as 
they  are  apt  to  do.  After  their  blooming  period 
is  over,  and  when  the  weather  has  become  quite 
warm,  set  them  out  of  doors,  but  do  not  allow 
them  to  bloom  in  the  summer.  Let  them  grow 
till  autumn,  then  repot  in  soil  made  as  before ; 
and  by  Christmas  they  will  begin  to  bloom,  af- 
fording a succession  of  flowers  till  spring. 

PRINCESSE  DRESS.  — This  garment, 
called  also  the  Empire,  and  the  Duchesse  dress, 
is  made  with  waist  and  skirt  of  one  piece,  and 
resembles  the  pattern  of  the  basque,  with  this 
difference  only,  that  the  fronts  are  cut  in  three 
pieces  each,  and  each  part  cut  entirely  separate. 

Having  taken  a length  of  paper  sufficient  to 
extend  from  the  neck  to  the  bottom  of  the  skirt, 
the  length  to  the  waist  is  indicated  by  drawing 
a horizontal  line,  and  the  rest  of  the  paper 
folded  under.  We  then  design  the  outlines  of 
a plain  waist  ( See  W aist).  N ext,  taking  a sixth 
of  the  waist  measure  ( VI.)*  we  lay  it  along  the 
waist  line  beginning  at  the  seam  under  the  arm, 
and  mark  the  other  end.  Then  take  half  of 
this,  or  of  the  entire  waist  measure  and  lay 
it  upon  the  waist  line,  beginning  at  the  front, 
and  mark  the  point  where  it  ends.  We  then 
draw  a vertical  line  from  the  middle  of  the 
shoulder  seam  to  the  point  first  marked  on  the 
waist  line ; and  from  the  point  last  marked  on 
the  waist  line,  a curving  line,  similar  to  the 
front  outline  of  a dart,  to  meet  the  vertical  line 
about  midway  of  its  height.  We  then  cut,  fol- 
lowing these  lines,  and  thus  divide  the  front 


into  two  pieces,  cutting  away  a space  equiva- 
lent to  what  in  the  plain  waist  is  taken  up  for 
darts,  and  the  same  rule  that  determines  the 
height  of  darts  for  persons  of  stouter  figure 
than  the  average,  decides  here  whether  the 
curved  line  shall  meet  the  vertical  midway  of 
the  latter,  or  a little  lower  than  that.  The  por- 


tion of  the  waist  towards  the  arm  is  now  cu 
into  two,  as  shown  in  Fig.  i,  for  the  purpose 
of  obtaining  sufficient  fullness  in  the  skirt. 


*See  Cutting  and  Fitting. 


Fig.  3. 


PRINCESSE  DRESS 


PROMISSORY  NOTE 


425 


Upon  the  paper,  when  unfolded,  we  are  able 
only  to  draw  the  first  part,  I,  of  the  garment 
in  full.  The  pattern  requires  to  be  pieced  at 
the  dotted  line  a a,  for  the  second  and  third 
part.  That  the  size  and  shape  of  these  two 
parts  may  be  perfectly  clear  we  give  the  pattern 
of  each  in  full  after  being  pieced.  Figs.  2,  3. 

In  cutting  the  back,  we  proceed  as  for  a 
basque  ; frequently,  however,  we  cut  the  middle 
of  the  back  in  two  pieces  as  shown  in  figure  4, 
so  that  the  skirt  can  be  cut  with  a bias  seam  in  the 


fullness  can  be  obtained  which  maybe  laid  over 
in  a large,  double  plait,  also  a very  graceful 
effect;  and  for  the  Watteau  plait,  sometimes  so 
much  in  favor,  it  is  only  necessary  to  widen  the 
back  from  the  neck  and  lay  the  material  over 
in  a large  fold. 

In  cutting  the  dress  we  allow  a lining  only 
for  the  waist  and  a few  inches  below.  The 
various  parts  are  put  together  in  the  same  way 
as  those  composing  the  basque  (see  Waist), 
ahd  in  the  order  represented  in  Fig.  5. 

This  pattern  may  be  used  for  a dressing- 
gown  or  wrapper : in  which  case  it  requires  to 
be  made  looser  in  the  waist,  all  the  other  meas- 
ures remaining  the  same. 

PRIVET. — The  Privet  or  Prim  is  one  of  the 
most  desirable  of  the  garden-shrubs ; its  foliage 
is  attractive,  and  its  small  clusters  of  white 
flowers  add  much  to  its  beauty.  It  will  thrive 
in  any  good  garden-soil,  and  when  once  planted 
requires  but  little  attention,  blooming  for  years 
in  the  same  spot.  Its  foliage  and  flowers,  how- 
ever, will  be  more  luxuriant  if  it  is  treated  to  a 
few  shovelfuls  of  compost  yearly.  If  this  com- 
post be  given  in  the  autumn  it  acts  as  a protec- 
tion from  the  frost,  and  can  be  dug  in  around 
the  roots  early  in  the  spring.  It  is  better  to 
plant  shrubs  in  the  autumn  rather  than  in  the 
spring;  but  if  planted  in  the  spring  mulch  some 
stable-litter  around  the  roots  or  a few  inches  of 
hay.  This  will  keep  them  from  drying  up  dur- 
ing the  heat  of  summer. 

PROMISSORY  NOTE.  — A promissory 
note  is  defined  to  be  a written  promise,  by  one 
person  to  another,  for  the  payment  of  money  at 
a specified  time,  absolutely  and  at  all  events. 

The  following  is  a common  form : 

“ #525  t6o°o  New  York,  May  1,  1876. 

“ Sixty  days  after  date,  for  value  received,  I 
“ promise  to  pay  John  Doe,  or  order,  five 
“ hundred  and  twenty-five  dollars,  at 

“ the  N ational  Park  Bank. 

“ Richard  Roe.” 

The  person  making  the  note  is  called  the 
maker,  and  the  one  to  whom,  or  to  whose 
order  it  is  payable,  is  called  the  payee. 

It  is  customary  to  insert  the  words  “value 
received,”  although  it  is  unnecessary. 

Business  men  usually  make  their  notes 
payable  at  some  specified  place,  as  at  the  bank 
where  they  transact  their  business,  or  at  their 
store  or  warehouse. 

A promise  to  pay  to  the  payee  or  order,  as  in 
the  above  form,  or  to  the  payee  or  bearer,  ren- 
ders a note  negotiable.  Where  payable  to  order, 
as  in  the  above  form,  it  is  transferred  by  en- 
dorsement (the  writing  his  name  upon  the  back 
by  the  payee)  and  delivery — where  payable  to 
bearer,  by  delivery  only.  Where  a note  is  pay- 
able to  order,  and  the  payee  endorses  it  by  sim- 
ply writing  his  name  upon  the  back  of  it,  it  is 
called  a blank  endorsement,  and  the  note  there- 
by becomes  payable  to  bearer,  and  may  be 
afterwards  transferred  by  delivery  only.  But 
instead  of  writing  only  his  name  upon  the  back 


426  PROMISSORY  NOTE 


PRUSSIC  ACID 


of  the  note,  the  payee  may  direct  to  whose  order 
the  note  shall  be  payable  by  writing  the  words, 
“ Pay  to  the  order  of  ” over  his  signa- 

ture on  the  back  of  the  note,  which  is  called 
a special  endorsement.  The  person  to  whom 
a note  is  transferred  by  endorsement  is  called 
the  endorsee,  and  the  person  transferring,  the 
endorser.  Any  person  in  possession  of  a 
note,  and  entitled  to  receive  payment  of  it,  is 
called  the  holder. 

The  endorsee  can  endorse  to  a second  en- 
dorsee, and  so  on  indefinitely. 

Days  of  Grace. — A note  payable  on  a cer- 
tain day  or  a certain  time  after  date,  is  entitled 
to  three  days  of  grace,  so  called,  and  becomes 
due  and  payable  three  days  after  the  day 
specified  in  the  note.  If  the  last  of  the  three 
days  of  grace  happens  to  be  a Sunday 
or  legal  holiday,  the  note  is  payable  on  the  day 
preceding.  A note  payable  on  demand  is  not 
allowed  days  of  grace,  but  becomes  due  and 
payable  on  the  day  demand  is  made. 

Demand  and  Notice  of  Non-Payment. — 
When  a note  is  payable  at  a bank  it  must  be 
presented  for  payment  during  banking  hours 
— in  other  cases  it  should  be  presented  during 
business  hours,  or  during  any  time  of  the  day 
when  the  person  who  is  to  pay  may  reasonably 
be  expected  to  be  found  at  his  residence  or 
place  of  business. 

If  a note  due  and  payable  is  not  paid  on 
presentment,  it  is  incumbent  on  the  holder  to 
give  notice  of  that  fact  to  the  endorsers  and 
maker.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  notice 
should  be  in  writing,  although  this  is  usual,  nor 
is  any  particular  form  necessary.  The  party 
liable  must  be  given  a correct  description  of 
the  note,  and  notified  of  its  non-payment,  and 
that  the  holder  looks  to  him  to  pay  it. 

The  notice  of  non-payment  must  be  given 
within  a reasonable  time,  in  order  to  charge 
the  endorser,  and  this  is  now  considered  to  be 
not  later  than  the  first  post  upon  the  day  after 
the  note  was  due  and  payable. 

Endorsement. — An  endorsement  is  an  im- 
plied contract  that  the  endorser  is  the  bona  fide 
owner,  that  all  names  before  his,  of  maker 
and  endorsers,  are  genuine,  that  the  note  shall 
be  duly  paid,  and  if  not,  that  the  endorser  will, 
on  due  presentment  and  notice  of  non-payment, 
pay  it  himself.  When,  however,  the  words 
“without  recourse  ” are  added  to  the  endorse- 
ment, the  above  contract  does  not  arise,  and 
the  endorser  is  not  liable.  When  a note  is 
made  or  becomes  payable  to  bearer,  and  is 
transferred  by  delivery  only,  without  endorse- 
ment, the  person  transferring  does  not  become 
liable  upon  the  note. 

Overdue  Notes. — Where  a note  is  taken 
bona-fide  in  the  regular  course  of  business  be- 
fore it  falls  due,  the  holder  in  a suit  upon  it 
can  shut  out  almost  every  equitable  defence  ; 
but  when  taken  after  it  is  due,  it  is  subject  in 
the  hands  of  the  holder  to  all  the  infirmities 
attaching  to  it  while  in  the  hands  of  the  payee, 
and  before  it  was  negotiated,  and  the  maker 
may  avail  himself  of  any  defence  (want  of  con- 


sideration, for  example),  which  he  might  have 
made  in  a suit  by  the  payee.  In  this  connec- 
tion it  should  be  stated  that  notes  payable 
on  demand  become  overdue  after  the  lapse  of 
a reasonable  time,  although  no  demand  is 
made.  What  is  a reasonable  time,  depends 
upon  the  circumstances  of  each  particular  case. 

Protest. — A protest  is  defined  to  be  “ A nota- 
“ rial  act,  made  for  want  of  payment  of  a promis- 
“ sory  note,  or  want  of  acceptance  or  payment 
“ of  a bill  of  exchange,  by  a notary  public,  in 
“ which  it  is  declared  that  all  parties  to  such 
“ instruments  will  be  held  responsible  to  the 
“ holder.”  Strictly,  protest  is  only  required  of 
foreign  bills  of  exchange  and  is  not  necessary 
in  case  of  promissory  notes  or  inland  bills.  It 
is  now  the  common  practice,  however,  to  pro- 
test notes  and  inland  bills,  and  have  the  notices 
of  non-payment  sent  by  the  notary  making  the 
protest.  This  is  a convenient  way,  as  notaries 
keep  a record  of  the  instruments  protested  and 
notices  sent,  which  renders  it  easy  to  prove 
demand  and  notice,  if  a suit  is  afterwards 
brought. 

PROUD  FLESH. — A term  applied  to  the 
granulations  of  a wound  or  an  ulcer  when  heal- 
ing  by  suppuration.  Its  formation  is  a perfectly 
healthy  process,  being  in  fact  one  of  the  stages 
of  healing,  and  need  excite  no  apprehension. 
If  it  ceases  to  throw  off  pus,  however,  and 
turns  bluish,  it  is  possible  that  mortification 
may  be  indicated,  and  it  is  best  to  consult  a 
physician  concerning  it  with  as  little  delay  as 
possible. 

PRUNES. — These  are  a foreign  variety  of 
the  plum,  dried  or  preserved.  There  is  a great 
difference  in  quality.  Those  from  Turkey  are 
generally  the  best,  but  are  very  seldom  seen  in 
our  market.  The  best  we  are  apt  to  get  come 
from  the  south  of  France,  and  perhaps  the 
very  best  among  them  are  those  known  as  the 
Yquem.  If  they  arrive  fresh  and  well  pre- 
served, any  of  them  are  good  ; but  if  they  be- 
come heated  on  the  passage,  they  “sweat,” 
and  are  candied,  which  gives  them  a whitish 
appearance  and  impairs  their  quality.  The  best 
are  put  up  in  glass  jars,  boxes,  and  other  small 
packages ; those  which  come  in  baskets  or 
casks  are  usually  inferior.  Prunes  are  very 
wholesome,  and  have  the  effect  of  a gentle 
laxative ; on  this  account  they  are  useful  to 
those  who  suffer  from  constipation.  They  are 
also  used  in  the  preparation  of  certain  dishes. 
(See  Preserves.)  Fresh  prunes  arrive  from 
December  to  May. 

PRUSSIC  ACID — (Technically  called  hy- 
drocyanic acid.) — Poison.  Symptoms : Re- 
duced respiration,  the  patient  breathing  but 
about  once  in  ten  seconds.  Treatment ; Arti- 
ficial respiration.  (See  Drowning.) 

If  the  dose  be  of  the  undiluted  acid,  death 
usually  occurs  so  speedily  that  there  is  no  lime 
for  remedies;  sometimes  ammonia  is  tried  with 
a view  to  remove  the  prostration,  but  as  a rule 
with  small  effect.  If  the  dose  be  of  diluted 
acid,  and  time  permits,  send  to  the  druggist’s 
for  a dose  of  hydrated  oxide  of  iron. 


PUDDINGS  427 


This  is  one  of  the  most  virulent  poisons 
known,  an  almost  inappreciable  quantity  laid  on 
the  tongue  being  sufficient  to  produce  death ; 
but,  like  most  poisons,  when  employed  in  very 
minute  quantities,  it  is  a useful  medicine. 
Greatly  diluted  prussic  acid  reduces  sensibility 
of  the  skin,  so  if  there  is  much  pain  or  itch- 
ing in  the  part  such  an  application  often  does 
good.  In  skin  diseases,  when  there  is  much 
itching,  and  the  skin  is  not  broken , there  can 
be  no  better  application  than  a very  weak  solu- 
tion of  prussic  acid  ; for  this  purpose  add  half 
a dram  (fluid)  to  six  ounces  water.  Moderate 
doses  allay  irritability  of  the  stomach,  and 
are  frequently  used  in  all  painful  affections  of 
that  organ,  in  ulcers,  cancers,  and  especially 
in  neuralgia.  It  is  also  used  with  advantage 
in  certain  chest  affections,  in  whooping-cough, 
and  in  functional  or  other  diseases  of  the 
heart.  It  should  never  be  used,  however,  ex- 
cept under  medical  advice,  and  then  with  very 
great  caution. 

PUDDINGS. — All  the  ingredients  for  pud- 
dings should  be  fresh  and  of  good  quality ; the 
slightest  degree  of  mustiness  or  taint  in  any 
one  of  the  articles  of  which  they  are  composed 
will  spoil  all  that  are  combined  with  it.  The 
perfect  sweetness  of  suet  and  milk  should  be 
especially  attended  to  before  they  are  mixed  in 
a pudding,  as  nothing  is  more  offensive  than 
the  first  when  it  is  over-kept,  nor  worse  in  its 
effect  than  the  curdling  of  the  milk,  which  is 
the  certain  result  of  its  being  in  the  slightest 
degree  sour. 

Currants  should  be  cleaned,  and  raisins  stoned 
with  exceeding  care  ; almonds  and  spices  very 
finely  pounded,  and  the  rinds  of  oranges  or 
lemons  rasped  or  grated  lightly  off  (the  white 
part  of  the  skin  having  no  flavor),  when  they 
are  used  for  this,  or  for  any  other  class  of 
dishes ; if  pared,  they  should  be  cut  as  thin  as 
possible. 

Batter  is  much  lighter  when  boiled  in  a cloth, 
and  allowed  full  room  to  swell,  than  when  con- 
fined in  a mould ; it  should  be  well  beaten  the  in- 
stant before  it  is  poured  into  the  cloth  and  put  in- 
to the  water  immediately  after  it  is  securely  tied. 
The  cloth  should  be  moist  and  thickly  floured, 
and  the  pudding  should  be  sent  to  table  as  ex- 


Pudding  Mould. 

peditiously  as  possible  after  it  is  done,  as  it  will 
quickly  become  heavy.  This  applies  equally  to 
all  puddings  made  with  paste,  which  are  ren- 
dered uneatable  by  any  delay  in  serving  them 
after  they  are  ready;  they  should  be  opened  a 
little  at  the  top  as  soon  as  they  are  taken  from 


the  boiler  or  stew-pan  to  permit  the  escape  of 
the  steam  from  within. 

Plum-puddings  which  it  is  customary  to  boil 
in  moulds,  are  both  lighter  and  less  dry  when 
closely  tied  in  stout  cloths  well  buttered  and 
floured,  especially  when  they  are  made  in  part 
with  bread ; but  when  this  is  done  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  allow  them  to  burn  to  the  Bot- 
tom of  the  pan  in  which  they  are  cooked ; and 
it  is  a good  plan  to  lay  a plate  or  dish  under 
them,  by  way  of  precaution  against  this  mis- 
chance ; it  will  not  then  so  much  matter  whether 
they  be  kept  floating  or  not. 

A very  little  salt  improves  all  sweet  puddings, 
by  taking  off  the  insipidity,  and  bringing  out  the 
full  flavor  of  the  other  ingredients,  but  its 
presence  should  not  be  in  the  slightest  degree 
perceptible.  When  brandy,  wine,  or  lemon- 
juice  is  added  to  them  it  should  be  stirred  in 
briskly,  and  by  degrees,  quite  at  last,  as  it 
would  be  likely  otherwise  to  curdle  the  milk  or 
eggs. 

Many  persons  prefer  their  puddings  steamed ; 
but  when  this  is  not  done,  they  should  be 
dropped  into  plenty  of  boiling  water,  and  be 
kept  well  covered  with  it  until  they  are  ready 
to  serve ; and  the  boiling  should  never  be  al- 
lowed to  cease  for  an  instant,  for  they  soon  be- 
come heavy  if  it  be  interrupted. 

Pudding  and  dumpling  cloths  should  not  only 
be  laid  into  plenty  of  water  as  soon  as  they  are 
taken  off,  and  well  washed  afterwards,  but  it  is 
essential  to  their  perfect  sweetness  that  they 
should  be  well  and  quickly  dried  (in  the  open 
air  if  possible),  then  folded  and  kept  in  a clean 
drawer. 

When  a baked  pudding  is  sufficiently  browned 
on  the  surface  (that  is,  of  a fine  amber-color  all 
over)  before  it  is  baked  through,  a sheet  of 


Baked  Pudding  Mould. 


writing-paper  should  be  laid  over  it,  but  not  be- 
fore it  is  set.  When  quite  firm  in  the  centre 
it  is  done. 

All  puddings  which  are  solid  enough  to  al- 
low of  it  should  be  turned  on  to  a hot  dish  from 
the  one  in  which  they  are  baked,  and  strewed 
with  sifted  sugar  before  being  served. 

Minute  directions  for  the  preparation  and 
management  of  each  particular  pudding  will 
be  found  in  the  recipe  for  it. 

To  Mix  Batter  for  Puddings. — Put  the 
flour  and  salt  into  a bowl  and  stir  them  together ; 
whip  the  eggs  thoroughly,  strain  them  through 
a fine  hair  sieve,  and  add  them  very  gradually 
to  the  flour ; beat  it  well  and  lightly  with  the 


428 


PUDDINGS 


back  of  a wooden  spoon,  and  after  the  eggs  are 
mixed  well,  thin  the  batter  with  milk  to  the 
proper  consistence.  The  whites  of  the  eggs 
beaten  separately  to  a solid  froth,  and  stirred 
gently  into  the  mixture  the  instant  before  it  is 
tied  up  for  boiling,  or  put  into  the  baking-oven, 
will,  render  it  remarkably  light.  When  fruit  is 
added  to  the  batter,  it  must  be  made  thicker 
than  when  it  is  served  plain,  or  it  will  sink  to 
the  bottom  of  the  pudding.  Batter  should 
never  stick  to  the  knife  when  the  pudding  is 
served  ; it  will  do  this  both  when  a sufficient 
number  of  eggs  are  not  mixed  with  it,  and  when 
it  is  not  cooked  enough.  About  four  eggs  to 
the  half  pound  of  flour  will  make  it  firm  enough. 

Sauces  for  Puddings. — The  following  com- 
prise some  of  the  best  for  sweet  puddings: 

I.  (Brandy  Sauce.) — Place  on  the  fire  two 
ounces  of  sugar  and  one  tablespoonful  brandy; 
stir  with  a wooden  spoon  until  of  a rich,  dark 
brown  ; then  add  one  half  pint  of  water,  six 
ounces  sugar,  one  thinly  pared  lemon  rind,  lour 
cloves,  one  inch  of  stick  cinnamon,  and  one 
teaspoonful  cornstarch  dissolved  in  a little  cold 
water  ; boil  fifteen  minutes,  strain,  add  one  gill 
of  brandy,  and  serve. 

II.  (Cream  Sauce.) — Heat  a pint  of  cream 
slowly  in  a vessel  set  in  a sauce-pan  of  boiling 
water  ; let  it  just  reach  the  boiling-point,  with- 
out boiling  ; remove  it  from  the  fire,  and  add 
four  tablespoonfuls  of  powdered  sugar  and  the 
whites  of  two  eggs  beaten  to  a froth  ; mix  well, 
and  flavor  with  a teaspoonful  of  nutmeg,  and  a 
teaspoonful  of  vanilla.  Set  the  bowl  in  hot 
water  till  the  pudding  is  served. 

III.  (German  Sauce.) — Boil  together  one  half 
pint  of  milk,  one  half  pint  of  cream,  the  very 
thinly  pared  rind  of  half  a lemon,  one  inch  stick 
cinnamon,  six  cloves,  one  quarter  inch  vanilla, 
bean,  and  a teaspoonful  of  dissolved  cornstarch, 
until  the  sauce  is  very  strongly  flavored. 
Strain- and  pour  it  slowly  on  the  yolks  of  four 
eggs  well  beaten  with  five  ounces  of  sugar 
and  a pinch  of  salt.  Return  it  to  the  fire, 
placed  in  a larger  stew-pan  containing  boiling 
water.  Whisk  the  sauce  well  until  nearly  the 
boiling-point  is  reached  ; when  it  should  have 
the  appearance  of  a thick  cream  highly  frothed, 
and  when  about  to  serve  add  two  tablespoon- 
fuls white  rum,  and  send  to  table  at  once. 

IV.  (Another  German  Sauce.)— Dissolve  in 
half  a pint  of  sherry  or  of  Madeira,  from  three 
to  four  ounces  of  fine  sugar,  but  do  not  allow  I 
the  wine  to  boil  ; stir  it  hot  to  the  well-beaten 
yolks  of  six  fresh  eggs,  and  mill  the  sauce  over 
a gentle  fire  until  it  is  well  thickened  and  highly 
frothed  ; pour  it  over  a plum,  or  any  other  kind 
of  sweet  boiled  pudding,  of  which  it  much  im- 
proves the  appearance.  Half  the  quantity  will 
be  sufficient  for  one  of  moderate  size.  This  is 
a delicious  sauce  for  any  rich  pudding. 

V.  (Hard  Sauce.) — Work  one  and  a half  tea- 
cupfuls of  powdered  sugar  into  half  a teacupful 
of  butter,  and  beat  them  white  ; add  a wine- 
glassful  of  sherry  or  any  white  wine,  the  juice 
of  half  a lemon,  and  spice  to  taste.  Keep  cold. 

VI.  (Lemon  Sauce.) — Beat  a heaping  teacup- 


ful of  powdered  sugar  and  half  a teacupful  of 
butter  to  a light  cream  ; add  an  egg,  well  beaten, 
the  juice  and  half  the  rind  (grated)  of  a lemon, 

1 and  a teaspoonful  of  nutmeg,  or  nutmeg  and 
mace  mixed  ; beat  hard  for  several  minutes, 
and  add  (a  spoonful  at  a time)  three  tablespoon- 
fuls of  boiling  water.  Put  the  bowl  into  a sauce- 
pan of  boiling  water,  and  heat  the  sauce  very 
hot,  but  do  not  let  it  boil.  Stir  constantly. 

VII.  (Liquid  Sauce.) — Boil  I pint  water,  6 oz 
sugar,  4 oz  cornstarch,  dissolved  in  cold  water; 
2 cloves,  a small  piece  of  whole  ginger,  I blade 
of  mace,  for  15  minutes.  Strain,  add  prepared 
cochineal  to  pink  it,  8 drops  of  essence  of  bitter 
almonds,  and  a glass  of  brandy. 

VIII.  (Pineapple  Sauce.) — Pare  a nice  ripe 
pineapple  and  grate  enough  of  it  to  make  the 
quantity  of  sauce  required  ; add  a very  little 
water,  and  simmer  it  quite  tender  ; then  mix 
with  it,  by  degrees,  from  half  to  three  quarters 
of  its  weight  in  sugar,  give  it  five  minutes  more 
of  gentle  boiling,  and  pour  it  over  the  pudding. 

IX.  (Rexford  Sauce.) — Dissolve  half  an  ounce 
of  cornstarch  in  a little  cold  water,  add  two 
gills  of  boiling  water,  with  eight  ounces  brown 
sugar,  boil  ten  minutes;  remove  from  the  fire, 
add  two  gills  of  good,  strong  cider,  4 cup  apple 
sauce,  the  yolk  of  an  egg,  and  2 oz  butter. 

X.  (Vanilla  Sauce.) — Put  half  a pint  of 
milk  to  heat  over  boiling  water;  when  scalding 
hot,  add  the  yolks  of  two  eggs  well  beaten  with 
half  a pint  of  powdered  sugar,  and  stir  until  as 
thick  as  boiled  custard.  Set  it  aside,  and  when 
cool  flavor  highly  with  extract  of  vanilla  ; just 
before  serving  whisk  the  whites  to  a stiff  froth 
and  beat  them  very  gently  in  the  sauce. 

XI.  (Sherry  Wine  Sauce.) — Proceed  as  for 
brandy  sauce,  substituting  sherry  for  brandy. 

XII.  (Port  Wine  Sauce.) — Proceed  as  for 
brandy  sauce,  substituting  port  for  brandy. 

XIII.  (Sauce  Duchesse.) — Dissolve  2 ozs  of 
finely  grated  chocolate  in  1 wineglass  of  cog- 
nac, then  add  gradually  14  pints  of  cream  in 
which  4 a vanilla  bean  has  been  boiled,  beat 
in  the  yolks  of  2 eggs,  make  scalding  hot,  strain. 

XIV.  (Sauce  au  Quatre  Fruits.) — Pare  very 
thinly  the  rind  of  1 lemon,  and  1 orange,  then 
strip  off  every  bit  of  white  skin,  remove  the 
pips  of  each,  and  then  cut  into  small  dice. 
Peel  and  core  3 apples,  and  also  cut  in  dice, 
add  a cupful  of  sultana  raisins,  and  1 oz  of  cit- 
ron cut  very  small.  Make  a spice  sauce  (No. 

I 15),  strain,  add  to  the  apple  as  soon  as  tender, 
add  the  rest  of  the  fruit,  with  4 of  each  lemon 
and  orange  cut  in  small  strips.  Serve  hot. 

XV.  (Spice  Sauce.) — Place  on  the  fire  U pts 
water,  10  ozs  sugar,  8 cloves,  2 blades  mace,  1 
nutmeg,  2 inches  cinnamon,  a small  piece  of 
root  ginger,  and  4 teaspoonful  caraway  seeds  ; 
simmer  gently  half  an  hour,  strain,  and  serve. 

Albert  Pudding,  (Boiled.) — Take  .‘-Butter, 
powdered  sugar,  flour,  stoned  raisins,  each  4 
lb  1 eggs,  5. 

Beat  the  butter  and  sugar  to  a cream,  and 
add  first  the  yolks  and  then  the  whites  of  the 
eggs  beaten  separately  ; then  strew  lightly  in 
the  flour,  dried  and  sifted,  and  last  of  all  the 


PUDDINGS 


429 


raisins,  weighed  after  they  are  stoned.  Put 
these  ingredients,  perfectly  mixed,  into  a well- 
butterecl  mould,  or  floured  cloth;  and  boil  for 
three  hours.  Serve  it  with  a rich  sauce.  A 
little  powdered  mace,  or  the  grated  rind  of  a 
small  lemon  will  vary  the  flavor  of  this  very  ex- 
cellent pudding:  when  a mould  is  used,  slices 
of  candied  peel  should  be  laid  rather  thickly 
over  it  after  it  is  buttered. 

Almond  Pudding  (Baked). — Take  /-Bread 
crumbs,  2 oz  ; cream,  1 pint : pounded  almonds 
)4  lb : bitter  almonds  6 ; yolks  of  7,  whites  of 
3 eggs  > sugar,  6 oz  ; butter,  4 oz  : brandy,  1 
wineglassful,  or  £ glass  of  noyeau. 

Bring  the  cream  to  the  boiling  point,  pour  it 
over  the  bread-crumbs  and  let  them  stand  till 
nearly  cold  : then  mix  in  very  gradually  the 
sweet  and  bitter  almonds  pounded  to  the 
smoothest  paste  with  a little  orange-flower  water 
(or  a few  drops  of  plain  water  will  answer); 
stir  to  them  by  degrees  the  yolks  and  then  the 
whites  of  the  eggs,  the  sugar  (sifted),  and  the 
butter  ; turn  the  mixture  into  a very  clean  stew- 
pan,  and  stir  it  without  ceasing  over  a slow  fire 
until  it  becomes  thick,  but  on  no  account  allow 
it  to  boil.  When  it  is  tolerably  cold,  add  the 
brandy  or  noyeau,  pour  the  pudding  into  a dish 
lined  with  a very  thin  puff-paste,  and  bake  it 
half  an  hour  in  a moderate  oven. 

Apple  Pudding  (Baked). — Take  /-Apples,  1 
lb  ; sugar,  6 oz  ; wine,  1 wineglassful  ; butter,  3 
oz : lemon,  juice  and  rind  of  1 ; eggs,  5 ; flour, 
i dessertspoonful. 

Select  good  cooking  apples,  pare  and  core 
them  and  weigh  out  a pound  ; stew  them  to  a 
perfectly  smooth  marmalade  with  six  ounces  of 
sugar  and  a wineglassful  of  wine ; stir  them 
often  that  they  may  not  stick  to  the  pan.  Mix 
with  them,  while  they  are  still  quite  hot,  the 
butter,  the  grated  rind  and  strained  juice  of  a 
lemon,  and  lastly,  stir  in  by  degrees  the  well- 
beaten  yolks  of  the  eggs,  and  a dessertspoonful 
of  flour,  or  macaroni  crushed  small.  Bake  for 
half  an  hour  in  a moderate  oven,  or  longer  if 
the  pudding  should  not  be  quite  firm  in  the 
middle.  Send  to  table  with  sugar  sifted  over 
the  top. 

Apple  Pudding,  (Dumpling). — I.  In  one 
quart  of  flour  sifted  with  five  even  teaspoonfuls 
of  baking  powder,  rub  two  ounces  of  butter 
and  a pinch  of  salt ; mix  with  three  gills  of  milk 
and  roll  it  into  a sheet  half  an  inch  thick ; pile 
the  centre  with  sour  apples,  pared,  quartered, 
and  cored ; lap  the  crust  over  them,  pressing 
in  the  edges ; turn  it  upside  down  on  a plate  ; 
put  it  in  the  steamer  and  leave  it  over  boiling 
water  for  one  hour.  Eaten  with  sugar  ana 
cream,  or  plain  butter  and  brown  sugar. 

II 7b^v/-Apples,  pared,  cored,  and  sliced, 

i^lbs;  flour,  1 lb;  suet,  6 oz;  lemon,  1. 

Mince  the  beef  suet  very  fine  and  make  a 
light  paste  of  it  and  the  flour;  roll  the  paste 
thin,  and  fill  it  with  the  apples ; add  the  grated 
rind  and  strained  juice  of  the  lemon,  tie  it  in  a 
cloth,  and  boil  it  from  an  hour  and  a quarter  to 
an  hour  and  a half.  Grated  nutmeg,  or  a little 
powdered  cinnamon  may  be  substituted  for  the 


lemon  when  either  is  preferred.  To  convert 
this  into  a richer  pudding  use  half  a pound  of 
suet  for  the  crust,  and  add  to  the  apples  a 
tablespoonful  or  two  of  orange  or  quince  mar- 
malade. 

Arrowroot  Pudding  (Baked). — Make  as 
directed  for  corn-starch  pudding. 

Batter  Pudding  (Baked). — Take  /-Flour,  6 
oz ; eggs,  3 ; milk,  1 pint  ; salt,  1 saltspoonful. 

Mix  the  salt  thoroughly  with  the  flour,  and 
add  very  gradually  the  eggs,  which  must  pre- 
viously have  been  beaten  to  a light  froth  ; beat 
up  the  batter  well,  and  stir  to  it  by  degrees  the 
milk,  which  should  be  perfectly  fresh  ; pour  the 
batter  into  a buttered  dish,  and  bake  three- 
quarters  of  an  hour  in  a moderate  oven.  If 
properly  managed  this  pudding  will  be  ex- 
tremely light  and  delicate,  and  the  surface  will 
be  crisp.  Serve  with  preserved  or  stewed 


Pudding  served  with  Preserves. 

fruit.  The  same  mixture  maybe  baked  in  but- 
tered cups  from  twenty  to  thirty  minutes,  turned 
out,  and  served  with  sugar  sifted  thickly  over. 

Batter  Pudding,  (Boiled.) — I.  Take  /-Flour, 
6'oz ; milk,  1 pint ; eggs,  2 ; salt,  teaspoon- 
ful. 

Beat  the  eggs  smooth,  mix  half  of  the  milk 
with  them,  and  pass  the  whole  through  a sieve; 
add  this  very  gradually  to  the  flour,  and  when 
the  batter  is  perfectly  smooth,  thin  it  with  the 
rest  of  the  milk.  Shake  out  a wet  pudding- 
cloth,  flour  it  well,  pour  the  batter  in,  tie  it  se- 
curely (leaving  room  to  swell),  and  put  it  imme- 
diately into  plenty  of  fast  boiling  water.  Boil 
it  an  hour  and  ten  minutes.  Send  it  to  table 
the  instant  it  is  dished,  with  wine  sauce,  a hot 
compote  of  fruit,  or  raspberry  vinegar.  To 
render  this  pudding  very  light,  a portion  of  the 
whites  of  the  eggs,  or  the  whole  of  them, 
should  be  whisked  to  a froth  and  stirred  into 
the  batter  just  before  it  is  put  into  the  cloth. 

II — Take:-F\our,  sifted,  3 gills  ; eggs,  3 ; 
salt,  -J  teaspoonful  ; milk,  from  ) to  a whole 
pint. 

Mix  the  yolks  of  the  eggs  and  the  flour  to  a 
smooth  batter,  thin  with  milk  till  it  is  of  the 
consistence  of  cream  ; whisk  the  whites  of  the 
eggs  separately,  stir  them  into  the  batter,  and 
boil  the  pudding  in  a floured  cloth,  or  in  a but- 
tered mould  or  bowl,  for  an  hour.  Before  it  is 
served,  cut  the  top  quickly  with  a large  dice 
half  through  the  pudding,  pour  over  it  a small 
jarful  of  currant,  raspberry,  or  strawberry  jelly, 
and  send  itjto  table  instantly 


430 


PUDDINGS 


Berry  Pudding  (Boiled). — Make  a stiff  bat- 
ter with  flour  and  cold  water,  adding  a little 
salt;  beat  it  well  until  quite  smooth,  and  then 
mix  in  as  many  berries  (blackberries,  raspber- 
ries, huckleberries  and  currants)  as  it  will  hold  ; 
flour  a pudding-cloth,  pour  in  the  batter,  and 
tie  up  tight.  Boil  it  four  hours.  Serve  with 
liquid  sauce. 

Bird’s-nest  Pudding  (Baked). — Pare  tart, 
well-flavored  apples,  and  core  without  dividing 
them ; put  them  in  a deep  dish  with  a table- 
spoonful of  sugar  and  a small  bit  of  mace  or 
grated  lemon-peel"  in  the  opening  of  each  apple. 
Mix  as  much  custard  as  will  fill  the  dish;  allow 
seven  eggs  to  a quart  of  milk,  and  season  with 
sugar  and  lemon,  or  peach-water.  Fill  the  dish 
quite  full,  set  it  into  a pan  with  a little  water, 
and  bake  one  hour.  Serve  with  wine  sauce. 

Brandy  Pudding  (Boiled). — -Line  a mould 
with  raisins,  stoned,  or  dried  cherries,  then 
with  thin  slices  of  F rench  roll ; next  add  ratafias 
or  macaroons;  then  again  fruit,  rolls,  and  cakes 
in  succession  until  the  mould  be  full,  sprinkling 
in  two  wineglassfuls  of  brandy.  Beat  four  eggs, 
yolks  and  whites ; put  to  a pint  of  milk  or 
cream,  lightly  sweetened,  half  a nutmeg,  and 
the  rind  of  half  a lemon  finely  grated.  Let  the 
liquid  sink  into  the  solid  part;  then  flour  a 
cloth,  tie  it  tight  over,  and  boil  one  hour.  Keep 
the  mould  the  right  side  up. 

Bread  Pudding  (Baked). — I.  Take  ."-Bread- 
crumbs, 6 oz;  butter,  I oz  ; milk,  I pint ; sugar, 
3 oz;  eggs,  5 yolks,  3 whites  ;. candied  orange- 
peel,  2 oz;  a little  nutmeg. 

Pour  the  milk  boiling  hot  over  the  bread- 
crumbs, add  the  butter,  and  let  them  stand  till 
the  bread  is  well  soaked ; then  stir  to  them  the 
$igar,  eggs,  orange-peel,  and  a flavoring  of  nut- 
meg. Pour  this  into  a dish,  and  place  it  in  the 
oven  ; when  nearly  baked,  place  lightly  over 
the  top  the  whites  of  three  eggs  beaten  to  a 
firm  froth  and  mixed  at  the  instant  with  three 
heaping  tablespoonfuls  of  sifted  sugar.  Bake 
the  pudding  half  an  hour  in  a moderate  oven. 
The  icing  may  be  omitted,  and  an  ounce  and  a 
half  of  butter,  just  warmed,  put  into  the  dish 
before  the  pudding,  and  plenty  of  sugar  sifted 
over  it  just  as  it  is  sent  to  the  oven.  Or,  it 
may  be  made  without  either,  and  served  with 
liquid  sauce. 

II. — • 7h/fr."-Bread-crumbs,  8 oz;  milkfi  pint; 
butter,  3 oz;  sugar,  4 oz;  currants,  6 oz;  cream, 
1 ,gill ; candied  orange  or  citron,  1^  oz;  eggs,  5. 

Mix  the  milk  and  cream  together,  boil  them, 
and  pour  them  s jalding  hot  on  the  bread-crumbs 
and  butter ; cover  with  a plate  and  set  aside  for 
half  an  hour;  then  stir  to  them  the  sugar, 
currants,  orange  or  citron,  and  eggs.  Bake 
half  an  hour. 

Bread  Pudding  (Boiled.) — Take  ."-Milk,  1 
pint;  sugar,  3 oz;  butter,  1 oz;  salt,  a pinch; 
bread-crumbs,  y2  lb  ; eggs,  4 ; nutmeg  or  lemon- 
peel  to  taste. 

Dissolve  the  sugar  in  the  milk,  throw  in  a 
pinch  of  salt,  and  pour  it  boiling  hot  on  the 
bread-crumbs  ; add  the  butter,  and  cover  with 
a plate  ; let  them  stand  half  an  hour,  and  then 


stir  to  them  the  eggs,  well-beaten  ; flavor  with 
nutmeg  or  lemon-peel,  and  pour  the  mixture 
into  a thickly-buttered  mould  or  bowl,  which 
holds  a pint  and  a half,  and  which  should  be 
quite  full ; tie  a paper  and  a cloth  over  the  top, 
and  boil  the  pudding  an  hour  and  ten  minutes. 

This  is  quite  a plain  pudding,  but  by  omitting 
two  ounces  of  the  bread,  and  adding  more  but- 
ter, another  egg,  a wineglassful  of  brandy,  the 
grated  rind  of  a lemon,  and  as  much  sugar  as 
will  sweeten  the  whole,  a very  rich  pudding  will 
be  obtained.  Candied  orange-peel  has  a good 
effect  when  thinly  sliced  in  it ; and  half  a pound 
of  currants  is  a still  further  improvement. 

Bread  and  Butter  Pudding  (Baked). — 
I.  Take:- Bread  and  butter;  milk,  \'/2  pints; 
sugar,  4 oz;  eggs,  4;  y2  nutmeg;  currants, 
3 oz. 

Dissolve  the  sugar  in  the  milk,  and  stir  it 
into  the  eggs  well  beaten ; grate  half  a nutmeg 
over  them,  and  pour  the  mixture  into  a dish 
which  holds  about  three  pints,  and  which  is 
filled  almost  to  the  brim  with  layers  of  stale 
bread  and  butter,  between  which  the  currants 
have  been  strewed.  Bake  from  three-quarters 
of  an  hour  to  an  hour.  The  currants  may  be 
omitted  from  this  receipt;  and  orange-flower 
water  or  grated  lemon-peel  may  be  substituted 
for  the  nutmeg,  if  preferred. 

II.  ( Rich .) — Take:-W\W,  1 pint;  rind  of  1 
lemon;  bitter  almond,  6 (or  drachm  of  cin- 
namon); cream,  % pint;  sugar,  4 oz;  eggs,  6; 
brandy,  1 wineglassful ; bread  and  butter,  3 
layers ; currants,  4 oz ; candied  orange  or 
lemon-peel,  1 y2  oz. 

Put  the  bitter  almonds,  bruised,  (or  lemon- 
peel,  or  cinnamon,  as  may  be  preferred,)  into 
the  milk,  and  simmer  till  the  latter  has  a good 
flavor ; then  strain  the  milk,  mix  it  with  the 
cream,  sweeten  it  with  the  sugar,  and  stir  into 
it  while  still  hot  the  weH-beaten  eggs;  throw  in 
a few  grains  of  salt,  and  then  add  the  brandy, 
stirring  the  mixture  briskly.  Have  ready  in  a 
thickly-buttered  dish  three  layers  of  thin  bread 
(buttered),  with  the  currants  and  finely-sliced 
candied  peel  strewed  between  and  over  them ; 
pour  the  milk  and  eggs  on  them  by  degrees, 
letting  the  bread  absorb  one  portion  before 
another  is  added.  It  should  soak  for  a couple 
of  hours  before  being  taken  to  the  oven.  Bake 
half  an  hour  in  a moderate  oven.  The  cream 
may  be  omitted  from  this  pudding,  and  milk 
alone  used ; or,  cream  may  be  substituted  for 
the  entire  quantity  of  the  milk. 

Cabinet  Pudding  (Boiled). — I.  Take  /-Rais- 
ins or  dried  cherries,  3 dozen  ; penny  sponge- 
cakes (or  remnants  of  sponge-cake),  3 oz; 
macaroons,  4 ; ratafias,  2 oz ; candied  citron, 
\y2  oz;  eggs,  yolks  of  four,  whites  of  three; 
milk,  y2  pint;  cream,  £ pint;  sugar,  iy2  oz. 

Split  and  stone  the  raisins,  or  take  an  equal 
number  of  dried  cherries,  and  place  either  of 
them  regularly  in  a sort  of  pattern  in  a thickly- 
buttered  quart  mould  or  bowl ; next,  slice  and 
lay  into  it  the  sponge-cake ; add  the  macaroons, 
ratafias,  and  candied  citron  (sliced  thin);  then 
the  yolks  and  the  whites  of  the  eggs  beaten 


PUDDINGS 


431 


separately,  mixed  with  the  milk,  strained  into  i 
the  cream,  and  sweetened  with  the  pounded 
sugar  ; these  ought  nearly  to  fill  the  mould. 
Steam  the  pudding,  or  boil  it  very  gently  for  an 
hour;  let  it  stand  a few  minutes  before  it  is 
dished,  that  it  may  not  break;  and  serve  with 
brandy  or  wine  sauce.  This  pudding  may  be 
made  with  remnants  of  light  ijiscuits,  sponge- 
cake, macaroons,  etc. 

n.  ( Very  Fine.) — 7h&?.--Dried  cherries  or 
raisins,  3 to  4 oz;  sponge-biscuits,  '/2  lb  ; rata- 
fias, 4 oz ; thin  cream,  or  cream  and  milk,  1 
pint ; sugar,  3 oz ;’  vanilla,  Y pod  or  thin  rind 
of  Yz  lemon,  and  six  bitter  almonds,  bruised  ; 
eggs,  yolks  of  6,  whites  of  2 ; brandy,  1 wine- 
glassful  ; preserved  ginger  and  candied  citron 
to  taste. 

Butter  thickly  a quart  mould  or  bowl,  and 
ornament  it  tastefully  with  the  cherries,  or  with 
the  finest  muscatel  raisins,  opened  and  stoned; 
lay  lightly  into  it  the  biscuits  cut  in  slices  and 
intermixed  with  the  ratafias.  Add  the  sugar  in 
lumps  to  the  milk,  and  flavor  lightly  with  the 
vanilla,  or  the  lemon  peel  and  bitter  almonds  ; 
strain  and  pour  this  hot  to  the  eggs,  well- 
beaten,  and  when  nearly  cold  stir  the  brandy  in 
gradually  ; when  quite  cold,  pour  it  gently,  and 
by  degrees,  into  the  mould,  and  steam  or  boil 
the  pudding  gently  for  an  hour.  Serve  it  with 
wine-sauce.  Never  omit  a buttered  paper  over 
any  sort  of  custard-mixture  ; and  remember 
that  quick  boiling  will  spoil  the  appearance  of 
this  pudding. 

Cherry  or  Currant  Pyramid  (boiled). — 

Wash  and  stem  the  cherries,  or  pick  the  stems 
off  the  currants.  Make  a light  paste  (see  Pies, 
roll  it  out  a quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  and  cut  for 
the  bottom  crust  a round  piece  about  the  size  of 
a tea-plate ; spread  a layer  of  the  fruit  upon  this, 
leaving  a half-inch  margin  all  round,  and  sprinkle 
with  sugar;  roll  out  a second  sheet,  an  inch 
smaller  than  the  first,  lay  it  carefully  on  the 
fruit,  and  turn  up  the  margin  of  the  lower  crust 
over  the  edge  of  this  ; spread  this  in  turn  with 
the  fruit  and  sugar,  and  cover  with  a still 
smaller  round  ; proceed  in  this  manner  until  the 
sixth  and  last  crust  is  no  more  than  three  inches 
in  diameter.  Have  ready  a pudding-bag  of  the 
size  and  shape  of  the  pudding  and  long  enough 
to  meet  and  tie  under  the  base  without  cramp- 
ing the  pudding,  dip  it  in  boiling  water,  flour  it 
well  inside,  and  draw  it  carefully  over  the  pyra- 
mid. Boil  it  for  two  hours,  and  serve  with  either 
hard  or  liquid  sauce.  To  aid  in  handling,  form 
the  pyramid  on  a plate,  and  tie  the  bag  under- 
neath ; serve  the  pyramid  on  the  same  plate,  if 
liked,  with  a napkin  placed  between  it  and  a 
larger  plate. 

Cocoanut  Pudding  (baked). — Take 
Cocoanut,  bitter,  and  sugar,  equal  parts  ; eggs, 
5 ; cream,  one  teacupful ; grated  lemon  peel. 

Grate  the  cocoanut,  and  allow  the  same 
weight  of  butter  and  also  of  fine  white  sugar. 
Stir  the  butter  and  sugar  to  a light  cream,  and 
add  tHe  eggs,  well  beaten,  the  cream,  the  milk  of 
the  cocoanut,  and  enough  grated  lemon-peel  to 
flavor  the  whole.  Line  a dish  with  a rich  paste 


put  in  the  pudding,  and  bake  it  an  hour  in  a 
moderate  oven.  Cover  with  letter-paper  if  the 
top  browns  too  rapidly. 

Corn-starch  Pudding  (baked). — Take:- 
Corn-starch,  4 tablespoonfuls ; milk,  1 quart ; 
eggs,  4;  sugar,  Y teacupful;  butter,  1 table- 
spoonful ; cinnamon  and  nutmeg  to  taste. 

Heat  the  milk  to  boiling  ; dissolve  the  corn- 
starch in  a little  cold  milk,  stir  it  in,  and  boil 
three  minutes,  stirring  constantly ; remove  from 
the  fire  and  while  still  very  hot,  add  the  butter ; 
set  aside  till  cold.  Beat  the  eggs  very  light, 
the  whites  and  yolks  separately,  mix  the  sugar 
and  seasoning  with  them,  and  add  to  the  corn- 
starch ; beat  the  whole  thoroughly  to  a smooth 
custard;  turn  into  a buttered  dish,  and  bake 
half  an  hour.  This  pudding  should  be  eaten 
cold  with  powdered  sugar  sifted  over  it. 

Cracker  Pudding  (baked). — Take  /-Crack- 
ers, finely  pounded,  10  oz;  sugar,  3 or  4 table 
spoonfuls ; melted  butter,  2 tablespoonfuls ; 
wine,  1 wine-glassful;  half  a nutmeg;  a little 
salt ; eggs,  8 ; milk  3 pints. 

Mix  the  crackers  (which  should  be  very  finely 
pounded)  with  the  sugar,  butter,  wine,  nutmeg, 
and  salt, — and  put  into  a buttered  dish ; beat 
the  eggs  to  a froth,  stir  in  the  milk,  and  turn 
them  on  the  rest  of  the  ingredients.  Let  the 
pudding  stand  till  the  crackers  are  swollen  and 
soft ; then  bake  it  half  an  hour  in  a moderate 
oven.  * 

Custard  Pudding  (baked). — Take:-Eggs,  7 ; 
sugar,  Y lb ; milk,  1 quart ; peach-water  or  es- 
sence of  lemon  to  taste. 

Beat  the  eggs  and  sugar  together,  stir  them 
into  the  milk,  and  season  to  taste  with  the  peach- 
water  or  lemon ; pour  it  into  a buttered  dish 
that  will  just  hold  it;  set  a pan  half  full,  of 
water  into  the  oven,  and  set  the  pudding-dish 
into  it.  Bake  three  quarters  of  an  hour. 

Custard  Pudding  (boiled). — (Take  .--Eggs,  3; 
*milk,  1 pint ; sugar ; lemon  or  orange. 

Beat  the  eggs  very  light,  put  them  into  a pint 
bowl,  and  add  to  them  enough  milk  to  fill  it ; 
then  strain,  flavor,  and  sweeten  it  with  pounded 
sugar ; boil  the  pudding  very  slowly  for  half  an 
hour,  iet  it  stand  a few  minutes,  and  dish  ; serve 
it  with  sugar  sifted  over,  and  sweet  sauce  in  a 
tureen,  or  send  stewed  currants,  cherries,  or 
gooseberries  to  table  with  it.  For  flavoring  this 
pudding  the  sugar  (in  lumps)  with  which  it  is 
sweetened  may  be  rasped  on  a lemon  or  an 
orange,  then  crushed  and  dissolved  in  the  milk ; 
from  an  ounce  and  a half  to  two  ounces  will  be 
sufficient  for  general  taste. 

Delmonico  Pudding  (baked). — Take:- Milk, 
1 quart;  corn-starch,  4 tablespoonfuls  ; eggs,  4; 
sugar,  9 tablespoon  fuls ; flavor  to  taste. 

Dissolve  the  corn-starch  in  a little  cold  milk, 
add  it  to  the  rest  of  the  milk,  and  boil  three 
minutes ; beat  the  yolks  of  the  eggs  with  six 
tablespoonfuls  of  sugar,  stir  in  the  milk  and 
corn-starch,  and  flavor  to  taste  ; beat  the  whites 
of  the  eggs  to  a stiff  froth,  add  three  table- 
spoonfuls of  powdered  sugar  and  flavor ; set 
the  pudding  in  the  oven  and  as  soon  as  it  stiff- 
* ens,  spread  the  icing  (white  of  eggs  and  sugar) 


432 


PUDDINGS 


over  the  top,  and  bake  to  a light  brown.  Eat 
cold  with  cream. 

Dutch  Custard,  or  Raspberry  Pudding 
(Baked). — Take  .-Raspberries,  I J^pints;  sugar, 
6 oz ; eggs,  6. 

Line  a tart-dish  with  puff-paste  and  lay  in  the 
raspberries  well  mixed  with  three  ounces  of  the 
sugar;  beat  the  eggs  with  the  remaining  three 
ounces  of  sugar,  and  pour  it  over  the  fruit ; 
bake  the  pudding  from  twenty  to  twenty-five 
minutes  in  a moderate  oven. 

Farina  Pudding  (Baked). — Make  as  direct- 
ed for  corn-starch  pudding. 

Fruit  Pudding  (Boiled).  — Make  a light 
rich  suet  paste,  and  roll  out  into  one  sheet  ; 
lay  apples,  pared,  cored,  and  sliced,  or 
peaches,  or  raspberries,  in  the  centre  ; sweeten 
freely  with  sugar,  and  close  the  paste  snugly 
over  them  ; dip  a pudding-cloth  in  hot  water, 
flour  the  inside,  tie  the  pudding  up  in  it  and 
boil  two  hours  and  a half.  Serve  with  either 
hard  or  liquid  sauce. 

Gooseberry  Pudding  (Baked). — Take 
Green  gooseberries,  i lb  ; sugar,  5 oz  ; butter,  1^ 
oz  ; water,  % pint ; bread-crumbs,  2 oz  ; eggs,  4. 

Boil  the  sugar  and  gooseberries  together  in 
the  water,  from  ten  to  twelve  minutes  ; then 
beat  the  fruit  to  a mash,  and  stir  in  the  butter ; 
when  nearly  or  quite  cold,  add  the  bread-crumbs 
(very  fine),  and  the  well-beaten  eggs.  Bake  in  a 
slow  oven  from  a half  to  three-quarters  of  an 
hour.  To  make  a richer  pudding  of  this  kind, 
press  the  fruit  through  a sieve,  mix  it  with  four 
or  five  crushed  crackers,  and  use  double  the 
quantity  of  butter. 

Green  Corn  Pudding  (Baked). — Having 
grated  sweet  corn  from  eighteen  good  sized 
ears,  add  half  a gill  of  sugar,  four  ounces  of 
butter,  a little  salt  and  six  well  beaten  eggs ; 
stir  in  a pint  of  hot  milk,  pour  the  whole  into  a 
buttered  baking  dish,  and  bake  nearly  an  hour. 

Or,  to  corn  from  twelve  ears  add  two  ounces 
of  butter,  a pinch  of  salt,  two  well  beaten  eggs, 
a pint  of  hot  milk  and  half  a gill  of  sugar ; bake 
three-quarters  of  an  hour.  Instead  of  grating 
the  corn,  slit  every  row  lengthwise  ; cut  off  the 
rounding  part  and  with  the  back  of  the  blade, 
push  out  the  eyes  and  the  cream. 

Hasty  Pudding. — Put  a quart  of  water  and 
a teaspoonful  of  salt  over  the  fire ; when  hot 
(not  boiling)  take  out  half  a pint  and  mix  it 
with  half  a pint  of  corn  meal,  when  the  water 
boils  pour  this  in  and  stir  until  it  thickens 
enough  for  the  spoon  to  stand  up  in  it, 
then  let  it  boil  slowly  (stirring  occasionally) 
for  an  hour  and  a half.  It  is  nice  the  next  day 
cut  in  slices  and  fried,  but  for  this  must  be 
made  stiffer;  a gill  of  meal  should  be  added. 
It  must  be  perfectly  cold  before  it  is  fried; 
then  cut  it  in  slices  half  an  inch  thick,  flour 
them  and  fry  them  brown  in  a little  lard. 

Huckleberry  Pudding  (Boiled) Mix  a 

teaspoonful  of  soda  in  a pint  of  molasses  (dis- 
solving it  first  in  a spoonful  of  the  molasses) stir 
in  a quart  or  three  pints  of  huckleberries,  and 
sift  in  one  quart  of  flour;  tie  it  in  a floured  bag, 
leaving  a little  room,  and  boil  or  steam  it  from 


three  to  four  hours.  Eaten  hot  with  sauce ; 
spices  may  be  added,  if  liked. 

Indian-meal  Pudding  (Baked). — I Take  : 
— Boiling  milk,  1 pt.;  corn  meal,  3 gills;  molasses, 
3 gills ; ginger,  1 tablespoonful ; cinnamon,  1 
teaspoonful ; salt,  y.  a teaspoonful ; drippings 
(or  butter),  1 oz  ; eggs,  3 ; lemon  (grated  rind),i. 

Pour  the  milk  on  all  the  ingredients  but  the 
eggs  ; cover  for  an  hour  ; add  the  well-beaten 
yolks  and  the  whites  whisked  to  a stiff  froth ; 
bake  about  three-quarters  of  an  hour,  stirring 
occasionally  during  the  first  quarter. 

H.  ( Without  Eggs). — Take  .--Indian  meal, 
7 heaping  tablespoonfuls;  butter  or  lard,  2 
tablespoonfuls  ; salt,  1 teaspoonful ; molasses, 
1 teacupful ; ginger  or  cinnamon,  2 teaspoonfuls  ; 
milk,  1 quart. 

Pour  the  milk  boiling  hot  to  the  other  ingre- 
dients, and  mix  together  thoroughly;  put  into 
a buttered  dish,  and  at  the  moment  of  setting  it 
in  the  oven,  stir  in  a teacupful  of  cold  water ; 
bake  three  quarters  of  an  hour. 

Indian-meal  Pudding  (Boiled). — Take 
Indian-meal,  1 quart;  milk,  1 quart;  eggs,  3; 
sugar,  3 heaping  tablespoonfuls ; beef-suet 
minced  very  fine,  y2  lb ; salt,  1 teaspoonful. 

Pour  the  milk,  boiling  hot,  upon  the  meal 
and  stir  in  the  suet  and  salt ; set  aside  to  cool ; 
beat  the  yolks  of  the  eggs  with  the  sugar,  add 
them  to  the  batter,  and  then  add  the  whites  ; 
tie  in  a floured  cloth,  leaving  room  tosw'ell  one- 
fourth  and  boil  five  hours.  Serve  hot  with 
butter  and  sugar. 

Lemon  Pudding  (Baked). — Take  .-Butter, 
30Z;  sugar,  1 lb;  eggs,  9;  lemons,  2;  flour, 
i|  even  teaspoonfuls;  milk  1 pt. 

Beat  the  yolks  and  sugar  until  very  light ; 
add  the  butter  with  which  the  flour  has  been 
smoothly  mixed;  then  the  juice  and  grated 
rind  of  the  lemons;  stir  in  the  milk,  and  then 
beat  in  very  gently  and  thoroughly  the  whites, 
whipped  to  a stiff  froth;  line  a dish  with  very 
thin  puff-paste,  pour  in  the  pudding,  and  bake 
in  a slow  oven  three-quarters  of  an  hour. 

Lemon-suet  Pudding  (Baked). — Take 
Bread-crumbs,  £ lb  ; beef  suet,  6 oz ; pounded 
sugar,  3 £ oz ; lemon,  large  one  ; currants,  6 oz ; 
eggs,  4 large  or  5 small. 

Mince  the  suet  very  fine,  and  mix  it  with  the 
bread  crumbs  ; add  the  sugar,  the  currants,  the 
grated  rind  and  strained  juice  of  the  lemon,  and 
the  well  beaten  eggs  ; mix  together  thoroughly, 
put  into  a thickly  buttered  dish  and  bake  in 
a brisk  oven  for  an  hour,  drawing  the  dish  to- 
wards the  mouth  of  the  oven  when  the  pudding 
is  of  a fine  brown  color.  Turn  it  from  the 
dish  before  it  is  served,  and  sift  sugar  fiver  it 
or  not,  at  pleasure.  Two  ounces  more  of  suet 
may  be  added  if  a very  decided  flavor  of  it 
is  liked ; the  pudding  is  good  without  the  cur- 
rants. 

Macaroni  Pudding  (Baked).  — Take 
Macaroni,  1 teacupful,  broken  into  pieces  an 
inch  long;  milk,  1 quart;  eggs,  4;  sugar,  X 
teacupful;  butter,  2 tablespoonfuls;  lemon,  y2. 

Simmer  the  macaroni  in  half  the  milk,  until 
tender ; beat  the  yolks  of  the  eggs  up  with  the 


PUDDINGS 


433 


sugar,  and  stir  them  into  the  macaroni,  then 
the  butter,  the  lemon,  the  milk , and  lastly  the 
whites  of  the  eggs  beaten  to  a stiff  froth  ; put 
into  a buttered  mould  and  bake  half  an  hour, 
or  until  browned. 

Marrow  Pudding  (Baked  or  Boiled). — 

Take  .--Beef-marrow,  lb ; milk,  I quart  ; the 
crumbs  of  a French  roll  or  of  six  penny  sponge- 
cakes ; currants  kflb  ; candied  citron,  3 oz  ; 
brandy,  3 tablespoonfuls  ; grated  nutmeg,  1 ; 
eggs,  yolks  of  8 and  whites  of  3 ; salt,  i tea- 
spoonful ; lemon,  peel  of  1 ; cinnamon. 

Boil  the  lemon-peel  and  a small  piece  of  cin- 
namon in  the  milk  ; strain  it,  and  pour  it  boiling 
hot  upon  the  bread  or  cake-crumbs,  and  cover 
it  up  till  cool  ; then  stir  in  the  beef  marrow, 
chopped  fine,  the  currants,  the  candied  citron, 
sliced,  the  brandy,  the  nutmeg,  the  yolks  and 
then  the  white  of  the  eggs,  with  the  salt  mixed 
in  them.  Bake  three-quarters  of  an  hour  in 
a dish  edged  with  paste,  and  serve  with  loaf- 
sugar  sifted  over  it.  Or  boil  two  hours,  and 
serve  with  sweet  sauce. 

Orange  Pudding  (Baked). — Cream  an  ounce 
of  butter  and  stir  in  the  grated  yellow  rind  of 
two  oranges,  the  juice  and  soft  pulp  of  three, 
half  a pint  of  sugar,  four  and  a half  even  table- 
spoonfuls of  rolled  and  sifted  crackers,  four  well 
beaten  eggs  and  half  a pint  of  milk  ; mix  well 
and  bake  in  deep  plates  lined  with  paste.  Or, 
use  half  a pound  of  sugar,  quarter  of  a pound 
of  butter,  six  eggs,  (the  whites  beaten  to  a stiff 
froth),  the  grated  rind  and  juice  of  two  oranges 
and  a pint  of  cream. 

Pine-apple  Pudding  (Baked).  — Take:- 
Pine-apple,  1 ; sugar,  equal  weight ; butter, 
half  its  weight ; cream,  1 teacupful ; eggs,  5. 

Pare  the  pine-apple,  carefully  cutting  out  all 
the  specks,  and  grate  it  fine  ; weigh  it  and  allow 
an  equal  weight  of  sugar,  and  half  the  weight 
in  butter;  stir  the  sugar  and  butter  to  a cream, 
and_  add  it  to  the  pine-apple ; then  add  the  eggs, 
wel;  beaten,  and  the  cream  ; the  dish  may  be 
lined  with  crust  or  not,  as  preferred.  Bake 
half  an  hour  in  a moderate  oven. 

Plum  Pudding  (Baked).  — Take  .--Beef 
suet,  i lb ; stoned  raisins,  \ lb ; currants,  i lb  ; 
su»ar>  4 lb;  flour,  4 lb;  eggs,  4;  milk,  1 tea- 
cupful ; brandy,  1 wineglassful ; candied  citron, 
and  lemon  or  orange-peel,  1 oz  each  ; nutmeg  or 
powdered  ginger,  to  taste ; a small  pinch  of 
salt. 

Beat  the  above  ingredients  together  very 
lightly,  pour  it  into  a well-buttered  mould  or 
cake-tin,  and  bake  in  a moderate  oven  from  one 
to  one  and  a half  hours.  Serve  with  very 
sweet  sauce,  or  with  marmalade. 

Plum  Pudding  (Boiled).— I.  Take .--Eggs, 
4;  milk,  1 pint;  salt,  1 teaspoonful;  beef-suet, 
chopped  very  fine,  4 lb. ; raisins,  stoned  and 
chopped,  1 lb  ; currants,  J-  lb  ; brown  sugar  | 
lb  ; nutmeg  1 grated  ; candied  lemon  or  orange- 
peel,  sliced,  1 oz;  brandy,  1 wineglassful; 
white  wine,  1 wine-glassful ; flour. 

Beat  up  the  eggs  well,  and  add  to  them  first 
half  a pint  of  the  milk  and  a teaspoonful  of  salt ; 
then  mix  in  the  beef-suet,  the  raisins,  currants, 
28 


sugar,  nutmeg,  and  candied  peel ; stir  all  well 
together,  and  add  the  rest  of  the  milk  ; next 
beat  in  sufficient  flour  to  make  it  a stiff  paste  ; 


adding  the  brandy  and  wine ; tie  it  up  close,  and 
boil  it,  if  in  a mould  five  hours,  if  in  a cloth, 
four. 

For  Sauce  melt  some  butter;  stir  in  enough 
loaf-sugar  to  make  it  very  sweet ; add  a wine- 
glassful  each  of  brandy  and  white  wine  ; boil  it 
up  once,  and  pour  half  over  the  pudding,  and 
serve  the  rest  hot  in  a sauce-boat. 

Plum  puddings  may  be  made  a fortnight  or 
longer  before  they  are  wanted,  and  will  be  all 
the  better  for  keeping,  if  hung  up  in  a dry  place 
where  they  will  not  mould. 

Potato  Pudding.  (Baked). — I.  Take 
Potatoes,  1 l/i  lbs  ; butter  3 oz ; sugar  5 or  6 oz  ; 
eggs,  5 or  6;  lemon-peel,  1 ; salt,  a few  grains. 

Boil  the  potatoes  very  dry  and  mash  them 
perfectly  smooth  while  hot ; mix  with  them  first 
the  butter,  then  the  sugar,  eggs,  salt,  and  grated 
lemon-peel ; pour  the  mixture  into  a well  but- 
tered dish,  and  bake  in  a moderate  oven  forty 
minutes.  It  should  be  turned  out  of  the  dish 
and  sent  to  table  with  fine  sugar  sifted  over  it  ; 
or  for  variety,  red  currant  jelly,  or  any  other 
preserve,  may  be  spread  on  it  as  soon  as  it  is 
dished. 

When  cold,  this  pudding  is  like  cake. 

11.  (Richer). — Take  /-Potatoes,  14  oz;  butter, 
4 oz ; sugar,  4 oz  ; eggs,  5 ; lemon-peel,  1 ; 
brandy,  % wineglassful;  candied  peel,  i'/2  to  2 
oz ; a little  salt. 

Beat  up  as  before,  and  pour  into  a thickly 
buttered  dish  or  mould,  ornamented  with  slices 
of  the  candied  orange  or  lemon-peel ; pour  a 
little  melted  butter  on  the  top,  and  then  sift 
plenty  of  white  sugar  over  it.  Bake  40  minutes. 

Quince  Pudding  (Baked). — Th’/tiv-Quinces, 
6 large  ; sugar  | lb  ; eggs,  6 ; cream,  4 pint. 

Pare  and  grate  the  quinces  ; beat  the  eggs  and 
add  them,  together  with  the  sugar  and  cream ; 
flavor  with  rose-water  and  bake  in  a buttered 
dish  three  quarters  of  an  hour. 

Raisin  Pudding  (Baked).— l.-Take  .--Flour 
^ lb ; stoned  raisins,  H lb ; beef-suet,  6 oz ; 
salt,  small  pinch  ; eggs,  3 ; milk  X pint ; nut- 
meg, 4 teaspoonful. 

Beat  the  eggs  thoroughly,  stir  the  milk  in,  and 
add  to  the  rest  of  the  ingredients ; pour  the 
whole  into  a buttered  dish,  and  bake  it  an  hour 
and  a quarter.  For  a large  pudding,  increase 
the  quantities  one  half. 

II.  (Richer). — Take  .--Stoned  raisins,  1 lb; 
beef-suet,  minced  fine,  10  oz  ; flour,  % lb  ; salt, 


434 


PUDDINGS 


a small  pinch ; nutmeg,  '/*  grated  or  the  grated 
rind  of  a lemon  ; eggs,  4 ; milk. 

Mix  the  above  ingredients  lightly  together 
using  as  much  milk  as  is  necessary  to  make  the 
whole  into  a very  thick  batter ; bake  an  hour 
and  twenty  minutes.  The  addition  of  sugar  to 
this  pudding  will  be  found  no  improvement,  as 
it  will  render  it  much  less  light. 

Raisin  Pudding  (boiled). — I.  Take 
Flour,  y2  lb  ; bread-crumbs,  4 oz ; beef  suet, 
chopped  fine,  1 lb  ; stoned  raisins,  1 lb  6 oz  ; 
candied-peel,  \'/2  oz;  nutmeg,  y2  ; eggs, 4 or  5; 
butter,  salt  and  ginger  ; milk. 

Mix  the  above  ingredients  together,  using 
enough  milk  to  make  the  whole  into  a very 
thick  batter  ; pour  the  mixture  into  a well- 
floured  cloth  of  close  texture,  which  has  previous- 
ly been  dipped  into  hot  water,  and  wrung  out ; 
boil  in  plenty  of  water  for  four  hours  and  a half. 
Serve  with  very  sweet  wine  or  punch  sauce. 

II.  (. Simpler .) — Take:-Y\onr,  1 ptand  3 gills; 
sweet  milk,  £ pt  ; chopped  suet,  4 pt  ; chop- 
ped raisins,  { pt;  molasses,  £ pt;  soda,  \ tea- 
spoonful; salt,  | teaspoonful. 

Mix  thoroughly  together,  adding  the  soda 
dissolved  in  a little  of  the  milk  before  putting 
in  all  of  the  flour.  Boil  or  steam  it,  in  a 
mould  or  bag,  for  three  hours.  To  be  eaten 
with  a rich  sauce. 

Raspberry  Pudding.  (See  Dutch  Cus- 
tard Pudding.) 

Rice  Pudding  (baked). — 1.  Take  .--Rice  6 
oz ; milk,  1 quart ; sugar,  3 oz  ; eggs,  3 large  or 
4 small  ; flavoring  of  nutmeg,  lemon-peel,  or 
cinnamon. 

Throw  the  rice  into  plenty  of  cold  water,  and 
boil  it  gently  from  eight  to  ten  minutes  ; drain 
it  well  in  a sieve  or  strainer,  and  put  it  into  a 
sauce-pan  with  the  milk  ; let  it  stew  from  three 
quarters  of  an  hour  to  an  hour  ; then  sweeten 
it  with  the  susrar,  and  stir  to  it  gradually  the 
eggs  beaten  and  strained  ; flavor  it  with  nutmeg, 
cinnamon,  or  lemon-peel,  and  bake  it  in  a slow 
oven  for  an  hour. 

II.  (Without  Eggs.) — Take:-Rice,  6 oz  ; 
milk,  3 pts  ; butter,  1 oz  ; sugar,  4 oz  ; salt,  1 
teaspoonful. 

Wash  rice  in  several  waters;  add  in  other  in- 
gredients, place  in  oven,  allow  over  two  hours 
for  baking.  When  butter  is  melted,  stir  until 
mixed.  Bake  slowly  and  be  sure  to  take  it  out 
at  the  right  moment.  It  is  done  when  on  tip- 
ping the  dish,  the  rice  and  milk  move  together. 

Rice  Pudding  (boiled). — I.  Take  .--Rice,  6 
oz ; raisins,  lb  ; or  apples,  1 lb. 

Wash  the  rice  carefully,  mix  it  with  the  rais- 
ins, tie  them  in  a floured  cloth,  giving  them 
plenty  of  room  to  swell  ; boil  them  three- 
quarters  of  an  hour,  and  serve  with  very  sweet 
sauce.  This  is  an  excellent  pudding  for 
children.  A pound  of  apples,  pared,  cored,  and 
quartered,  may  be  used  instead  of  the  raisins  ; 
boil  1 i to  1)  hours. 

11. (Richer) — Take  .--Rice,  4^  oz;  milk,  1^ 
pints;  sugar,  3 to  4 oz ; salt,  a few  grains; 
bitter  almonds,  4 to  6;  lemon,  peel  of  eggs. 

4.  Put  the  rice  into  the  cold  milk,  beat  it  grad- 


ually, and  boil  slowly  till  it  is  quite  soft  and 
thick ; while  still  quite  hot,  add  the  sugar,  and 
stir  in  the  grated  lemon-peel,  the  bitter-almonds 
pounded  to  a paste,  and  the  well-beaten  eggs  ; 
let  the  mixture  cool,  and  then  pour  it  into  a 


Rice  Pudding  Mould, 


thickly-buttered  mould  or  bowl,  which  should 
be  quite  full ; tie  a buttered  paper  and  a floured 
cloth  over  it,  and  boil  exactly  an  hour.  Let  it 
stand  two  or  three  minutes  before  it  is  turned 
out ; and  serve  it  with  sweet  sauce,  fruit  syrup, 
or  a compote  of  fresh  fruit.  An  ounce  and  a 
half  of  candied  orange  peel  will  improve  this 
pudding ; and  a couple  of  ounces  of  butter 
may  be  added  to  enrich  it,  when  the  receipt  is 
considered  too  simple  without. 

Rice-flour  Pudding  (baked.) — Take  /-Rice- 
flour  (ground  rice),  5 oz  ; milk,  1 quart ; butter, 
4 oz ; sugar,  5 or  6 oz ; salt,  y2  saltspoonful ; 
eggs,  yolks  of  8,  whites  of  2 ; lemon,  peel  of  1 ; 
brandy,  1 large  wine  glassful. 

Mix  the  rice  smooth  in  half  a pint  of  the 
milk,  and  pour  it  into  the  rest  of  the  milk,  which 
should  be  boiling  fast ; set  over  a gentle  fire  ten 
or  twelve  minutes,  stirring  constantly  to  keep  it 
from  burning  to  the  pan  ; before  taking  it  from 
the  fire,  add  the  butter,  sugar,  and  salt  ; turn  it 
into  a pan  and  stir  it  a few  minutes,  to  prevent 
its  hardening  at  the  top ; then  mix  with  it  by 
degrees,  but  quickly,  the  yolks  and  then  the 
whites  of  the  eggs,  the  grated  lemon-peel,  and 
the  brandy.  Lay  a border  of  rich  paste  round 
a buttered  dish,  pour  in  the  pudding,  strain  a 
little  melted  butter  over  the  top,  moisten  the 
paste  with  a brush,  or  small  bunch  of  feath- 
ers dipped  in  cold  water,  and  sift  plenty  of 
sugar  over  it,  but  less  over  the  pudding  itself. 
Bake  in  a slow  oven  for  three  quarters  of  an 
hour.  This  is  a rich  and  delicious  pudding. 

Rhubarb  Pudding  (baked). — Prepare  'the 
rhubarb  as  directed  for  pies  ; butter  a pudding- 
dish  thickly,  and  cover  the  bottom  with  buttered 
slices  of  bread  ; cover  with  the  rhubarb  cut 
into  short  pieces ; sprinkle  freely  with  sugar; 
then  put  on  another  layer  of  bread  and  butter, 
and  proceed  thus  until  the  dish  is  full.  Cover 
closely  and  bake  for  an  hour  and  a half,  remove 
the  lid,  and  bake  ten  minutes,  or  until  browned. 
Serve  with  sweet  sauce. 

Sago  Pudding  (baked). — Take  .--Sago,  ^ 
lb  ; milk,  1 quart ; cinnamon  or  mace,  1 stick  ; 
melted  butter,  £ teacupful;  sugar,  4 heaping 
tablespoonfuls;  eggs,  6;  Zante  currants. 

Wash  the  sago  in  hot  water,  and  boil  it  till 
soft,  with  the  cinnamon  or  mace  in  the  milk ; 
stir  it  often,  or  it  will  burn  ; when  soft,  add 
the  melted  butter,  the  sugar  and  the  well-beaten 


PUDDINGS 


435 


eggs ; pour  into  a buttered  dish,  and  just  as  it  is 
going  into  the  oven,  strew  some  Zante  currants 
over  the  top.  Bake  in  a moderate  oven  half 
an  hour.  The  currants  may  be  omitted  from 
this  receipt  without  injuring  the  pudding. 

Sister  Jonathine  (Steamed).— Rub  an  ounce 
and  a half  of  lard  and  half  a teaspoonful  of 
salt  into  half  a pound  of  flour  that  has  been  sift- 
ed with  two  and  a half  even  teaspoonfuls  of 
baking  powder  ; mix  with  a gill  and  a half  of 
milk.  Have  fine  sour  apples  pared,  quartered 
and  cored,  and  placed  closely  in  a pie  tin  ; roll 
out  the  crust  and  lay  it  over  them,  make  a cut 
in  the  centre ; steam  for  three  quarters  of  an 
hour,  then  turn  it  upside  down  and  serve  at 
once,  with  brown  sugar  and  cream,  or  a rich 
sauce. 

Snow  Pudding. — Milk,  r pint ; isinglass,  £ 
oz,  or  2 strips  ; sugar,  io  oz  ; eggs,  5 ; lemons 
(rind  and  juice),  2. 

Soak  the  isinglass  two  hours,  or  over  night, 
well  covered,  in  cold  water ; take  it  out  and 
pour  over  it  one  pint  of  boiling  water  ; add  the 
yellow  rind  cut  in  long  parings,  the  juice  and 
the  sugar ; place  on  ice  and  when  partly  stif- 
fened take  out  the  rind  and  beat  in  thoroughly 
the  whites  of  four  eggs  beaten  to  a froth  : pour 
in  moulds  wet  with  cold  water  and  leave  on  ice 
for  several  hours.  Serve  with  a custard  made 
of  the  remaining  egg,  the  four  yolks  and  the 
milk  flavored  with  vanilla. 

Sponge-Cake  Pudding  (Baked). — Sponge 
biscuits,  3 ; candied  lemon  or  orange  peel,  1 
oz ; eggs,  6 ; milk,  1 \ pints  ; sugar,  3 oz  ; lemon, 
peel  of,  1 ; brandy,  £ wineglassful ; butter,  yz 
oz  ; sifted  sugar,  oz. 

Slice  into  a well-buttered  tart-dish  three 
penny  sponge-biscuits,  or  an  equal  amount  of 
sponge  cake,  and  place  on  them  the  candied 
orange  or  lemon-peel  cut  in  strips.  Beat  the 
eggs  thoroughly,  and  stir  to  them  the  boiling 
milk,  in  which  the  sugar  has  previously  been 
dissolved ; grate  in  the  lemon-peel,  and  when 
they  are  somewhat  cooled,  add  the  brandy  ; 
while  just  warm,  pour  the  mixture  over  the 
cakes  and  let  it  remain  an  hour ; then  strain 
an  ounce  and  a half  of  melted  butter  over  the 
top,  or  strew  pounded  sugar  rather  thickly  over 
it ;.  bake  in  a slow  oven  for  three-quarters  of 
an  hour  or  more. 

Squash  Pudding  (Baked). — Cut  half  a win- 
ter squash  into  several  pieces,  take  out  the 
seeds,  steam  until  tender,  scrape  the  pulp  from 
the  rind,  press  it  through  the  colander  and  to 
one  quart  add  five  ounces  butter,  one  pound  of 
brown  sugar,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  ginger,  and 
four  of  cinnamon,  the  yolks  of  eight  eggs  well 
beaten,  a pinch  of  salt  and  a quart  of  boiling 
milk ; mix  well,  add  the  whites  of  the  eggs, 
beaten  to  a stiff  froth,  mix  gently,  pour  in  paste- 
lined  pie-plates  and  bake  at  once  in  so  moder- 
ate an  oven  that  the  mixture  will  not  bubble. 
As  some  squashes  absorb  more  milk  than 
others  it  is  well  to  know  that  the  mixture  should 
be  about  the  thickness  of  ordinary  boiled  cust- 
ard. Pumpkin  pudding  may  be  made  in  the 
same  way. 


Suet  Pudding  (Boiled). — I.  Take : -Flour, 
2^  teacupfuls  ; beef-suet  chopped  very  fine,  1 
teacupful  ; milk,  1 teacupful ; molasses,  r tea- 
cupful ; fruit,  1 teacupful ; saleratus,  1 teaspoon- 
ful ; salt,  to  taste. 

Mix  the  suet  with  the  flour,  add  the  other  in- 
gredients and  mix  to  a thick  paste  ; tie  closely 
in  a well-floured  cloth,  and  boil  hard  for  three 
hours.  Serve  with  brandy  sauce. 

II — 7hZv.--Stale  bread-crumbs,  | lb;  flour, 
$ lb;  beef-suet  chopped  extremely  fine,  10  to 
12  oz;  salt,  £ teaspoonful;  nutmeg,  rather  less 
than  i teaspoonful;  eggs,  2;  milk. 

Mix  the  above  ingredients,  using  enough 
milk  to  make  them  into  a somewhat  lithe  but 
smooth  paste.  Boil  two  hours  and  a quarter. 

Sunderland  Pudding  (Baked). — Take 
Eggs,  6;  boiling  milk,  1 pint;  flour,  3 table- 
spoonfuls ; salt,  a small  pinch. 

Beat  the  yolks  of  the  eggs  and  mix  them 
with  the  flour;  add  the  milk  and  salt  ; whip 
the  whites  to  a stiff  froth,  stir  them  in ; 
pour  into  a buttered  dish,  and  bake  half  an  hour 
in  a moderate  oven.  Serve  with  liquid  sauce. 

Sweet  Potato  Pudding  (Baked). — Take:- 
Sweet  potatoes,  £ lb ; sugar,  6 oz ; butter,  6 
oz  ; eggs,  8 ; lemon,  1 ; wine,  1 wine  glassful ; 
nutmeg,  1. 

Parboil  the  sweet-potatoes  and  grate  them 
fine  , stir  the  sugar  and  butter  to  a cream,  and 
add  them  to  the  potatoes ; then  add  the  beaten 
yolks  of  the  eggs  : mix  together  well,  and  add 
the  grated  peel  and  juice  of  the  lemon,  the 
wine,  and  the  grated  nutmeg ; lastly,  add  the 
whites  of  the  eggs  whipped  to  a stiff  froth  ; 
put  into  a buttered  dish,  and  bake  three-quar- 
ters of  an  hour  in  a moderate  oven. 

Tapioca  Pudding  (Baked). — Take  .--Tapi- 
oca, 1 teacupful ; milk,  1 quart ; sugar,  2 table- 
spoonfuls ; melted  butter,  2 tablespoonfuls ; 

eggs,  5- 

Cover  the  tapioca  with  cold  water,  and  soak 
two  hours  ; drain  off  what  water  is  not  ab- 
sorbed, and  soak  the  tapioca  two  hours  longer 
in  the  milk  ; when  the  tapioca  is  quite  soft,  beat 
the  sugar  and  butter  to  a cream  ; add  the  yolks 
of  the  eggs,  then  the  tapioca  and  milk,  and 
lastly  the  whites  of  the  eggs.  Stir  well  to- 
gether, pour  into  a buttered  dish,  and  bake  half 
an  hour.  Serve  with  hard  or  liquid  sauce. 

II.  ( With  Apples.) — Soak  half  a pint  of  tapi- 
oca over  night  in  cold  water ; cover  the  bottom 
of  a baking  dish  with  cored  sour  apples  filled 
with  sugar  ; bake  until  soft  and  brown  ; add  to 
the  tapioca  half  a pint  of  cold  water  with  the 
yellow  rind  of  a lemon  ; boil  and  add  half  a 
pint  of  boiling  water,  the  juice  of  the  lemon  and 
a gill  of  sugar  ; boil  a moment,  pour  it  over  the 
apples  and  bake  slowly  one  hour. 

Ill 7hfo.--Tapioca,  1 teacupful;  water,  i£ 

pints ; salt,  1 teaspoonful ; apples,  6. 

Put  the  tapioca  into  a pint  and  a half  of  wa- 
ter, add  the  salt,  and  let  them  stand  five  hours 
in  quite  a warm  place  (not  to  cook,  however), 
pare  and  core  the  apples,  put  them  in  a pud- 
ding-dish,and  fill  the  holes  with  sugar,  in  which 
has  been  grated  a little  nutmeg  or  lemon-peel ; 


43G 


PUDDINGS 


PUMPS 


add  a tcacupful  of  water,  and  bake  an  hour ; 
then  pour  the  tapioca  over  the  apples,  and  bake 
another  hour.  Serve  with  hard  sauce. 

Vermicelli  Pudding. — Make  as  directed  for 
Macaroni  Pudding. 

Welcome  Guest's  Pudding  (Boiled).-  Ta kc:- 
Bread-crumbs,  ]/2  lb ; milk  or  cream,  £ pint ; 
beef-suet,  minced  very  fine,  lb ; salt,  a small 
pinch  ; ratafias,  coarsely  crushed,  3 oz  ; candied 
citron  and  orange-peel,  sliced  thin,  3 oz  ; lemon, 
1 large  ; eggs,  4 ; sugar,  } lb. 

Boil  the  milk  or  cream,  and  pour  it  scalding 
hot  on  one-half  the  bread-crumbs  ; lay  a plate 
over  the  bowl  and  let  them  remain  till  cold ; 
then  stir  to  them  the  remainder  of  the  crumbs, 
the  beef-suet,  the  salt,  the  ratafias,  the  candied 
citron  and  orange-peel,  sliced  thin,  and  the 
grated  lemon-peel.  Beat  the  eggs  well  and  add 
the  sugar  to  them  by  degrees  ; continue  to  beat 
them  until  it  is  dissolved,  and  they  are  very 
light ; then  stir  them  to,  and  beat  them  well  up 
with  the  other  ingredients  ; pour  the  mixture 
into  a thickly  buttered  mould  or  bowl  which 
will  hold  nearly  a quart,  and  which  it  should 
fill  to  within  half  an  inch  of  the  brim ; lay  first 
a buttered  paper  and  then  a well-floured  cloth 
over  the  top,  tie  tightly  and  securely,  and  boil 
two  hours.  Let  it  stand  for  a minute  or  two 
before  it  is  dished,  and  serve  it  with  wine  sauce. 
This  is  a very  light  and  wholesome  pudding. 

Y orkshire  Pudding  (Baked). — Take  .--Eggs, 
6 ; flour,  half  a pint ; milk,  1 pint ; salt,  1 tea- 
spoonful. 

Beat  the  eggs  well,  strain,  and  mix  them 
gradually  with  the  flour ; then  pour  in  as  much 
milk  as  will  reduce  the  batter  to  the  consist- 
ence of  rather  thin  cream.  The  tin  which  is  to 
receive  the  pudding  must  be  greased  with  some 
of  the  drippings  from  a joint  of  beef  that  has 
just  been  put  down  to  roast  ; pour  in  the  batter, 
nearly  an  inch  deep,  place  it  in  the  dripping 
pan  and  let  the  beef  rest  on  skewers  above  it  ; 
bake  about  three  quarters  of  an  hour,  cut  in 
oblong  pieces  and  serve  as  a garnish  for  the 
beef.  If  the  piece  of  beef  is  roasting  in  a small 
pan  the  batter  may  be  baked  in  the  same ; the 
only  reason  for  using  an  inner  pan  is  to  have 
the  pudding  of  the  right  thickness.  May  be 
served  with  sweet  sauce. 

Young  Wife’s  Pudding  (Baked). — Take 
Eggs,  4 ; sugar  2 oz.  salt,  a small  pinch  ; 
lemon,  peel  of  1 ; milk,  1 pint  ; stale  bread. 

Beat  the  eggs  up  lightly  for  five  minutes,  and 
add  the  pounded  sugar  by  degrees,  and  the 
salt ; beat  the  mixture  well,  and  then  grate  in 
the  lemon-peel ; stir  in  a pint  of  cold  milk,  and 
pour  the  pudding  into  a well-buttered  dish. 
Cut  some  stale  bread  in  slices  rather  more 
than  a quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  and  with  a very 
small  cake-cutter  cut  from  it  enough  rounds  to 
cover  the  top  of  the  pudding  ; butter  them 
thickly,  lay  them  upon  the  pudding  with  the 
buttered  side  uppermost,  sift  sugar  thickly  on 
them,  and  set  the  pudding  into  a slow  oven. 
Bake  one  hour.  This  is  a simple,  but  very  nice 
pudding. 

PUFF  PASTE.  ( See  Pies.) 


PUFFS. — -To  make  a dozen  plain  puffs,  take 
a pound  and  a quarter  of  flour,  a pound  of  but- 
ter, and  one  egg.  Put  them  together  as  directed 
for  puff-paste  (Sec  Pies).  Divide  it  when  made 
into  three  equal  portions ; roll  one  of  them 
out  half  an  inch  thick,  and  cut  it  into  cakes 
with  a tumbler ; roll  out  the  rest  of  the  pastry, 
cut  it  into  strips  with  a jagging  iron,  and  lay 
the  strips  round  those  that  were  cut  with  the 
tumbler  so  as  to  form  a rim.  Lay  the  puffs  on 
buttered  flat  tins  ; bake  them  to  a light  brown 
in  a quick  oven  ; then  fill  them  with  any  small 
preserved  fruit  that  may  happen  to  be  conve- 
nient. 

German  Puffs. — Take  /-Sweet  almonds,  2 
oz ; bitter  almonds,  6 ; eggs,  yolks  of  6,  whites 
of  3 ; cream,  k pint ; butter,  4 oz ; sugar,  2 oz ; 
brandy  or  orange-flower  water,  ^ wineglassful. 

Pound  the  almonds  (sweet  and  bitter)  to  a 
perfectly  smooth  paste  ; mix  with  them  grad- 
ually the  yolks  and  then  the  whites  of  the  eggs  ; 
heat  the  cream,  and  dissolve  in  it  the  butter 
and  sugar ; pour  these  hot  to  the  eggs,  stirring 
them  briskly  together,  and  when  the  mixture 
has  become  cool,  add  the  brandy  or  orange- 
flower  water.  Butter  some  cups  thickly,  and 
strew  into  them  a few  slices  of  candied  citron 
or  orange-peel ; pour  in  the  mixture,  and  bake 
twenty  minutes  in  a slow  oven. 

Raspberry  Puffs. — Roll  out  thin  some  fine 
puff-paste,  cut  it  in  rounds  or  squares  of  equal 
size  ; lay  some  raspberry  jam  into  each,  moisten 
the  edges  of  the  paste,  fold  and  press  them  to- 
gether, and  bake  the  puffs  from  fifteen  to  eigh- 
teen minutes.  Strawberry,  or  any  other  jam  will 
serve  for  them  equally  well. 

Spanish  Puffs.— Place  on  the  fire  1 pint  of  milk, 
2 oz  butter,  2 oz  sugar,  a pinch  of  salt.  When  it 
boils  fast,  stir  in  8 oz  sifted  flour.  When  this 
mixture  leaves  the  bottom  and  sides  of  the  stew- 
pan,  take  it  from  fire,  beat  in  2 whole  eggs,  one 
at  a time,  and  3 yolks,  one  at  a time ; lastly,  add 
2 ozof  chopped,  blanched  jordan almonds.  Form 
into  round  pieceswitha  spoon, as  large  as  a wal- 
nut, and  fry  in  hot  lard  toalight  brown  color.  They 
should  swell  3 times  in  volume.  When  all  fried, 
make  a small  incision  with  a knife,  introduce  a 
little  bright-colored  jelly  with  a small  spoon, 
roll  in  sifted  sugar,  and  serve  on  a folded  napkin. 

PUMPKIN. — There  are  several  varieties  of 
the  pumpkin,  among  the  best  of  which  are  the 
cheese , West  India , sugar , and  striped j any  of 
these  are  excellent  for  pumpkin  pies,  bread,  etc. 
The  season  for  pumpkins  commences  in  Sep- 
tember and  lasts  until  January ; but  if  peeled, 
cut  in  strips,  and  dried  in  the  sun,  and  then  laid 
away  in  a dry  place,  they  can  be  kept  all  the  year. 
They  will  also  keep  until  spring  in  a natural 
state  if  put  in  a dry  place  and  protected  from 
the  frost.  Pumpkins  are  sometimes  cooked  and 
eaten  plain  like  squashes ; but  their  principal 
use  is  in  pastry,  etc.  (See  Bread,  Pies,  and 
Puddings.) 

PUMPS.  — The  pumps  generally  used  in 
dwelling  houses  are  the  common  suction  and  the 
forcing  pump.  The  suction  pump  is  that  em- 
ployed in  ordinary  wells  not  exceeding  28  feet  in 


PUMPS 


PUNCH 


437 


depth.  When  the  air  is  withdrawn  from  a pipe 
with  its  lower  end  in  water,  the  water  will  rise 
from  2S  to  31  feet.  It  requires  something 
heavier  than  air  to  keep  the  valves  of  this 
pump  closed  ; therefore  to  start  it,  fill  the 
cylinder  with  water  poured  from  above  ; the  pis- 
ton then  descends  through  this  water,  as  on  be- 
ing pushed  down  its  valve  opens  and  being  lift- 
ed the  water  closes  its  valve  effectually,  and 
it  creates  a vacuum  in  the  cylinder  between 
two  valves,  which  can  only  be  filled  up  by  the 
water  ascending  through  the  suction  pipe.  The 
force-pump  needs  to  be  better  made  than  the 
ordinary  suction  pump.  But  its  valves  are 
more  easily  kept  closed  : therefore  it  does  not 
need  water  poured  in  to  start  it. 


PUNCH.-Ordinary  punch  is  made  of  any  dis- 
tilled liquor  with  water,  hot  or  cold,  sugar  and 
lemons.  The  proportions  and  the  use  of  rind 
and  juice  are  matters  of  taste.  The  following 
rules  are  quite  generally  agreed  upon  : 1st.  It 
should  not  be  too  sweet,  else  it  will  cloy  upon 
the  appetite.  2d.  Not  too  strong  else  it  will 
go  to  the  head  and  produce  drunkenness.  3d. 
Too  much  water  will  ruin  the  best  punch  ever 
made.  4th.  The  oil  in  the  yellow  rind  of  the 
lemon  is  essential,  and  the  best  way  to  extract 
it  is  to  rub  the  rind  of  the  lemon  with  a lump 
of  sugar.  5.  The  water  should  not  boil  nor 
should  it  have  been  boiled  before.  6.  The  sugar 
■powdered  will  make  it  creamy.  7.  Stir  in  each 
ingredient  as  it  is  added. 

Champagne  Cup.  I. — Takea  bottle  of  Krug 
champagne,  a pint  of  tea,  a gill  of  brandy, 
sweeten  to  taste  and  ice  well. 

Champagne  Cup.  n. — Take  abottle  of  spark- 
ling champagne  that  is  iced,  a bottle  of 
plain  soda,  two  ounces  powdered  white  sugar, 
juice  and  thin  peel  of  one  lemon,  three  thin 
slices  of  cucumber ; let  stand  until  the  sugar 
is  dissolved,  then  add  a lump  of  ice  and  serve. 

Francatelli’s  Rum  Punch. — Take: — Bran- 
dy, 1 quart;  rum,  1 quart:  arrack,  pint; 
strong-made  green  tea,  pint ; lemon,  juice  of 
12,  rind  of  4;  nutmeg,  1 (grated);  cloves,  12 
(bruised)  ; cinnamon  1 stick  (powdered) ; corian- 
der seeds,  30  (bruised) ; pine  apple,  2 lbs. 
(sliced) ; lump-sugar,  9 lbs. ; boiling  water,  2 
quarts  ; milk,  2 quarts. 

Put  all  the  above  ingredients  except  the 
milk  into  a pitcher  holding  two  gallons,  stir  them 
together,  and  tie  a bladder  closely  on  top  ; let  it 
steep  undisturbed  for  two  days ; then  boil  the 


milk,  add  it  to  the  other  ingredients,  aud  mix 
thoroughly  ; an  hour  afterwards  filter  the  punch 
through  a clean  muslin  bag,  bottle  at  once,  and 
cork  down  tight  ; keep  the  bottles  in  a cool 
cellar.  It  should  be  iced  for  use. 

Gin  Summer-Punch. — Take  :-Gin,  '/z  pint; 
lemon,  1 ; maraschino,  1 wineglassful ; water, 
\l/z  pints;  sodawater  (iced),  2 bottles. 

Pour  the  gin  on  the  lemon-peel,  add  a little 
of  the  lemon-juice,  and  the  rest  of  the  ingredi- 
ents in  the  order  named. 

Grandison  Punch. — The  thinly-pared  rinds 
of  two  China  and  one  Seville  orange  and  three 
limes  infused  for  an  hour  in  a half  pint  of  thin 
cold  syrup,  then  add  the  juice  of  the  fruits,  a 
pint  of  cold  strong  well  sweetened  green  tea, 
a glass  each  of  best  old  Jamaica  rum,  brandy, 
Colombo  arrack,  pine  apple  syrup,  and  two 
bottles  of  champagne  ; strain  through  a fine 
lawn  sieve.  Bottle,  and  ice  before  using. 

Maitrank. — A May  drink  pleasant  and  anti, 
bilious  only  to  be  made  in  perfection  in  May 
when  the  shoots  of  the  woodroof  asperula  odo~ 
rata  (wald-meister)  are  plentiful.  The  stalks 
of  this  plant  preserve  their  fragrance  when 
dried,  but  only  communicate  it  fully  to  the  bev- 
erage when  used  fresh.  Pour  a bottle  of  white 
Rhine  wine  into  a bowl,  and  infuse  into  it  as 
many  young  shoots  of  the  woodroof,  cut  about 
an  inch  in  length,  as  will  fill  a tablespoon.  If 
the  wine  be  not  sweet,  add  an  ounce  of  finely 
powdered  sugar,  cover  the  bowl,  and  let  it  stand 
twelve  hours.  Serve  in  green  glasses.  Never 
introduce  orange,  lemon  or  any  extraneous 
essence. 

Milk  Punch.  I. — Put  2 tablespoonfuls  of  rum 
or  brandy,  and  1 heaping  tablespoonful  of 
sugar  into  a glass  of  iced  milk.  Stir  and  grate 
nutmeg  on  top. 

II — Pare  six  lemons  very  thin,  steep  the  peel 
three  days  in  one  pint  of  old  rum,  then  add 
one  quart  of  old  brandy,  the  juice  of  three 
oranges  and  three  lemons,  one  quart  of  water, 
one  pound  of  loaf  sugar  and  half  of  a grated  nut- 
meg ; when  the  sugar  is  dissolved,  mix  thor- 
oughly ; add  one  quart  of  scalded  milk  ; cover, 
and  let  stand  two  hours  ; then  strain.  Ice  well 
before  drinking.  It  will  keep  bottled. 

III. — 7k&v-Lemon-juice,  1 pint  ; rum,  2 or 
2-)  quarts  ; water,  2 quarts  ; milk,  1 quart  ; 
loaf-sugar,  ii  lbs. 

Mix  the  lemon-juice,  rum,  and  water,  and 
dissolve  the  sugar  in  them  ; then  pour  in  the 
milk,  boiling  hot,  and  add  the  peel  of  4 lemons. 
In  a few  minutes  taste  it,  and  if  it  is  not  to  your 
taste  make  it  so  by  adding  more  of  any  ingredi- 
ent apparently  deficient.  Strain  it  through  a 
bag,  and  bottle  it.  It  is  fit  for  use  immediate- 
ly, or  it  may  be  kept  in  a cool  cellar. 

Norfolk  Punch. — Take  .--Lemons,  6;  Se- 
ville (bitter)  oranges,  3 ; brandy,  2 quarts  ; white 
wine,  r quart;  milk  1 quart;  sugar,  lbs. 

Pare  the  lemons  and  oranges  very  thin,  and 
squeeze  the  juice  of  both  into  a large  jar; 
add  the  other  ingredients,  mix,  and  cover  for 
24  hours ; then  strain  through  a bag  till  clear, 
and  bottle. 


438 


PUNCH 


QUAIL 


Nuremberg  Punch. — Take  a half  pound  of 
loaf  sugar,  press  upon  it,  through  muslin  or  a 
silver  strainer,  the  juice  of  three  large  oranges ; 
add  a little  of  the  peel,  cut  very  thin  ; pour 
upon  this  a quart  of  boiling  water,  a pint  of 
good  old  Batavia  arrack  and  a quart  of  substan- 
tial claret,  stir  these  together  well,  let  it  cool 
and  stand  a day  or  two.  Ice  before  using, 
remembering  that  ice  melting  will  weaken  the 
punch. 

Pine  apple  Cardinal. — A sliced  pine  apple 
put  in  a deep  bowl  with  two  pounds  of  pounded 
sugar  candy  and  then  left  for  three  hours  ; 
then  pour  over  it  one  bottle  each  of  sherry, 
Rudesheimer  and  champagne. 

Regent’s  Punch. — I .-Take  .’-Oranges,  rind 
and  juice  of  2 ; lemons,  3 ; cold  sugar-syrup,  ]/2 
pint ; strong  green  tea,  sweetened,  1 pint,  best 
old  Jamaica  rum,  arrack,  French  brandy,  and 
pine-apple  syrup,  each  1 wineglassful ; cham- 
pagne, 2 bottles. 

Pare  the  oranges  and  lemon  as  thin  as  pos- 
sible and  steep  the  rinds  for  an  hour  in  y2  pint 
of  cold  thin  syrup  ; then  add  them  to  the  juice 
of  the  oranges  and  lemons;  add  the  tea  (quite 
cold)  to  the  fruit  and  syrup,  stir  in  the  rest  of 
the  ingredients,  and  pass  the  whole  through  a 
fine  lawn  sieve  until  it  is  perfectly  clear  ; then 


bottle,  and  put  it  into  ice  until  dinner  is  served. 
This  is  the  genuine  receipt  for  the  punch  of 
George  IV. 

IL  Take  four  ounces  of  clarified  sugar,  thin 
peel  of  one  lemon  and  one  orange,  one  bottle 
of  dry  champagne,  a half  bottle  of  good  brandy, 
a half  gill  of  rum,  one  wine  glass  of  maraschino, 
a few  slices  of  pine  apple,  and  one  quart  of 
green  tea  well  iced.  Mix  thoroughly. 

Roman  Punch.  — Take  .--Lemonade  (strong 
and  sweet),  3 large  teacupfuls ; rum,  1 wineglass- 
ful; champagne,  1 wineglassful;  oranges,  juice 
of  2 ; eggs,  whites  of  2 ; powdered  sugar,  ]/2  lb. 

Beat  the  whites  of  the  eggs  stiff,  with  the 
powdered  sugar, and  mix  with  the  rest  of  the  in- 
gredients. Ice  abundantly,  or  freeze.  {See  Cla- 
ret, Cobbler,  Julep,  Sherbet,  and  Sherry.) 

PURGATIVES. — {See  Cathartics.) 

PURSLANE-— A common  wild  plant  which 
is  sometimes  cultivated,  and  then  becomes 
much  larger  and  better.  The  young  growth, 
cut  6 inches  long,  and  served  like  spinach,  is 
good.  It  is  used  in  salads,  pickles,  etc. 

PUTTY. — To  remove  from  a window-sash — 
apply  a soldering  iron  or  poker  heated  (but 
not  red-hot),  slowly  over  the  putty.  To  re- 
move putty  from  window-panes,  see  Clean- 
ing. 


Q 


QUAHAUG.  (See  Clams.) 

QUAIL. — Quails  (known  at  the  South  as 
partridge)  are  among  the  best-flavored  of  game- 
birds ; their  flesh  being  white,  tender,  and  ex- 
tremely delicate.  Their  size  is  about  one-third 
that  of  the  partridge  or  ruffed  grouse.  They 
are  generally  very  plentiful  in  the  markets 


throughout  the  winter  months,  except  when 
the  preceding  winter  has  been  unusually 
stormy,  cold,  and  snowy.  Many  thousands  are 
sent  from  the  West  to  the  Eastern  markets  in  a 
frozen  state,  and  generally  arrive  in  good  con- 
dition ; but  those  which  are  killed  near  by  are 
to  be  preferred.  A quail  is  old  when  it  has  a 


Quail. 


white  bill  and  bluish  legs ; when  young,  the  bill 
is  of  a rather  dark  gray  color,  and  the  legs  are 
yellowish.  The  more  fresh  quails  are  when 
cooked,  the  better. 


Baked  Quails. — Clean,  and  truss  as  directed 
for  chicken,  or  simply  tie  the  legs  down  to  the 
rump  with  a strong  thread,  letting  the  feet  stand 
up ; place  the  birds  on  their  backs  in  a baking- 


QUASSIA 


QUININE 


439 


pan  with  a piece  of  butter  the  size  of  a hazel- 
nut on  each  ; just  cover  the  bottom  of  the  pan 
with  cold  water,  and  set  in  a quick  oven;  baste 
now  and  then;  when  about  half  done,  put 
the  liver  of  the  birds  well  pounded  in  the  bak- 
ing-pan, and  continue  basting  till  the  quails  are 
done.  Garnish  with  parsley  or  water-cress. 

Broiled  Quails. — Clean,  wash,  and  split 
down  the  back;  lay  in  cold  water  half  an  hour; 
then  dry  carefully  with  a towel,  season  with  salt 
and  pepper,  and  broil  on  a gridiron  over  a 
bright  tire,  laying  them  breast  downwards  at 
first  and  turning  when  brown.  When  done, 
lay  on  a hot  dish,  butter  well  on  both  sides, 
and  serve  at  once. 

Pie,  (Quail.) — Make  as  directed  for  pigeon- 
pie.  ( See  Pigeon.) 

Roast  Quails. — Prepare  as  for  baking  ; 
dredge  them  with  a little  flour ; and  roast  before 
a good  fire  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  basting 
freely  with  butter.  Garnish  with  parsley  or 
water-cress. 

QUASSIA. — The  wood  of  a tree  growing  in 
the  West  Indies  called  Picras/ia  excelsa.  The 
wood  is  tough,  but  not  very  heavy,  and  is  usu- 
ally sold  as  chips.  Sometimes  drinking-vessels, 
carved  out  of  the  wood,  are  sold.  These  are 
to  be  filled  with  water  at  night,  allowed  to  stand 
till  morning,  and  the  contents  then  drunk.  The 
quassia  wood  is  intensely  bitter,  and  yields  its 
bitterness  readily  to  water.  The  medicinal 
preparations  from  it  are  an  extract,  a tincture, 
and  an  infusion.  Of  these  the  infusion  is  most 
used,  chiefly  as  a vehicle  for  administering 
more  nauseous  medicines,  for  which  it  is  excel- 
lent, being  one  of  the  very  few  bitters  which 
contains  no  tannin,  and  so  does  not  blacken  with 
iron.  Quassia  is  a pure  bitter,  but  not  an 
agreeable  one.  It  is  used  sometimes  in  indi- 
gestion, but  calumba  has  here  mostly  superse- 
ded it ; in  indigestion,  accompanied  with  loss 
of  power  and  irritability  of  the  stomach,  it  may 
well  be  given  along  with  either  an  acid  or  an 
alkali,  according  to  the  period  of  digestion.  It 
is  probably  most  useful  as  a tonic  after  pros- 
trating illness,  but  even  then  it  is  better  to  com- 
bine it  with  a preparation  of  iron  and  an  acid. 

QUILLING. — A narrow  border  of  lace  or 
edging,  plaited  in  such  a manner  that  when 
done  up  it  will  resemble  a row  of  quills ; as, 
the  quilling  of  a woman’s  cap.  An  instrument 
for  doing  up  quilled  edging  is  sold  in  the  house- 
furnishing stores. 

QUINCE. — -There  are  many  varieties  of  this 
excellent  fruit,  the  most  esteemed  being  the 
«^//^-quince,  /ear-quince,  and  Portugal-quince. 
The  apple,  or  orange-quince  as  it  is  sometimes 
called,  is  the  tenderest  and  has  an  excellent 
flavor ; the  Portugal  quince  is  quite  scarce  ; and 
the  pear-quince  is  quite  hard  and  tough,  but  is 
the  most  perfect  in  appearance,  and  has  a flavor 
equal  to  any.  In  selecting,  choose  the  large 
smooth  ones  ; the  small  knotty  ones  are  tough, 
worm-eaten,  and  wasteful.  Quinces  are  in 
season  from  October  to  December.  They  may 
be  kept  for  some  time  by  wiping  off  the  fur 
and  laying  them  some  distance  from  each  other 


on  a shelf  in  a cool  dry  closet.  Quinces  are 
never  eaten  raw,  but  they  are  cooked  in  a variety 
of  ways.  (See  Compotes,  Jelly,  Marma- 
lade, Preserves,  and  Puddings.) 

Cordial,  (Quince.)— Select  ripe  and  sound 
quinces,  wipe  off  the  fur,  and  grate  them ; put 
the  pulp  in  a strong  cloth  and  press  out  every 
drop  of  the  juice ; to  each  quart  of  this  juice, 
add  two-thirds  of  a quart  of  French  brandy,  a 
pound  and  a half  of  white  sugar,  a hundred 
bitter  almonds  or  peach-kernels,  and  a dozen 
cloves ; put  it  in  a stone  pot,  cover  it  tight,  and 
keep  it  a week  in  a warm  place  ; then  skim  and 
bottle  it,  and  let  it  remain  a year  before  using  it. 

QUININE.  — This  is  the  most  important 
constituent  of  cinchona  bark,  and  has  now  al- 
most entirely  superseded  the  crude  substance 
as  a remedy.  Pure  quinine  is  not  employed  in 
medicine,  being  quite  insoluble  in  water;  but 
the  sulphate  takes  its  place.  Sulphate  of  qui- 
nine is  pure  white  and  crystalline,  the  crystals 
being  feathery ; it  possesses  the  curious  prop- 
erty of  fluorescence,  i.  e.,  certain  rays  of  light 
falling  in  a solution  of  quinine,  though  them- 
selves invisible,  cause  the  solution  to  yield  light. 
The  effects  of  quinine  are  manifold.  Applied 
to  the  white  corpuscles  of  the  blood,  and  all 
bodies  resembling  them,  it  arrests  their  motion 
and  apparently  kills  them ; it  also,  within  cer- 
tain limits,  arrests  putrefaction  even  more  pow- 
erfully than  creosote.  On  the  digestive  tract 
quinine  acts  as  do  most  other  bitters ; it  gives 
rise  to  an  increased  flow  of  mucus,  and  to  a 
small  extent  also  that  of  the  gastric  juice. 
Especially  will  it  be  serviceable  to  arrest  the 
putrefactive  changes  of  food  which  has  been 
retained  in  the  stomach  without  being  digested, 
thus  giving  rise  to  flatulence,  acidity,  etc. 
Quinine,  after  being  swallowed,  passes  into  the 
blood,  and  in  great  measure  is  evacuated  by 
the  kidneys,  almost  unchanged.  The  effect  of 
quinine  on  the  sense  of  hearing  is  peculiar.  If 
taken  in  large  doses,  it  speedily  gives  rise  to 
noises  in  the  head,  singing  in  the  ears,  and 
sometimes  deafness  ; sight,  too,  may  become 
dim  or  even  blindness  for  a time  ensue  : head- 
ache is  also  produced,  frontal  in  site  and  severe 
in  character ; generally  the  pain  is  of  a dull 
heavy  kind,  the  face  is  flushed  and  hot,  and  the 
eyes  suffused.  These  effects  of  large  doses  of 
quinine  go  by  the  name  of  cinchonistn.  More- 
over, in  large  doses,  quinine  has  the  power 
of  markedly  reducing  temperature ; for  this 
reason  it  has  been  largely  given  in  acute  rheu- 
matism, pyaemia,  and  some  forms  of  fever. 
Sometimes  quinine  in  these  cases  has  been 
given  in  enormous  doses,  20  grains,  frequently 
repeated,  being  not  uncommon.  It  is  true  that 
in  these  cases  the  temperature  has  sometimes 
been  reduced,  but  the  patient  has  died  all  the 
same. 

The  most  important  use  of  quinine  seems  to 
be  in  malarious  fevers,  remittent  or  intermit- 
tent. The  best  plan  of  giving  the  remedy  in 
these  diseases  is  to  wait  for  a remission,  then 
to  give  a full  dose,  at  least  5 or  10  grains,  and 
keep  up  the  effect  by  an  hourly  administration 


440 


QUINSY 


of  the  remedy  thereafter ; 2 grains  will  gener- 
ally suffice  as  a dose  for  this  purpose,  but  to 
arrest  the  paroxysm  it  is  best  to  give  a much 
larger  quantity.  Certain  forms  of  neuralgia,  of 
a distinctly  remittent  type,  are  best  treated  by 
quinine.  A large  dose  should  be  given  just  be- 
fore the  expected  attack:  10  to  20 grains  should 
suffice.  Even  ordinary  neuralgias  are  fre- 
quently benefitted  by  doses  of  quinine  given 
during  an  intermission.  Quinine  is  commonly 
prescribed  in  most  forms  of  convalescence 
from  acute  disease.  It  is  then  ordinarily  given 
in  a dose  of  r or  2 grains  dissolved  in  water  or 
orange  wine  by  a few  drops  of  dilute  sulphuric 
acid.  In  this  way  it  is  of  undoubted  service. 

QUINSY. — A common  and  troublesome  af- 
fection, consisting  of  inflammation  of  the  tonsils 
and  adjacent  parts  of  the  fauces  or  back  part 
of  the  mouth.  It  may  occur  at  any  age,  but  is 
most  common  in  young  people  ; and  when  once 
any  one  has  been  subject  to  it,  it  is  very  likely 
to  recur  on  exposure  to  cold,  so  that  some  have 
an  attack  every  year.  Although  painful  at  the 
time,  no  serious  results  need  be  feared.  The 
symptoms  of  quinsy  are  a stiff  and  painful 
feeling  in  the  throat  after  exposure  to  wet  or 
cold ; the  tongue  becomes  furred  and  white  ; the 
appetite  is  bad ; there  are  often  headache  and 
pains  in  the  limbs  ; the  temperature  of  the  body 
rises  rapidly,  and  all  the  symptoms  of  a fever 
come  on.  The  tonsils  enlarge,  so  that  the  act 
of  swallowing  is  accomplished  with  difficulty, 
and  the  tonsils  may  be  so  large  as  almost  to 
meet  in  the  middle  line  and  quite  prevent  any 
solid  food  being  taken  : at  the  same  time  there 
is  swelling  outside,  just  below  the  ear,  which  is 
painful  when  pressed.  The  enlarged  tonsils 
may  become  full  of  pus  and  when  they  burst 
they  discharge  much  matter,  and  at  once  afford 
decided  relief.  The  febrile  symptoms  last  four 
or  five  days,  and  then  subside  quickly ; in  most 
cases  the  inflammation  goes  away  without  the 
formation  of  any  matter;  generally,  also,  one 
side  of  the  throat  is  more  affected  than  the  other. 


Treatment. — The  patient  should  at  once  go 
to  bed,  or  at  least  keep  in  a room  with  a moist 
and  warm  atmosphere ; any  attempt  to  go  out 
in  the  air  only  increases  the  malady,  and  makes 
the  throat  more  sore  than  before.  No  solid 
food  can  be  taken,  and  therefore  beef  tea,  hot 
milk  and  soups  must  be  given,  and  the  thinner 
the  fluid  the  more  easily  is  it  swallowed.  Port 
wine  is  very  valuable,  and  three  or  four  glasses 
should  be  taken  every  day,  and  will  be  found  to 
give  great  relief.  Steam  should  be  frequently 
inhaled  by  placing  the  mouth  over  a jug  full  of 
boiling  water,  but  not  over  the  mouth  of  a 
kettle,  as  the  patient’s  mouth  may  be  scalded. 
Gargles  are  of  no  use,  as  they  do  not  go  far 
enough  back,  and  the  effort  of  gargling  is  dis- 
tressing to  the  patient.  A hot  bran  or  linseed- 
meal  poultice  should  be  placed  round  the  throat 
at  night,  while  during  the  day  hot  flannels  should 
be  worn.  Sponging  the  outside  of  the  throat 
with  hot  water  will  give  great  relief ; the  inside 
of  the  throat  may  be  sponged  with  some  astrin- 
gent lotion,  as  tannic  acid  or  iron  and  glycerine, 
by  which  it  may  be  kept  constantly  moist.  A 
mixture  containing  chlorate  ofpotassaand  bark 
is  most  useful  in  this  affection,  and  it  should  be 
continued  for  some  time  until  convalescence  is 
established.  Puncturing  the  tonsils  with  a 
small  and  narrow  knife  is  very  useful,  even  if  it 
does  not  cause  matter  to  escape.  In  some 
cases  a leech  or  two  behind  or  below  the  ear  is 
useful,  but  blisters  do  no  good.  People  who 
are  liable  to  quinsy  should  be  very  careful  to 
avoid,  as  far  as  possible,  foggy  and  damp 
weather,  as  the  disease  is  then  very  liable  to 
recur.  This  affection  might  at  first  be  mistaken 
for  scarlet  fever ; but  the  fever  lasts  for  a shorter 
time,  and  there  is  no  rash,  nor  is  it  followed  by 
dropsy  or  swelling  of  the  glands.  In  diphtheria 
there  is  less  fever,  but  much  more  prostration, 
while  a membrane  forms  over  the  nostrils  and 
a fatal  result  often  happens. 


R 


RABBIT. — The  “ hare  ” of  the  Southern 
States,  and  the  “ rabbit  ” and  “ gray  hare  ” of 
the  Northern  are  the  same  animal.  Rabbits  are 
killed  in  immense  numbers  and  are  generally 
very  plentiful  in  the  markets  from  September 
to  January,  after  which  they  begin  to  breed  and 
are  unfit  to  eat.  They  are  in  the  best  condi- 
tion in  November.  The  flesh  of  the  rabbit, 
when  over  a year  old,  is  dark,  dry,  and  some- 
what tough  ; the  young,  when  nearly  full  grown 
and  fat,  are  tender  and  rather  delicate  eating. 
A young  rabbit  has  soft  paws,  which  are  not 
much  opened ; but  an  old  one  has  them  open, 
hard,  and  worn.  The  ears  of  a young  one  are 
very  soft,  while  those  of  an  old  one  are  stiff 
and  comparatively  rough.  A rabbit,  like  al- 
most every  other  kind  of  game,  has  a better 


taste  when  a little  “ seasoned,  ” or  when  the 
flesh  is  what  is  called  “high  but  it  must  not 
be  too  much  so.  As  long  as  the  body  is  rather 
stiff  it  is  good  ; but  when  limber,  and  when  the 
flesh  has  a black-bluish  appearance,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  examine  it  carefully,  as  it  is  probably 
tainted. 

The  domestic  or  tame  rabbits  are  often  found 
in  the  markets  (both  alive  and  dead),  but  they 
are  unfit  to  eat  unless  they  have  been  kept  in  a 
large  place,  well  fed.  free  from  any  manure  or 
dirt,  and  with  plenty  of  room  to  burrow  in  a 
dry  soil.  When  these  conditions  have  been 
complied  with,  however,  they  are  much  superior 
to  the  wild  rabbit,  being  more  juicy  and  tender, 
and  better  flavored.  They  are  best  for  the 
table  when  from  three  to  twelve  months  old. 


RABBIT 


441 


Baked  Rabbit. — Clean  and  wash  carefully, 
and  place  the  rabbit  in  a baking-pan,  with  a few 
slices  of  onion  and  carrot ; salt,  pepper,  and  but- 
ter it ; cover  the  bottom  of  the  pan  with  cold 
water  and  set  it  in  a quick  oven  ; after  ten  or 
fifteen  minutes,  turn  the  rabbit  over,  baste  and 


Rabbit  for  Baking. 


cover  it  with  a piece  of  buttered  paper ; con- 
tinue basting  till  done.  When  about  half  done, 
if  the  water  and  juice  are  boiling  away,  add 
more  water  or  broth,  and  when  done,  turn  the 
gravy  over  the  rabbit  through  a strainer.  Gar- 
nish with  water-cress,  and  sprinkle  a few  drops 
of  lemon-juice  or  vinegar  over  the  top  as  it  is 
sent  to  table. 

Broiled  Rabbit. — Select  a young  rabbit  for 
this  purpose,  clean  and  wash  carefully,  cut  off 
the  head,  slit  it  open  all  the  way  down  the  front, 
and  lay  it  in  salt  and  water  with  a plate  over  it 
to  keep  it  down,  for  half  an  hour ; then  wipe 
dry,  make  eight  or  ten  deep  gashes  across  the 
thickest  part  of  the  back,  and  broil  over  a hot 
clear  fire  ; turn  the  rabbit  often,  and  when  it  is 
browned  nicely  on  both  sides,  lay  on  a hot  dish, 
salt  and  pepper  well,  and  spread  plenty  of  but- 
ter over  it.  Garnish  with  parsley. 

This  dish  is  improved,  if,  after  the  rabbit  is 
dished  and  seasoned  as  directed  above,  it  be 
set  in  the  oven  for  five  miuutes,  and  then 
anointed  with  a sauce  made  by  heating  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  vinegar  and  mixing  with  it  a 
tablespoonful  of  made  mustard. 

Fricasseed  Rabbit. — Select  two  young  rab- 
bits, clean  them,  cut  into  joints,  throwing  away 
the  head  and  neck,  and  soak  them  an  hour  in 
salt  and  water ; put  into  a sauce-pan  with  a pint 
of  cold  water ; add  half  a pound  of  fat  salt  pork 
cup  into  slips,  a bunch  of  sweet  herbs,  an  onion 
minced  fine,  pepper,  a pinch  of  nutmeg,  and  a 
pinch  of  mace ; cover  closely,  and  stew  until 
tender.  Take  out  the  rabbits  and  set  in  a dish 
where  they  will  keep  warm;  add  to  the  gravy  a 
teacupful  of  cream  or  milk,  two  well-beaten 
eggs  stirred  in  gradually,  and  a tablespoonful 
of  butter  ; thicken  with  a little  flour  wet  in  cold 
milk,  boil  up  once,  and  remove  the  saucepan 
from  the  fire  ; squeeze  in  the  juice  of  a lemon, 
stirring  all  the  time,  and  turn  over  the  rabbits. 

Fried  Rabbit. — Young  rabbits  only  are  fit 
for  frying.  Clean,  cut  into  joints,  and  soak  in 
salt  and  water  for  an  hour  ; then  dip  in  beaten 
egg,  roll  in  cracker  crumbs,  and  fry  to  a nice 
brown  in  plenty  of  lard  or  dripping.  Serve 
with  onion  sauce. 

Larded  Rabbit. — Clean,  cut  into  joints 
(leaving  out  the  head  and  neck),  lard  with  slips 
of  fat  pork  (see  Larding),  and  fry  till  about 
half  done.  Have  ready  some  strained  veal  or 
beef  gravy,  put  it  with  the  rabbit  into  a sauce- 


pan ; add  a minced  onion,  a bunch  of  sweet 
herbs,  and  pepper ; cover  closely,  and  stew  half 
an  hour,  or  until  tender.  Take  out  the  rabbits 
and  lay  in  a hot  covered  dish  ; strain  the  gravy, 
add  a tablespoonful  of  butter,  and  the  juice  of 
a lemon,  and  thicken  with  flour  ; boil  up  well, 
and  pour  over  the  rabbit. 

Pie,  (Rabbit.) — Make  as  directed  for  Pigeon 
Pie. 

Roast  Rabbit. — Clean,  and  lay  in  salt  and 
water  for  an  hour.  Make  a stuffing  of  bread- 
crumbs, minced  beef-suet,  lemon-peel,  grated 
nutmeg,  pepper  and  salt,  and  any  sweet  herb 
that  may  be  liked ; stuff  the  rabbit  with  this, 
sew  it  up,  and  skewer  it  into  proper  form. 


Rabbit  for  Boiling. 


Rub  the  outside  of  the  rabbit  over  with  butter, 
flour  it  slightly,  and  roast,  basting  often.  It 
ought  to  be  done  in  from  forty-five  minutes  to 
an  hour.  Make  a gravy  with  a small  piece  of 
beef,  or  the  livers  of  the  rabbits  if  they  were 
not  roasted  inside,  a whole  onion,  some  whole 
peppercorns,  a blade  of  mace,  a clove  or  two, 
and  a small  crust  of  bread  toasted  very  dry  and 
brown,  but  not  burnt;  when  the  gravy  has 


Rabbit  for  Roasting. 


boiled  enough,  strain  it,  add  a little  catsup  and 
flour  mixed  together,  boil  up  once,  and  serve  in 
a tureen.  If  the  gravy  is  liked  very  rich,  a 
wineglassful  of  port  wine  may  be  added. 

Stewed  Rabbit. — L Clean,  cut  off  the  head, 
and  soak  in  salt  water  for  an  hour ; then  put 
into  a saucepan,  pour  on  enough  cold  water  to 
cover  them, “add  a little  salt,  and  stew  until  ten- 
der. Slice  in  another  pot  three  or  four  onions, 
and  boil  in  a little  water  until  thoroughly  done ; 
drain  off  the  water,  and  stir  the  onions  into  a 
gill  of  drawn  butter,  pepper  to  taste,  and  when 
it  simmers,  add  the  juice  of  a lemon.  Dish 
the  rabbit,  pour  the  hot  sauce  over  it,  and  set 
in  a warm  place,  closely  covered,  for  five  min- 
utes before  sending  to  table. 

II.  Clean,  cut  into  joints,  and  fry  in  three 
ounces  of  butter  until  they  are  turning  rather 
brown ; then  take  out  the  rabbit,  and  add  to 
the  gravy  a small  carrot  and  two  or  three 
onions,  sliced,  a few  slices  of  turnip,  half  a 
dozen  sprigs  of  parsley,  two  of  celery,  and  one 
of  thyme  (the  last  tied  together  with  a string). 


442 


RACCOON 


RASH 


salt  and  pepper,  two  or  three  cloves,  and  half  a 
pint  of  sherry  or  madeira  wine , cover  the 
whole  with  broth  or  water,  and  boil  till  half 
done  ; then  add  the  rabbit,  and  continue  boil- 
ing gently  till  the  whole  is  done,  stirring  now 
and  then.  Dish  the  rabbit;  mash  the  onions, 
carrot,  and  turnip  through  a colander  ; and  put 
them  all  around  the  pieces  of  rabbit;  strain  the 
gravy  over  the  whole,  and  serve  warm. 

RACCOON. — This  animal  is  more  frequently 
seen  on  the  table  at  the  South  than  in  other 
parts  of  the  country,  but  it  occasionally  makes 
its  appearance  in  our  markets,  sometimes  in  a 
live  state.  It  is  in  season  during  the  fall  and 
winter  months.  The  full-grown  raccoon  weighs 
from  seven  to  twelve  pounds,  and  its  flesh  is 
both  rank  and  tough ; the  young  are  better,  but 
even  these  are  not  good  if  very  fat.  Prepare, 
cook,  and  serve  as  directed  for  Opossum. 

RADISH. — The  radish  is  supposed  to  be  a 
native  of  China,  but  has  long  been  cultivated 
here.  It  contains  little  else  than  water,  woody 
fibre,  and  an  acid  substance  which  resides  in  the 
external  part ; it  cannot,  therefore,  be  very  nutri- 
tive, but  it  is  an  agreeable  relish  and  stimulant. 
There  are  various  varieties  of  radishes,  but 
they  are  generally  divided  into  the  turnip , or 
round,  and  the  spindle-rooted.  Many  are  forced 
for  the  early  market,  and  they  are  one  of  the 
first  vegetables  to  make  their  appearance  in  the 
spring.  Their  season  commences  in  April,  and 
continues  with  a succession  of  crops  till  cold 
weather;  the  black  Spanish  and  other  winter 
varieties  can  be  buried  in  dry  sand  for  the 
winter’s  use,  and  in  fact  can  be  kept  till  the 
new  radishes  appear.  The  young  seedling 
leaves  of  the  radish  are  sometimes  used  as  a 
salad ; the  seed-pods  also,  when  green,  are 
often  pickled  along  with  string-beans.  The 
color  of  radishes  varies  greatly ; passing  from 
white  to  red,  and  through  every  shade  to  a dark 
purple,  approaching  to  black.  They  will  grow 
in  almost  any  soil,  but  they  flourish  best  and 
attain  a larger  size  in  a deep,  sandy  soil.  The 
seeds  should  be  sown  in  rows  about  a foot 
apart,  as  soon  as  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground  ; 
or  they  may  be  started  in  a hot-bed  and  trans- 
planted to  the  garden.  Of  the  early  turnip- 
shaped varieties,  the  scarlet , olive-shaped , and 
the  white  turnip-rooted  are  the  best.  The  long 
scarlet  short  top , and  the  long  white  Naples  are 
the  most  desirable  of  the  long-rooted  sorts. 
The  rose-colored  Chinese  is  good  for  winter 
forcing. 

RAIL. — There  are  several  varieties  of  this  ex- 
cellent little  bird,  but  none  of  them  are  very 
abundant  in  the  Northern  markets.  The  clap- 
per-rail, or  meadow-hen , is  the  most  plentiful, 
and  though  inferior  to  the  sora,  is  very  tender 
and  well-flavored  when  in  good  condition.  It 
is  best  in  September  and  October.  The  sora , 
or  Carolina  rail , is  seldom  seen  for  sale,  al- 
though it  is  much  sought  after.  Its  flesh  is  of 
an  exceedingly  delicate  flavor,  unsurpassed  in 
quality  by  that  of  woodcock.  It  is  in  best 
condition  in  September.  The  Virginia  rail,  or 
little  mud-hen,  is  occasionally  found  in  the 


markets  in  April  and  May,  and  again  in  Sep- 
tember and  October.  It  is  considered  best  in 
the  latter  months,  but  its  flesh  is  not  very  deli- 
cate , at  any  time.  Prepare,  cook,  and  serve 
rails  as  directed  for  Oktolans. 

RAISINS. — 't  hese  are  merely  grapes  dried 
in  the  sun,  or  by  stove-heat.  The  former,  called 
sun-dried  raisins,  are  the  most  highly  prized ; 
but  many  sold  as  such  are  not  dried  entirely 
without  the  aid  of  artificial  heat.  The  Malaga, 
or  “muscatel,”  which  comes  from  Spain,  is  the 
best  raisin  for  table  use.  The  Sultana,  with- 
out seed,  and  the  Smyrna  are  also  choice  va- 
rieties. The  common  raisins  are  made  from 
ordinary  grapes  with  little  care ; they  have  an 
acid  taste,  which  is  much  less  agreeable  than 
the  flavor  of  the  choicer  kinds,  and  they  are 
eften  mixed  with  a great  quantity  of  refuse 
matter  and  dirt.  Raisins  are  in  season  through- 
out the  year,  but  are  best  from  January  to 
June,  when  they  are  fresh.  In  buying,  take  the 
small  boxes,  as  raisins  lose  quality  by  keeping. 

Wine  cf  Raisins. — First  boil  the  water 
which  is  to  be  used  for  the  wine,  and  let  it  again 
become  perfectly  cold ; then  put  into  a sound 
sweet  cask  eight  pounds  of  fine  Malaga  raisins 
for  each  gallon  that  is  to  be  used,  taking  out  only 
the  quite  large  stalks ; the  fruit  and  water  may 
be  put  in  alternately  until  the  cask  is  full,  the 
raisins  being  well  pressed  dowrn  in  it ; lay  the 
bung  lightly  over,  stir  the  wine  every  day  or 
two,  and  keep  it  full  by  the  addition  of  water 
that  has,  like  the  first,  been  boiled,  but  which 
must  always  be  quite  cold  when  it  is  used.  So 
soon  as  the  fermentation  has  entirely  ceased, 
w hich  may  be  in  from  six  to  seven  weeks,  press 
in  the  bung,  and  leave  the  w ine  untouched  for 
twelve  months ; draw  it  off  then  into  a clean 
cask,  and  fine  it,  if  necessary,  with  isinglass, 
tied  in  a muslin  and  suspended  in  it. 

RAPE. — A plant  of  the  cabbage  species,  with 
fleshy  stem  and  leaves,  which  are  sometimes 
used  in  the  same  manner  as  spinach,  in  salads, 
etc.  It  is  hardly  fit  to  use  until  touched  by 
frost.  The  taste  is  warm  and  aromatic;  but  it 
is  not  cultivated  in  this  country  to  any  consider- 
able extent,  and  consequently  is  seldom  obtain- 
able in  the  markets.  The  chief  value  of  the 
plant  lies  in  the  oil  which  is  expressed  abund- 
antly from  the  seed,  and  extensively  used  in 
lamps  and  machinery. 

RASH.— There  are  several  rashes  to 
which  young  children  are  subject.  The  most 
common  one  is  the  red  gum.  (See  Red  Gum.) 
Another  rash  is  one  which  sometimes  leads 
parents  to  dread  the  accession  of  measles  or 
scarlet  fever.  It  is  a red  blush,  most  observa- 
ble on  the  extremities,  but  attended  with  little 
fever.  Measles  is  preceded  by  running  from 
the  nose  and  a peculiar  cough,  and  scarlet 
fever  by  sore  throat,  and  the  absence  of 
these  symptoms  from  the  rash  now  men- 
tioned generally  points  out  its  real  nature. 
Another  rash,  presenting  dull,  red  patches, 
chiefly  on  the  legs,  with  here  and  there  small 
swellings,  is  also  sometimes  seen.  All  these 
rashes  are  of  course  mere  symptoms,  and,  ex- 


RASPBERRY 


REED-BIRDS 


443 


cept  in  the  case  of  red  gum,  require  no  special  I 
treatment.  (See  Nettle  Rash.) 

RASPBERRY. — This  is  one  of  the  best  of 
fruits  for  the  dessert,  especially  the  choicer  va- 
rieties, among  which  are  the  red  and  the  yellow, 
or  white,  the  Antwerp,  the  Franconia,  the  Fas- 
tolff,  etc.,  which  ripen  from  the  5th  to  the  10th 
of  July.  The  common  red  raspberry  ripens  a 
little  earlier ; and  the  black-cap,  or  common 
black  raspberry,  which  is  the  original  variety  of 
the  fruit,  ripens  later  and  lasts  about  six  weeks. 
During  favorable  seasons  raspberries  are 
found  "in  the  markets  from  about  the  middle  of 
June  to  the  middle  of  August.  The  fruit  is 
sub-acid  and  cooling.  Its  flavor  is  extremely 
volatile,  and  if  the  fruit  is  kept  for  two  or  three 
days,  will  be  almost  entirely  gone. 

Brandy  (Raspberry). — To  one  gallon  of 
brandy,  allow  two  quarts  of  raspberries ; bruise 
them  in  a little  of  the  brandy  and  add  them  to 
the  rest ; let  them  steep,  covered  closely,  for 
ten  or  twelve  days ; then  strain  through  a seive 
and  put  to  the  liquor  three-quarters  of  a pound 
of  white  sugar  ; when  it  is  fine,  bottle  it. 

Vinegar  (Raspberry). — Take  red  or  black 
raspberries,  5 qts.  for  three  successive  days ; 
best  cider  \inegar,  5 qts.  ; crushed  sugar  1 lb. 
to  every  pint  of  juice. 

In  the  morning  put  five  pounds  of  raspberries 
and  all  of  the  vinegar  in  a four  gallon  crock  ; 
the  next  morning  put  five  pounds  of  fresh  fruit 
in  another  crock  the  same  size  ; tie  a strainer 
over  it  drooping  several  inches  ; empty  the  first 
crock  into  the  strainer  and  drain,  leave  un- 
touched until  the  next  morning,  when  the 
drained  fruit  is  thrown  away  and  the  process 
repeated ; this  brings  you  to  the  fourth  day ; 
then  tie  the  strainer  over  the  empty,  clean 
crock,  pour  in  the  raspberries  and  let  them 
drain  until  the  next  day.  Measure  the  liquid  and 
add  an  equal  quantity  of  vinegar;  put  it  in  the 
preserving  kettle  and  let  it  simmer;  skim  and 
while  hot  fill  the  bottles,  cork  and  seal  them ; 
have  the  corks  soaking  in  hot  water  when  the 
vinegar  is  simmering.  Pound  the  cork  well  in, 
holding  the  bottle  wrapped  in  a towel,  in  the 
hand.  Cut  the  cork  even  with  the  top  of  the 
bottle,  turn  it  upside  down  and  give  it  a turn 
or  two  in  melted  cement.  This  syrup  will  keep 
for  years  and  makes  a most  delicious  drink. 

Wine  (Raspberry). — Make  as  directed  for 
red  currant  wine  ; but,  as  the  fermentation 
subsides,  add  a small  quantity  of  the  pure  juice 
of  the  raspberries,  or  suspend  some  fresh 
fruit  in  the  cask,  and  the  flavor  of  the  wine  will 
be  greatly  improved. 

RATS,  To  Destroy. — The  methods  sug- 
gested for  destroying  mice  also  apply  to  rats. 
(See  Mice). 

RATAFIA.  (See  Liqueurs.) 

RAY  can  rarely  be  had  except  at  one  or 
two  stands  in  Washington  Market,  New  York. 
It  is  very  large,  and  the  parts  sold  are  only  the 
fleshy  side-fins.  . The  flesh  is  rather  tough, 
glutinous,  and  somewhat  insipid  in  taste  ; but 
it  improves  with  keeping.  The  following  re- 
ceipt for  cooking  it  is  French : 


To  Cook. — Clean  the  fish,  put  it  in  a pot, 
cover  with  cold  water,  and  boil  till  tender  ; then 
dish  it,  and  sprinkle  it  with  salt  and  pepper. 
While  it  is  boiling,  put  about  two  ounces  of 


butter  to  each  pound  offish  in  a frying-pan,  set 
it  on  a quick  fire,  stir  now  and  then,  and  when 
brown,  throw  into  it  about  six  sprigs  of  parsley, 
and  take  them  off  immediately  with  a skim- 
mer ; as  soon  as  the  parsley  is  taken  off,  pour 
the  butter  over  the  fish  quickly,  put  two  table- 
spoonfuls of  vinegar  in  the  frying-pan  while  on 
the  fire,  give  one  boil,  and  pour  also  over  the 
fish;  then  send  at  once  to  table.  Frying  the 
parsley  and  boiling  the  vinegar  cannot  be  done 
too  fast,  as  the  fish  must  be  served  hot. 

RAZOR.  (See  Shaving.) 

RECEIPT. — A receipt  is  a written  acknowl- 
edgment that  money  or  some  other  thing  has 
been  received  from  another  person. 

When  an  account  or  bill  (see  Bill)  is  paid 
it  is  customary  for  the  creditor  to  write  the 
words  “Received  Payment”  with  the  date, 
beneath  the  items,  and  affix  his  signature,  which 
gives  to  the  account  or  bill  the  character  of  a 
receipt. 

A receipt  in  full  may  be  in  the  following 
form : 

“ Received,  New  York,  May  1,  1876,  of  John 
“Doe,  fifty  t7„5o  (50. dollars  in  full  of  all 
“demands  to  this  date.  Richard  Roe.” 

A receipt,  although  expressed  to  be  in  full 
of  all  demands,  is  not  conclusive  evidence  of 
the  facts  attested  by  it.  If  obtained  through 
fraud,  accident  or  mistake,  or  without  the  arti- 
cle having  actually  been  delivered,  it  will  not 
prevent  the  person  giving  it  from  suing  for  the 
article.  (See  Bill  and  Law). 

RED  GUM  — A simple  and  harmless  skin 
eruption  which  occurs  in  infants  within  the 
first  year  of  life,  from  hot  rooms  and  bedding, 
hard  under  clothing,  new  flannel,  all  sorts  of 
local  irritation,  and  in  the  mildest  feverish  dis- 
eases. The  rash  is  best  marked  on  the  back, 
as  a profusion  of  minute  red  splotches,  attend- 
ed by  a trifling  itching ; sometimes  it  may  come 
out  all  over  the  body. 

Treatment: — Very  simple  diet,  consisting  of 
milk,  or  milk  and  lime-water,  without  thicken- 
ing the  food  at  all.  A little  rhubarb  and  mag- 
nesia to  act  as  a gentle  purgative,  and  bathing 
in  tepid  water.  Should  the  rash  not  yield  to 
this,  apply  zinc  ointment. 

REED-BIRDS. — These  excellent  little  birds 


444 


REFRIGERANTS 


RESPIRATION 


are  usually  brought  to  market  dead,  and  picked 
and  strung  together  in  bunches  like  peppers. 
They  are  most  abundant  in  the  Philadelphia 
markets,  Philadelphia  being  near  their  feeding 
grounds.  They  are  commonly  known  there  as 
reed-birds,  but  in  the  Charleston  and  Savanah 
markets,  where  they  are  also  abundant,  they 
are  called  rice-birds.  They  are  in  best  condi- 
tion for  the  table  in  September  and  October. 
Prepare,  cook,  and  serve  as  directed  for 
Ortolans. 

REFRIGERANTS.— These  are  what  are 
commonly  called  cooling  medicines  ; also  some- 
times febrifuges ; they  include  such  saline  and 
acid  substances  as  are  popularly  regarded  of  util- 
ity in  diminishing  febrile  action.  Refrigerants 
are  of  at  least  two  kinds, those  which  have  proba- 
bly the  power  to  diminish  temperature,  and  those 
which  seem  only  to  allay  thirst.  Acid  fruits  seem 
only  to  possess  refrigerant  powers  by  allaying 
thirst,  for  a dry  parched  mouth  is  one  of  the 
most  prominent  indications  of  fever,  and  this 
being  relieved  there  is  often  a belief  that  the 
bodily  temperature  is  actually  lessened. 

( a ) Carbonate  of  soda  or  potass,  20  grains  ; 
sweet  spirits  of  nitre,  30  drops  ; syrup  of  orange- 
peel,  1 drachm;  water,  1 oz.  Mix  and  give 
with  1 5 grains  of  citric  or  carbonic  acid,  or  a 
table-spoonful  of  lemon  juice,  while  efferves- 1 
cing.  (This  is  the  common  medical  efferves- 
cing draught.) 

( b ) Nitrate  of  potass,  1 drachm;  sweet  spirits 
of  nitre,  3 drachms ; tincture  of  henbane,  2 
drachms  ; liquor  of  acetate  of  ammonia,  1 ounce  ; 
camphor  mixture,  enough  to  fill  up  an  8 ounce 
phial.  Give  two  tablespoonfuls  every  four 
hours.  (A  good  common  febrifuge  mixture.) 
If  cough  is  present,  add  ten  or  fifteen  drops  of 
ipecacuanha  wine  to  each  dose. 

REGISTER.  (See  Warming.) 

RENNET. — A substance  used  in  coagulating 
the  milk  in  making  cheese  (see  Cheese).  To 
understand  its  operation  we  may  observe  that  it 
is  the  nature  of  the  gastric  juice  secreted  in  the 
stomach  of  all  animals  to  coagulate  the  milk 
taken  into  it,  as  is  well  known  to  those  accus- 
tomed to  young  children.  The  prepared 
stomach  of  ruminating  animals  is  found  best 
for  this  purpose,  and  that  of  a young  calf  that 
has  been  killed  before  the  the  digestion  is  com- 
pleted is  generally  preferred  for  rennet.  To 
prepare,  wash  the  bag  (or  stomach)  clean,  and 
salt  it  thoroughly  inside  and  out,  leaving  a 
coat  of  salt  over  every  part  of  it ; put  it  into  an 
earthen  jar  or  other  vessel,  and  let  it  stand 
three  or  four  days,  in  which  time  it  will 
have  formed  the  salt  and  its  own  natural  juice 
into  a pickle  ; take  it  out  of  the  jar,  hang  it  up 
for  two  or  three  days,  and  let  the  pickle  drain 
from  it ; re-salt  it,  and  place  it  again  in  the  jar ; 
cover  the  top  of  the  jar  with  a paper  pierced 
full  of  pin-holes.  It  ought  to  remain  in  this 
state  twelve  months  undisturbed ; but  it  may 
be  used  a few  days  after  it  has  received  the 
second  salting. 

When  wanted  for  use,  soak  the  rennet  in 
water,  to  which  a little  lemon  and  cloves  may 


be  added  to  do  away  with  any  disagreable 
smell.  The  strength  of  the  liquid  will  of  course 
be  in  proportion  to  the  length  of  time  the  bag 
remains  in  it. 

REP. — A thick,  twilled,  and  durable  cloth 
extensively  used  in  furniture,  especially  for 
window-curtains  and  for  covering  chairs,  sofas, 
etc.  It  is  made  of  worsted  or  silk,  or  of 
worsted  and  silk  combined,  and  in  various  colors. 
The  silk  rep  is  a very  rich  fabric,  but  is 
less  durable  than  the  worsted,  which  is  scarcely 
inferior  in  appearance  when  of  good  quality. 
The  mixed  fabric  is  undesirable.  Rep  is 
manufactured  in  pieces  a yard,  and  sometimes 
two  yards  wide. 

RESIN. — Resins  are  solid  substances  of  vege- 
table origin,  highly  inflammable,  giving  much  soot 
by  combustion,  insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble 
in  essential  oils  and  in  alcohol.  The  resin  of 
commerce  is  the  natural  product  of  the  pine  ; 
and  immense  quantities  of  it  are  made  in  the 
Southern  States,  especially  in  North  Carolina. 
It  is  to  this  that  reference  is  made  whenever 
resin  is  mentioned  in  any  of  the  receipts  in 
this  book. 

To  remove  the  taste  of  Resin  from  New 
Tin. — Take  a hot  live  coal  from  a wrood  fire,  or  a 
piece  of  burning  charcoal,  put  the  coal  into  a tin 
vessel,  and  shake  it  about  awhile.  Repeat 
this,  if  necessary,  with  a fresh  coal  each  time ; 
then  wash  out  the  vessel  with  boiling  water. 
Or,  boil  in  the  vessel  some  potash  dissolved 
in  water  ; afterwards  wash  out  the  vessel,  and 
boil  pure  water  in  it. 

RESPIRATION. — The  process  by  which 
the  air  enters  and  emerges  from  the  lungs,  and 
in  doing  so  causes  the  aeration  of  the  blood,  con- 
verting the  black  venous  blood  into  the  red  arter- 
ial blood.  Respiration  consists  of  two  parts,  in- 
spiration and  expiration,  and  as  a rule  an  in- 
dividual breathes  fifteen  times  a minute.  The 
lungs  always  contain  air,  and  no  expiratory 
effort,  however  forced,  can  empty  them  ; this 
air  which  cannot  be  got  rid  of  is  called  the 
Residual  air,  and  is  on  the  average  from  75  to 
100  cubic  inches.  About  as  much  room  in 
addition  to  this  remains  in  the  chest  after  an 
ordinary  expiration,  and  is  called  Supplemental 
air.  In  ordinary  breathing,  from  20  to  30  cubic 
inches  of  air  pass  in  and  out  of  the  chest — this 
is  called  the  Tidal  air ; thus  at  the  end  of  an 
ordinary  inspiration,  about  230  cubic  inches  of 
air  are  contained  in  the  lungs  ; in  addition,  by 
taking  a very  deep  inspiration,  another  100 
cubic  inches,  called  Complemental  air,  may  be 
added.  Of  these  230  cubic  inches,  about  one 
seventh  goes  out  at  every  expiration  and  is 
taken  in  again  at  the  next  inspiration,  and  so 
on;  from  this  it  will  be  seen  that  it  is  highly 
important  that  the  air  in  a room  should  be  con- 
stantly renewed,  for  otherwise  the  occupants 
will  be  breathing  over  again  their  expired  air, 
which  is  very  injurious  (see  Air).  The  mech- 
anism of  respiration  need  not  be  fully  described 
here.  During  inspiration  the  diaphragm 
descends,  and  the  depth  of  the  chest  from  above 
downwards  is  thereby  increased ; at  the  same 


RESPIRATOR 


RHEUMATISM 


445 


time  the  ribs  run  upwards  and  outwards,  so  as 
to  increase  the  cavity  of  the  chest  from  side 
to  side,  and  from  front  to  back.  Thus  the  chest- 
walls  expand  in  three  directions  during  inspi- 
ration, and  at  the  same  time  the  lungs  follow 
the  expansion  and  become  inflated  with  air.  Dur- 
ing expiration,  the  lungs  being  elastic,  retract, 
and  the  reverse  movement  of  the  diaphragm 
and  chest-walls  takes  place.  Anything,  such 
as  tight-lacing,  which  interferes  with  the 
due  expansion  of  the  chest,  is  therefore  very 
injurious  ; any  deformity  of  the  chest,  a habit 
of  stooping,  a curved  spine,  a pigeon  breast, 
these  all  have  the  effect  of  diminishing  the 
breathing  area  of  the  lungs.  As  a rule,  the 
broader  and  fuller  the  chest,  the  better  is  the 
health,  and  the  greater  is  the  capacity  for  ex- 
ertion. Gymnastics,  drilling,  rowing,  etc.,  are 
all  excellent  means  of  expanding  the  chest  and 
promoting  good  respiration.  For  methods  of 
artificial  respiration,  see  Drowned. 

RESPIRATOR. — An  instrument  worn  on 
the  mouth  by  those  who  wish  to  avoid  exposure 
of  the  lungs  to  the  night  air,  in  cases  of  con- 
sumption, winter  cough,  etc.  In  this  way 
warmer  air  is  conveyed  into  the  lungs,  thus 
preventing  the  irritation  of  the  wind-pipe  which 
provokes  the  cough.  There  are  several  patent 
respirators,  but  a handkerchief  will  serve  all 
practical  purposes. 

RHEIM’S  PAPER. — Make  a strong  tinc- 
ture of  capsicum-pods  (red  peppers)  by  steep- 
ing them  for  several  days,  in  a warm  place,  in 
twice  their  weight  of  rectified  spirits  of  wine. 
Dissolve  gum-arabic  in  water  to  about  the  con- 
sistency of  molasses  ; stir  equal  quantities  to- 
gether with  a small  brush  or  large  camel’s  hair 
pencil ; take  sheets  of  good  tissue-paper,  coat 
them  with  the  mixture  ; let  them  dry,  and  then 
coat  again ; let  that  dry,  and  if  the  surface  is 
shining,  there  is  enough  of  the  peppered  gum ; 
if  not,  give  a third  coat.  This  paper,  applied 
in  the  same  way  as  court-plaster  to  chilblains 
not  broken,  and  burns  not  blistered,  speed- 
ily relieves  and  cures  them.  It  is  good 
for  cuts  and  discolored  bruises  ; and  allays 
rheumatic  pains.  It  keeps  long. 

RHEUMATISM  is  now  considered  a slight 
inflammation  of  the  sheaths  of  the  muscles, 
and  though  its  treatment  somewhat  corres- 
ponds to  that  of  the  severer  disease,  called 
Acute  Rheumatism  or  Rheumatic  Fever, 
it  is  a comparatively  trifling  disorder.  It  indi- 
cates itself  by  dull  pains,  not  unlike  toothache, 
in  various  muscles,  frequently  in  the  lumbar 
muscles,  the  small  of  the  back,  when  it  is 
known  as  Lumbago.  Allcock’s  porous  plastei, 
or  Rheim’s  paper,  is  apt  to  stop  it.  Intern- 
ally, take,  every  hour  or  two,  a swallow  from  a 
glass  of  water  in  which  has  been  dissolved  a 
tablespoonful  of  Rochelle  salts. 

Acute  Rheumatism  is  characterized  by 
high  temperature,  profuse  sour  sweats,  and 
swelling  and  reddening  of  some  of  the  larger 
joints,  most  frequently  of  the  knee  and  ankle. 
These  are  intensely  painful,  but  generally  get 
well  by  themselves.  Rheumatic  fever  most 


frequently  arises  from  cold  and  damp,  especi- 
ally if  the  individual  has  suffered  from  fatigue, 
improper  food,  and  the  like.  It  begins  with 
restlessness  and  fever,  with  white  or  creamy 
tongue,  and  bowels  either  constipated  or  re- 
laxed. Presently  the  joints  begin  to  ache,  the 
pain  increases  till  there  is  swelling  and  great 
tenderness  all  over  one  or  more  of  the  large 
joints  of  the  body ; the  hip  joint,  however,  is 
not  very  often  affected.  There  is  by  this  time, 
in  most  cases,  a high  temperature,  102°  or  103° 
F.,  but  it  gradually  increases,  and  in  many 
cases  becomes  excessive.  This,  indeed,  con- 
stitutes one  of  the  chief  changes  of  the  disease, 
for  when  the  temperature  rises  above  105° 
there  is  always  more  or  less  danger  to  the  pa- 
tient; by  the  time  108°  is  reached  recovery  is 
as  nearly  as  possible  hopeless,  and  at  109°  may 
be  said  to  be  quite  so.  In  those  cases  where 
a high  temperature  developes  itself,  the  sweat, 
which  is  ordinarily  very  profuse  and  of  a 
strong  acid  odor,  disappears,  and  its  reappear- 
ance may  be  said  to  be  the  first  sign  of  real 
improvement.  The  pain  and  tenderness  in  the 
joints,  too,  are  very  great.  The  patient  can 
hardly  bear  the  weight  of  the  bed-clothes, 
much  less  can  he  bear  the  swollen  limbs  to  be 
touched  ; he  himself  dare  not  move,  and  he 
even  dreads  the  movements  of  others.  The 
pulse  is  quick  and  full,  and,  except  the  heart 
be  affected,  regular.  The  thirst  is  extreme  ; 
and  the  urine  is  high-colored  and  full  of  a 
brickdust  sediment.  It  is  difficult  to  say,  too, 
when  the  patient  has  seen  the  worst,  for  joint 
after  joint  may  be  affected,  and  even  when 
the  patient  seems  fairly  on  the  road  to  recov- 
ery he  may  suffer  a relapse.  But  the  great 
risk  of  rheumatic  fever  is  the  danger  ot  heart 
complication.  Most  cases  of  heart  disease 
do,  in  fact,  date  their  onset  from  an  attack  of 
rheumatism. 

Treatment. — Get  a good  doctor,  if  possible. 
Bicarbonate  of  potash  maybe  given,  either  by 
itself,  or  effervescing  with  citric  acid,  in  large 
doses — 30  grains  or  so  every  four  hours,  con- 
tinuing it  until  the  pain  begins  to  abate  and 
the  urine  is  rendered  alkaline.  The  joints 
ought  at  the  same  time  to  be  wrapped  in  cot- 
ton-wool,  but  in  some  cases  great  benefit  is 
derived  from  applying  warm  alkaline  lotions 
(an  ounce  of  bicarbonate  of  potash  to  a pint 
of  water)  to  the  skin,  and  putting  cotton-wool 
over  that.  Woollen  clothing  or  cloths  should 
also  be  worn  next  the  skin,  but  should  not  be 
allowed  to  remain  too  long.  Lemon  juice  is 
also  believed  to  be  an  efficient  remedy.  The 
diet  should  be  light, — beef-tea,  and  the  like. 
As  the  patient  improves,  fish  may  be  given, 
but  too  early  use  of  meat  may  bring  on  a fresh 
attack.  The  patient  should  have  plenty  oi 
drink;  common  lemonade  is  best,  or  soda  ot 
potass  water  may  be  given.  Wine  is  forbid- 
den, and  above  all  things,  beer.  In  convales- 
cence, give  quinine  or  bark  and  ammonia,  after- 
wards iron  and  cod-liver  oil. 

Chronic  Rheumatism  is  quite  a different 
affection  from  rheumatic  fever,  for  though  the 


446 


RHINE  WINES 


RHUBARB 


latter  may  pass  into  the  chronic  stage,  most  fre- 
quently the  one  is  quiteindependent  of  the  other. 
Most  old  people,  especially  if  they  have  led  a 
life  of  exposure  and  fatigue,  are  more  or  less 
affected  with  rheumatism,  sometimes  so  far  as 
to  completely  cripple  them.  The  constitutional 
disturbance  is  slight,  but  the  pain  is  sometimes 
great,  both  night  and  day,  so  as  to  wear  out  the 
patient  by  continual  harassing.  Medicines  are 
of  little  effect  in  this  form  of  rheumatism,  and 
their  use  can  only  be  ventured  upon  by  the 
physicians  acquainted  with  the  particular  case. 
Iodine  paint  to  the  affected  joints  sometimes 
does  good,  but  not  so  much  as  hot  alkaline 
lotions.  All  patients  should  wear  flannel  next 
the  skin,  and  be  careful  in  their  diet.  Beer, 
porter,  and  full-bodied  wines  must  not  be  in- 
dulged in. 

RHINE  WINES. — The  wines  of  the  Rhine 
form  a class  different  from  all  others.  Some 
of  the  lighter  kinds  bear  a considerable  resem- 
blance to  the  vins  de  Graves ; but  they  are,  in 
general,  dryer  than  any  French  wines.  They 
are  generous,  finely  flavored,  and  characterized 
by  a delicate  aroma  that  is  peculiar  to  them. 
Though  they  do  not  contain  much  alcohol,  yet 
from  the  completeness  of  their  fermentation 
they  will  keep  longer  (continuing  to  improve 
with  age)  than  the  potent  wines  of  the  South 
with  double  their  alcoholic  strength.  From  a 
peculiar  tartness  which  they  possess  it  has  been 
thought  that  these  wines  are  acid,  and  the  in- 
ferior kinds  no  doubt  are  to  a certain  degree ; 
but  this  is  by  no  means  a constant  character  of 
Rhine  wines,  many  of  which  have  not,  in  good 
years,  any  perceptible  acidity  to  the  taste. 
The  most  celebrated  of  these  wines  are  fer- 
mented in  casks,  by  which  the  fine  aroma  is 
preserved,  and  then,  after  being  repeatedly 
racked  (see  Wines),  are  kept  for  years  in  very 
large  vessels  to  mellow.  When  in  market,  the 
time  for  racking  is  past. 

The  first  of  the  Rhenish  wines  for  fine  flavor 
and  absence  of  acidity  is  the  Johannisberger, 
produced  on  the  south  side  of  a hill  of  that 
name,  a little  below  Maintz.  The  choicest  of 
all  is  called  Schloss  Johannisberg , from  a vine- 
yard now  the  property  of  Prince  Metternich. 
Little  of  this  ever  comes  into  the  market ; but 
other  vineyards  in  Johannisberg  give  wines  of 
the  first  class.  The  produce  of  the  Stienberger 
vineyard  is  considered  next  in  rank  ; it  is  strong, 
with  much  sweetness  and  delicacy  of  flavor. 
Rudesheim  and  Grcefenberg  are  also  among  the 
first  of  these  wines.  Of  second  quality  are 
those  of  Marcobrunner , Roth , and  Konisbach , 
etc.  Perhaps  the  best  of  the  cheaper  wines  to 
be  procured  in  this  country  is  the  Niersteiner. 
Old  Hock , though  generous  and  durable,  is 
considered  less  heating,  and  at  the  same  time 
more  exhilarating  than  many  other  wines.  (See 
Hock  and  Wine.) 

Rhine  wines  of  little  bouquet  may  be  drunk 
iced  ; though,  in  the  usual  place  of  the  lighter 
kinds,  with  raw  oysters  before  dinner,  they 
should  be  of  the  temperature  of  the  room. 

RHODODENDRON. — This  highly  orna- 


mental plant  grows  wild  in  the  Middle  States 
Dut  has  been  greatly  improved  by  cultivation’ 
and  is  now  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the 
smaller  shrubs.  They  should  be  planted  in  a 
bed  specially  prepared,  where  they  can  be  shel- 
tered from  the  winter’s  sun.  The  proper  soil 
is  peat,  leaf-mould,  and  sand,  in  the  proportion 
of  one  part  of  the  latter  to  four  of  the  former. 
They  are  perfectly  hardy,  and  will  yield  their 
large,  brilliant  clusters  of  flowers  year  after 
year  with  little  attention  except  keeping  the 
soil  in  proper  condition. 

The  varieties  are  very  numerous,  and  we  can 
mention  only  a few  of  the  more  desirable  : — R. 
Archimedes,  bright  rose,  light  centre  ; R. 
Atrosanguineum,  intense  blood  red,  fine  fol- 
iage ; R.  Barclayanum , deep  rose,  fine  foliage  ; 
R.  Blandyanum , deep  crimson ; R.  Bryanum, 
rosy  scarlet,  light-centre,  fine  foliage ; R.  Chan- 
cellor, spotted  purplish  lilac  ; R.  Corregio,  dark 
crimson ; R.  Delicatissinuan,  white,  edged  with 
pink;  R.  Due  de  Braba?it,  yellowish  white, 
spotted  with  red,  semi-double;  R.Everestianum , 
rosy  lilac,  spotted  and  fringed ; R.  Giganteum, 
bright-rose,  good  foliage ; R.  Leopardy , rosy- 
lilac,  intensely  spotted ; R.  Nero,  dark  rosy 
purple,  spotted  ; R.  Roseum  elegans , fine  rose ; 
R.  Superbutn,  rose,  late-blooming ; R.  Grandi- 
dorum,  the  same. 

RHUBARB. — This  is  one  of  the  most 
wholesome  of  all  the  productions  of  the  garden 
that  are  used  in  pies,  puddings,  etc.  It  was 
comparatively  little  known  until  within  the  past 
twenty  or  thirty  years,  but  it  is  now  cultivated 
in  almost  every  garden.  The  part  used  is  the 
footstalks  of  the  leaves,  which  are  peeled  and 
cut  into  small  pieces  for  cooking.  When  quite 
young  they  are  much  better  not  peeled.  The 
leaves  are  considered  poisonous,  and  eaten  in 
any  considerable  quantity  may  prove  fatal. 
Among  the  many  varieties,  the  Giajit  and  Vic- 
toria are  generally  preferred,  as  they  produce 
the  largest,  finest,  and  most  succulent  stalks. 
Rhubarb  is  in  season  from  April  until  Septem- 
ber. The  stalks  may  be  dried  in  the  sun,  and 
will  then  keep  a long  time  ; they  shrink  a great 
deal  and  become  like  dry  soft  wood,  but  if 
soaked  over  night  before  using  swell  out  to 
their  original  dimensions,  with  little  loss  of 
flavor.  Rhubarb  is  used  in  the  preparation  of 
many  wholesome  and  delicious  articles  of  food. 
(See  Jelly,  Pies,  Preserves,  Puddings,  and 
Tarts.)  It  is  often  called  Pie-Plant. 

Rhubarb,  as  employed  in  medicine,  consists 
of  the  roots  of  several  plants  growing  in  Cen- 
tral Asia.  The  medicinal  preparations  from  it 
arc  an  extract,  an  infusion,  a syrup,  tincture 
and  wine,  with  a compound  pill,  and  a compound 
powder.  The  compound  pill,  which  is  the  pill 
in  most  general  use  as  a laxative,  contains  rhu- 
barb, aloes,  myrrh,  hard  soap,  and  oil  of  pepper- 
mint. It  is  a most  useful  preparation.  The 
compound  powder,  better  known  perhaps  as 
Gregory’s  powder,  consists  of  rhubarb,  mag- 
nesia, and  ginger ; it  is  a great  and  deserved 
favorite  in  the  nursery.  In  small  doses,  rhu- 
barb acts  as  a kind  of  tonic  to  the  stomach  and 


RICE 


RICKETS  V 


447 


bowels,  in  larger  doses  it  is  purgative,  but  is 
apt  to  be  followed  by  constipation,  as  it  has  a 
kind  of  astringent  effect  subsequent  to  its  pur- 
gative action.  On  this  account,  rhubarb,  es- 
pecially in  the  form  of  wine  or  tincture,  is  often 
prescribed  in  the  early  stage  of  diarrhoea,  in 
order  that  it  may  carry  off  any  irritant  sub- 
stances giving  rise  to  the  diarrhoea,  and  subse- 
quently arrest  the  too  violent  action  of  the  irri- 
tated bowel.  Children  are  apt  to  eat  things 
which  disagree  with  them,  producing  diarrhoea 
and  the  like ; in  such  cases  Gregory’s  powder 
is  an  invaluable  remedy.  The  purgative  dose 
of  rhubarb  is  20  to  30  grains. 

RICE. — There  are  very  many  varieties  of 
rice,  but  the  only  kind  used  in  this  country, 
and  the  best  produced  anywhere,  is  what  is 
known  as  the  Carolina  rice.  Though  a larger 
portion  of  the  earth’s  population  subsist  upon 
it  than  upon  all  the  other  seeds  combined,  rice 
is  by  no  means  equal  to  wheat  in  its  nutritive 
properties,  since  it  consists  almost  exclusively 
of  starch,  and  is  relatively  deficient  in  nitrogen- 
ous elements.  New  rice  is  much  inferior  in 
quality  to  old,  and  is  liable  to  produce  indiges- 
tion, diarrhoea,  and  rheumatism.  It  should  not  be 
eaten  for  at  least:  six  months  after  it  has  been 
gathered ; the  seeds  are  then  very  dry  and 
hard,  and  have  a yellowish  tinge,  while  the  new 
rice  is  perfectly  white. 

Rice  Flour,  or  ground  rice,  is  made  of 
broken  rice,  well  dried  and  ground  to  different 
degrees  of  fineness.  It  is  ground,  generally, 
somewhat  roughly,  so  that  the  grains  are  per- 
ceptible and  impart  a rough  and  dry  taste  to 
the  food.  Ground  rice  is  not  necessarily  of  the 
best  quality,  but  its  value  is  determined  by  its 
color  and  thickening  properties.  Both  rice  and 
rice-flour  are  prepared  for  the  table  in  many 
ways.  ( See  Bread,Cake, Croquettes, Gruf.l, 
Puddings,  Soups,  etc.) 

Boiled  Rice. — Pick  out  all  the  unhusked  or 
defective  grains  from  a pint  of  rice,  and  wash 
it  in  plenty  of  cold  water ; put  it  into  a porce- 
lain-lined stew-pan,  pour  to  it  three  quarts  of 
boiling  water,  add  half  a teaspoonful  of  salt, 
and  boil  it  just  seventeen  minutes  from  the 
time  it  begins  to  boil ; then  drain  off  all  the 
water  and  set  the  rice  over  a moderate  fire  to 
steam  fifteen  minutes  with  the  lid  off. 

Or,  clean  the  rice  as  above,  put  to  it  three 
quarts  of  cold  water  and  a teaspoonful  of  salt ; 
set  it  on  the  fire  and  boil  it  fifteen  to  twenty 
minutes ; then  drain  off  the  water,  add  a little 
milk  and  cream,  and  let  it  boil  a few  minutes 
longer.  It  should  not  be  so  soft  that  the  grains 
lose  their  form. 

Fried  Rice. — Boil  the  rice  quite  soft  the  day 
before,  so  that  it  will  adhere  together  well. 
Next  morning  cut  it  in  slices  an  inch  thick,  and 
cook  it  on  a griddle  with  enough  lard  to  fry  brown. 
This  is  an  excellent  breakfast  dish.  Cold  rice 
left  over  from  dinner  may  be  used  in  this  way. 

Water  (Rice). — This  is  a very  useful  bever- 
age in  the  sick-room.  Boil  half  an  ounce  of 
rice  in  a quart  of  water  till  it  is  quite  soft ; then 
strain  the  water  off  through  a coarse  sieve. 


RICE-BIRD.  (See  Reed-birds.) 

RICKETS. — 1.  A name  given  to  a constitu- 
tional disease  characterized  by  an  unhealthy 
state  of  the  system,  which  precedes  for  several 
weeks  or  months  a peculiar  disease  of  the 
bones,  and  of  some  other  organs  of  the  body ; 
there  is  curvature  of  the  bones  of  the  arms 
and  legs  and  enlargement  of  their  extremities. 
The  disease  is  found  chiefly  among  the  children 
of  the  poor  and  is  produced  by  improper  or  de- 
ficient diet,  impure  air,  want  of  cleanliness  and 
sunlight ; cold,  moisture,  and  deficient  clothing. 

At  first  the  most  ordinary  symptoms  are  diar- 
rhoea alternating  with  constipation,  enlargement 
of  the  abdomen,  and  more  or  less  of  emaciation. 
The  child  is  dull,  languid  and  peevish;  the  appe- 
tite is  bad  and  the  sleep  disturbed  at  night ; if  it 
tries  to  walk  it  falls  ; it  is  thirsty  and  will  drink  a 
great  deal  of  water;  it  has  pain  in  the  bones;  a pale 
face  and  a flabby  skin ; the  hair  on  the  head  is 
thin  and  the  veins  marble  the  surface  by 
their  prominence  ; the  fontanelle  remains  open. 
In  the  next  stage  three  symptoms  are  chiefly 
noticeable  : 1.  A profuse  sweating  of  the 

head  and  neck  and  upper  part  of  the  chest ; 
this  sweating  is  worse  at  night,  when  beads  of 
perspiration  may  be  seen  on  the  head  while  the 
lower  part  of  the  body  is  dry  and  hot.  2.  There 
is  a desire  on  the  part  of  the  child  to  kick  off 
the  clothes,  as  if  with  a wish  to  be  cool.  3. 
There  is  general  tenderness,  so  that  the  child 
cries  when  moved  about.  The  urine  is  thick 
and  deposits  a pale  sediment  on  cooling.  The 
next  set  of  symptoms  are  those  connected  with 
the  deformity  of  the  skeleton.  These  deformi- 
ties are  numerous,  and  need  not  be  specially 
mentioned  here.  Death  results  in  very  few 
cases,  with  the  exception  of  those  in  which  the 
peculiar  softening  of  the  bones  extends  to  the 
skull.  In  these  cases  the  brain  is  liable  to 
suffer,  convulsions  are  very  frequent,  and  the 
child  may  die  with  the  symptoms  of  water  on 
the  brain.  In  those  rickety  children  who 
recover  and  grow  up  to  adult  life  the  deformity 
remains  to  a certain  extent ; the  general  health, 
however,  may  not  suffer  at  all  in  after  life.  In 
fact,  rickety  persons  will  frequently  show  an 
unusual  amount  of  physical  strength  and  intel- 
lectual capacity  in  advanced  years.  They  are, 
however,  mostly  under  size.  Many  of  the 
dwarfs  are  examples  of  recovery  from  rickets. 

Treatment. — improvement  of  the  general 
health  is  the  first  thing  to  be  aimed  at.  The 
child  should  be  placed  in  a warm  and  dry 
atmosphere,  with  good  ventilation  and  pure  air. 
The  diet  is  most  important  and  should  be  in 
accordance  with  the  rules  laid  down  in  the  arti- 
cles on  Infants  and  Children,  adapting  it  of 
course  to  the  age  of  the  patient.  On  fine  days 
the  child  should  be  wrapped  up  warm  and  car- 
ried out  into  the  open  air.  It  should  sleep 
alone,  and  the  bed-clothes  should  be  kept  dry 
and  clean.  A warm  salt-water  bath  should  be 
given  every  morning  if  the  child  can  bear  it. 
Steel  wine  or  the  syrup  of  the  phosphate  of 
iron,  either  alone,  or  in  conjunction  with  cod- 
liver  oil,  are  very  valuable  remedies.  Change 


448 


RINGWORM 


ROASTING 


of  air  such  as  a visit  to  the  seaside,  may  bring 
about  excellent  results,  if  the  patient  can  afford 
it.  Cod-liver  oil  should  be  given  after  a meal. 
Raw  meat,  pounded  in  a mortar,  is  a good 
thing;  milk  must  form  one  of  the  principal 
articles  of  food.  It  ought  to  be  given  in  con- 
junction with  barley-water  or  oat-meal  gruel. 
Lime-water  may  be  mixed  with  the  milk  if  the 
latter  curdles  on  the  stomach. 

RINGWORM.— An  eruption  in  the  form  of 
a circle,  or  part  of  a circle, which  occurs  on  the 
face,  head,  shoulders,  or  neck,  and  sometimes 
even  on  the  lower  parts  of  the  body.  Two 
eruptions  are  popularly  confounded  under  this 
name.  One  of  them  (, herpes  circinatus ) is 
arranged  in  smooth  shining  rings  of  a red 
color,  with  a center  of  sound  skin,  and  occurs 
chiefly  on  the  face;  this  is  not  contagious,  and 
does  not  cause  loss  of  the  hair.  The  other 
(porrigo  scutulata ) appears  chiefly  on  the  scalp, 
but  sometimes  on  the  forehead  and  neck,  the 
ringworm  appearance  being  presented  only 
in  its  early  stage.  It  is  a parasitic  disease, 
highly  contagious,  and  the  rings  consist  of 
minute  pustules  which  are  of  a paler  red  color 
than  the  first  kind;  in  the  center  is  a patch  of 
skin  not  very  different  in  appearance  from  the 
surrounding  healthy  parts,  but  also  found,  on 
close  examination,  to  be  covered  with  small 
pustules.  The  hair  ultimately  falls  off  from 
the  spot,  leaving  a shining  bald  patch. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  the  two  kinds 
of  ringworm  is  quite  different,  the  first  merely 
requiring  the  application  of  any  astringent,  such 
as  common  ink  or  blue  stone,  or  a solution  of 
nitrate  of  silver,  or,  better  still,  of  chloride  of 
zinc  (two  grains  of  either  of  the  two  last  to  an 
ounce  of  distilled  water).  In  treating  the  other 
kind  ( porrigo  scutulata ) the  first  thing  to  be 
done  is  to  cut  off  the  hair  and  loosen  the  scabs, 
so  that  the  application  can  reach  the  skin  it- 
self; a large  linseed-meal  poultice  will  accom- 
plish this.  Then  apply  an  ointment  composed 
of  16  grains  of  iodide  of  mercury  and  i ounce 
of  lard  ; let  it  remain  on  twenty-four  hours, 
then  work  it  off  with  yellow  soap,  and  apply 
the  ointment  again.  Repeat  this  every  day, 
using  iodide  of  sulphur,  made  of  half  the  above 
strength,  on  alternate  days,  if  the  mercury 
causes  too  much  irritation,  in  which  case  also 
a poultice  of  linseed-meal  maybe  applied  over 
it.  Usually,  however,  the  mercury  acts  like 
magic,  and  reduces  the  disease  to  a mere  scurf. 
But  this  must  not  be  considered  as  a cure  until 
the  skin  is  sound  and  the  hair  comes  out  again, 
as  it  will  always  do  in  the  course  of  time. 
When  there  is  nothing  but  a little  scurf  re- 
maining, a wash  composed  as  follows  may  be 
used  instead  of  the  ointment  :-Take  of  chloride 
of  zinc  io  or  12  grains  ; glycerine,  2 ounces; 
rose-water,  6 ounces;  mix.  I f the  general  health 
is  reduced,  it  must  be  supported  by  good  living 
and  tonics,  or  local  remedies  will  be  useless. 

ROACHES,  To  Destroy. — Roaches,  cock- 
roaches, or  croton-bugs,  as  they  are  variously 
called,  are  a troublesome  kind  of  household 
vermin  which  frequent  sinks,  water-closets,  and 


other  places  where  water  is  constantly  kept. 
They  breed  with  prodigious  rapidity,  and  un- 
less exterminated  or  driven  off,  will  soon  swarm 
all  over  the  house,  penetrating  into  everything, 
even  the  beds.  Prevention  in  the  case  of 
roaches  is  better  than  cure,  and  as  soon  as  any 
of  them  are  seen,  powdered  borax,  or  Persian 
insect  powder,  or  arsenic,  should  be  sprinkled 
around  the  spots  they  seem  to  frequent,  and 
they  should  also  be  scalded  out  twice  a week. 
Hellebore,  rubbed  over  with  molasses,  and  put 
round  their  resorts  is  also  a very  effectual 
poison  for  them. 

ROASTING. — As  it  is  usually  practiced, 
roasting  is  fixing  meat  upon  a spit,  or  suspend- 
ing it  before  a fire,  and  causing  it  to  move 
round ; but  this  motion  is  not  essential  to  the 
process  of  roasting.  It  is  sufficient  that  all 
sides  of  the  meat  should  be,  by  some  means  or 
other,  exposed  to  the  radiant  heat  of  a fire, 
while,  at  the  same  time,  a current  of  air  passing 
over  the  meat  carries  off  all  the  steam  and 
other  volatile  substances  that  are  raised  by  the 
process.  This  species  of  cookery  is  therefore 
divided  into  roasting  before  an  open  fire,  and 
roasting  by  enclosing  the  meat  in  a heated  ves- 
sel, furnished  with  a contrivance  by  which  hot 
air  can  enter  and  pass  out  again.  We  should 
add,  however,  that  in  many  contrivances  for 
cooking,  merely  enclosing  the  meat  in  a heated 
part  of  an  apparatus,  without  any  current  of 
air  passing  through  it,  is  improperly  termed 
roasting ; it  is  only  baking.  The  first  change 
undergone  by  the  meat  in  roasting  is  the  melt- 
ing of  the  fat  exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  fire, 
while  at  the  same  time  the  watery  fluids  on  the 
external  part  are  converted  into  vapor;  but  as 
the  heat  penetrates  deeper  into  the  meat,  the 
juices  undergo  important  alterations.  The 
change  takes  place  first  on  the  outside,  and  it 
requires  a considerable  time  before  the  heat 
can  penetrate  completely  to  the  centre  of  the 
meat ; but  it  does  so  at  last,  and  the  steam  which 
is  formed  in  consequence,  coming  from  the  in- 
terior and  bursting  out  upon  the  surface,  breaks 
and  rends  the  fibres  of  the  meat,  loosens  their 
texture  all  through  the  mass,  and  permits  some 
of  the  gravy  to  come  out  and  fall  into  the  drip- 
ping-pan along  with  the  melted  fat.  As  the  loss 
of  this  would  render  the  meat  less  savory,  it  is 
continually  returned  upon  the  joint  seasoned 
with  a little  salt,  a process  known  as  basting, 
without  which  a good  roast  cannot  be  effected. 
When  the  meat  is  about  half  done,  the  intense 
heat  begins  to  carbonize  the  outside,  so  as  to 
form  a kind  of  crust,  which  is  prevented  from 
increasing  too  much  by  turning  round,  and 
managing  properly  the  heat  of  the  fire,  and  by 
repeating  the  basting  sufficiently  often.  Dredg- 
ing a little  flour  over  the  meat  to  produce  a 
froth  is  the  last  part  of  the  process.  The  drip- 
ping-pan should  be  carefully  protected  from 
coal  or  ashes  falling  into  it. 

When  meat  is  very  lean,  a slice  of  butter,  or 
a small  quantity  of  clarified  dripping,  should  be 
melted  in  the  pan  to  baste  it  with  at  first ; 
though  the  use  of  the  latter  should  be  scrupu- 


ROASTING 


ROBIN 


449 


lously  avoided  for  poultry,  or  any  delicate 
meats,  as  it  imparts  a flavor  which  is  to  many 
persons  peculiarly  objectionable.  Let  the  spit 
be  kept  bright  and  clean,  and  wipe  it  before 
the  meat  is  put  on ; balance  the  joint  well  upon 
it,  that  it  may  turn  steadily,  and  if  necessary 
secure  it  with  skewers.  A cradle-spit  which  is 
so  constructed  that  it  contains  the  meat  in  a 
sort  of  framework  instead  of  passing  through 


it,  may  be  often  very  advantageously  used  in. 
stead  of  an  ordinary  one,  as  the  perforation  of 
the  meat  by  the  latter  must  always  occasion 
some  escape  of  the  juices ; and  it  is,  moreover, 
particularly  to  be  objected  to  in  roasting  joints 
or  poultry  that  have  been  boned  and  filled  with 
stuffing.  The  cradle-spit  is  much  better  suited 
to  these,  as  well  as  to  a sucking  pig,  sturgeon, 
salmon,  and  other  large  fish ; but  it  is  seldom 


Cradle  Spit. 


to  be  found  in  our  kitchens,  most  of  which  are 
singularly  deficient  in  the  conveniences  which 
assist  the  labors  of  the  cook. 

For  heavy  and  substantial  joints,  a quarter  of 
an  hour  is  generally  allowed  for  every  pound 
of  meat ; and  with  a good  fire  and  frequent 
basting  will  be  found  sufficient  when  the  pro- 
cess is  conducted  in  the  usual  manner.  Pork, 
veal,  and  lamb  should  always  be  well  roasted ; 
but  beef  and  mutton  are  generally  preferred 
rather  underdone.  Joints  which  are  thin  in 
proportion  to  their  weight  require  less  time  to 
roast  than  thick  and  solid  ones.  Ribs  of  beef, 
for  example,  will  be  sooner  ready  to  serve  than 


an  equal  weight  of  the  rump,  round,  or  sirloin, 
and  the  neck  or  shoulder  of  mutton,  or  spare- 
rib  of  pork,  than  the  leg.  t 

Large  kitchens  are  usually  furnished  with  a 
smoke-jack,  by  means  of  which  several  spits 
can,  if  needful,  be  kept  turning  at  the  same 
time ; but  in  small  establishments  a roaster 
which  allows  of  more  economy  in  point  of  fuel 
is  commonly  used.  The  “ bottle-jack  ” shown 
in  the  cut  is  of  very  advantageous  construction 
in  this  respect,  as  a joint  may  be  cooked  in  it 
with  a comparatively  small  fire,  the  heat  being 
strongly  reflected  from  the  screen  upon  the 
meat ; in  consequence  of  this  it  should  never 
29 


be  placed  very  close  to  the  fire,  as  the  surface 
of  the  meat  would  then  become  dry  and  hard. 

A more  convenient  form  of  roaster  is  the 
“Imperial  Spring  Jack”;  it  is  turned  by  means 
of  a wheel  and  chain,  of  which  the  movement 
is  regulated  by  a spring  contained  in  a box  at 


the  top.  Some  object  to  this  apparatus  as  well 
as  to  the  one  figured  above,  that  the  meat  cooked 
in  either  derives  from  the  tin  by  which  it  is 
closely  surrounded,  the  flavor  of  baked  meat ; 
but  the  bottle-jack,  with  a common  roasting- 
screen  containing  shelves  for  warming  plates 
and  dishes,  is  not  liable  to  the  same  objection. 

ROBIN.  — This  bird,  also  called  the  red- 
breasted thrush,  is  generally  found  in  large 
numbers  in  the  Northern  markets  during  the 
months  of  September  and  October  when  it  is 
in  season ; and  in  the  Southern  markets  during 
the  winter  months.  A few  also  appear  in  the 
former  in  the  spring  months  but  no  one  should 
then  purchase  them,  as  it  encourages  the  killing 
of  them  just  at  their  pairing-time.  Robins 
are  among  the  best  of  the  smaller  game-birds. 
They  are  prepared,  cooked,  and  served  like 
Woodcock. 

English  Robins , known  also  as  cedar-birds , 
yellow-birds , chatterers,  etc.,  etc.,  are  occasion- 
ally found  in  our  markets  in  large  numbers. 
They  are  but  a morsel  of  delicate  eating,  and 
in  season  only  in  the  fall  months.  Prepare, 
cook,  and  serve  as  directed  for  Ortolaus. 


450 


ROCHELLE  SALTS 


ROSE 


ROCHELLE  SALTS.— This  salt  is  tech- 
nically known  as  tartrated  soda ; i.  e.,  cream 
of  tartar  neutralized  by  bicarbonate  of  soda. 
However  known,  the  substance  is  a valuable 
remedial  agent,  too  little  used  perhaps.  It  is 
most  frequently  administered  effervescing  as  a 
seidlitz  powder.  Each  of  these  powders  con- 
tains two  drachms  of  Rochelle  salts  with  a 
sufficiency  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  in  the  blue 
paper  to  cause  effervescence  when  mixed  in 
Water  with  the  contents  of  the  white  paper 
(tartaric  acid).  For  most  people  such  a quan- 
tity of  the  salt  is  quite  sufficient  to  open  the 
bowels  easily  and  freely;  others  require  more. 
This  can  easily  be  managed  by  telling  the  drug- 
gist to  add  more  of  the  Rochelle  salt  to  the 
blue  paper  of  a seidlitz  powder.  The  effervesc- 
ing material  requires  no  addition. 

ROCK-BASS. — This  fresh-water  bass  is  a 
smaller  fish  than  the  black-bass,  to  which  it  is 
nearly  allied,  but  is  almost  equal  to  the  latter 
for  table  purposes.  The  color  is  of  a very  dark 
green  above,  sides  of  a golden-copper,  with 
several  rows  of  dark  spots,  and  the  fins  of  a 
bluish-green.  The  nose  is  also  inclined  to 
turn  up.  They  are  usually  from  half  a pound 
to  a pound  in  weight;  and  are  in  season  from 
October  to  April,  though  seldom  plentiful. 
Prepare,  cook  and  serve  as  directed  for  Bass. 

ROCK  FISH. — Rock,  rock-fish  and  rock- 
bass  are  the  names  given  in  the  Southern  mar- 
kets to  the  fish  known  as  striped  bass  or 
streaked  bass  in  the  Northern  markets.  It  is 
in  season  very  nearly  throughout  the  year,  and 
is  one  of  the  best  of  fishes  either  for  boiling, 
broiling,  or  frying.  (See  Bass.) 

ROCK-SALT.  (See  Salt.) 

ROLLS. — Nice  dinner  or  breakfast  rolls  may 
be  made  as  follows  : — Crumble  down  very  small 
indeed  an  ounce  of  butter  into  two  pounds  of 
the  best  flour,  and  mix  with  them  a large  salt- 
spoonful  of  salt;  put  into  a bowl  a dessert- 
spoonful of  strong  brewers’  yeast,  and  half  a tea- 
spoonful of  pounded  sugar  ; mix  these  with  half 
a pint  of  warm  milk ; hollow  the  centre  of  the 
flour,  and  pour  in  the  milk  and  yeast  gradually, 
stirring  to  it  enough  of  the  surrounding  flour 
to  make  a thick  batter;  strew  more  flour  on  the 
top,  cover  the  pan  with  a thick  double  cloth, 
and  let  it  stand  in  a warm  place  to  rise  ; in  win- 
ter it  should  be  placed  within  a few  feet  of  the 
fire.  In  about  an  hour,  should  the  leaven  have 
broken  through  the  flour  on  the  top,  and  have 
risen  considerably  in  height,  mix  one  lightly- 
whisked  egg,  or  the  yolks  of  two  with  nearly 
half  a pint  more  of  quite  warm  milk,  and  wet  up 
the  mass  into  very  smooth  dough.  Cover  it 
over  as  before,  and  in  from  half  to  three-quar- 
ters of  an  hour,  turn  it  on  to  a paste-board,  and 
divide  it  into  24  portions  of  equal  size  ; knead 
these  up  as  lightly  as  possible  into  small  round 
or  olive-shaped  rolls ; make  a slight  incision 
round  them,  and  cut  them  once  or  twice  across 
the  top,  placing  them  as  they  are  made  in 
slightly  floured  baking-pans,  an  inch  or  two 
apart;  let  them  stand  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes 
to  prove , then  wash  the  top  with  yolk  of  egg 


mixed  with  a little  milk,  and  bake  them  in  a 
rather  quick  oven  from  ten  to  fifteen  minutes. 
An  additional  ounce  of  butter  and  another  egg 
can  be  used  for  these  rolls  when  richer  bread 
is  liked.  A teacupful  of  good  cream  substituted 
for  the  butter  will  render  the  rolls  exceedingly 
delicate  both  in  appearance  and  flavor. 

French  Rolls. — Take  .--Flour,  3 pints;  milk 
1 quart ; yeast,  1 teacupful ; egg,  1 ; melted 
butter,  2 tablespoonfuls;  salt,  1 teaspoonful; 
soda,  ]/z  a teaspoonful ; sugar,  1 tablespoonful. 

Make  a light  sponge  of  the  flour,  milk,  and 
yeast ; and  then  work  the  beaten  egg,  melted 
butter,  salt,  soda  dissolved  in  hot  water, 
sugar,  and  enough  flour  to  make  a soft  dough  ; 
let  this  stand  four  or  five  hours ; then  roll  out 
pieces  of  the  dough  very  lightly  into  round 
cakes,  and  fold  them  not  quite  in  the  centre  (or 
simply  shape  into  balls);  set  these  close  to- 
gether in  the  baking-pan,  and  let  them  rise  one 
hour ; just  before  putting  them  into  the  oven, 
cut  deeply  across  each  roll  with  a sharp  knife. 
Bake  half  an  hour. 

Geneva  Rolls. — Take  :-F\o\ir,  2 lbs;  but- 
ter, 3 oz  ; brewers’ yeast,  1 large  tablespoonful ; 
milk,  1 pint ; eggs,  2 ; water  1 gill. 

Break  the  butter  down  very  small  into  the 
flour ; add  a little  salt  and  make  it  into  a 
sponge  with  the  yeast,  which  should  previously 
be  mixed  with  some  of  the  milk  and  water ; let 
it  rise  in  a warm  place  for  an  hour,  then  stir  two 
well-beaten  eggs  to  as  much  hot  milk  as  will 
render  them  lukewarm,  and  work  the  sponge 
with  them  to  a lithe  light  dough  ; let  it  stand 
from  half  to  three-quarters  of  an  hour  longer, 
mould  it  into  small  rolls,  place  them  in  buttered 
pans,  when  light  brush  them  with  beaten  yolk 
of  egg,  and  bake  them  from  twenty  minutes  to 
half  an  hour.  To  be  eaten  hot.  If  any  are 
left,  the  prudent  housewife  will  find  them 
very  nice  for  puddings  or  to  grate  for  cro- 
quettes. 

ROSE. — The  rose  is  the  loveliest  of  flowers, 
and  whether  indoors  or  in  the  garden  every 
floriculturist  should  assign  them  a large  space. 
The  treatment  of  roses  in  indoor  culture  is  the 
same  as  for  other  plants  ; the  soil  should  be 
rich,  the  pots  large  enough  to  give  room  for 
growth,  and  plenty  of  sunlight  should  be 
secured.  Their  treatment  in  the  garden  is 
very  simple.  They  need  a deep,  rich,  well- 
manured  sojl,  rather  moist,  but  never  wet.  The 
best  soil  is  fresh  loam,  enriched  with  well-rot- 
ted cow  manure,  with  a little  sand ; if  a top- 
dressing of  this  compost  is  given  every  spring 
before  the  buds  start,  the  branches  will  make 
fine  growth.  The  finest  clusters  of  flowers  are 
always  produced  on  new  wood,  and  close  prun- 
ing will  cause  more  new  wood  to  grow ; the 
knife,  therefore,  should  be  used  freely.  Cut 
all  the  old  growth  out,  and  prune  in  last  year’s 
branches  somewhat ; thus  pruned,  the  roots 
will  throw  up  new  shoots  from  which  will  come 
the  first  roses  of  the  garden.  As  soon  as  the 
plants  are  done  flowering,  thin  out  the  weak 
shoots,  and  even  some  of  the  stronger  ones,  if 
they  are  too  crowded ; each  shoot  left  should 


ROSES 


451 


be  exposed  on  every  side  to  air  and  sun.  The 
summer-flowering  kinds  thus  treated  will  con- 
tinue their  growth  from  the  main  stem,  and 
bloom  much  finer  another  year ; while  the 
autumnal  flowers  push  forth  their  buds  the 
entire  length  of  the  stalk,  and  the  second  flower- 
ing is  perfected.  The  flower-stalk  should  al- 
ways be  cut  off ; it  exhausts  the  plant  to  form 
seeds,  and  consumes  the  strength  that  should 
go  to  forming  new  shoots.  Cut  them  off  as 
soon  as  the  leaves  fall ; then  remove  the  soil 
to  the  depth  of  three  or  four  inches  all  around 
the  bush,  and  spread  over,  almost  next  to  the 
stem,  a spadeful  of  rotted  cow  manure  ; throw 
back  the  soil  that  was  removed,  and,  if  the 
weather  is  hot  and  dry,  water  occasionally, 
and  a vigorous  growth  and  profuse  flowering 
will  be  the  result.  When  roses  are  planted  in 
lawns  they  should  have  no  sods  near  the  roots, 
for  the  grass  will  absorb  the  moisture,  and  also 
prevent  the  air  from  reaching  the  soil.  The 
best  time  to  plant  hardy  roses  is  in  October  or 
November,  according  to  the  climate.  The 
spring  months  are  better  for  planting  half-hardy 
and  tender  roses,  as  if  parted  in  autumn  their 
roots  will  not  get  started  before  the  winter  sets 
in.  In  the  mild  climate  of  the  Southern  States, 
however,  they  can  be  planted  either  in  spring 
or  autumn.  When  first  set  out  they  should  be 
mulched  with  coarse  manure,  and  watered 
occasionally,  if  the  weather  is  warm  and  dry. 

Roses  are  propagated  chiefly  by  cutting, 
layers,  and  buds.  Cuttings  of  the  hardy  roses 
will  strike  easily  in  July  and  August.  Hybrid, 
Perpetual,  Chinese,  and  Bourbon,  with  all  the 
other  kinds,  will  grow  readily  if  the  young 
shoot  or  cutting  is  cut  off  so  close  as  to  contain 
a piece  of  the  old  wood.  Three,  four,  or  even 
six  eyes  can  be  left  above  ground.  Plant  them 
in  wet  sand;  a dozen  cuttings  maybe  set  an 
inch  apart  close  to  the  side  of  the  pot,  and 
the  sand  should  not  be  allowed  to  dry  at  all. 
In  two  or  three  weeks  they  will  commence  to 
grow,  and  may  then  be  transplanted.  Roses 
grown  as  dwarfs  or  bushes  are  the  best  kind 
for  layering.  Loosen  the  soil  around  the 
plant,  choose  a good  shoot,  strip  off  a few 
leaves  from  six  inches  to  two  feet  from  the 
point  of  the  shoot ; insert  a sharp  knife  just 
behind  an  eye  on  the  upper  side  of  the  shoot, 
and  pass  it  carefully  upwards,  cutting  about 
half  through  the  stem,  and  from  an  inch  to  two 
inches  in  length  ; open  the  soil,  bend  down  the 
shoot,  press  it  in,  and  peg  it  down  with  a hair- 
pin or  a bit  of  wood  two  or  three  inches  below 
the  surface,  and  cover  it  firmly.  Each  layer 
should  be  tied  to  a stake  to  prevent  the  wind 
from  disturbing  the  roots.  June,  July,  and 
August  are  the  best  months  for  layering.  If 
the  weather  is  dry  and  hot,  water  frequently ; 
about  October  or  November  they  will  be  ad- 
vanced enough  to  take  away.  Cut  them  off 
within  two  inches  of  the  root,  and  transplant 
them  wherever  they  are  desired ; in  the  follow- 
ing spring,  prune  down  the  stem  to  three  or 
four  eyes,  and  they  will  bloom  finely.  Budding 
is  a more  difficult  process  than  either  of  those 


above  mentioned, and  is  less  likely  to  be  success- 
ful ; weshallnot, therefore,  takespace  to  describe 
it.  (For  general  principles,  see  BUDDING.) 

Slugs  constitute  the  chief  difficulty  in  the 
culture  of  roses.  Before  the  buds  are  formed, 
minute  white  spots  appear  on  the  under  surface 
of  the  leaves  ; these  change  rapidly  into  green 
worms  which  devour  all  the  green  part  of  the 
leaves  and  also  the  buds  and  flowers.  If  taken 
in  season  they  may  be  destroyed.  The  “ Graf- 
ton Mineral  Fertilizer,”  scattered  over  the 
leaves  before  the  dew  is  dried  off,  will  drive 
them  away;  the  first  application  should  be 
made  in  May,  a second  early  in  June,  and  a 
third  after  the  plant  has  finished  blooming. 
Powdered  lime,  if  scattered  over  the  leaves 
while  the  dew  is  on,  will  also  keep  them  off. 
White  hellebore  sprinkled  on  through  a dredg- 
ing-box, and  flour  of  sulphur  similarly  applied, 
are  also  efficacious.  There  are  two  crops  of 
slugs ; the  first  comes  in  May,  and  when  the 
worms  are  fully  developed,  they  burrow  in  the 
ground,  and  lie  in  a chrysalis  state  until 
August,  when  they  appear  with  wings,  and  lay 
a crop  of  eggs  for  the  ensuing  summer.  If  the 
first  crop  are  not  entirely  destroyed,  it  is  well 
to  repeat  the  application  in  August,  so  as  to 
diminish  their  numbers  for  the  next  season. 

The  varieties  of  the  rose  have  increased  with 
such  rapidity  of  late  years,  that  it  would  per- 
haps be  literally  impossible  to  enumerate  them. 
From  the  thousands  of  varieties  offered  in  the 
florists’  catalogues,  we  can  only  select  a few  of 
the  most  desirable. 

Bourbon  Roses: — Archduke  Charles,  rosy 
crimson  ; Bourbon  Queen,  rich  blush ; Blanche 
Lafitte , pale  flesh  color,  beautiful;  Duchesse 
Furringe , white ; Empress  Eugenie,  deep  rose ; 
Jupiter,  dark  purple  ; Hermosa  Pink,  a profuse 
bloomer,  with  lovely  buds ; Malmaison,  blush, 
large  and  fine ; Omar  Pasha,  deep  carmine ; 
Paxton , bright  rose,  crimson  shaded ; Som- 
breuil,  white. 

China  Roses  : — Agrippina , deep  crimson  ; 
Archduke  Charles ',  changeable;  Eugene  Beau- 
harnais,  rich  crimson;  Indica  Alba,  white 
daily ; Madam  Peron,  fine  rose ; Lucullus, 
dark  crimson  ; Pink  Daily j Louis  Philippe , 
crimson  and  rose ; Sanguinea,  blood-red. 

Hybrid  Perpetuals  : — Achille  Gonaud, 
bright  carmine;  Alex.  Baclunetcff,  deep  bril- 
liant rose,  large  and  fine ; Baron  Prevost , rich 
rose  color;  Cardinal  Patrizzi,  dark,  velvety 
crimson ; Comte  Litta,  velvety  purple  ; Caroline 
de  Sansal,  pale  flesh  color;  Eugene  Appert, 
scarlet  crimson ; Gen.  Jacqueminot,  brilliant 
red,  very  large;  John  Hopper,  rosy-crimson, 
extra;  Jules  Margottin,  carmine,  shaded  to 
purple ; La  Reine,  clear  rose,  large  cupped, 
superb;  Lady  Emily  Peel,  white,  edged  with 
rose ; Madllle  Bonnaire,  pure  white,  tinged 
with  rose  at  the  centre ; Mad.  Freeman,  white, 
with  yellowish  shade ; Paonia,  deep  brilliant 
crimson;  Reine  dcs  Violets,  reddish  violet; 
Victor  Verdier,  large,  full  carmine,  one  of  the 
best. 

Moss  Roses  (Annual)  : — English  Moss, 


452 


ROSEMARY 


RUE 


old  variety,  very  mossy;  Adelaide , crimson; 
Glory  of  Mosses,  rose  color,  fine  ; Alice  Leroy, 
pale  lilac ; Luxembourg,  crimson  ; Henry  Mar- 
tin, brilliant  carmine. 

Moss  Roses  (Perpetual) : — Madame  Ed- 
ward Ory,  deep  rose ; Maupertius,  dark 
velvety-red  ; Perpetual  White,  very  fine  ; 
Raphael,  blush,  large  clusters;  Salct,  bright 
rose ; Souvenir  de  Pierre  Vibert,  dark  red, 
shaded  with  violet. 

Noisette  Roses: — Augusta,  pale  yellow; 
Amiie  Vibert,  pure  white  ; Beauty  of  Green 
Mount,  deep  rose  ; Gloire  de  Dijon,  bronze 
yellow,  with  orange  centre  ; Lamarque,  large, 
pure  white,  very  fine  ; La  Pactole,  j>ale  yellow  ; 
Setina,  light  pink  ; Solfaterre,  yellowish 
white;  Souvenir  de  Anselm,  clear  carmine, 
very  fragrant;  Washington,  white. 

Prairie  Roses  (Hardy  Climbers)  : — Balti- 
more Belle,  nearly  white  ; Gem  of  the  Prairies, 
rich  rose-crimson,  very  fragrant ; Queen  of  the 
Prairie,  rosy  red ; Seven  Sisters,  crimson, 
shading  to  white. 

Tea  Roses  : — A Iba  Rosea,  white,  with  rose 
centre  ; A mabilis,  rose  color ; Belle  Flamande, 
blush  ; Bon  Silene,  purple,  shaded  to  carmine  ; 
Bougere,  salmon  rose,  bronzed  ; Cornelia  Cook, 
canary  yellow ; Devottiensis,  creamy  white  ; 
Leveson  Gower,  rosy  salmon;  Madame  Falcot, 
nankeen  yellow;  Madame  de  Vatrey,  carmine 
rose  ; Marechal  Neil,  golden  yellow,  very  frag- 
rant ; Pauline  Lebonte,  light  blush  ; Safrano, 
bright  buff;  Trio7nphe  de  Luxembourg,  rose 
color,  White  Tea,  pure  white,  blooms  freely. 

ROSEMARY. — A pleasant  aromatic  plant 
which  is  a native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  and 
derives  its  name  from  its  beautiful  appearance 
when  glittering  with  dew.  I ts  leaves  have  a fine 
aromatic  fragrance  like  camphor,  of  which,  in- 
deed, its  oil  contains  one-fourth.  The  common, 
or  green-leafed  rosemary  is  sometimes  put  in 
soups  and  stews,  and  infusions  of  the  leaves 
are  put  in  some  drinks ; but  its  chief  use  is  in 
the  flowers  giving  their  fragrance  to  Hungary 
water,  and  also  sometimes  to  Eau  de  Cologne. 
Some  varieties  of  the  plant — as  the  gold  and 
silver-striped — are  quite  ornamental. 

ROSEOLA. — This  disease,  also  called  rose 
rash  and  false  measles , resembles  the  eruption 
of  measles  in  a good  many  respects,  but  is 
neither  infectious  nor  contagious,  and  there  is 
no  watering  at  the  eyes,  and  no  cough.  The 
skin  is  mottled  of  a rose-color,  the  patches 
being  small  and  of  irregular  shape ; sometimes 
the  eruption  appears  as  a cross  of  small,  slightly 
raised,  rose-colored  spots.  At  first  the  eruption 
is  bright  red,  but  gradually  it  fades  and  disap- 
pears in  from  three  to  six  days.  The  constitu- 
tional symptoms  are  slight  ; sometimes  the 
throat  is  affected  slightly  as  in  scarlet  fever, 
which  has  led  some  to  believe  that  the  disease 
is  a mixture  of  scarlet  fever  and  measles,  but 
of  that  there  is  no  proof  whatever.  Various 
maladies  give  rise  to  Roseola,  the  most  im- 
portant of  these  being  syphilis.  Syphilitic 
roseola  ordinarily  consists  of  a number  of  rose- 
colored  spots  completely  isolated  and  even  with 


the  surface,  but  sometimes  they  are  fused  to- 
gether so  as  to  produce  patches  which  are 
raised  above  the  surface,  and  so  merge  imper- 
ceptibly into  the  eruption  which  commonly  fol- 
lows in  secondary  symptoms  of  syphilis ; at 
the  same  time  the  fauces  present  a rim  of  red- 
ness corresponding  to  the  external  rash.  Bella- 
donna sometimes  presents  a roseolar-rash,  but 
not  often.  In  infancy,  stomachic  derangement 
or  dentition  often  gives  rise  to  such  an  erup- 
tion, and  it  occasionally  precedes  the  eruption 
of  small-pox. 

Treatment. — Little  in  the  way  of  treatment 
is  necessary.  The  bowels  had  better  be  opened 
by  a saline  purgative  (Rochelle  or  Epsom  salts), 
and  the  diet  restricted ; after  that  a few  doses 
of  any  alterative  tonic  will  suffice  to  restore 
wonted  health. 

ROTTENSTONE. — This  is  an  earth  of  an 
ash-brown  color,  found  only  in  England.  It  is 
very  light,  moderately  hard,  dry,  and  useful  as 
a polishing  powder.  It  may  be  used  either  wet 
or  dry. 

ROUGE. — A well-known  red  paint  for  the 
face,  so  named  from  the  French  word  for  red. 
There  are  several  kinds  of  rouge,  but  they  are 
all  composed  of  some  vegetable  color  and  talc 
or  powdered  French  chalk.  The  most  common 
kind  is  produced  from  the  coloring  matter  of 
the  safflower  precipitated  upon  a layer  of  finely- 
powdered  talc,  and  afterwards  triturated  with 
a few  drops  of  olive-oil.  The  fineness  of  the 
talc  and  the  proportions  of  the  coloring  matter 
occasion  the  difference  in  the  price  of  the 
article.  Another  and  better  kind  of  rouge  is 
made  by  reducing  French  chalk  to  a fine  pow- 
der and  mixing  it  in  a mortar  with  carmine. 
As  a great  deal  of  the  rouge  sold  is  adulterated 
by  adding  vermilion  to  the  carmine — a sub- 
stance which  is  highly  injurious  to  the  skin,  it 
is  better  when  such  paints  are  used  at  all  to 
make  them  at  home.  We  append  accordingly 
the  following  receipts  : — 

1.  Take  one  drachm  of  finely  powdered  car- 
mine, and  five  drachms  of  powdered  chalk. 
Mix  and  apply  as  usual. 

2.  Take  one  ounce  of  finely  powdered  French 
chalk,  carmine  fifteen  grains,  and  half  a drachm 
of  oil  of  sweet  almonds.  Mix  well. 

3.  Liquid  Rouge. — Take  of  rouge,  spirits  of 
wine,  white  wine  vinegar,  and  water,  equal 
parts.  Mix,  and  apply  with  a piece  of  fine 
linen  rag. 

4.  Spanish  Rouge. — Take  a piece  of  linen 
rag,  or,  still  better,  some  jeweller’s  cotton,  wet 
it  with  tincture  of  cochineal  until  a good  deep 
color  is  obtained,  and  let  it  dry.  When  re- 
quired, moisten  the  wool,  and  rub  the  skin  with 
it  till  the  desired  tint  is  obtained. 

R.  S.  V.  P. — Invitations  to  balls,  parties,  and, 
especially,  dinners,  sometimes  have  appended 
to  them  the  letters  R.  S.  V.  1\  ( repondez  s'il 
vous  plait — “ Answer  if  you  please”).  Such 
an  invitation  should  be  answered  as  soon  as 
practicable,  as  the  host  probably  wishes  to 
gauge  his  preparations. 

RUE. — This  plant  is  now  but  seldom  used 


RUM 


RUST 


453 


other  than  as  a medicine,  and  is  consequently 
not  often  found  for  sale.  It  has  a strong,  un- 
grateful odor,  and  a bitter,  hot,  and  penetrat- 
ing taste.  In  medicine,  rue  is  chiefly  employed 
in°the  form  of  oil,  which  is  distilled  from  the 
leaves  and  unripe  fruit.  Rue,  or  its  oil,  is  a 
powerful  stimulant  to  the  part  to  which  it  is 
applied,  and  hence  it  is  sometimes  given  as  a 
stimulant  in  flatulence.  In  hysterical  affections, 
especially  where  the  menstrual  functions  have 
been  in  abeyance,  it  is  sometimes  given  with 
benefit.  In  these  it  may  be  employed  as  an 
enema.  It  has  falsely  obtained  a reputation  as 
an  abortive.  The  dose  of  the  oil  when  taken 
internally  is  from  two  to  three  drops. 

RUM. — This  is  almost  exclusively  a West 
Indian  product,  and  is  made  by  distillation  from 
fresh  cane-juice  and  the  scum  which  rises  in 
the  manufacture  of  sugar;  and  contains  vola- 
tile and  essential  oils,  which  are  produced  both 
by  the  sugar-cane  and  the  process  of  manufac- 
ture. It  is  also  made  from  a mixture  of  the 
skimmings  and  the  uncrystallizable  residue  of 
saccharine  juice,  or  molasses,  or  even  from 
molasses  alone ; the  two  latter,  however,  are 
by  no  means  equal  to  the  first  in  volatile  oils 
and  ethers,  and  therefore  in  the  flavor  of  the 
rum.  By  the  addition  of  pine-apple  in  the  pro- 
cess of  fermentation  a new  flavor  is  obtained, 
and  the  product  is  sold  as  pine-apple  rum. 
Rum  improves  by  age  as  much  or  more  than 
any  other  spiritous  liquor,  both  in  what  it  loses 
and  in  what  it  gains.  New  rum  is  generally 
strong,  and  readily  produces  intoxication,  and 
is  said  to  be  injurious  to  health  by  inducing  a 
tendency  to  fever  in  hot  and  to  disease  of  the 
liver  in  cold  climates  ; whilst  old  rum  has  lost 
spirit  and  gained  cenanthic  ether,  and  has  been 
greatly  improved  in  softness  and  flavor.  “ Rum 
of  moderate  age,”  says  Dr.  Edward  Smith, 
“may  properly  be  esteemed  the  purest  and 
most  healthful  member  of  the  class  of  alcohols, 
and  is,  I believe,  the  most  perfect  cordial  with 
which  we  are  acquainted.” 

The  best  rum  is  of  a brown  transparent  color, 
a smooth  mellowed,  oily  taste,  and  of  strong 
body  and  consistence  ; that  of  a clean  limpid 
color,  and  hot,  pungent  taste,  is  either  too  new 
or  has  been  mixed  with  other  spirits.  Jamaica 
rum  is  the  first  in  point  of  quality,  the  Leeward. 
Island  rum  being  always  inferior  to  it  in  point 
of  flavor,  strength,  and  value.  The  price  of 
the  latter  is  usually  twenty  per  cent,  below  that 
of  the  former,  which  occasions  the  Jamaica  rum 
to  be  sometimes  adulterated  with  the  latter. 
(See  Punch). 

RUPTURE.  ( See  Hernia.) 

RUSK, — Take  .--Flour,  2 lbs;  butter,  6 oz; 
brewer’s  yeast,  2 tablespoonfuls ; eggs,  3 ; milk, 
nearly  '/z  pint. 

Break  the  butter  into  flour,  and  mix  them 
into  a lithe  paste  with  the  yeast,  eggs,  and  warm 
milk ; set  it  to  rise,  and  when  it  has  risen  to  its 
full  height,  knead  it  smooth  and  make  it  into 
small  loaves  or  thick  cakes  cut  with  a round 
cake-cutter;  place  them  on  a floured  tin,  and 
let  them  stand  in  a warm  place  from  ten  to 


twenty  minutes  before  they  are  set  into  the 
oven.  Bake  them  about  a quarter  of  an  hour  ; 
divide  them  while  they  are  still  warm,  and  put 
them  into  a very  slow  oven  to  dry.  When  they 
are  crisp  quite  through  they  are  done. 

Or,  mix  well  together  half  a pint  of  new  milk, 
the  beaten  yolks  of  three  eggs,  one  gill  of  home- 
made yeast,  and  a pound  and  a half  of  flour ; 
leave  it  in  a warm  place  to  rise  over  night.  In 
the  morning  cream  seven  ounces  of  butter,  and 
beat  it  until  light  with  three-quarters  of  a pound 
of  powdered  sugar ; add  the  whites  of  the  eggs 
whisked  to  a stiff  froth  and  half  a teaspoonful 
of  soda  dissolved  in  a tablespoonful  of  hot  water; 
work  all  thoroughly  together  with  the  hand  and 
knead  in  three-quarters  of  a pound  of  flour: 
leave  it  to  rise  again,  then  roll  it  out  half  an 
inch  thick,  using  as  little  flour  as  possible,  cut 
it  with  a ring  not  more  than  two  and  a half 
inches  across,  place  in  buttered  pans  and  when 
risen  again  (the  third  time)  prick  and  bake  in  a 
quick  oven.  Rusks  are  never  to  be  eaten  hot ; 
cool  them. 

Sweet  Rusk. — The  first  recipe  may  be 
converted  into  sweet  rusks  by  adding  four  tea- 
spoonfuls of  sifted  sugar. 

RUSSIAN  BATEi.— The  Russian  bath  dif- 
fers from  the  Turkish  bath,  which  it  resembles 
in  other  respects,  in  the  fact  that  steam  is  used 
instead  of  dry  hot  air  for  inducing  the  perspira- 
tion and  general  activity  of  the  skin,  which  is 
the  object  aimed  at  in  all  vapor  baths.  The 
bather,  in  taking  the  Russian  bath,  as  it  is  ad- 
ministered in  this  country,  enters  first  a room 
filled  with  steam,  and  is  laid  on  a shelf  in  such 
a position  that  the  steam  reaches  every  part  of 
his  body ; after  remaining  there  until  he  is  in 
a profuse  perspiration,  he  is  rubbed  and  manip- 
ulated by  an  attendant,  and  then  led  out  to  a 
pool  of  comparatively  cold  water  into  which  he 
plunges  ; from  this  he  goes  again  into  a steam- 
ing room,  or  plunges  alternately  into  hot  water 
and  cool.  The  process  ends  by  a gradual  cool- 
ing off  in  a room  of  moderate  temperature. 
The  same  effects  and  the  same  advantages  are 
claimed  for  the  Russian  bath  as  for  the  Turkish 
(See  Turkish  Bath).  It  is  to  be  observed, 
however,  that  owing  to  the  free  evaporation 
from  the  surface,  the  hot-air,  or  Turkish  bath 
can  be  borne  of  a much  higher  temperature 
than  the  vapor  or  Russian  bath,  and  conse- 
quently the  effects  are  more  decided  and  the 
re-action  more  vigorous.  The  former  should 
never  be  taken  at  a temperature  higher  than 
140°  F. 

RUST  (To  prevent). — Iron  or  steel  im- 
mersed for  a few  minutes  in  a solution  of  car- 
bonate of  potash  or  soda  will  not  rust  for  years, 
even  when  exposed  to  a damp  atmosphere. 
To  preserve  polished  iron-work  from  rust,  mix 
some  copal  varnish  with  as  much  olive-oil  as 
will  make  it  greasy,  to  which  add  nearly  as 
much  spirits  of  turpentine,  and  apply. 

To  clean  rust  off  iron  or  brass  (when  the 
latter  is  not  gilt  or  lacquered),  mix  tripoli  with 
half  its  quantity  of  sulphur,  and  lay  it  on  with  a 
piece  of  leather ; or  emery  and  oil  will  answer 


454 


RYE 


SACQUE  OR  JACKET 


the  same  purpose.  If  steel  be  rusty,  oil  it,  and 
let  it  remain  two  or  three  days ; then  wipe  it 
dry  with  clean  rags,  and  polish  with  flour-emery, 
pumice-stone  powdered,  or  unslacked  lime. 

RYE. — Rye  is  a product  of  little  importance 
from  the  household  point  of  view,  since  it  is 
rarely  used  in  cookery,  and  then  is  always 
mixed  with  wheat-flour  or  Indian-meal.  It  is 
inferior  to  wheat  in  nutritive  properties,  and 
also  in  flavor  and  digestibility.  Rye-flour 
should  be  bought  in  small  quantities  at  a time, 
and  kept  in  a keg  or  half-barrel  with  a cover. 
(See  Bread.) 

Drop-cakea  (Rye). — Take : — Milk,  i pint; 


eggs,  3 ; sugar,  i tablespoonful ; salt,  i salt- 
spoonful  ; rye-flour. 

Mix  the  other  ingredients  well  together,  and 
stir  in  rye-flour  till  the  paste  is  of  about  the 
consistency  of  pan-cakes ; put  into  buttered 
cups  or  saucers,  and  bake  half  an  hour. 

Griddle-cakes  (Rye). — Take  .--Milk,  i quart; 
eggs,  3 ; salt,  teaspoonful ; rye-flour. 

Mix  the  milk,  salt,  and  the  yolks  of  the  eggs  ; 
stir  in  enough  rye-flour  to  make  a rather  thick 
batter;  at  the  last  moment  stir  in  the  whites  of 
the  eggs,  beaten  to  a stiff  froth,  and  bake  on 
the  griddle  in  the  usual  way. 


s 


SABLE. — The  skin  of  the  sable.  The 
Russian  sable  is  the  most  costly  of  all  furs, 
and  may  be  distinguished  from  all  others  by 
the  hairs  turning  and  lying  equally  well  in 
all  directions.  The  fur  of  the  animal  from 
which  it  is  taken  is  brown  in  summer,  with 
some  grey  spots  about  the  head ; in  winter,  when 
the  animal  is  usually  taken,  the  fur  is  beauti- 
fully glossy  and  black.  The  darkest  skins  are 
the  most  valuable.  In  its  natural  state  the  fur 
has  a bloomy  appearance ; but  dyed  sables 
generally  lose  their  gloss  and  the  hairs  become 
twisted  or  crisped.  Sometimes  the  skins  are 
blackened  by  being  smoked,  but  the  deception 
may  be  detected  from  the  smell  and  the  crisped 
hairs ; a dyed  or  smoked  fur  may  also  be  de- 
tected by  rubbing  it  with  a moist  linen  cloth, 
which  will  then  become  blackened.  But  few 
Russian  sables  reach  the  American  market, 
and  these  are  made  into  ladies’  muffs  and  boas. 
The  price  of  the  choicest  sets,  consisting  of 
these  two  articles,  is  from  $iooo  to  $1600, 
though  sets  of  lighter  shade  and  inferior 
quality  may  be  bought  for  from  $250  to  $400. 
The  Hudson  Bay  sable  is  the  leading  fur  in 
England,  France,  and  Germany;  and  is  much 
used  in  the  United  States  for  muffs  and  boas. 
A set  of  this  costs  from  $100  to  $300. 

SACHETS  OR  SCENT-BAGS.— These 
are  very  pleasant  to  put  in  drawers  or  trunks 
where  clothes,  etc.,  are  kept,  as  they  completely 
disguise  the  stale  or  musty  smell  which  such 
receptacles  are  likely  to  acquire  otherwise. 
Take  lavender-flowers,  half  a pound;  gum 
benzoin,  powdered,  one  ounce  ; oil  of  lavender, 
two  drachms.  Mix,  and  put  into  small  silk 
bags  or  ornamental  envelopes. 

Heliotrope  Sachet.  — Take : — Powdered 
orris-root,  half  a pound  ; rose-leaves,  quarter 
of  a pound  ; tonquin-beans,  two  ounces  ; vanilla- 
beans,  ground,  one  ounce  ; grain  musk,  one 
drachm;  otto  of  almonds,  two  drops.  Mix 
well  in  a coarse  sieve.  This  is  one  of  the  best 
sachets  made,  and  is  very  similar  in  its  odor  to 
the  flower  from  which  it  derives  its  name. 

Ro8e-Sachet. — Rose-leaves,  a quarter  of  a 


pound ; santal-wood,  ground,  two  ounces ; otto 
of  roses,  half  a drachm.  Mix. 

Santal-wood  Sachet. Ground  santal- 

wood,  which  can  usually  be  purchased  at  the 
drug-stores,  makes  good  and  economical  sachets. 

SACKING. — A very  coarse  and  strong  can- 
vas cloth  used  in  making  sacks  or  bags  in 
which  heavy  and  bulky  substances  are  to  be 
kept.  It  comes  a yard  and  two  yards  wide. 

SACQUE  OR  JACKET.— We  draw  for  a 


sacque  the  pattern  of  a plain  waist  (see  Waist), 
allowing  the  paper  to  come  below  the  waist 
line  as  far  as  desired  for  the  length  of  the  gar- 
ment. This  pattern  now  requires  three  modi- 


SACQUE  OR  JACKET 


455 


fications:  i.  We  enlarge  the  breadth  of  the 

chest  (TV)*  by  about  an  inch,  according  to  the 
desirecl  looseness  of  the  sacque,  and  mark  the 
breadth  b.  2.  We  remove  the  side  line  cor- 
respondingly to  the  left,  and  design  the  arm- 
size  accordingly.  3.  We  prolong  the  side  line, 
making  the  garment  an  inch  wider  to  every 
four  inches  additional  length.  Sometimes 
also  the  neck  requires  to  be  enlarged  as  shown 

at/T- 

The  length  needful  for  the  back  is  about  two 
inches  more  than  that  of  the  front.  The  back 
(Fig.  2)  is  designed  as  for  a plain  waist,  without 


forms.  The  width  of  the  back  is  then  in- 
creased by  about  1 ]/z  inches.  As  in  the  front,  the 
arm-size  is  then  enlarged,  and  the  side  line  is 
carried  down  obliquely,  the  garment  widening 
in  the  back  a scant  inch  to  every  two  inches  of 
length. 

The  garment  is  cut  whole  in  the  back,  the 
pattern  being  laid  upon  the  straight  way  fold  of 
the  cloth.  After  being  put  together,  it  will  be 
finished  at  the  edges  by  a facing;  and  fre- 
quently cuffs  and  a collar.  By  observing  the 
rules  for  a plain  waist  with  revers  ( See  Waist), 
a double-breasted  sacque  may  readily  be  made. 

Every  variety  of  modification  of  the  lower 
edge  may  be  made  in  cutting  this  garment. 
Also  the  sleeves  may  be  loose  or  tight  as  de- 
sired. A plain  coat-sleeve  ( See  Waist)  is  un- 
doubtedly the  most  suitable. 

In  the  fit  of  the  sacque,  the  part  near  the 
sleeves  is  most  essential.  Care  must  be  taken 
* See  Cutting  and  Fitting. 


that  the  garment  is  broad  enough  across  the 
chest,  and  that  the  shoulder  lengths  are  not  too 
long. 

A variety  of  the  sacque,  designated  as  the 
half-fitting  casaque  or  paletot,  is  made  after  the 
pattern  of  the  straight  sacque,  with  these  modi- 
fications : The  side  lines  of  back  and  front, 

from  c and  b down  to  the  waist,  are  made  curv- 
ing, so  as  to  diminish  the  breadth  of  the  gar- 
ment, which  spreads  out  again  below  the  waist 
with  the  same  proportions  indicated  above. 
Also  the  back  is  cut  in  two  pieces,  that  is  to 
say,  it  has  a seam  in  the  middle,  taken  up  more 
towards  the  waist. 

By  this  pattern  also  are  made  the  sacques  or 
paletots  worn  by  little  boys.  If  it  be  not  de- 
sired to  leave  the  garment  open  all  the  way 
down  in  front,  the  front,  like  the  back,  may  be 
cut  in  one  piece  ; then,  when  the  two  parts  are 
put  together  under  the  arms  and  on  the  shoul- 
ders, a slit  is  cut  in  the  front,  either  straight  in 
the  middle,  at  one  side,  or  crossing  the  chest 
obliquely.  This  slit  is  faced  on  each  edge,  and 
buttonholes  are  made  on  the  left,  and  buttons 
sewed  on  on  the  right.  The  garment  also  may 
be  made  to  open  upon  one  shoulder.  We  then 
sew  the  buttons  on  the  back  and  make  the  but- 
tonholes in  the  front,  and  it  is  usual  for  sym- 
metry, to  put  a corresponding  row  of  buttons 
upon  the  other  shoulder.  These  sacques  re- 
quire a belt,  and  may  receive  trimmings  of  all 
varieties  suited  to  the  material  of  which  they 
are  made. 

Of  the  same  general  description  are  the 
vests  and  sleeveless  jackets,  and  sacques  for 
house  wear,  which  are  so  generally  popular. 

The  figures  3, 4,  represent  a sleeveless  jacket, 
made  as  follows : 


We  design  a pattern  of  a plain  waist,  and 
make  in  front  only  one  part  of  the  shape  indi- 
cated at  a.  It  is  very  short,  large  in  the  mid- 
dle, and  vanishing  at  both  extremities.  This 
represents  the  second  part  of  the  plain  waist. 
The  first  is  dispensed  with  by  cutting  the  front 
line  away  in  a curve  to  meet  the  side  c.  The 
back  is  made  with  or  without  forms  as  prefer- 
ferred.  % 


45G 


SAFFRON 


SALAD 


The  dotted  lines  about  the  arm-size  indicate 
a tasteful  manner  of  cutting  out  these  open- 
ings, which,  as  no  sleeves  are  required,  may 
vary  their  shape  in  many  ways. 


In  cutting  jackets  without  darts  at  all,  if  it 
be  desired  to  lengthen  the  garment  in  front, 
like  the  old-fashioned  waist-coat  (represented 
by  the  interrupted  line,  going  below  the  waist, 
in  Fig.  3),  the  following  method  .may  be 
adopted  : In  preparing  the  lining,  or  the  paper 

pattern,  if  the  garment  is  to  have  no  lining,  a 
very  short  dart  should  be  taken  up  and  sewed, 
or  pasted,  if  on  paper,  firmly.  Then  the  ma- 
terial, cut  after  this  lining  or  paper  pattern, 
will  adapt  itself  very  gracefully  to  the  figure 
without  any  visible  darts. 

Vests  are  often  made  to  be  worn  with 
garments  open  in  front,  composed  of  fronts 
made  of  the  desired  material,  and  the  back  of 
lining  merely.  These  fronts  may  be  cut  either 
as  just  explained,  without  darts,  or  by  the  plain 
waist  pattern,  or  by  the  pattern  of  the  waist  of 
the  princesse  dress.  If  desired  to  make  a very 
loose  garment,  the  back  of  this  vest  may  be 
cut  from  the  blouse  pattern,  and  held  by  a 
drawing  string.  Invalids  who  cannot  wear  a 
tight  waist  will  find  many  advantages  in  combi- 
nations like  these. 

SAFFRON. — The  dried  stigmata  of  a 
species  of  crocus.  It  was  formerly  used  in 
England  as  a seasoning  for  certain  dishes  ; but 
is  now  employed  chiefly  as  a coloring  matter 
for  cheese  and  butter.  It  is  not  often  procura- 
ble in  this  country,  that  sold  as  such  being 
generally  the  product  of  the  safflower.  Pure 
saffron  has  a beautiful  yellow  color  and  an 
agreeable  odor ; it  yields  its  active  principle, 
an  essential  oil,  to  water  and  spirit.  The  adul- 
teration with  safflower  and  marigold  is  easily 
detected,  for  the  petals  of  these  flowers  will 
appear  distinct  from  the  stigmata  of  the  crocus. 
The  English  saffron  is  the  best. 

In  medicine  the  only  preparation  of  saffron  is 
a tincture,  which  is  little  used  save  for  its  col- 
oring properties.  Saffron  is  contained,  how- 
ever, in  decoction  of  aloes,  aloes  and  myrrh 
pills,  compound  tincture  of  cinchona,  ammoni- 


ated  tincture  of  opium,  and  tincture  of  rhu- 
barb. 

SAGE. — There  are  several  varieties  of  this 
well-known  herb,  of  which  the  common  green 
is  the  best.  It  has  a strong  fragrant  smell,  and 
a bitter,  warm  taste.  Its  leaves  are  much  used 
in  sauces,  stuffing,  and  other  preparations  in 
cookery.  It  is  also  a favorite  domestic  remedy, 
being  used  as  a gargle  for  sore  throat,  mixed 
with  honey  and  alum  or  some  other  astringent. 
As  a wash  for  ulcers  about  the  mouth  or  lips, 
it  is  very  pleasant  and  sometimes  efficacious. 
It  is  usually  found  in  the  markets,  tied  up  in 
small  bunches,  both  green  and  dried. 

SAGO. — The  produce  of  the  sago  palm, 
and  several  other  palms,  which  grow  spontane- 
ously in  the  East  Indies  and  the  islands  of  the 
Indian  Ocean.  The  part  which  affords  the  sago 
is  the  pith,  and  to  procure  this  the  body  of  the 
tree  is  cut  down  when  it  is  full  grown,  sawed 
in  pieces,  and  the  raw  sago  cut  out  and  put 
into  a trough  with  water,  in  which  it  is  well 
stirred  to  separate  the  flour  from  the  filaments. 
This  is  now  suffered  to  rest,  and  the  flour  sub- 
sides to  the  bottom  ; the  water  is  then  poured 
off,  and  the  wet  flour  laid  upon  wicker  frames 
to  dry.  To  form  it  into  the  round  grains  in 
which  we  have  it,  the  sago,  when  moist,  is 
passed  through  a colander,  rubbed  into  little 
balls,  and  thoroughly  dried.  The  nutritive 
value  of  sago  is  not  very  high,  since  it  consists 
almost  exclusively  of  starch,  and  is  therefore 
inferior  to  rice,  and  much  inferior  to  the  farin- 
aceous foods  grown  in  our  own  climate.  It  is 
delicate  in  flavor,  however,  and  very  digesti- 
ble ; and  for  these  reasons  is  especially  useful 
in  the  sick-room.  The  best  sago  is  of  a slightly 
reddish  hue,  and  readily  dissolves  in  hot  water 
to  a jelly,  but  differs  from  wheat-starch  in  be- 
ing likewise  soluble  in  cold  water.  A superior 
sort  is  imported  from  China  which  has  a pearly- 
lustre.  Sago  should  be  purchased  in  small 
quantities  at  a time,  and  kept  in  covered  jars, 
or  covered  wooden  boxes.  (See  Puddings,  and 
Soups. 

Jelly  (Sago). — Soak  a teacupful  of  sago  in 
cold  water  half  an  hour,  then  pour  off  the 
water,  add  fresh,  and  soak  it  another  half  hour; 
then  boil  it  slowly,  adding  a pinch  of  salt,  a 
stick  of  cinnamon,  or  a bit  of  orange  or  lemon 
peel,  and  stirring  constantly;  when  the  jelly 
thickens,  add  wine  and  white  sugar  to  taste,  let 
it  boil  a minute,  and  then  turn  it  into  cups. 

Milk  (Sago). — Soak  three  tablespoonfuls  of 
sago  for  an  hour  in  a teacupful  of  cold  water; 
pour  it  into  three  teacupfuls  of  boiling  milk; 
sweeten  and  flavor  to  taste ; simmer  slowly 
half  an  hour. 

SALAD. — We  shall  here  treat  only  of  dress- 
ings and  some  vegetable  salads  ; recipes  for 
other  salads  are  given  in  the  articles  on  the 
various  substances  from  which  they  are  made. 
(See  Chicken,  Lobster,  etc.)  Meat  used  for 
salad,  whether  of  fish,  flesh  or  fowl,  should  not 
be  minced , but  picked  or  cut,  not  very  fine.  Veg- 
etables good  for  salad  are  : boiled  asparagus, 
cabbage  (red  and  white),  every  species  of  let- 


SALAD 


SALERATUS 


457 


tuce ; chicory,  boiled  cauliflower,  celery,  dan- 1 
delion,  purslane,  water-cress,  etc.  All  these 
are  prepared  substantially  in  the  same  way ; 
that  is,  they  are  taken  when  quite  fresh  and 
crisp,  cut  or  broken  into  shreds  (lettuce  is 
frequently  served  with  the  leaves  entire),  and 
covered  with  a seasoning  or  dressing.  This 
dressing  consists  chiefly  of  oil,  vinegar,  salt, 
pepper,  and  mustard,  mixed  in  various  propor- 
tions. All  the  ingredients  of  salad-dressing 
should  be  of  the  best.  The  olive  oil  should 
be  pure;  the  vinegar,  either  wine  with  tarragon 
in  it,  or  the  best  cider-vinegar;  and  English 
mustard.  The  sooner  salad  is  eaten  after  it 
is  dressed,  the  better. 

Salad-dressing. — I.  Take  the  yolks  of  two 
hard-boiled  eggs  and  two  raw  eggs,  put  them 
into  a flat  dish  with  a large  spoonful  of  fresh 
mixed  mustard,  a little  salt  and  Cayenne  pep- 
per; stir  these  well  together  with  a large  wood- 
en spoon  or  egg  beater;  turn  in  by  degrees 
half  a bottle  of  olive  oil,  half  a teacupful  of 
vinegar,  and  the  juice  of  a lemon,  stirring  all 
the  time.  Cream  may  be  substituted  for  the 
oil. 

II.  Rub  the  yolks  of  two  hard  boiled  eggs  to 
a powder ; add  a teaspoonful  of  white  sugar, 
one  of  pepper,  half  a teaspoonful  of  salt,  half  a 
teaspoonful  of  mixed  mustard,  and  two  tea- 
spoonfuls of  olive-oil ; mix  well  together,  and 
set  aside  for  five  minutes ; then  beat  in  four 
tablespoonfuls  of  vinegar.  This  will  serve 
for  lettuce  or  cabbage. 

III.  Take  the  yolks  of  two  hard-boiled  eggs, 
mash  them  to  a paste,  and  add  half  a teaspoon- 
ful of  mixed  mustard,  a little  black  pepper,  a 
little  salt,  three  tablespoonfuls  of  olive  oil,  and 
three  of  vinegar;  mix  together  thoroughly. 
A tablespooniul  of  catsup  may  be  added  if 
liked. 

IV.  English  Salad  Dressing. — To  the  yolks 
of  two  hard-boiled  eggs  mashed  to  a paste  with 
the  back  of  a wooden  spoon,  add  a small  salt- 
spoonful  of  salt,  a small  teaspoonful  of  powder- 
ed sugar,  a few  grains  of  fine  Cayenne,  and  a 
teaspoonful  of  cold  water;  mix  these  well, 
and  stir  to  them  by  degrees  a quarter  of  a pint 
of  cream ; throw  in  next,  stirring  the  sauce 
briskly,  a tablespoonful  of  strong  Chili  vinegar, 
and  add  as  much  common  vinegar  as  will  acid- 
ulate the  mixture  agreeably.  A tablespoonful 
of  either  will  be  sufficient  for  most  tastes,  but 
it  is  easy  to  increase  the  proportion  when 
more  is  liked.  Six  tablespoonfuls  of  olive 
oil  may  be  substituted  for  the  cream  ; it  should 
be  added  very  gradually  to  the  other  ingre- 
dients, and  stirred  briskly  until  the  sauce  re- 
sembles custard.  When  this  is  used,  the 
water  should  be  omitted.  This  is  a very  deli- 
cate and  savory  dressing,  either  for  ordinary 
salad  or  for  cold  fish. 

V.  Beat  a raw  egg  with  a saltspoonful  of  salt 
until  it  is  thoroughly  smooth  then  add  a tea- 
spoonful of  mixed  mustard  made  rather  thick- 
er than  usual ; when  these  are  quite  smooth, 
add  by  degrees  half  a pint  of  olive-oil,  taking 
care  to  blend  each  portion  of  it  with  the  egg 


I before  adding  more.  This  ought  to  make  a 
tenacious  mass,  so  thick  that  a teaspoon  will 
stand  up  in  it,  and  as  smooth  as  honey.  Dil- 
ute it  with  vinegar,  till  it  assumes  the  consist- 
ence of  thick  cream.  No  salad-dressing  is  so 
smooth  and  rich  as  this,  and  the  usual  oily 
flavor  is  lost  from  the  raw  egg  converting  the 
oil  into  an  emulsion.  A little  anchovy  may 
be  added  if  desired  and  the  juice  of  a fresh 
lemon  may  take  the  place  of  the  vinegar. 

VI.  French  Salad-Dressing. — Stir  a salt- 
spoonful  of  salt  and  half  as  much  pepper  into 
a tablespoonful  of  oil,  and  when  the  salt  is  dis- 
solved, mix  with  them  four  additional  table- 
spoonfuls of  oil,  and  pour  the  whole  over  the 
salad  ; let  it  be  well  turned,  and  then  add  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  tarragon  vinegar ; mix  the 
whole  thoroughly,  and  serve  without  delay. 
The  salad  should  not  be  dressed  in  this  way 
until  the  instant  before  it  is  wanted  for  table  ; 
the  proportions  of  salt  and  pepper  can  be  in- 
creased at  pleasure. 

Mayonnaise  Dressing — See  recipes,  Nos. 
I.  and  V.  in  the  preceding  column,  and  also 
under  Sauces. 

Potato  Salad. — This  is  prepared  rather  dif- 
ferently from  the  regular  salad  vegetables.  A 
potato-salad  is  the  one  that  requires  most  sea- 
sonings, especially  oil  and  vinegar  ; it  is  better 
served  warm  than  cold,  though  many  prefer  it 
in  the  latter  state.  Boil  the  potatoes, 
peel  and  slice  them,  and  put  them  into  a salad 
dish  with  salt,  pepper,  vinegar,  oil,  and  parsley 
to  taste  ; mix  the  whole  gently  but  thoroughly, 
and  serve.  If  served  very  warm,  butter  may 
be  used  instead  of  oil.  Cold  potato-salad  is 
improved  by  using  a larger  proportion  of  vin- 
egar, and  adding  a few  shreds  of  onion — one 
onion  to  half  a dozen  potatoes. 

Walnut  Salad. — This  is  a common  summer 
salad  in  France,  where  the  growth  of  walnuts  is 
generally  abundant,  but  it  is  not  often  served  in 
this  country ; though  the  sweet  flavor  of  the  just- 
formed  nut  is  very  agreeable.  Take  the  young 
walnuts  when  a pin  will  pierce  them  easily, 
pare  them  down  to  the  kernels,  and  toss  them 
gently,  just  before  they  are  served,  in  the 
French  or  English  (No.  i)  salad-dressing  (the 
former  would  generally  be  preferred),  and  turn 
them  into  the  salad  bowl  for  table. 

Water-Cress. — Wash  and  pick  over  the 
cresses  carefully,  pluck  the  tender  shoots  from 
the  stems,  and  pile  in  the  salad-bowl  with  a 
dressing  of  vinegar,  salt,  pepper,  and  sugar, 
well  stirred  in.  It  is  best  not  to  dress  until 
just  before  serving. 

SALERATUS  — A salt  formerly  prepared 
from  pearlash  by  exposing  it  to  carbonic  acid 
gas  That  now  generally  sold  is  bicarbonate 
of  soda.  1 1 is  much  used  in  making  bread,  etc.,  to 
neutralize  acids  and  thus  render  the  bread  light 
by  the  escape  of  the  carbonic  acid  gas.  Saleratus 
should  be  bought  in  small  quantities,  then  pow- 
dered, sifted,  and  kept  in  a wide-mouthed  bot- 
tle tightly  corked.  It  grows  damp  if  exposed  to 
air.  In  that  case  add  just  as  much  water  as  will 
dissolve  it ; a tablespoonful  of  this  equals  a 


458 


SALIVATION 


SALLY  LUNN 


teaspoonful  of  the  solid.  Keep  it  tightly  corked 
in  a bottle. 

SALIVATION. — A term  applied  to  a condi- 
tion in  which  there  is  increased  flow  of  saliva 
with  swelling  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
mouth.  In  most  cases  it  is  caused  by  the  ac- 
tion of  mercury,  but  it  has  been  found  that 
many  other  agents  may  have  the  same  effect. 
Iodide  of  potassium,  antimony,  croton  oil, 
castor  oil,  opium,  and  foxglove  have  been  known 
to  produce  the  milder  symptoms  of  salivation. 
An  increased  flow  of  saliva  without  swelling  or 
ulceration  of  the  gums  and  cheeks  may  be  pro- 
duced by  irritation  of  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  mouth  and  alimentary  canal,  and  by  mental 
influences. 

The  mercurial  salivation  commences  with 
tenderness  of  the  gums  and  inner  surfaces  of 
the  cheeks,  and  pain  when  the  teeth  are  brought 
sharply  together.  The  patient  experiences  a 
metallic  taste.  The  secretion  of  saliva  is  so 
much  increased  that  it  accumulates  in  the 
mouth,  and  necessitates  frequent  spitting,  and 
during  the  night  flows  from  the  mouth  and 
saturates  the  pillow.  The  daily  amount  of 
saliva,  which  in  health  is  about  ten  ounces,  in- 
creases to  four  or  six  pints.  The  tongue  then 
swells,  and  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  gums 
and  cheeks  becomes  inflamed,  and  finally  ulcer- 
ates. The  breath  has  a very  offensive  and 
peculiar  odor.  In  bad  cases  the  ulceration 
extends,  and  by  destroying  the  tissue  of  the 
gums  exposes  the  bone  of  the  upper  and  lower 
jaws.  These  symptoms  are  usually  associated 
with  those  of  gastric  and  intestinal  irritation, 
and  of  nervous  debility,  and  excitement ; with 
the  exception  of  the  metallic  taste  in  the  mouth 
none  of  the  above  symptoms  are  pecu'iar  to 
mercural  salivation,  and  a similar  condition  may 
be  presented  in  cases  of  salivation  due  to  con- 
stitutional causes.  Cancrum  oris,  a gangrenous 
affection  of  the  mouth  which  is  occasionally 
met  with  in  children  suffering  from  measles,  is 
often  attributed  by  the  parents  to  the  effects  of 
mercury,  supposed  to  have  been  administered 
for  the  treatment  of  the  febrile  disorder.  Cases 
of  severe  salivation  produced  by  the  medicinal 
use  of  mercury,  are  at  present  extremely  rare, 
as  the  effects  of  mercury  are  seldom  allowed  to 
proceed  beyond  slight  redness  and  tenderness 
of  the  gums.  In  cases  where  intense  salivation 
has  been  produced  by  the  administration  of 
large  quantities  of  mercury,  other  symptoms  of 
mercurial  poisoning  are  generally  present ; of 
these  the  most  prominent  are  pallor,  trembling, 
an  eczematous  eruption  over  the  surface  of 
the  body,  and  general  debility.  In  some  pe- 
culiarly constituted  patients  mercury  may  pro- 
duce all  the  latter  symptoms,  and  not  give  rise 
to  salivation  or  any  affection  of  the  mouth. 
The  property  of  producing  salivation  is  common 
to  all  the  preparations  of  mercury  used  in 
medicine,  the  most  active  being  calomel  and 
blue  pill.  Mercury  when  introduced  into  the 
system  in  other  ways  than  through  the  mouth 
and  stomach,  as  by  inunction,  fumigation  and 
hypodermic  injection,  does  not  fail  after  a certain 


time  to  produce  similar  symptoms  of  salivation. 
In  the  treatment  of  local  affections,  especial- 
ly venereal  sores  and  cutaneous  eruptions, 
the  first  appearance  of  the  symptoms  of  mer- 
curial salivation  is  generally  presented  by  a 
decided  improvement  in  these  affections,  the 
indurated  bases  of  the  sores  have  commenced 
to  soften,  and  the  rash  on  the  skin  is  less  dis- 
tinct. Salivation  may  be  produced  either  by  a 
very  large  and  poisonous  dose  of  mercury,  or 
by  frequently  repeated  small  doses.  In  some 
cases  there  is  a long  interval  between  the  end 
of  the  course  of  mercury  and  the  first  appear- 
ance of  symptoms  of  salivation,  mercury  being 
a cumulative  poison  which  may  be  stored  up  in 
the  body  slowly  and  gradually  until  it  is  in 
sufficient  force  to  give  rise  to  salivation  and 
other  affections.  Some  individuals  are  ex- 
tremely sensitive  to  the  action  of  mercury,  and 
become  salivated  after  very  small  doses  of 
calomel  or  blue  pill.  Other  individuals,  on  the 
contrary,  are  so  constituted  that  they  can  resist 
for  a long  time  the  action  of  large  and  fre- 
quently repeated  doses  of  mercury,  or  even  re- 
main quite  invulnerable.  A patient  who  has 
been  subjected  to  two  or  more  courses  of  mer- 
curial treatment  becomes  much  less  susceptible 
on  each  occasion  to  the  action  of  the  medicinal 
agent,  and  is  less  liable  to  be  salivated  by  the 
last  than  by  any  previous  course.  The  early 
occurrence  of  salivation  during  a mercurial 
course  is  much  favored  by  a want  of  attention 
to  the  cleanliness  of  the  mouth,  and  by  bad 
teeth  and  soreness  of  the  gums.  Catching 
cold  and  even  a slight  exposure  to  cold  and 
wet  will  often  cause  early  salivation. 

During  a course  of  mercury  great  attention 
should  be  paid  to  the  state  of  the  mouth.  The 
teeth  should  be  frequently  brushed,  and  the 
patient,  in  order  to  harden  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  gums  and  cheeks,  should  wash 
out  the  mouth  occasionally  with  some  astrin- 
gent gargle  and  suck  small  pieces  of  alum.  In 
cases  of  mercurial  salivation  the  cause  should 
at  once  be  removed.  The  swollen  and  ulcera- 
ted mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth  should 
then  be  washed  with  a solution  of  chloride  of 
lime,  or  of  alum,  or  of  brandy-and-water.  Chlo- 
rate of  potash  should  be  used  as  a gargle,  and 
taken  internally  in  20  grain  doses  every  three 
or  four  hours. 

SALLY  LUNN.— I.  Take  /-Butter,  4 level 
tablespoonfuls  ; brown  sugar,  1 tablespoonful  ; 
milk,  1 pint ; egg,  1 ; home-made  yeast,  1 gill; 
flour,  to  make  a stiff  batter. 

Put  the  butter  and  sugar  into  the  milk,  and 
set  over  the  fire  till  melted,  add  the  egg  well 
beaten  ; yeast  and  flour  to  make  a stiff"  bat- 
ter. Grease  the  baking-pan  well,  pour  the 
sponge  in,  and  set  to  rise  in  a warm  place  ; 
when  fully  risen,  bake  brown  in  a moderate 
oven. 

II.  Take  /-Flour,  3 pts  ; eggs,  2 ; melted 
butter,  | teacupful ; warm  milk,  warm  water, 
4 pt  each  ; home-made  yeast,  4 tablespoon- 
fuls ; salt,  1 teaspoonful  ; soda,  4 teaspoonful. 

Beat  the  eggs  to  a stiff  froth,  and  add  the 


SALMAGUNDY 

milk,  water,  butter,  salt,  and  soda  (the  latter 
dissolved  in  hot  water) ; stir  in  the  flour  till  a 
smooth  batter  is  formed,  and  then  beat  the 
yeast  in  well.  Put  it  in  a buttered  pudding- 
dish  (in  which  it  should  be  sent  to  table),  or  a 
^//-buttered  mould,  if  you  wish  to  turn  it  out 
after  baking ; and  set  it  to  rise  about  six  hours. 
Bake  in  a moderate  oven  three-quarters  of  an 
hour,  or  until  a straw  thrust  into  it  comes  out 
clean.  Eat  while  hot. 

SALMAGUNDY.  ( See  Entrees.) 

SALMON. — The  best  salmon  have  small 
heads  and  are  quite  thick  through  the  shoulders; 
their  usual  weight  is  from  six  to  twelve  pounds 
each,  though  occasionally  they  are  much  larger. 
They  are  usually  cut  to  suit  purchasers.  The 
middle  cut  is  the  choicest,  though  some  prefer 
the  head  and  shoulders,  and  others  again  the 
tail  piece.  When  cut,  the  flesh  should  look 
quite  red,  solid,  and  flaky.  Of  the  different 
kinds  of  salmon  found  in  our  markets,  the  East- 
ern salmon,  from  the  Kennebec  River,  are  con- 
sidered best,  those  from  the  Penobscot  and  St. 
John’s  rivers  are  next.  They  begin  to  appear 
about  the  ist  of  March,  and  are  in  season  till 
the  ist  of  September.  Scotch  salmon , brought 
from  Scotland  in  the  steamers,  are  found  in 
small  quantities  in  the  market  throughout  the 
year;  but  are  seldom  in  good  condition ; they  do 
not  rank  with  Eastern  salmon  when  in  season. 


Large  quantities  of  salmon  are  sold  in  the 
cured  state — pickled,  salted,  smoked,  etc. 
These  are  sold  singly  or  in  packages  at  much 
lower  prices  than  are  asked  for  the  fresh  fish. 
Raw  smoked  salmon,  cut  into  smooth  strips 
three  or  four  inches  long,  makes  an  excellent 
supper-dish;  it  should  be  eaten  with  pepper- 
sauce  or  some  other  pungent  condiment. 

Baked  Salmon. — Wash  and  wipe  dry,  and 
rub  with  pepper  and  salt ; lay  the  fish  upon  a 
grating  set  over  the  baking-pan,  and  bake  (or 
roast),  basting  freely  with  butter,  and,  toward 
the  last,  with  its  own  drippings  only.  If  it 
browns  too  fast,  cover  the  top  with  a sheet  of 
white  letter-paper  until  the  whole  is  cooked. 
When  it  is  done,  put  it  into  a hot  dish  and  cover 
closely  ; add  to  the  gravy  a little  hot  water 
thickened  with  arrowroot,  rice-flour,  or  wheat- 
flour — wet  the  flour  first  with  cold  water, — a 
tablespoonful  of  tomato  sauce,  and  the  juice  of 
a lemon  ; boil  up  and  serve  in  a sauce-boat. 

An  excellent  sauce  for  salmon  is  made  as 
follows  : — Take  a pint  of  cream  or  half  milk  and 
half  cream,  and  heat  it  in  a vessel  set  in  boiling 
water : stir  into  this  four  ounces  of  butter  rub- 
bed with  four  even  tablespoonfuls  of  flour,  and  a 
little  salt  and  chopped  parsley;  stir  until  thick- 
ened. For  boiled  salmon  this  sauce  is  improv- 


SALMON  459 

ed  by  adding  two  tablespoonfuls  of  the  water  in 
which  the  fish  was  boiled. 

Boiled  Salmon. — To  preserve  the  fine  color 
of  the  fish,  and  to  set  the  curd , put  into  boiling 
instead  of  into  cold  water.  Scale,  empty,  and 
wash  carefully,  being  especially  careful  to 
cleanse  all  the  blood  from  the  inside.  Stir  into 
the  fish-kettle  eight  ounces  of  salt  to  a gallon 
of  water,  let  it  boil  quickly  for  a minute  or  two, 
take  off  all  the  scum,  put  in  the  salmon,  and 
boil  it  moderately  fast,  should  it  be  small,  but 
more  gently  should  it  be  very  thick.  From  two 
to  three  pounds  of  the  thick  part  of  a salmon 
will  require  half  an  hour  to  boil  it  properly  ; 
but  eight  or  ten  pounds  will  be  done  enough  in 
little  more  than  double  that  time ; less  time  in 
proportion  to  its  weight  should  be  allowed  for 
a small  fish  or  for  the  thin  end  of  a large  one. 
Do  not  allow  the  salmon  to  remain  in  the 
water  after  it  is  ready  to  serve,  or  both  its 
flavor  and  appearance  will  be  injured.  Dish 
on  a hot  napkin,  and  send  anchovy,  shrimp, 
or  lobster  sauce,  and  a tureen  of  plain  melted 
butter  to  table  with  it.  The  cream  sauce  given 
under  baked  salmon  is  unsurpassed. 

Crimped  Salmon. — Cut  into  slices  an  inch 
and  a half  or  two  inches  thick  the  body  of  a 
quite  fresh  salmon ; lay  them  in  strong  salt 
and  water,  but  do  not  let  them  soak  in  it ; wash 
them  well  in  clear  water,  lay  them  on  a fish- 
plate, and  put  them  into  fast  boiling  water,  salted 
and  well  skimmed.  In  from  ten  to  fifteen  min- 
utes they  will  be  done.  Dish  them  on  a napkin 
and  send  them  very  hot  to  table  with  lobster 
sauce  and  plain  melted  butter ; or  with  caper- 
sauce. 

Fried  in  Oil. — Turn  into  a small  deep  frying 
pan,  a small  bottle  of  good  olive-oil,  place  it  on 
a clear  fire,  and  as  soon  as  it  ceases  to  bubble 
lay  in  a pound  and  a half  of  salmon  properly 
cleansed  and  dried  in  a cloth,  and  fry  it  gently 
until  it  is  cooked  quite  through.  The  surface 
should  be  only  lightly  browned.  Drain  the 
fish  well  when  it  is  done,  and  when  it  is  per- 
fectly cold,  dish,  and  garnish  with  parsley  or 
any  green  foliage. 

Pickled  (Fresh)  Salmon. — Take  a salmon, 
wipe  it  on  the  scaly  side,  remove  the  gills,  and  cut 
off  a piece  of  the  tail : split  it  from  the  head,  at 
the  back,  and  through  the  belly ; put  aside  the 
liver,  and  clean  the  inside  with  a cloth  ; strew 
salt  over  the  fish,  and  let  it  lie  three  hours  and 
the  tail  two  hours  longer  in  salt.  Cleanse 
it  in  fresh  water ; then  dry  it,  cut  into  pieces, 
leaving  a handsome  head,  or  jowl,  and  place 
them  in  a fish-kettle,  and  just  cover  the  fish 
with  water  and  set  on  the  fire.  Mix  half  a 
pint  of  vinegar  with  the  water,  boil  slowly  for 
ten  minutes,  and  then  only  simmer  till  the  fish 
will  easily  leave  the  bone  ; take  it  out  when 
nearly  cold,  and  lay  it  in  a deep  dish.  Skim  off 
the  top  as  much  liquor  as  will  cover  the  salmon, 
and  tying  up  the  liver  in  a piece  of  linen  rag, 
add  some  whole  black  pepper,  simmer  half  an 
hour,  take  it  off,  and  when  lukewarm,  pour  it 
over  the  fish.  In  using  it,  always  keep  the 
salmon  covered  with  liquor. 


4G0 


SALMON 


SALVIA 


A ready  way  to  pickle  salmon  already  boiled 
is  to  add  a fourth  part  of  vinegar  to  some  of 
the  liquor  in  which  it  was  dressed,  with  some 
whole  black  pepper  and  salt;  boil  this  liquor 
half  an  hour,  then  pour  it  hot  over  the  fish  and 
cover. 

Pickled  (Salt)  Salmon. — Wash  the  salmon 
through  two  or  three  waters,  rubbing  it  lightly 
with  a cloth ; then  place  it  in  lukewarm  water 
and  let  it  soak  over  night ; next  morning  trans- 
fer it  to  very  cold  water  and  let  it  remain  sev- 
eral hours  then  take  it  out,  wipe  dry  with  a cloth, 
and  cut  into  small  pieces  convenient  for  serving ; 
drop  these  when  all  are  ready,  into  a saucepan 
of  boiling  water.  Meanwhile  prepare  a pickle 
of  two  quarts  of  vinegar,  a dozen  white  pepper 
corns,  a dozen  blades  of  mace,  a dozen  cloves, 
three  tablespoonfuls  white  sugar,  two  table- 
spoonfuls mixed  mustard,  and  a pint  of  the 
water  in  which  the  fish  was  boiled ; boil  up 
hard,  and  skim.  When  the  salmon  has  boiled 
hard  five  minutes,  fish  out  the  pieces  with  a 
wire  spoon,  and  pack  them  in  air-tight  glass 
jars  or  fruit  cans  ; fill  up  the  jars  with  the  boil- 
ing pickle  and  seal  immediately.  This  will  be 
ready  for  use  in  a day  or  two,  will  keep  a long 
time,  and  is  scarcely  inferior  to  the  fresh  pickled 
salmon.  Of  course  it  is  much  cheaper. 

Potted  Salmon. — Split  a salmon  at  the  back 
and  through  the  belly;  scale  it  clean,  and  wipe 
it  dry.  Lay  fine  salt  upon  it,  and  let  it  lie  until 
the  salt  is  dissolved;  then  mix  black  pepper, 
mace,  cloves,  in  powder,  and  a little  brown 
sugar,  which  rub  all  over  the  red  side  of  the 
salmon  ; then  put  it  into  a pan,  with  a few  bay 
leaves,  cut  in  pieces,  and  plenty  of  butter  (with 
the  salt  washed  out),  and  bake  in  a slack  oven. 
When  done,  pour  off  the  gravy,  take  out  the 
fish,  which  lay  to  drain  on  a cloth  ; then  put  it 
into  pots,  press  down  closely,  and  pour  over  it 
melted  butter  and  tie  over.  This,  if  made  prop- 
erly, will  be  quite  equal  to  the  potted  salmon 
sold  in  the  shop. 

Pudding  (Salmon). — Pound,  or  chop  small, 
or  rub  through  a sieve  one  pound  of  cold  boil- 
ed salmon  freed  entirely  from  bone  and  skin ; 
mix  it  lightly  but  thoroughly  with  half  a pound 
of  fine  bread  crumbs,  a teaspoonful  of  essence 
of  anchovy,  a quarter  of  a pint  of  cream,  a 
seasoning  of  fine  salt  and  cayenne,  and  four  well 
beaten  eggs.  Press  the  mixture  closely  and 
evenly  into  a deep  dish  or  mould,  buttered  in 
every  part,  and  bake  it  for  an  hour  in  a moder- 
ate oven.  This  is  a popular  Scotch  dish. 

Salad  (Salmon). — Boil  some  thin  slices  of 
salmon  in  salted  water  as  directed  for  “ boil- 
ed salmon,”  drain,  and  serve  cold  on  a napkin. 
Serve  with  it,  in  a sauce-boat,  the  following  dress- 
ing : Haff  a teaspoonful  of  salt,  a pinch  of  pep- 
per, two  tablespoonfuls  of  vinegar,  four  of  olive 
oil,  a pickled  cucumber  chopped  fine,  two  or 
three  anchovies  chopped  fine  or  pounded,  and  a 
tablespoonful  of  capers ; beat  together  thor- 
oughly. 

Salt  Salmon. — Salt  salmon,  and  in  fact  any 
other  salt  fish,  may  be  cooked  and  served  as 
directed  for  salt  cod.  (See  Cod.) 


Smoked  Salmon. — As  already  mentioned, 
smoked  salmon  is  usually  eaten  raw,  as  a supper 
dish.  It  is  also  excellent  broiled.  For  broil- 
ing, wash  it  in  two  waters,  boil  it  gently  for 
fifteen  minutes,  wipe  dry  and  broil  on  a hot 
fire  till  neatly  browned  on  both  sides  ; then 
spread  liberally  with  butter,  and  sprinkle  pepper 
on  it. 

Steaks  (Salmon). — Cut  the  fish  completely 
across  in  slices  about  an  inch  thick  ; dry  them 
well  between  the  folds  of  a napkin.  If  for  fry- 
ing they  may  be  dusted  with  flour,  which  should 
be  spread  evenly  over  their  surface  with  a feath- 
er; if  for  broiling,  season  with  the  slightest 
sprinkling  of  pepper  and  salt,  and  put  on  the 
gridiron  over  hot  coals ; when  brown  on  both 
sides,  butter  each  slice  and  serve  hot.  The 
turning  must  be  done  very  carefully  or  the 
slices  will  break.  Either  anchovy  or  caper- 
sauce  goes  well  with  salmon  steaks,  which,  how- 
ever, may  be  eaten  plain. 

SALMON  TROUT.— This  delicious  fish, 
also  called  the  sea-trout , is  very  similar  to  the 
common  salmon,  both  in  appearance  and  in 
taste ; but  it  is  inferior  in  size,  the  head  and 
mouth  are  smaller,  and  its  back  is  of  a darker 
green  while  its  sides  are  silvery.  The  salmon 
trout  is  never  black  inside  the  mouth  like  the  com- 
mon brook-trout.  It  is  even  scarcer  than  the  sal- 
mon and  commands  an  equally  high  price  ; it  is  in 
season  about  the  same  time.  The  female  is 
considered  best  for  the  table,  and  may  be  dis- 
tinguished by  a small  head  and  very  deep  body. 
Their  usual  weight  is  from  three  to  ten  pounds, 
though  occasionally  they  are  found  larger.  Pre- 
pare, cook,  and  serve  as  directed  for  Salmon. 

SALSIFY.  (See  Oyster-plant.) 

SALT. — Common  salt,  or  chloride  of  sodium, 
is  found  in  great  abundance  in  the  waters  of 
the  ocean,  sea-water  containing  about  three 
per  cent,  on  an  average.  It  is  also  found  in  the 
solid  form,  composing  rocks  in  various  parts  of 
the  world ; this  is  called  rock-salt.  There  are 
likewise  many  springs  of  water  issuing  from 
the  earth  so  highly  impregnated  with  salt  that 
they  are  called  salt-springs  j these  are  sup- 
posed to  owe  their  origin  to  water  passing 
through  rock-salt  underground,  in  consequence 
of  which  it  dissolves  a portion ; on  evaporat- 
ing the  water  of  these  springs,  or  sea-water,  by 
boiling,  salt  is  procured.  From  whichever  of 
these  sources  salt  is  obtained,  it  is  never  quite 
pure,  being  at  first  contaminated  with  earthy 
substances  or  with  other  salts,  as  Epsom  salt  (sul- 
phate of  magnesia)  and  Glauber’s  salt  (sulphate 
of  soda) ; and  it  has  to  be  purified  or  refined 
before  it  is  fit  for  domestic  use.  The  salt  pro- 
duced by  salt-springs  is  generally  purest  and 
best,  and  it  is  from  this  source  that  most  of  the 
salt  used  for  culinary  or  table  purposes  in  this 
country  is  derived.  Common  salt  will  generally 
attract  water  and  thus  become  damp;  it  should 
therefore  be  kept  in  a box  with  a tightly  fitting 
cover,  and  kept  in  a warm  dry  place. 

salves.  (See  Drugs,  Glycerine,  and 
under  the  special  cases  to  be  treated.) 

SALVIA- — This  is  the  most  gorgeous  of 


SAMPHIRE 


SARSAPARILLA 


461 


all  the  fall-flowering  plants.  It  grows  from  four 
to  five  feet  high,  making  a handsome  symmetrical 
bush,  and  during  September  and  October  is 
covered  with  tassels  of  the  brightest  scarlet  or 
blue  flowers.  It  is  unequalled  for  planting  in 
masses,  but  is  extremely  tender,  the  first  frost 
rendering  it  a blackened  mass.  Salvias  may 
be  raised  from  the  seed,  but  it  is  best  if  possible 
to  procure  the  small  plants  from  the  florist 
in  the  spring,  and  plant  them  in  good,  rich 
garden  soil ; they  will  grow  vigorously.  If  de- 
sired for  a house  plant  they  may  be  transplanted 
into  pots  late  in  September,  shaded  for  a few 
days,  and  then  removed  to  a sunny  window, 
where  they  will  blossom  properly  for  two  months. 
Then  keep  them  cool  until  spring,  and  repeat 
the  operation  till  the  plants  become  so  large  as 
to  be  unmanageable,  when  spring  cuttings  must 
be  taken  off  and  rooted. 

The  common  variety  is  the  Salvia  splendens, 
which  has  rich  scarlet  flowers.  S.  splendens 
variegata  is  a novelty  possessing  finely  varie- 
gated foliage,  with  flowers  as  brillant  as  the 
common  kind.  The  roots  of  these  two  varie- 
ties can  be  hung  up  during  the  winter  in  a dry, 
dark  cellar — like  Geraniums  ; S.  Patens  is  of  a 
deep  blue  color,  of  the  most  perfect  shade.  It 
has  a tuberous  root,  which  can  be  kept  like  a 
Dahlia  through  the  winter  in  sand. 

SAMPHIRE.  This  plant,  also  called  sea- 
fennel,  is  difficult  to  cultivate,  and  as  it  is  not  a 
native,  is  seldom  procurable  in  our  markets. 
Its  leaves  have  a pleasant,  crisp,  aromatic 
flavor;  the  fleshy  leaves  and  young  branches 
are  pickled  in  vinegar,  and  also  used  in  salads 
in  seasoning. 

SANDWICHES.— To  make  good  sand- 
wiches the  bread  should  be  light,  and  not  too 
stale.  Cut  it  in  thin  slices,  butter  well  on  one 
side,  and  between  the  slices  lay  meat  chopped 
fine  or  cut  very  thin  ; to  beef  or  ham  a little  mus- 
tard is  usually  added.  After  being  prepared  the 
sandwiches  should  be  piled  together  and  kept  be- 
tween two  plates,  or  in  a sandwich-box.  Instead 
of  the  sliced  meat,  potted  meats,  such  as  beef, 
veal,  chicken,  ham,  or  tongue,  may  be  used ; 
this  method  is  preferable  to  the  slices,  as  there 
in  less  difficulty  in  dividing  them  with  the  teeth. 

Cheese  Sandwiches. — Take  two-thirds  of 
good  cheese,  grated,  and  one-third  of  butter ; 
and  a little  cream  : pound  all  together  in  a mor- 
tar ; then  spread  it  on  slices  of  brown  bread 
or  gems;  lay  another  slice  over  each  ; press  them 
gently  together,  and  cut  in  small  square  pieces. 

Egg  Sandwiches, — Boil  fresh  eggs  five 
minutes  ; put  them  in  cold  water,  and  when 
quite  cold  peel  them,  and  after  taking  a little  of 
the  white  off  each  end  of  the  eggs  cut  the  re- 
mainder in  four  slices.  Lay  them  between  bread 
and  butter  with  a little  pepper  and  salt. 

Fried  Egg  Sandwiches. — Beat  some  eggs 
well  ; fry  them  in  butter  as  a pancake.  When 
cold,  cut  in  small  square  pieces,  and  lay  them 
between  brown  bread  and  butter. 

Gem  and  Cheese  Sandwiches. — Toast 
good  cheese  lightly  ; split  wheatmeal  gems  in 
halves,  and  spread  between  two  halves,  so  as  to 


come  to  the  edges  all  round,  a slice  of  the  toast- 
ed cheese.  It  makes  a wholesome  and  palat- 
able lunch  ; children  are  fond  of  it.  Some  ob- 
ject to  toasted  cheese.  The  principal  objection 
to  it  is  that  it  is  generally  toasted  too  much.  If 
toasted  dry,  it  is  as  hard  to  digest  as  a very  hard- 
boiled  egg.  Another  objection  is,  that  it  is  too 
often  eaten  as  a dessert  with  rich  pie  and  cake, 
instead  of  with  the  principal  part  of  the  meal. 

Omelet  Sandwiches. — Take  four  eggs,  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  bread  crumbs,  and  one  half 
ounce  of  chopped  parsley.  After  beating  the 
eggs  well,  add  the  bread  crumbs,  then  the 
parsley,  and  two  tablespoonfuls  of  water. 
Season,  and  fry  it  in  small  fritters,  and  when 
cold  put  them  between  brown  bread  and  butter. 

Pastry  Sandwiches. — Divide  equally  in  two, 
and  roll  off  square  and  as  thin  as  possible, 
some  rich  puff  paste  ; lay  one  half  on  a butter- 
ed tin,  or  copper  oven-leaf,  and  spread  it  lightly 
with  fine  currant,  strawberry  or  raspberry  jelly ; 
lay  the  remaining  half  closely  over,  pressing  it  a 
little  with  the  rolling  pin  after  the  edges  are 
well  cemented  together ; then  mark  it  into  divis- 
ions, and  bake  it  from  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes 
in  a moderate  oven. 

SANGAREE. — Properly  speaking,  sangaree 
is  a punch  very  popular  in  the  West  Indies, 
composed  of  half  Madeira  wine  and  half  water, 
acidulated  with  lime-juice  and  sweetened  with 
sugar.  It  may  be  made,  however,  of  any  wine, 
in  the  same  way.  A le  sangaree  is  half  ale  and 
half  water,  sweetened.  Add  nutmeg  to  all. 

SAPSAGO.  ( See  Cheese  ) 

SARDINE. — A small  fish  of  the  herring 
family  taken  in  large  quantities  on  the  coast  of 
Sardinia,  and  in  other  portions  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea,  also  in  the  Atlantic  ocean,  on  the 
boast  of  France.  Sardines  are  sometimes  im- 
ported in  brine,  but  in  almost  all  cases  now 
they  are  preserved  in  oil,  in  small  tin  boxes, 
holding  from  half  a pound  to  a pound,  and  con- 
taining in  each  on  the  average  from  a dozen  to 
twenty-four  fish.  They  are  an  excellent  relish, 
and  form  a wholesome  and  agreeable  addition 
to  the  breakfast,  lunch,  or  supper-table.  They 
should  be  served  in  the  box  and  sliced  lemon 
handed  with  them. 

SARSAPARILLA. — A remedy  which  has 
alternately  been  extolled  to  the  skies  and  fallen 
into  complete  neglect ; lauded  as  a panacea  at 
one  time,  it  has  been  despised  at  another,  both 
probably  unjustly.  The  plant  which  yields  it  is 
a species  of  smilax,  which  grows  in  many  parts 
of  America,  and  in  the  West  Indies.  The  part 
employed  is  the  underground  stem  or  rhizome, 
whence  numerous  long  rootlets  are  given  off. 

The  Jamaica  sarsaparilla  is  the  kind  used  in 
medicine  ; this  comes  in  bundles  about  a foot 
and  a half  long,  the  roots  being  folded  and  not 
thicker  than  a goose  quill ; they  are  of  a red- 
dish brown  color.  The  preparations  of  sarsa- 
parilla are  a simple  and  compound  decoction, 
and  a liquid  extract.  The  compound  decoction 
contains  Jamaica  sarsaparilla,  Guaiacum,  wood 
turnings,  fresh  liquorice  root,  and  mezereon. 
This  is  the  preparation  most  commonly  used, 


462 


SASSAFRAS 


SAUCES 


in  doses  of  from  two  ounces  to  a pint.  All 
kinds  of  properties  have  been  attributed  to 
sarsaparilla,  diaphoretic,  diuretic,  tonic,  and 
alterative  ; but  it  has  been  chiefly  used  as  an 
anti-syphilitic.  It  seems,  according  to  some 
trustworthy  authorities,  to  do  much  good  in  the 
skin  eruptions  of  syphilis,  if  taken  in  doses 
of  not  less  than  half  a pint  to  a pint  daily.  It 
has  also  been  used  in  some  skin  diseases,  especi- 
ally in  those  of  a scrofulous  origin,  and  in  chronic 
rheumatism  and  gout.  In  all  of  these  maladies, 
however,  it  has  been  customary  to  use  the  sar- 
saparilla merely  as  an  adjunct  to  powerful 
remedies,  and  it  has  not  always  been  quite  clear 
what  portion  of  the  resulting  benefit  was  to  be 
attributed  to  sarsaparilla.  If  used  at  all,  it 
should  be  used  in  large  quantities,  and  in  the 
form  of  freshly  prepared  decoctions,  simple  or 
compound. 

SASSAFRAS.— A small  tree  common  in 
the  forests  and  barrens  throughout  a great  part 
of  the  United  States.  Every  part  of  the  tree 
has  a pleasant  fragrance,  and  a sweetish  aro- 
matic taste,  which  is  strongest  in  the  bark  of 
the  root.  These  qualities  depend  upon  an 
essential  oil  which  may  readily  be  extracted  by 
distillation,  and  which  is  much  used  in  medi- 
cine. The  young  shoots  are  a pleasant  in- 
gredient in  small  tor, and  impart  to  it  a pleasant 
flavor.  The  dried  root  in  the  form  of  chips  is 
commonly  sold  in  the  drug  stores.  The  action 
of  sassafras  is  stimulant,  and  is  supposed  to  be 
especially  efficacious  in  chronic  rheumatism  and 
skin  diseases.  The  mild  decoction  known  as 
sassafras  tea  is  a popular  domestic  remedy, 
and  is  believed  to  purify  the  blood. 

Beer  (Sassafras).  ( See  Beer.) 

Jelly  (Sassafras). — Take  the  pith  of  sassafras 
boughs,  break  it  in  small  pieces,  cover  it  with 
cold  water,  and  let  it  soak  till  the  water  be- 
comes glutinous.  It  has  the  flavor  of  sassafras, 
and  is  generally  much  relished  by  the  sick. 

Tea  (Sassafras). — Take  the  roots,  either 
green  or  dried,  boil  them  a few  minutes  in  pure 
water,  and  then  let  them  steep  several  hours  ; 
drink  with  milk  and  sugar,  like  ordinary  tea.  In 
many  parts  of  the  country  this  is  a favorite 
“ spring  medicine,”  about  a pint  of  it  being 
drunk  every  day  for  a month. 

SATIN. — A glossy  silk  twill  of  a peculiar 
description,  the  soft  and  lustrous  face  of  which 
is  given  by  keeping  a large  proportion,  fre- 
quently as  many  as  seven  out  of  eight  threads  of 
the  warp  visible.  In  the  manufacture  of  other 
silken  stuffs  each  half  of  the  warp  is  raised  al- 
ternately ; but  in  weaving  satin,  the  workman 
only  raises  the  fifth  or  eighth  part  of  the  warp, 
which,  presenting  an  even,  close,  and  smooth 
surface,  is  capable  of  reflecting  the  rays  of 
light  almost  entire,  and  the  fabric  thus  acquires 
that  lustre  and  brilliancy  for  which  it  is  famous. 
But  this  is  assisted  by  another  process  : when 
first  taken  out  of  the  loom  satin  is  somewhat 
flossy  and  rough,  and  it  is  dressed  by  being 
rolled  on  heated  cylinders  which  smooth  down 
the  face  and  increase  the  lustre.  Some  satins 
are  quite  plain,  others  are  figured,  and  the  lat- 


I ter  are  often  of  exquisite  beauty.  The  Chinese 
excel  in  the  production  of  figured  satins ; the 
best  plain  ones  are  made  at  Lyons.  Usual 
width  yard. 

SATINET. — A thin  flimsy  kind  of  satin.  Also 
a cloth  made  of  cotton  warp  and  worsted  filling, 
much  used  for  coat,  cloak,  and  dress  linings. 

SAUCES.  — Directions  for  making  sweet 
sauces  are  given  under  puddings  ( See  Pud- 
dings), and  most  of  the  sauces  that  are  served 
warm  are  described  under  the  dishes  which 


Mushrooms,  Eschalots,  and  Tomatoes. 


they  are  intended  to  accompany.  A consider- 
able number  of  the  sauces  given  below  are 
what  may  be  called  condiments,  though  one 
important  section  of  these  latter  are  given 
under  Catsup,  Salad,  and  Vinegar. 

Almond  Sauce.  (See  Almond.) 

Anchovy  Sauce.  ( See  Anchovy.) 

Bechamel  Sauce. — I.  Rub  together  in  a 
sauce-pan,  two  ounces  of  butter  and  a heaped 
tablespoonful  of  flour  ; add  gradually  a pint  of 
boiling  milk,  and  stir  over  the  fire  until  it  thick- 
ens; remove  and  add  the  yolk  of  an  egg  well 
beaten  with  a teaspoonful  of  cold  water ; season 
with  salt  and  white  pepper,  and  serve  at  once. 

H.  Take  equal  parts  of  very  strong  pale 
veal  gravy,  and  good  cream  (a  pint  each,  for 
example).  By  rapid  boiling  reduce  the  gravy 
nearly  half ; next  mix  with  part  of  the  cream  a 
tablespoonful  of  fine  dry  flour;  bring  the  rest 
of  the  cream  to  a boil,  add  the  flour  and  cream, 
and  keep  the  whole  stirred  for  five  minutes 
over  a slow  fire ; then  add  the  gravy,  stir  and 
mix  perfectly,  and  simmer  it  for  a few  minutes 
longer.  All  the  flavor  should  be  given  by  the 
gravy,  in  which  French  cooks  boil  a handful  of 
mushrooms,  a few  green  onions,  and  some 
sprigs  of  parsley  ; but  a good  bechamel  can  be 
made  without  them. 

III.  Put  into  a stew-pan  two  or  three  ounces  of 
butter,  a carrot,  two  small  onions  cut  in  slices, 
and  a handful  of  nicely-cleaned  mushroom  but- 
tons when  these  can  be  procured ; stew  slow- 
ly half  an  hour,  or  until  the  butter  is  nearly  dried 
up,  then  stir  in  two  tablespoonfuls  of  flour,  and 


SAUCES 


463 


pour  in  a pint  of  milk,  a little  at  a time,  shaking 
the  stew-pan  well  that  the  sauce  may  be  smooth. 
Boil  gently  for  half  an  hour ; add  a little  salt 
and  cayenne  ; strain  and  reduce  it  if  not  quite 
thick  enough,  or  pour  it  boiling  to  the  yolks 
of  two  fresh  eggs. 

Bread  Sauce. — I.  Boil  half  a pint  of  new 
milk,  and  pour  it,  scalding  hot,  upon  half  a pint 
of  the  finest  bread-crumbs  ; cover  them  closely 
with  a plate,  and  let  the  sauce  remain  for 
twenty  or  thirty  minutes ; put  it  then  into  a 
delicately  clean  sauce-pan,  with  a small  salt- 
spoonful  of  salt,  half  as  much  pounded  mace,  a 
little  cayenne,  and  about  an  ounce  of  butter ; 
keep  it  stirred  constantly  over  a clear  fire  for  a 
few  minutes,  then  mix  with  it  a couple  of  table- 
spoonfuls of  good  cream,  give  it  a boil,  and 
serve  it  immediately.  When  cream  is  not  to 
be  had,  use  an  additional  spoonful  or  two  of 
milk.  The  bread  used  for  sauce  should  be 
stale , and  grated  down  into  extremely  small 
crumbs,  or  the  preparation  will  look  rough  when 
sent  to  table.  Not  only  the  crust,  but  all  heavy- 
looking or  imperfectly-baked  portions  should  be 
pared  off,  and  it  should  be  pressed  against  the 
grater  only  so  much  as  will  easily  reduce  it  to 
crumbs. 

II.  (With  Onion). — Put  into  a very  clean 
saucepan  nearly  half  a pint  of  fine  bread-crumbs, 
and  the  white  part  of  a large  mild  onion  cut  into 
quarters ; pour  to  these  three-quarters  of  a pint 
of  new  milk,  and  boil  them  very  gently,  keeping 
them  often  stirred  until  the  onion  is  perfectly 
tender,  which  will  be  in  from  forty  minutes  to 
an  hour.  Press  the  whole  through  a hair-sieve, 
which  should  be  as  clean  as  possible ; reduce 
the  sauce  by  quick  boiling  should  it  be  too  thin  ; 
add  a seasoning  of  salt  and  grated  nutmeg,  an 
ounce  of  butter,  and  four  spoonfuls  of  cream ; 
and  when  it  is  of  a proper  thickness,  dish,  and 
send  it  quickly  to  table. 

This  is  an  excellent  sauce  for  those  who  like 
a subdued  flavor  of  onion  in  it ; but  as  many 
persons  object  to  any,  the  cook  should  ascertain 
whether  it  be  liked  before  she  follows  this  re- 
ceipt. 

Butter  (Burnt  or  Browned). — Melt  in  a 
frying-pan  three  ounces  of  fresh  butter  and  stir 
it  gently  over  a slow  fire  until  it  is  of  a dark 
brown  color ; then  pour  to  it  two  tablespoon- 
fuls of  good  hot  vinegar,  and  season  it  with 
black  pepper  and  a little  salt.  This  is  an  ex- 
cellent sauce  for  boiled  fish. 

Butter  (Melted  or  Drawn). — I.  Put  into  a 
bowl  a large  teaspoonful  of  flour,  and  a little 
salt,  then  mix  with  them  very  gradually  and 
smoothly  a quarter  of  a pint  of  cold  water; 
turn  these  into  a small  clean  sauce-pan,  and 
shake  or  stir  them  constantly  over  a clear  fire 
until  they  have  boiled  a couple  of  minutes; 
then  add  an  ounce  and  a half  of  butter  cut  small, 
keep  the  sauce  stirred  until  this  is  entirely  dis- 
solved, give  the  whole  a minute’s  boil,  and  serve 
it  quickly.  The  usual  mode  is  to  put  the  but- 
ter in  at  first  with  the  flour  and  water  ; but  for 
inexperienced  or  unskilful  cooks,  the  above  plan 
is  safest  and  best. 


II.  (French). — Pour  half  a pint  of  good,  but 
not  very  thick,  boiling  drawn  butter  to  the 
yolks  of  two  or  three  fresh  eggs,  and  stir  them 
briskly  as  it  is  added  ; put  the  sauce  again  into 
the  saucepan,  and  shake  it  high  over  the  fire 
for  an  instant,  but  do  not  allow  it  to  boil  or  it 
will  curdle.  Add  a little  lemon  juice  or  vinegar, 
and  serve  it  immediately. 

III.  (Rich.)— Mix  to  a very  smooth  batter  a 
dessertspoonful  of  flour,  a half-saltspoonful  of 
salt,  and  half  a pint  of  cold  water:  put  these 
into  a delicately  clean  saucepan,  with  from  four 
to  six  ounces  of  well-flavored  butter,  cut  into 
small  bits,  and  shake  the  sauce  strongly  round, 
almost  without  cessation,  until  the  ingredients 
are  perfectly  blended,  and  it  is  on  the  point  of 
boiling;  let  it  simmer  for  two  or  three  minutes, 
and  it  will  be  ready  for  use.  The  best  French 
cooks  recommend  its  not  being  allowed  to  boil, 
as  they  say  it  tastes  less  of  flour  if  served  when 
it  is  just  at  the  point  of  simmering. 

IV.  (White.) — Thicken  half  a pint  of  new 
milk  with  rather  less  flour  than  is  directed  for 
the  common  drawn  butter,  or  with  a little 
arrowroot,  and  stir  into  it  by  degrees  after  it 
has  boiled,  a couple  of  ounces  of  fresh  butter 
cut  small ; do  not  cease  to  stir  the  sauce  until 
this  is  entirely  dissolved,  or  it  may  become 
oiled,  and  float  upon  the  top.  Thin  cream, 
substituted  for  the  milk,  and  flavored  with  a 
few  strips  of  lemon-rind  cut  extremely  thin, 
some  salt,  and  a small  quantity  of  pounded 
mace,  if  mixed  with  rather  less  flour,  and  the 
same  proportion  of  butter,  will  make  an  excel- 
lent sauce  to  serve  with  fowls  or  other  dishes, 
when  no  gravy  is  at  hand  to  make  white  sauce 
in  the  usual  way. 

Caper  Sauce. — I.  Stir  into  a third  of  a pint 
of  good  drawn  butter  from  three  to  four  des- 
sertspoonfuls of  capers ; add  a little  of  the 
vinegar,  and  dish  the  sauce  as  soon  as  it  boils. 
Keep  it  stirred  after  the  capers  are  added ; part 
of  them  may  be  minced,  and  a little  Chili  vine- 
gar substituted  for  their  own.  Pickled  nastur- 
tiums make  a very  good  sauce  and  their  flavor 
is  sometimes  preferred  to  that  of  capers. 

II.  (Brown.) — Thicken  half  a pint  of  good 
veal  or  beef  gravy  and  add  to  it  two  table- 
spoonfuls of  capers,  and  a dessert-spoonful  of 
the  pickle  liquor,  or  of  chili  vinegar,  with  some 
cayenne  if  the  former  be  used,  and  a proper 
seasoning  of  salt. 

III.  For  Fish. — To  nearly  half  a pint  of  very 
rich  drawn  butter,  add  six  tablespoonfuls  of 
strong  veal  gravy,  one  tablespoontul  of  essence 
of  anchovies,  some  Chili  vinegar  or  cayenne, 
and  from  two  to  three  tablespoonfuls  of  capers. 
When  there  is  no  gravy  at  hand,  substitute  a 
halt  wineglassful  of  mushroom  or  other  catsup. 

Celery  Sauce. — Slice  the  white  parts  of  from 
three  to  five  heads  of  young  tender  celery ; peel 
it  if  not  very  young,  and  boil  it  in  salt  and  water 
twenty  minutes.  If  for  white  sauce,  put  the 
celery,  after  it  has  been  well  drained,  into  half 
a pint  of  veal  broth  or  gravy,  and  let  it  stew 
until  it  is  quite  soft ; then  add  an  ounce  and  a 
half  of  butter,  mixed  with  a dessertspoonful  of 


464 


SAUCES 


flour,  and  a quarter  of  a pint  of  thick  cream  or 
the  yolks  of  three  eggs. 

A very  good  common  celery  sauce  is  made 
by  simply  stewing  the  celery  cut  into  inch- 
lengths  in  butter,  until  it  begins  to  be  tender ; 
then  add  a tablespoonful  of  flour,  which  must 
be  allowed  to  brown  a little,  and  half  a pint  of 
good  broth  or  beef  gravy,  with  a seasoning  of 
pepper  or  cayenne. 

Chestnut  Sauce. — Cover  six  ounces  of 
shelled  chestnuts  with  boiling  water,  and  let 
them  simmer  about  three  minutes,  when  they 
may  be  easily  peeled;  stew  them  gently  for  an 
hour  an'1'  a quarter  in  three  gills  of  veal  stock, 
adding  a few  strips  of  lemon  peel.  Press 
them,  with  the  gravy,  through  a hair-sieve  re- 
versed and  placed  over  a deep  dish  or  pan,  as 
they  are  much  more  easily  rubbed  through  thus 
than  in  the  usual  way.  Add  a little  cayenne 
and  mace,  some  salt  if  needed,  and  about  six 
tablespoonfuls  of  rich  cream.  Stir  the  sauce 
until  it  boils,  then  serve  with  boiled  fowls  or 
stewed  veal  cutlets. 

Chili  Sauce. — Take  Ripe  tomatoes  (peeled 
and  sliced),  io  lbs.;  onions  peeled  and  chopped) 
2 lbs  ; green  peppers  (without  the  seeds),  7 oz ; 
brown  sugar,  6 oz ; salt,  4 oz ; vinegar,  1 '/2 
pts.  Chop  the  peppers,  boil  all  the  ingredients 
together  in  a porcelain-lined  kettle  for  several 
hours,  or  until  as  thick  as  desired;  put  it  in  air- 
tight cans,  and  use  for  soups  and  gravies. 

Christopher  North’s  Meat  Sauce. — Throw 
into  a small  basin  a heaped  saltspoonful  of  cay- 
enne pepper,  half  the  quantity  of  salt,  and  a 
small  dessertspoonful  of  sifted  sugar;  mix 
thoroughly;  pour  in  a tablespoonful  of  the 
strained  juice  of  a fresh  lemon,  two  of  Har- 
vey’s sauce,  a teaspoonful  of  the  best  mush- 
room catsup,  and  a small  wineglassful  of  port 
wine.  Heat  the  sauce  by  placing  the  basin  in 
a saucepan  of  boiling  water.  Serve  it  directly 
it  is  ready  with  geese  or  ducks,  roast  pork, 
venison,  fawn,  a grilled  blade-bone,  or  any  other 
broil.  A slight  flavor  of  garlic  or  eschalot  vin- 
egar may  be  given  to  it  at  pleasure.  Some  per- 
sons eat  it  with  fish.  It  is  good  cold  ; and,  if 
bottled  directly  it  is  made,  may  be  stored  for 
several  days.  It  is  the  better  for  being  mixed 
some  hours  before  it  is  served.  The  propor- 
tion  of  caye?ine  may  be  reduced,  when  a less 
pungent  sauce  is  desired. 

Clarified  Butter. — Put  the  butter  into  a very 
clean  and  well-tinned  sauce  or  enamelled  stew- 
pan,  and  melt  it  gently  over  a clear  fire  ; when 
it  just  begins  to  simmer,  skim  it  thoroughly, 
draw  it  from  the  fire,  and  let  it  stand  a few  min- 
utes, that  the  buttermilk  may  sink  to  the  bottom ; 
then  pour  it  clear  of  the  sediment  through  a 
muslin  strainer  or  a fine  hair-sieve  ; put  into 
jars,  and  store  them  in  a cool  place.  Butter 
thus  prepared  will  answer  for  all  the  ordin- 
ary purposes  of  cookery,  and  remain  good  for 
a long  time.  The  clarified  butter  ordered  for 
the  various  receipts  in  this  volume  is  merely 
dissolved  with  a gentle  degree  of  heat  in  a 
small  saucepan,  skimmed,  and  poured  out  for 
use,  leaving  the  thick  sediment  behind. 


Crab  Sauce. — The  flesh  of  a fresh  crab  of 
moderate  size  is  more  tender  and  delicate  than 
that  of  a lobster,  and  may  be  converted  into  an 
excellent  fish  sauce.  Mince  it  small,  and  add 
it  to  some  good  drawn  butter,  which  has  been 
flavored  as  directed  for  lobster  sauce. 

Cream  Sauce  (For  Fish). — Directions  for 
making  this  excellent  sauce  are  given  under 
Baked  Salmon.  ( See  Salmon.) 

Cucumber  Sauce. — Take  two  large  fresh 
cucumbers  ; peel  them,  and  cut  them  length- 
wise into  four  or  five  pieces,  and  each  piece 
into  two ; put  them  into  a quart  of  water,  with 
a tablespoonful  of  salt  in  it,  and  let  them  lie 
half  an  hour;  drain  them,  take  out  the  seeds, 
and  put  the  cucumbers  into  a stew-pan,  with  half 
a pint  of  white  stock,  or  gravy,  a dessertspoon- 
ful of  vinegar,  and  a teaspoonful  of  sifted  loaf 
sugar;  simmer  half  an  hour,  or  till  the  cucum- 
bers are  soft.  Beat  the  yolks  of  two  eggs  with 
a gill  of  cream  ; take  out  the  cucumbers  ; stir 
the  eggs  and  cream  into  the  sauce,  boil  up,  and 
pour  it  over  the  cucumbers. 

Or,  put  the  cucumbers,  prepared  as  above, 
into  a stew-pan,  with  a little  sugar  and  butter, 
set  it  on  the  fire,  and  stir  in  some  brown  stock, 
and  simmer  till  the  cucumbers  are  tender;  then 
take  them  out  and  thicken  the  sauce. 

Dutch  Sauce. — Put  into  a small  sauce-pan 
the  yolks  of  three  fresh  eggs,  the  juice  of  a large 
lemon,  three  ounces  of  butter,  a little  salt  and 
nutmeg,  and  a wineglassful  of  water.  Hold 
the  sauce-pan  over  a clear  fire,  and  stir  the 
sauce  until  it  nearly  (but  not  quite)  boils  ; a 
little  cayenne  may  be  added,  if  liked.  A small 
teacupful  of  veal  gravy,  mixed  with  plenty  of 
blanched  and  chopped  parsley,  may  be  used 
instead  of  water  for  this  sauce,  when  it  is 
to  be  served  with  boiled  veal,  or  with  calf’s 
head. 

Egg  Sauce. — L Boil  four  fresh  eggs  fifteen 
minutes,  then  lay  them  into  plenty  of  fresh 
water,  and  let  them  remain  until  they  are  per- 
fectly cold  ; break  the  shells  by  rolling  them  on 
a table,  take  them  off,  separate  the  whites  from 
the  yolks,  and  divide  all  the  latter  into  quarter- 
inch  dice ; mince  two  of  the  whites  tolerably 
small,  mix  them  lightly  with  the  yolks,  and  stir 
them  into  a third  of  a pint  of  rich  drawn 
butter  or  of  white  sauce ; serve  as  hot  as 
possible. 

II.  Boil  a couple  of  eggs  hard,  and  when  quite 
cold  cut  up  the  whites  and  yolks  separately  ; 
mix  them  well,  put  them  into  a very  hot  tureen, 
and  pour  over  them  a quarter  of  a pint  of 
drawn  butter,  boiling  hot ; stir  and  serve  the 
sauce  immediately. 

Eschalot  Sauce.— Take  from  half  a pint  to 
a pint  of  eschalots,  divide  them,  strip  off  the 
skin,  and  when  all  are  ready  throw  them  into 
plenty  of  boiling  water  slightly  salted  ; in  five 
minutes  drain  this  from  them  and  pour  in  as 
much  more,  which  should  also  be  boiling ; at 
the  end  of  five  minutes  change  it  again  ; unless 
very  large  the  eschalots  will  be  tender  in  fifteen 
minutes,  in  which  case  the  water  must  be  poured 
from  them  shortly  after  it  has  been  changed  for 


SAUCES 


465 


the  second  time.  Drain  them  well , and  mix 
them  with  white  sauce  or  gravy,  or  with  good 
drawn  butter,  and  serve  them  very  hot. 

Fricassee  Sauce. — Stir  briskly,  but  by  de- 
grees, to  the  well-beaten  yolks  of  two  large  or 
of  three  small  fresh  eggs,  half  a pint  of  com- 
mon white  sauce ; put  it  again  into  the 
sauce-pan,  give  it  a shake  over  the  fire,  but  be 
extremely  careful  not  to  allow  it  to  boil,  and 
just  before  it  is  served  stir  in  a dessert-spoonful 
of  strained  lemon-juice.  When  meat  or  chickens 
are  fricasseed,  they  should  be  lifted  from  the 
saucepan  with  a slice,  drained  on  it  from  the 
sauce,  and  laid  into  a very  hot  dish  before  the 
eggs  are  added,  and  when  these  are  just  set, 
the  sauce  should  be  poured  on  them. 

Horse-radish  Sauce.  (To  serve  hot  or  cold 
with  roast  beef ) — Wash  and  wipe  a stick  of 
young  horse-radish,  scrape  off  the  outer  skin, 
grate  it  as  small  as  possible  on  a fine  grater, 
then  with  two  ounces  (or  two  heaping  table- 
spoonfuls) of  it  mix  a small  teaspoonful  of  salt 
and  four  tablespoonfuls  of  cream;  stir  in  briskly 
and  by  degrees  three  dessertspoonfuls  of  vine- 
gar, one  of  which  should  be  Chili  vinegar  when 
the  horseradish  is  mild;  serve.  To  heat  the 
sauce,  put  into  a small  and  clean  sauce-pan, 
hold  it  over  but  do  not  place  it  upon  the  fire, 
and  stir  it  constantly  until  it  is  on  the  point  of 
simmering ; but  do  not  allow  it  to  boil,  or  it 
will  curdle  instantly. 

Lemon  Sauce. — L — Cut  three  slices  of 
lemon  into  very  small  dice,  and  put  them  in 
drawn  butter;  give  it  one  boil,  and  pour  it 
over  boiled  fowls. 

IL—  Put  the  peel  of  a small  lemon,  cut  very 
thin,  into  a pint  of  sweet  cream,  with  a sprig  of 
lemon-thyme  and  six  white  pepper-corns  ; sim- 
mer gently  till  it  tastes  well  of  the  lemon ; then 
strain  it,  and  thicken  it  with  a quarter  of  a 
pound  of  butter  with  a tablespoonful  of  flour 
rubbed  in  it ; boil  up  once ; then  pour  the 
strained  juice  of  the  lemon  into  it,  stirring  it 
well.  Serve  with  boiled  fowls. 

Lobster  Sauce. — Add  to  half  a pint  of  good 
drawn  butter  a tablespoonful  of  essence  of  an- 
chovies, half  a saltspoonful  of  pounded  mace, 
and  less  than  a quarter  of  a saltspoonful  of 
cayenne  ; if  a couple  of  tablespoonfuls  of  cream 
should  be  at  hand,  stir  them  to  the  sauce  when 
it  boils ; then  put  in  the  flesh  of  a small  lobster 
cut  into  dice  (or  any  other  form)  of  equal  size ; 
keep  the  sauce-pan  by  the  side  of  the  fire  until 
the  flesh  is  quite  heated  through,  but  do  not  let 
the  sauce  boil  again  ; serve  it  very  hot ; this  is  an 
excellent  sauce  for  fish.  A small  quantity  can 
be  made  on  occasion  with  the  remains  of  a lob- 
ster that  has  been  served  at  table. 

Maitre  d’ Hotel  Sauce. — I.  Mix  a teacupful 
of  cream,  two  ounces  of  butter,  two  tablespoon- 
fuls of  lemon-juice,  a tablespoonful  of  chopped 
parsley,  a tablespoonful  of  white  sauce,  a little 
cayenne,  mace,  black  pepper,  and  salt ; put  all 
in  a stew-pan  and  stir  till  hot  and  thick,  but  do 
not  let  it  boil.  This  is  one  of  the  best  of  sauces 
for  either  fish  or  meats  ; pour  it  over  the  fish  or 
joint  before  serving. 


H.  Cold. — Mix  and  knead  well  together  in  a 
bowl  two  ounces  of  butter,  a tablespoonful  of 
chopped  parsley,  and  the  juice  of  half  a lemon  ; 
salt  to  taste,  and  use.  Pepper  and  a grated  nut- 
meg may  be  added,  if  liked.  Vinegar  may  be 
used  instead  of  lemon-juice,  but  makes  an  infe- 
rior sauce. 

Mayonnaise  Sauce. — Mix  in  a two-quart 
bowl,  to  allow  room  for  beating,  one  even  tea- 
spoonful of  ground  mustard,  and  one  of  salt, 
with  one  and  a-half  of  vinegar;  beat  in  the 
yolk  of  a raw  egg ; then  add  gradually  from 
the  measure,  holding  it  in  the  left  hand,  half  a 
pint  of  pure  olive-oil ; pour  it  in  the  smallest 
thread-like  stream,  while  with  the  other  hand 
the  beating  is  brisk  and  uninterrupted.  The 
mixture  will  become  a very  thick  batter.  Fla- 
vor with  vinegar  or  fresh  lemon-juice.  Closely 
covered,  it  will  keep  for  weeks  in  a cold  place. 
It  is  not  only  delicious,  but  is  often  of  great 
service  to  invalids. 

Mint  Sauce. — The  mint  for  this  sauce  should 
be  fresh  and  young,  for  when  old  it  is  tough 
and  indigestible.  Strip  the  leaves  from  the 
stems,  wash  them,  and  drain  them  on  a sieve, 
or  dry  them  on  a cloth  ; chop  them  very  fine, 
put  them  into  a sauce-tureen,  and  to  three 
heaped  tablespoonfuls  of  the  mint  add  two  of 
pounded  sugar ; let  them  remain  a short  time 
well  mixed  together,  then  pour  to  them  gradu- 
ally six  tablespoonfuls  of  good  vinegar.  The 
sauce  thus  made  is  excellent,  and  far  more 
wholesome  than  where  more  vinegar  and  less 
sugar  is  used  for  it ; but  after  the  first  trial  the 
proportions  can  easily  be  adapted  to  the  taste 
of  the  eaters. 

Persons  with  whom  the  mint  in  substance 
disagrees  can  have  the  flavor  of  the  herb  with- 
out it,  by  straining  the  above  sauce  after  it  has 
stood  for  two  or  three  hours  ; the  mint  should 
be  well  pressed  when  this  is  done.  The  flavor 
will  be  more  readily  exhausted  if  the  mint  and 
sugar  be  well  mixed,  and  left  for  a time  before 
the  vinegar  is  added. 

Mushroom  Sauce. — Trim  the  stems  closely 
from  half  a pint  of  small  button  mushrooms  ; 
clean  them  with  a little  salt  and  a bit  of  flan- 
nel, and  throw  them  into  cold  water,  slightly 
salted,  as  they  are  done  ; drain  them  well, 
or  dry  them  in  a soft  cloth,  and  throw  them 
into  half  a pint  of  boiling  bechamel,  or  of 
brown  sauce  made  with  very  good  stock,  or  nice 
gravy,  thickened  with  a tablespoonful  of  flour 
and  two  ounces  of  butter.  Simmer  the  mush- 
rooms from  ten  to  twenty  minutes,  or  until  they 
are  quite  tender,  and  dish  the  sauce,  which 
should  be  properly  seasoned  with  salt,  wine, 
and  cayenne. 

Olive  Sauce Remove  the  stones  from 

fine  French  or  Italian  olives  by  paring  the 
fruit  close  to  them,  round  and  round  in  the 
form  of  a cork-screw  ; they  will  then  resume 
their  original  shape  when  done.  Weigh  six 
ounces  thus  prepared,  throw  them  in  water, 
and  let  them  blanch  for  five  minutes  ; then 
drain,  throw  them  into  cold  water,  and  leave 
I them  in  it  from  half  an  hour  to  an  hour,  pro- 


3° 


4G6 


SAUCES 


portioning  the  time  to  their  saltness ; drain 
them  well  and  stew  them  gently  from  fifteen  to 
twenty-five  minutes  in  a pint  of  very  rich  brown 
gravy ; add  the  juice  of  half  a lemon,  and  serve 
the  sauce  very  hot.  This  sauce  is  especially 
nice  with  ducks  or  stewed  fowls  of  any  kind. 

Onion  Sauce  (brown). — Mince  the  onions, 
stew  them  in  two  ounces  of  butter  until  they 
are  well  colored,  stir  in  a dessertspoonful  of 
flour,  shake  the  stew-pan  over  the  fire  for  three 
or  four  minutes,  pour  in  only  as  much  broth  or 
gravy  as  will  leave  the  sauce  tolerably  thick, 
season  with  a little  cayenne,  and  serve  it  very 
hot. 

Onion  Sauce  (white). — Strip  the  outer  skin 
from  some  large  white  onions,  and  after  having 
taken  off  the  tops  and  roots,  cut  them  in  two, 
throw  them  into  cold  water  as  they  are  done, 
cover  them  plentifully  with  more  water,  and 
boil  them  very  tender;  then  lift  them  out,  drain 
and  press  the  water  thoroughly  from  them  ; chop 
them  small,  rub  them  through  a sieve  or  strainer, 
put  them  into  a little  rich  drawn  butter  mixed 
with  a tablespoonful  or  two  of  cream,  add 
seasoning  of  salt,  give  the  sauce  a boil,  and 
serve  it  very  hot. 

Oyster  Sauce. — Boil  half  a pint  of  small 
oysters  with  their  liquor,  in  one  pint  of  water 
until  the  flavor  is  well  extracted,  then  strain, 
pressing  the  juice  from  the  oysters,  leaving  them 
entirely  worthless ; next  throw  a pint  of  small 
fresh  oysters  in  this  liquor  and  stew  until  they 
are  puffed  ; take  them  out,  skim  well,  add  four 
even  tablespoonfuls  of  flour  rubbed  with  four 
ounces  of  butter ; stir  until  thickened,  season 
with  salt  and  white  pepper  ; drop  in  the  oysters 
and  when  hot  serve  the  sauce  immediately. 

Parsley  Sauce. — Take  a few  leaves  of  young 
freshly-gathered  parsley,  chop  them  tolerably 
fine,  mix  them  with  the  required  quantity  of 
drawn  butter  (made  as  directed),  and  boil  hard 
three  minutes. 

Piquant  Sauce. — Brown  lightly  in  an  ounce 
and  a half  of  butter  a tablespoonful  of  minced 
eschalots  or  three  of  onions  ; add  a teaspoon- 
ful of  flour  when  they  are  partially  done  ; 
pour  to  them  half  a pint  of  gravy  or  of  good 
broth,  and  when  it  boils  add  three  chilies, 
a bay-leaf,  and  a very  small  bunch  of  thyme. 
Let  these  simmer  for  twenty  minutes  ; take  out 
the  thyme  and  bay-leaf,  add  a high  seasoning  of 
black  pepper,  and  half  a wineglassful  of  the 
best  vinegar.  A quarter  of  a teaspoonful  of 
cayenne  may  be  substituted  for  the  chilies. 

Shrimp  Sauce. — Shell  quickly  one  pint  of 
perfectly  fresh  shrimps,  and  mix  them  with  half 
a pint  of  drawn  butter  (made  as  directed),  to 
which  a few  drops  of  essence  of  anchovies  and 
a little  mace  and  cayenne  have  been  added. 
As  soon  as  the  shrimps  are  heated  through, 
dish,  and  serve  the  sauce,  which  ought  not  to 
boil  after  they  are  put  in.  A few  tablespoon- 
fuls of  cream  will  make  the  sauce  richer. 

Soubise  Sauce. — Skin,  slice,  and  mince 
quickly  two  pounds’  weight  of  the  white  part 
only  of  some  fine  mild  onions,  and  stew  them 
in  from  two  to  three  ounces  of  good  butter 


over  a very  gentle  fire  until  they  are  reduced  to 
a pulp,  then  pour  to  them  three-quarters  of  a 
pint  of  rich  veal  gravy  ; add  a seasoning  of  salt 
and  cayenne,  if  needed;  skim  off  the  fat  entire- 
ly, press  the  sauce  through  a sieve,  heat  it  in  a 
clean  stewpan,  mix  it  with  a quarter  of  a pint  of 
rich  boiling  cream,  and  serve  it  directly.  Serve 
with  mutton  chops,  roast  mutton,  or  boiled  veal. 

Tartar  Sauce. — This  is  made  as  directed  for 
Mayonnaise  Sauce,  with  the  addition  of  a tea- 
spoonful of  finely-chopped  chives,  green  onions, 
or  shalots,  and  gherkin.  It  should  be  served 
very  cold. 

Tomato  Sauce. — I.  Tomatoes  are  so  juicy 
when  ripe  that  they  require  little  or  no  liquid 
to  reduce  them  to  a proper  consistence  for 
sauce  ; and  they  vary  so  exceedingly  in  size  and 
quality  that  it  is  difficult  to  give  precise  direc- 
tions for  the  exact  quantity  which  in  their  un- 
ripe state  is  needed  for  them.  Take  off  the 
stalks,  halve  the  tomatoes,  and  gently  squeeze 
out  the  seeds  and  watery  pulp;  then  stew  them 
softly  with  a few  spoonfuls  of  gravy  or  of  strong 
broth  until  they  are  quite  melted.  Press  the 
whole  through  a hair-sieve,  and  heat  it  afresh 
with  a little  additional  gravy  should  it  be  too 
thick,  and  some  cayenne,  and  salt.  Serve  it 
very  hot. 

II.  (Richer.) — Stew  very  gently  a dozen  fine 
red  tomatoes,  prepared  as  for  the  preceding  re- 
cipe with  two  or  three  sliced  eschalots,  one  or 
two  chilies  or  a third  of  a capsicum  (or  in  lieu 
of  either,  with  a quarter  of  a saltspoonful  of 
cayenne  pepper),  a few  small  dice  of  lean  ham, 
and  half  a cupful  of  rich  gravy.  Stir  these 
often,  and  when  the  tomatoes  are  reduced  quite 
to  a smooth  pulp,  rub  them  through  a sieve  ; 
put  them  into  a clean  saucepan,  with  a few 
spoonfuls  more  of  rich  gravy,  add  salt  if  need- 
ed, boil  the  sauce,  stirring  it  well  for  ten  minutes, 
and  serve  it  very  hot.  When  the  gravy  is  ex- 
ceedingly good  and  highly  flavored,  the  ham 
may  be  omitted : a dozen  small  mushrooms 
nicely  cleaned  may  also  be  sliced  and  stewed 
with  the  tomatoes,  instead  of  the  eschalots, when 
their  flavor  is  preferred,  or  they  may  be  added 
with  them.  The  exact  proportion  of  liquid  used 
is  immaterial,  for  should  the  sauce  be  too  thin 
it  may  be  reduced  by  rapid  boiling,  and  diluted 
with  more  gravy  if  too  thick. 

Turnip  Sauce. — Pare,  slice,  and  boil  quite 
tender,  one  pound  of  sweet  white  turnips,  press 
the  water  from  them  thoroughly,  and  pass  them 
through  a sieve.  Dissolve  a slice  of  butter  in 
a clean  sauce-pan,  and  stir  to  it  2 large  teaspoon- 
fuls of  flour,  or  mix  them  smoothly  together  be- 
fore they  are  put  in,  and  shake  the  saucepan, 
round  until  they  boil  : pour  to  them  very  gradu- 
ally nearly  a pint  of  thin  cream  (or  of  good 
milk  mixed  with  a portion  of  cream),  add  the 
turnips  with  a half-teaspoonful  or  more  of  salt, 
and  when  the  whole  is  well  mixed  and  very  hot, 
pour  it  oyer  boiled  mutton,  veal,  lamb,  or  poul- 
try. There  should  be  sufficient  of  the  sauce  to 
cover  the  meat  entirely;  and  when  properly 
made  it  improves  greatly  the  appearance  of  a 
joint.  A little  cayenne  tied  in  a muslin  may 


SAUER-KRAUT 


SAUSAGES 


4G7 


be  boiled  in  the  milk  before  it  is  mixed  with  the 
turnips.  Jerusalem  artichokes  make  a more 
delicate  sauce  of  this  kind  even  than  turnips ; 
the  weight  of  both  vegetables  must  be  taken 
after  they  are  pared. 

Velout^  Sauce. — Take  equal  parts  of  cream 
and  good  veal  gravy,  boil  the  latter  down  one- 
half,  boil  the  cream  also  five  minutes  or  so,  and 
mix  them  together  without  any  thickening. 

White  Sauce. — L Boil  gently  in  half  a pint 
of  good  pale  veal  gravy  a few  very  thin  strips 
of  fresh  lemon-peel,  just  long  enough  to  give 
their  flavor  to  it ; stir  in  a thickening  of  arrow- 
root,  or  of  flour  and  butter,  add  salt  if  needed, 
and  mix  with  the  gravy  a quarter  of  a pint  of 
boiling  cream.  For  the  best  kind  of  White 
Sauce,  see  Bechamel  Sauce  above. 

U.  Cut  and  chop  a knuckle  of  veal  into  pieces  ; 
put  into  a stew-pan  a quarter  of  a pound  of 
butter,  two  onions,  a carrot,  a turnip,  three 
cloves,  a blade  of  mace,  and  a sprig  of  thyme 
and  parsley,  tied  to  them ; add  a little  water, 
set  the  pan  over  a sharp  fire,  and  stir  it  until 
the  bottom  of  the  pan  is  covered  with  glaze ; 
then  fill  up  with  three  quarts  of  water,  adding  a 
teaspoonful  of  salt.  Let  it  simmer  an  hour  and 
a half,  skimming  it,  and  pass  it  through  a hair 
sieve  into  a basin.  In  another  stew-pan  make 
a thickening  of  a quarter  of  a pound  of  butter 
and  six  ounces  of  flour,  take  off  the  pan,  and 
stir  till  partly  cold,  when  add  the  stock,  and 
boil  for  a quarter  of  an  hour ; stir  in  half  a pint 
of  boiling  milk ; then  stir  and  strain  through  a 
sieve  into  a basin,  and  stir  it  till  cold. 

For  Brown  Sauce  use  beef  instead  of  veal, 
and  put  into  the  stew-pan  with  four  onions,  and 
butter,  to  be  set  upon  the  fire  and  drawn  to  a 
brown  glaze,  before  filling  up ; and  the  milk 
must  be  omitted. 

SAUER-KRAUT.— Cut  fine,  hard,  white- 
hearted  cabbage  into  shreds,  as  if  for  salad  ; 
strew  over  and  amongst  the  shreds  a handful  of 
salt  and  a tablespoonful  of  cream  of  tartar,  put- 
ting first  a little  water  to  them ; a few  carraway 
seeds  may  also  be  added.  Then  cover  the 
shred  cabbage  with  whole  leaves,  close  the  top 
of  the  vessel  with  a well-fitting  wooden  cover, 
lay  a stone  on  the  top,  and  put  the  ves- 
sel in  a warm  place,  where  its  contents  will 
turn  sour;  at  the  end  of  a week  or  so  it 
will  be  ready  for  use.  Cook  it  in  a well-closed 
stone  or  earthen  vessel,  with  butter,  broth,  and 
a little  vinegar.  A teaspoonful  of  capers, 
added  when  the  cabbage  is  nearly  done,  is  gen- 
erally considered  an  improvement. 

SAUSAGES. — Sausages  and  sausage-meat 
when  made  at  home  are  so  much  more  satis- 
factory in  all  respects  than  any  that  cqn  be 
bought  ready-made  that  the  trouble  of  prepar- 
ing them  is  more  than  repaid.  Butchers  gen- 
erally, with  an  eye  to  economy,  make  sausage- 
meat  of  bad  or  tainted  pork  ; and  the  so-called 
“ country-sausages”  many  times  contain  meat 
which  would  be  rejected  by  any  well-fed  animal. 
It  is  possible,  of  course,  to  procure  good  saus- 
ages from  responsible  butchers  who  manufac- 
ture for  themselves,  but  it  is  best  to  reject  any 


sausage-meat  whose  pedigree  cannot  be  traced 
very  directly.  We  append  several  good  receipts 
for  different  kinds  of  sausages,  which  can  be 
made  at  home  with  very  little  trouble. 

I.  — Take  one-third  fat  and  two-thirds  lean 
pork  ; chop  them  very  fine,  or,  better  still,  grind 
them  in  a sausage-mill ; to  ten  pounds  of  the 
meat  thus  prepared  add  eight  teaspoonfuls  of 
pounded  salt,  ten  of  powdered  and  sifted  sage, 
six  of  black  pepper,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  cloves, 
two  of  powdered  mace,  and  a little  grated  nut- 
meg. Work  the  seasoning  in  thoroughly  with 
the  hands,  fry  a little  to  see  if  they  are  satisfac- 
tory, pack  in  stone  jars,  pour  melted  lard  on 
top,  and  keep  in  a cool  dry  place.  When  used, 
make  up  into  cakes  and  fry  over  a brisk  fire. 

To  prepare  cases,  where  these  are  preferred, 
wash  the  intestines  of  the  hog  thoroughly  and 
cut  them  into  lengths  of  two  yards  each  ; turn 
them  inside  out,  and  again  wash  them  thorough- 
ly in  warm  water,  scraping  them  with  a scraper 
made  for  this  purpose  ; throw  them  into  salt 
water  to  soak  till  used.  Great  care  will  be  ne- 
cessary in  cleaning  cases  to  avoid  tearing  them. 

n.  (Willow  Brook.) — To  thirty  pounds  of 
sausage  meat  (one  fourth  fat)  add  eight  ounces 
of  salt,  one  and  a half  of  summer  savory,  two 
and  a quarter  of  sage  and  two  of  fresh  ground 
pepper.  Mix  thoroughly. 

HI.  Chop  first  separately,  and  then  together, 
one  pound  and  a quarter  of  lean  veal,  free  from 
skin  and  sinew,  a pound  and  a quarter  of  lean 
pork,  and  the  same  quantity  of  fat  pork  ; mix 
well  and  strew  over  the  meat  an  ounce  and  a 
quarter  of  salt,  half  an  ounce  of  pepper,  one 
nutmeg  grated,  and  a large  teaspoonful  of 
pounded  mace ; turn  and  chop  the  sausages 
until  they  are  equally  seasoned  throughout,  and 
tolerably  fine.  Press  them  into  a jar  or  pan, 
and  keep  them  in  a very  cool  place.  When 
wanted  for  table,  form  them  into  cakes  some- 
thing less  than  an  inch  thick ; ffour  and  fry 
them  for  about  ten  minutes  in  a little  butter. 

Bologna  Sausage. — Take  equal  portions  of 
fresh  pork,  veal,  and  ham  or  salt  pork, — chop 
them  fine  or  grind,  and  mix  together  thorough- 
ly ; to  nine  pounds  of  the  meat  allow  ten  tea- 
spoonfuls of  powdered  sage,  two  each  of  cay- 
enne and  black  pepper,  one  grated  nutmeg,  one 
teaspoonful  of  cloves,  one  minced  onion,  and 
sweet  herbs  to  taste  ; mix  well,  and  stuff  into 
beef  intestines  prepared  as  directed  for  those 
of  the  hog,  (these  may  be  obtained  ready  pre- 
pared of  butchers);  tie  up  both  ends  of  the  bag 
tightly,  prick  in  several  places,  and  boil  slowly 
for  an  hour ; then  dry  them  in  the  sun,  and 
hang  them  in  a cool  dry  cellar,  after  rubbing 
the  outside  of  the  skins  with  melted  butter. 
These  are  eaten  without  further  cooking,  and 
are  very  nice. 

Fried  Sausages. — Sausage-meat  should  be 
fried  to  a light  crisp  brown  on  both  sides, — the 
fat  in  it  is  generally  sufficient.  Stuffed  saus- 
ages must  be  turned  about  often  to  prevent 
bursting;  they  may  be  pricked  slightly,  but 
they  are  nicer  when  this  is  avoided  and  the 
juices  are  kept  inside. 


408 


SAVELOYS 


SCARLET  FEVER 


SAVELOYS. — Soak  eight  pounds  of  young 
fresh  pork  in  strong  salt  and  water,  with  a 
tablespoonful  of  saltpetre  in  it,  for  three  days ; 
dry  it,  and  chop  it  up  fine  ; season  with  four 
tablespoonfuls  of  powdered  sage,  thyme,  and 
sweet  marjoram,  mixed,  four  teaspoonfuls  of 
black  pepper,  one  of  cayenne,  and  one  of  cloves 
or  mace ; add  a teacupful  of  bread-crumbs, 
mix  together  thoroughly,  and  stuff  in  skins 
prepared  as  directed  under  Sausages.  Bake 
in  a moderate  oven  for  half  an  hour,  or  steam 
over  boiling  water  for  an  hour.  This  may  be 
eaten  either  hot  or  cold. 

SAVORY. — There  are  two  varieties  of  this 
herb — the  summer  and  the  winter — both  of 
which  are  used  in  cooking  and  in  medicine. 
The  aromatic  leaves  of  the  winter  variety,  both 
green  and  dried,  are  highly  esteemed,  and  are 
used  in  seasoning  soups,  stews,  dressings, 
stuffings,  salads,  broths,  etc.  Savory  is  also 
sold  at  the  drug-stores,  in  a dried  and  pulver- 
ized state,  done  up  in  packages. 

SAVOY.- — A variety  of  the  cabbage,  gen- 
erally considered  the  choicest  of  the  species. 
It  is  sweeter  and  more  tender  than  the  others, 
especially  the  central  leaves.  It  is  a winter 
vegetable,  and  is  in  season  from  November  till 
spring.  The  dwarf  savoy  is  improved  by  frost, 
and  the  yellow  savoy  will  bear  very  severe 
weather  without  injury.  The  green  is  most 
tender.  ( See  Cabbage.) 

SCALD  HEAD.— This  is  characterized  by 
small  contagious  pustules  appearing  on  the 
hairy  scalp,  generally  in  children,  but  capable 
of  being  communicated  to  adults.  The  pus- 
tules are  small  and  irregularly  round,  contain- 
ing a yellow  matter,  which  scabs  around  the 
hairs,  with  a central  depression  corresponding 
generally  with  a hair.  The  health  is  usually 
slightly  impaired,  either  as  a cause  or  effect  of 
disease,  but  there  is  no  fever.  Prior  to  the 
outbreak  of ' the  eruption  there  is  generally 
some  increase  of  the  ordinary  scurf,  which  is 
browner  than  usual. 

Treatment. — Treat  scald  head  exactly  as  di- 
rected for  the  second  kindof  ringworm, (porrigo 
scutulata.  ( See  Ringworm.) 

SCALDS. — The  only  difference  between 
burns  and  scalds  is  that  the  latter  are  produc- 
ed by  the  contact  of  some  hot  or  boiling  fluid 
with  the  body  and  the  former  by  some  heated 
solid  body,  or  flame.  Both  kinds  ot  injury 
present  the  same  appearances,  are  attended  by 
the  same  constitutional  symptoms,  and  require 
the  same  treatment ; so  that  the  directions 
given  in  the  article  on  Burns  apply  equally  to 
Scalds.  (See  Burns.) 

SCALLOPS. — These  shell-fish,  also  called 
scollops,  are  in  season  from  September  to 
March,  and  are  generally  very  plentiful  in  all 
markets  where  oysters  are  found.  Only  the 
muscular  part  or  “ heart,”  is  eaten.  This  has 
a peculiar  sweetness,  which  is  somewhat  like 
the  flavor  of  a soft  clam,  but  much  more  cloying 
and  pronounced.  Scallops  are  very  savory 
when  nicely  fried,  but  some  cannot  tolerate  the 
sweet  flavor  just  mentioned. 


Fried  Scallops. — Boil  scallops  three  minutes; 
put  butter  or  lard  in  a frying-pan,  and  when 
melted,  turn  the  scallops  in;  stir  now  and  then, 
fry  to  a light  brown,  season  with  salt,  pepper, 
and  a little  parsley  chopped  fine. 

Pie  (Scallop). — Like  OYSTER  PlE. 

Stewed  Scallops. — Wash  off  the  slime  in  salt 
and  water,  rinse  in  clear  water;  cover  with 
milk,  and  stew  about  fifteen  minutes,  or  until 
tender;  add  butter  rubbed  with  flour  to  thicken 
the  sauce  ; then  season  with  white  pepper  and 
salt,  and  serve  hot,  on  toast  if  liked. 

SCARIFY. — To  make  a number  of  small 
scratches,  as  with  a lancet. 

SCARLET  FEVER  or  SCARLATINA.— 
An  acute,  febrile  disease,  producing  a scar- 
let rash  upon  the  skin,  and  often  swelling  of 
the  glands.  Contagion  is  the  chief  if  not  the 
only  cause  of  scarlet  fever ; the  poison  may  be 
retained  in  the  clothes  for  a year  and  then 
give  rise  to  the  fever.  Both  sexes  are  equally 
liable  to  an  attack  ; children  between  eighteen 
months  and  five  years  of  age  are  most  frequent- 
ly attacked;  no  season  has*much  influence  up- 
on it,  but  in  this  country  it  is  perhaps  most 
common  in  the  winter.  Scarlet  fever  may  be 
very  mild  or  malignant.  The  symptoms  are 
vomiting,  which  frequently  comes  on  while  the 
child  is  at  play ; headache ; shivering ; and  a 
feeling  of  depression  and  weakness  as  if  the 
strength  had  entirely  gone.  Next  day  there  is 
difficulty  of  swallowing,  hot,  dry  skin,  great 
thirst,  the  patient  sighs  frequently,  and  com- 
plains of  pain  like  needles  pricking  all  over  the 
body.  The  rash  now  appears,  (sometimes  the 
earlier  symptoms  are  so  slight  that  the  rash  is 
the  first  thing  noticed.)  The  rash  consists  of 
small  scarlet  dots,  almost  running  together,  so 
as  to  make  the  whole  skin  appear  flushed  ; the 
color  disappears  on  pressure,  but  rapidly  re- 
appears when  the  pressure  is  removed.  (This 
distinguishes  scarlet  fever  from  measles , with 
which  it  is  often  confounded  in  the  earlier 
stage , — in  measles  the  rash  does  not  disappear 
under  pressure.)  It  generally  appears  first  on 
the  sides  ot  the  neck  and  the  upper  part  of  the 
chest,  and  in  the  bend  ot  the  joints;  it  then 
spreads  downwards  and  comes  out  last  on  the 
legs.  Measles  appear  first  on  the  face.  Sore 
throat  is  always  present  to  a degree ; there  is 
redness  and  swelling  of  the  tonsils  and  sott  pal- 
ate, so  that  it  is  very  painlul  to  swallow,  while  the 
glands  beneath  the  jaw  also  swell  and  are  pain- 
ful. The  temperature  is  much  higher  than  in 
measles,  and  the  pulse  is  very  quick ; mode- 
rate delirium  and  headache  are  often  present. 
About  the  fifth  day  the  scarlet  color  fades  and 
turns  brown,  the  skin  becomes  dry  and  harsh, 
and  about  the  ninth  or  tenth  day  begins  to  peel 
off ; this  peeling  may  be  completed  in  a few 
days  or  may  continue  several  weeks.  Malig- 
nant Scarlet  Fever  is  characterized  by  an  in- 
creased severity  ot  the  above  symptoms;  there 
is  great  prostration,  delirium,  and  sleeplessness; 
the  rash  docs  not  always  come  out  well ; the 
face  may  be  livid,  and  a stupor  comes  on  which 
ends  in  death ; the  throat  is  ulcehitod,  or  cov- 


SCARLET  FEVER 


SCIATICA 


469 


ered  with  diphtheritic  membranes,  and  the  dif- 
ficulty of  swallowing  is  very  great.  The  name 
of  Latent  Scarlet  Fever  is  a form  of  the  dis- 
ease so  mild  that  until  the  sequelae  appear  one 
is  not  aware  of  having  had  the  scarlet  fever. 
There  is  no  relation  between  the  abundance  of 
the  rash  and  the  danger  to  the  patient ; how- 
ever mild  the  disease  may  be,  the  sequelae  may 
come  on  with  great  severity.  Moreover  one  is 
just  as  liable  to  catch  the  fever  from  a mild 
case  as  from  a severe  one. 

Sequelae. — After  the  fever  has  passed  there 
may  follow  a train  of  symptoms  which  are  very 
inconstant  in  their  character  and  very  danger- 
ous to  the  patient.  The  throat  may  continue 
to  be  affected,  and  the  glands  outside  may  in- 
flame and  swell ; often  these  glands  suppurate, 
and  a raw  ulcerated  surface  is  then  seen. 
Deafness  may  come  on,  and  a discharge  from 
the  ear.  Bronchitis  and  pneumonia  are  not  so 
frequent  as  in  measles.  Sometimes  convales- 
cence is  retarded  by  abscesses  forming  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  body ; at  other  times  there  is 
a painful  affection  of  the  joints,  which  resem- 
bles rheumatic  fever.  Renal  dropsy  is  also 
one  of  the  most  usual  sequel®,  and  exposure 
may  result  in  Bright’s  Disease  which  is  often 
fatal. 

Treatment. — Most  cases  recover  in  a week, 
except  those  which  are  malignant ; the  disease 
is  much  more  dangerous  to  a pregnant  woman, 
and  hence  women  in  that  condition  should  be 
extremely  careful  not  to  go  near  a case  of  scar- 
let fever.  The  mild  cases  must  be  nursed 
simply;  there  is  no  remedy  which  will  cut 
short  an  attack.  The  patient  must  be  kept  in 
bed,  and  have  a milk  diet ; for  drink,  oranges, 
lemonade,  raspberry-vinegar  and  water,  or  ap- 
ple tea,  may  be  given.  Hot  flannels,  or  cotton 
wool  should  be  wrapped  round  the  throat,  and 
steam  may  be  inhaled  into  the  mouth.  Some- 
times a band  of  linen  steeped  in  cold  water  and 
applied  to  the  throat  gives  great  relief.  Ex- 
posure to  cold  too  soon  after  an  attack  of  scar- 
let fever  is  often  a cause  of  the  dropsy ; the 
child  should  therefore  be  kept  in  the  house  for 
at  least  five  weeks  after  the  appearance  of  the 
rash  and  until  the  peeling  is  finished.  If  this 
precaution  is  observed  the  child  will  be  less 
liable  to  give  the  disease  to  others.  When 
dropsy  comes  on  it  shows  that  the  kidneys  are 
affected,  and  the  patient  must  be  put  to  bed 
again  if  he  has  been  up  previously ; a hot  bath 
and  purgatives  should  also  be  given.  Malig- 
nant cases  of  scarlet  fever  may  end  fatally  in 
forty-eight  hours ; ammonia  and  brandy  must 
be  given  when  the  state  is  one  of  great  pros- 
tration. Gargles  are  not  of  much  use  to  the 
throat ; brushing  the  fauces  over  with  tannin 
and  glycerine,  or  with  a solution  of  nitrate  of 
silver,  is  often  beneficial  when  done  gently. 
In  cases  of  discharge  from  the  ear,  the  ear 
must  be  syringed  with  warm  water  three  or 
four  times  a day,  and  a little  cotton-wool  push- 
ed in  the  entrance.  During  convalescence 
tonics  should  be  given,  and  for  this  purpose 
iron  and  quinine  are  the  best  remedies.  Scar- 


let fever  is  very  contagious.  Therefore,  never 
allow  any  clothes  of  a patient  to  be  washed  in 
the  house,  but  always  outside ; do  not  pour 
boiling  water  on  them  and  stand  over  the 
steam.  After  the  fever  is  over,  the  sick-room 
and  every  article  used  in  it  should  be  thorough- 
ly disinfected.  This  may  be  done  by  closing 
up  the  room  air-tight,  after  removing  every- 
thing wet  or  moist  from  it,  and  then  burn- 
ing sulphur  in  it — a few  ounces  on  an  iron 
pipkin  or  kettle  with  legs.  Every  person  should 
leave  the  room  after  the  sulphur  is  lighted,  and 
it  should  be  left  closed  for  several  hours.  For 
disinfecting  basins,  chambers,  etc.,  see  Disin- 
fectants. 

SCENT-BAGS.  ( See  Sachets.) 

SCIATICA. — This  is  not  a single  disease, 
but  a group  of  diseases  of  various  kinds,  al- 
ways affecting  the  same  region ; that  region  is 
the  lower  portion  of  the  hip  and  thigh,  along 
which  the  sciatic  nerve  runs,  whence  the  name. 
“True  sciatica  is  a neuralgic  affection,  but 
numerous  other  maladies,  especially  of  a rheu- 
matic origin,  have  been  mistaken  for  it.  The 
sciatica  rarely  occurs  in  youth,  and  rarely  be- 
gins in  old  age — most  frequently  it  commences 
between  forty  and  fifty.  One  kind  of  sciatica 
— of  the  truly  nervous  kind — is  associated, 
especially  in  females,  with  hysteria,  or  other 
signs  of  a nervous  temperament.  Frequently 
these  suffer  from  neuralgia  in  other  situations. 
The  sciatica  which  occurs  in  older  persons 
very  often  follows  on  cold,  damp,  and  fatigue. 
It  is  especially  troublesome  in  men  who  have 
broken  down  under  their  exertions,  and  show 
signs  of  premature  age.  Sciatica  occurring  in 
these  individuals  is  exceedingly  intractable, 
and  there  are  very  frequently  spots  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  great  nerve  that  are  ex- 
quisitely tender  to  the  touch.  In  this  form  of 
paralysis,  too,  the  motion  of  the  extremities  is  in- 
terfered with.  There  is  loss  of  power  and  motion, 
or  any  attempt  at  it  gives  rise  to  great  pain. 
Besides  loss  of  motor  power  there  may  be  loss 
of  sensation  of  the  ordinary  kind.  There  may  be 
greater  sensibility  to  mere  touch,  but  the  power 
of  discrimination  possessed  by  the  skin  is 
diminished.” - 

Treatment. — Sciatica  is  to  be  treated  chiefly 
by  tonics.  Steel  and  strychnine  should  be 
given  and  persevered  in  ; they  may  not  suffice 
to  get  wholly  rid  of  the  pain,  but  they  will 
strengthen  the  constitution  and  so  enable  other 
remedies  to  be  used  with  more  advantage. 
“ The  strychnine  may  be  given  either  as  liquor 
strychnine  (B.  Ph.)  (solution  of  strychnine), 
from  five  to  ten  minims  for  a dose,  or  the  tinc- 
ture of  nux  vomica  in  like  quantity  may  be  pre- 
scribed. Liquor  strychnine  is  best  when  given 
along  with  iron.  Of  iron  the  two  best  prepara- 
tions are  the  saccharated  carbonates  and  the 
neutral  chloride.  The  carbonate  may  be 
given  in  doses  of  20  or  30-grains,  the  chlo- 
ride in  20  or  30-minim  doses.  The  liquor 
ferri  perchloride  may  be  used  if  the  other 
is  not  obtainable.  Arsenic  is  a remedy  not  to 
be  overlooked  in  dealing  with  sciatic  neuralgia, 


470 


SCORING 


SCROFULA 


especially  if  there  is  any  likelihood  of  malarial 
complications.  The  preparation  commonly 
employed  is  Fowler’s  solution,  of  which  the 
dose  is  two  or  three  minims,  given  immediately 
after  food.”  Of  the  local  means  of  relieving 
sciatica,  the  best  is  the  hypodermic  injection  of 
morphia,  especially  over  the  spot  where  the 
pain  is  most  severe ; if  the  spot  be  very  tender 
it  may  be  necessary  to  use  ether  spray  to  alle- 
viate the  pain  of  the  injection.  The  quantity 
injected  should  not  in  the  first  instance  exceed 
one-fifth  of  a grain : but  it  may  be  shortly  re- 
peated if  successful.  A small  blister  over  the 
painful  spot,  with  some  lead  and  morphia  lotion 
to  apply  when  the  skin  is  removed  will  also  do 
great  good.  Of  course  such  a lotion  must  be 
very  weak,  and  should  only  be  employed  upon 
a physician’s  prescription. 

All  forms  of  sciatica  are  apt  to  return,  and 
so  if  a patient  has  once  suffered  from  the 
malady  he  should  take  great  care  that  it  does 
not.  To  this  end,  over-fatigue,  bodily  or  men- 
tal, should  be  avoided,  and  flannel  worn  con- 
stantly next  the  skin. 

SCOLLOPS.  (See  Scallops.) 

SCORING. — In  cookery  this  means  the 
making  of  parallel  incisions  on  the  outside  of 
a joint  of  meat  intended  for  roasting,  so  that 
the  substances  used  in  basting  may  penetrate 
the  meat  more  easily.  It  should  be  done  with  a 
sharp  knife,  and  the  incisions  should  not  exceed 
a quarter  of  an  inch  in  depth. 

SCORZONERA. — This  is  a variety  of  the 
oyster-plant,  and  is  prepared,  cooked,  and 
served  in  the  same  way.  ( See  Oyster-Plant.) 

SCOURING.  (See  Cleaning,  Grease, 
and  Stains.) 

SCRAPPLE. — This  is  a Pennsylvania  dish, 
and  deserves  to  be  better  known ; for  when 
well  made  it  is  an  excellent  substitute  for  meat 
at  breakfast.  To  make,  procure  a young  pig’s 
head,  perfectly  fresh,  weighing  five  or  six 
pounds  (get  the  butcher  to  take  out  the  eyes 
and  teeth) ; cut  off  the  ears  in  order  to  clean 
them  well  inside  ; put  the  head  and  ears  into  two 
gallons  and  a half  of  cold  water,  and  let  it  boil 
till  the  bones  can  be  easily  separated  from  the 
meat ; then  take  it  out,  chop  the  meat  very  fine, 
put  it  back  into  the  liquor  in  which  it  was  boiled, 
and  season  moderately  with  salt,  pepper,  sage, 
thyme,  and  sweet  marjoram,  then  take  equal 
parts  of  buckwheat  and  Indian-meal  and  stir 
them  in  until  the  compound  is  about  the  con- 
sistency of  mush ; lift  it  off  the  fire  while 
thickenitig  to  keep  it  from  being  lumpy ; then 
let  it  boil  for  about  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes, 
stirring  to  prevent  burning.  Turn  it  into  pans 
to  cool,  and  keep  it  in  a cool  place;  it  will  keep 
several  weeks  in  cold  weather.  When  wanted, 
cut  it  into  thin  slices  and  fry  to  a crisp  brown. 

SCRATCHES. — -Treat  these  as  directed  for 
abrasions.  (See  Abrasion.) 

SCREENS. — Folding  screens  are  now  little 
used,  since  the  construction  of  our  houses  has 
been  so  much  improved.  Still  there  are  cases 
where  they  will  add  much  to  comfort,  particu- 
larly in  defending  those  who  are  obliged  to  sit 


between  the  door  and  the  fire,  where  there  is 
always  more  or  less  of  a current  of  air.  These 
screens  have  hinges,  by  which  they  can  be 
folded  into  different  positions.  Fire  screens 
are  very  necessary  where  open  fires  are  used. 
In  dining  rooms  they  are  particularly  wanted 
for  those  who  sit  with  their  backs  to  the  fire  ; 
and  various  contrivances  have  been  made  to 
prevent  the  unpleasant  effects  of  this  situation. 
The  simplest  is  a mat  made  of  willow  thjt  is 
hung  on  the  back  of  each  chair  requiring  such 
defence.  A clieval  fire-screen  is  one  made  of 
mahogany,  filled  in  with  moreen  and  other  ma- 
terials, and  made  to  slide  up  in  the  stand.  Fire 
screens  for  parlors  are  made  light  and  elegant, 
and  are  generally  only  large  enough  to  screen 
the  face.  That  a pane  of  glass  should  form  an 
effective  fire-screen  is  a remarkable  fact.  It 
appears  that  although  the  heating  rays  as  well 
as  the  light  of  the  sun  can  readily  pass  through 
glass,  the  heat  rays  of  fire  are  almost  entirely 
stopped  by  it.  On  this  principle,  a piece  of 
window  or  plate-glass  can  be  made  into  a fire- 
screen by  enclosing  it  in  a frame  ; and  this  is 
both  agreeable  and  convenient,  since  the  fire 
may  be  seen  through  it. 

SCROFULA.  — A constitutional  condition 
generally  inherited  from  one  or  both  parents, 
and  increased  by  bad  feeding  in  early  life. 
The  most  characteristic  features  of  a scroful- 
ous individual  are — a heavy  figure,  dull,  pasty 
complexion,  with  a prominent  upper  lip  and  a 
coarse  mould  of  countenance  ; mind  and  body 
lazily  disposed,  nostrils  expanded,  and  nose 
rather  turned  up.  When  children,  they  are 
very  liable  to  inflammation  of  the  eyelids,  giv- 
ing a red,  angry  look  to  the  part,  while  most  of 
the  eyelashes  are  absent ; often,  too,  the  glands 
enlarge,  and  more  especially  those  under  the 
jaw  and  in  the  neck;  this  swelling  comes  on 
from  a common  cold,  or  in  the  course  of  an  ill- 
ness, and  sometimes  the  gland  breaks  up  into 
an  abscess,  which  points  and  leaves,  after  re- 
covery, a nasty  seamed  scar  ; such  people  gen- 
erally have  several  of  these  scars,  from  abscesses 
having  formed  at  different  times.  Eczema  is 
another  condition  to  which  scrofulous  people  are 
very  subject  when  young ; it  appears  on  the 
head  and  behind  the  ears  ; discharges  from  the 
ear,  ear-ache,  and  deafness  are  not  uncommon 
symptoms.  Bronchitis,  inflammation  of  the 
lungs,  and  perhaps  consumption  may  ensue. 
Nor  do  the  intestines  escape,  for  on  any  slight 
irritation,  diarrhoea  is  apt  to  come  on.  Some- 
times the  mesenteric  glands  in  the  abdomen 
swell,  and  this  may  be  associated  with  dropsy 
and  chronic  inflammation  of  the  peritoneum. 
Nor  are  diseases  of  the  joints  uncommon,  and 
these  may  go  on  for  months  and  years,  or  be 
very  distressing  to  the  patient,  being  accom- 
panied by  discharge  of  matter  and  disease  of 
the  bone.  Scrofulous  people  are,  therefore, 
liable  to  a great  many  diseases  in  consequence 
of  their  constitutional  malady.  As  a rule,  per- 
sons subject  to  this  affection  ought  not  to 
marry,  as  their  offspring  will  be  more  or  less 
affected ; marriage  between  cousins  thus  af- 


SCURF 


SEA-SICKNESS 


471 


fected  should  be  strongly  reprehended.  The 
general  health  of  such  people  may  be  much 
improved  by  careful  feeding  in  childhood,  cod- 
liver  oil,  sea-bathing,  and  an  out-door  country 
life. 

SCURF. — This  is  a popular  term  applied  to 
those  cases  in  which  the  skin  comes  off  in 
scale.  The  most  frequent  seat  of  the  affec- 
tion is  the  heads  of  children,  where  branny 
scales  are  shea.  Washing  the  part  daily  with 
soap  and  water,  or  once  or  twice  a week  with 
camphor-water  will  usually  cure  it.  A popular 
mode  of  treatment  is  to  bruise  a bunch  of  rose- 
mary, pour  a pint  of  boiling  water  over  it,  and 
use  this  warm  every  morning  as  a wash.  Some- 
times this  disease  is  called  Scurvy,  which  is 
quite  a wrong  designation. 

SCURVY. — Scurvy  or  scorbutus  arises  from 
a state  of  mal-nutrition,  following  the  use  of  a 
diet  which  is  deficient  in  fresh  vegetable  mat- 
ter. It  is  most  common  among  sailors,  because 
on  long  voyages  they  have  so  much  salt  food 
and  no  fresh  vegetables ; yet  it  may  occur 
among  landsmen,  and  several  severe  outbreaks 
have  been  known  of  late  years  in  England  and 
Scotland.  Soldiers  are  very  liable  to  suffer 
from  it,  and  in  fact  any  one  may  be  attacked 
whose  regular  diet  is  deficient  in  fresh  vege- 
tables. The  symptoms  of  scurvy  are,  first,  a 
change  in  the  color  of  the  skin,  which  becomes 
pale  or  sallow;  then  the  mind  becomes  listless, 
and  the  patient  is  averse  to  taking  exercise ; 
there  are  pains  about  the  limbs,  and  so  the 
sufferer  is  glad  to  lounge  about  and  rest  him- 
self. Gradually  purplish  spots  appear,  especi- 
ally about  the  legs  and  thighs ; then  larger 
patches  form,  as  if  several  of  these  smaller 
patches  had  run  together ; often  the  patient  looks 
as  if  bruised.  The  lips  are  pale,  the  face  be- 
comes bloated,  and  the  conjunctive  of  the  eyes 
are  swollen  and  red.  The  gums,  at  first  pale, 
begin  to  swell  so  as  to  encroach  upon  and 
almost  envelop  the  teeth  ; they  then  become 
spongy,  dark-red,  or  livid,  not  painful,  but  dis- 
posed to  bleed  when  irritated.  Sometimes  the 
teeth  are  loosened  and  fall  out,  and  there  is  a 
sickening  foetid  odor  from  the  breath.  Chew- 
ing is  now  rendered  impossible,  and  even  liquid 
food  is  swallowed  with  difficulty.  Often  swel- 
lings occur  in  various  parts  of  the  body,  usually 
near  the  bend  of  a joint.  Fainting  frequently 
follows  upon  the  least  exertion,  and  this  is 
dangerous,  as  death  may  result.  In  bad  cases 
ulceration  of  the  skin  comes  on,  and  may 
spread  rapidly,  and  be  attended  with  dangerous 
bleeding. 

Treatment. — This  must  consist  in  supplying 
the  patient  with  the  substance,  by  the  deficiency 
of  which  his  disorder  was  produced.  It  is 
surprising  how,  even  in  bad  cases,  an  immense 
improvement  may  be  produced  in  a few  hours 
by  giving  lime-juice.  Amongst  other  vege- 
tables which  may  be  given  are  oranges,  lemons, 
cabbage,  lettuce,  potatoes,  onions,  mustard, 
and  cress,  dandelion,  sorrel,  scurvy-grass,  and 
grapes.  An  ounce  of  lime  or  lemon-juice  should 
be  given  daily  when  vegetables  are  scarce. 


The  other  articles  of  diet  must  be  such  as  are 
easy  of  digestion,  and  no  salt  meat  whatever 
must  be  allowed.  The  following  suggestions 
have  been  issued  by  the  London  Board  of 
Trade  for  the  information  of  shipowners  and 
shipmasters  : — 

“ Every  ship  on  a long  voyage  should  be 
supplied  with  a proper  quantity  of  lime  or 
lemon-juice. 

“ The  juice,  having  been  received  in  bulk 
from  the  vendors,  should  be  examined  and  an 
alyzed  by  a competent  medical  officer.  All- 
measures adopted  for  its  preservation  are 
worthless  unless  it  be  clearly  ascertained  that 
a pure  article  has  been  supplied. 

“ Ten  per  cent,  of  brandy  (spec,  grav.,  930), 
or  of  rum  (spec,  grav.,  890)  should  afterwards 
be  added  to  it. 

“It  should  be  packed  in  jars  or  bottles,  each 
containing  one  gallon  or  less,  covered  with  a 
layer  of  oil,  and  closely  packed  and  sealed. 

“ Each  man  should  have  at  least  two  ounces 
(four  tablespoonfuls)  twice  a week,  to  be  in- 
creased to  an  ounce  daily  if  any  symptoms  of 
scurvy  present  themselves. 

“ The  giving  out  of  lime  or  lemon-juice  should 
not  be  delayed  longer  than  a fortnight  after  the 
vessel  has  put  to  sea.” 

SEA-BASS. — In  season  from  May  to  Octo- 


ber. The  small  fish  are  excellent  for  frying  or 
broiling.  [See  Bass.) 

SEA-KALE. — A plant  growing  along  sandy 
shores,  the  young  shoots,  leaf-stalks,  and  ribs 
of  the  leaves,  skinned  or  peeled,  are  very  agree- 
able food.  In  season  during  spring. 

Boiled  Sea  Kale. — Wash,  trim,  and  tie  the 
kale  in  bunches,  and  throw  it  into  plenty  of 
boiling  water  with  salt  in  it ; boil  it  about  20 
minutes,  or  until  tender,  then  lift  it  out,  drain 
it  well  from  the  water,  and  send  it  to  table 
with  good  drawn  butter.  It  may  also  be  served 
upon  toast,  like  asparagus. 

Stewed  Sea-Kale. — Boil  the  kale  ten  min- 
utes in  salt  and  water ; drain  it  well,  and  put  it 
into  a saucepan  with  as  much  good  brown  gravy 
as  will  nearly  cover  it ; stew  it  gently  for  ten 
minutes  or  until  it  is  tender,  and  send  it  to 
table  in  the  gravy  very  hot.  Another  excel- 
lent mode  of  serving  this  vegetable  is  to  boil  it 
in  salt  and  water,  and  pour  over  it  plenty  of 
rich  white  sauce  after  it  is  dished. 

SEA-SICKNESS. — There  are  few  maladies, 
probably,  which  produce  such  an  aggregate  of 
human  suffering  as  sea-sickness  ; and  there  is 
none  which  the  medical  profession  has  done  so 
little  to  relieve,  or  for  which  it  is  so  seldom 
consulted.  The  treatise  of  Dr.  Fordyce  Bar- 
ker, which  was  published  in  New  York  a few 


472 


SEA-SICKNESS 


years  ago,  has  been  generally  accepted  both  at 
home  and  abroad,  as  the  most  valuable  discus- 
sion of  the  subject  yet  produced  ; and  it  is  from 
that  that  the  substance  of  the  present  article  is 
drawn.  Many  theories  have  been  suggested 
in  explanation  of  the  cause  of  sea-sickness,  but 
Dr.  Barker  considers  it  due  to  the  sudden  and 
recurring  changes  of  the  relations  between  the 
fluids  and  the  solids  of  the  body,  and  the  ner- 
vous disturbances  which  result  from  these 
changes.  The  liquids  contained  in  their  ves- 
sels, as  well  as  the  solids  of  the  economy,  obey 
equally  the  laws  of  gravitation,  when  the  body 
is  subjected  to  alternate  movements  of  ascent 
and  descent  like  those  which  are  caused  by  the 
swing  or  by  the  waves  of  the  sea.  The  blood, 
by  reason  of  its  fluidity,  yields  more  readily  to 
the  influence  of  descent,  and  less  easily  than 
the  solids  to  the  ascending  impulse;  conse- 
quently, it  does  not  return  to  the  brain  with  the 
same  regularity  as  is  the  case  when  the  body 
remains  stable,  while  it  leaves  it  more  rapidly 
in  the  movement  of  descent.  There  result,  as 
to  the  circulation,  alternatives  of  afflux  and  de- 
lay in  the  arrival  of  the  blood  to  the  different 
organs  of  the  body,  which  disturb  their  func- 
tions, and  those  of  the  brain  in  particular.  This 
shows  the  folly  of  attempting  to  cure  sea-sick- 
ness by  medication  addressed  to  the  stomach, 
or  even  by  drugs  which  are  supposed  to  act 
directly  upon  the  brain  and  its  functions. 
Sea-sickness  is  manifested  by  a great  diversity 
of  symptoms  in  different  individuals.  Some 
suffer  only  from  headache  and  a constant  feel- 
ing of  stricture  across  the  forehead  and  over 
the  temples,  during  the  whole  voyage,  while 
they  are  free  from  nausea  and  vomiting.  Others 
do  not  suffer  much  from  nausea,  but  are  sud- 
denly seized  with  vomiting,  and,  after  the  con- 
tents of  the  stomach  are  discharged,  they  are 
free  from  all  unpleasant  sensations  until  the 
next  recurrence  of  vomiting.  With  many,  the 
nausea  and  vomiting  entirely  disappear  after 
being  at  sea  for  a few  days.  Others  again  are 
so  unfortunate  as  to  suffer  from  all  these  symp- 
toms during  the  whole  time  they  are  at  sea, 
whether  the  voyage  be  short  or  long.  There 
are  some  who  never  can  become  habituated  to 
the  sea.  There  is  often  a great  change  in  the 
same  individual,  in  the  course  of  life,  as  to  the 
susceptibility  to  this  malady.  Some,  who  in 
early  life  have  been  martyrs  to  sea-sickness, 
have  ceased  to  feel  it  as  they  have  grown  older; 
while  others  who  have  been  so  exempt  from 
liability  to  it  that  they  have  been  accustomed 
to  regard  it  as  an  affection  which  can  be  over- 
come by  an  effort  of  the  will,  have  become  most 
pitiable  victims.  And  yet  it  is  curious  that 
strong  mental  emotions,  as  terror  or  fright, 
will  suddenly  and  completely  cure  the  most  vio- 
lent sea-sickness. 

Treatment. — With  regard  to  the  prevention 
and  treatment  of  sea-sickness,  Dr.  Barker 
makes  the  following  suggestions: — In  short 
passages,  as  on  our  lakes,  and  across  the  Eng- 
lish or  Irish  Channel,  all  that  can  be  done  is 
by  way  of  prevention.  Those  liable  to  be  sick 


should  make  a good  hearty  meal  not  more  than 
two  or  three  hours  before  going  on  board. 
They  should  select  a spot  as  near  as  possible 
to  the  centre  of  the  vessel,  and  lie  down  before 
she  gets  under  weigh.  The  horizontal  posi- 
tion should  be  rigidly  kept  during  the  whole 
passage.  Any  attempt  to  raise  the  head  or  to 
stand  erect  will  be  sure,  with  the  susceptible, 
to  be  followed  by  an  explosion,  and  then  the 
case  is  hopeless  for  the  remainder  of  the  pas- 
sage. The  person  should  be  well  covered,  not 
only  to  protect  from  cold,  but  to  shield  from 
disagreeable  sounds,  sights,  and  smells.  On 
the  packets  on  the  English  Channel  it  is  best 
not  to  go  down  into  the  cabins  below,  where 
the  sight  of  those  lying  round,  with  basins  by 
their  heads  is  of  itself  exceedingly  provocative 
to  a sensitive  stomach,  but  rather  to  secure,  by 
telegraphing  beforehand,  one  of  the  little  cabins 
on  deck.  Although  the  passage  may  not  be 
more  than  an  hour  and  a half  or  two  hours, 
neglect  of  the  above  suggestions  is  apt  to  be 
followed  by  very  severe  punishment.  For 
ocean  passages  one  of  the  most  essential  points 
is  the  selection  of  the  state-room  as  regards  po- 
sition, light,  size,  and  ventilation.  Of  course, 
the  nearer  the  room  is  to  the  centre  of  the  ship, 
the  less  will  be  the  motion.  In  going  to  Eu- 
rope, it  is  better  to  be  on  the  starboard  side, 
and  in  returning  on  the  port  side,  which  will 
be  the  sunny  side.  Rooms  near  the  furnaces 
are  objectionable,  not  only  on  account  of  the 
heat,  which  is  sometimes  very  disagreeable, 
but  also  from  the  noise,  which,  at  certain  hours, 
is  made  by  the  donkey-engine  in  drawing  up 
the  ashes  and  cinders,  and  which  is  very  try- 
ing to  those  of  sensitive  nerves.  In  screw- 
steamers,  the  inside  rooms,  as  they  are  called, 
if  of  good  size,  are  often  to  be  preferred  to  the 
outside  ones,  on  account  of  ventilation,  as  there 
is  very  little  weather,  except  in  remarkable 
summer  passages,  when  the  port-holes  can  be 
kept  open,  while  the  windows  of  the  inside 
rooms  open  on  deck,  and  can  generally  be  kept 
open.  As  the  air  draws  down  the  gangway,  the 
nearer  the  gangway  the  better  the  ventilation. 

The  following  suggestions  for  the  prevention 
of  sea-sickness  were  first  written  out  by  Dr. 
Barker  some  years  ago  for  a gentleman  whose 
business  required  him  to  cross  the  Atlantic 
often,  and  who  was  always  kept  in  his  room  by 
severe  sea-sickness  during  the  whole  voyage. 
By  implicitly  following  the  directions  given,  he 
has  suffered  very  little  from  sickness,  and  has 
been  able  to  go  on  deck  by  the  second  or  third 
day,  and  has  been  entirely  exempt  from  sick- 
ness for  the  remainder  of  the  voyage.  They 
have  since  been  copied  many  times,  and  their 
value  thoroughly  tested.  The  trouble,  how- 
ever, is,  that  most  persons  do  not  appreciate 
how  much  easier  it  is  to  prevent  sea-sickness 
than  to  cure  it ; and  so,  none  but  those  who 
have  before  suffered  will  thoroughly  carry  out 
the  directions,  and,  neglecting  some  of  them, 
arc  disappointed  in  the  results  : 

i.  Have  every  preparation  made  at  least 
twenty-four  hours  before  starting,  so  that  the 


SEA  SICKNESS 


473 


system  may  not  be  exhausted  by  overwork  and 
want  of  sleep.  This  direction  is  particularly 
important  for  ladies. 

2.  Eat  as  hearty  a meal  as  possible  before 
going  on  board. 

3.  Go  on  board  sufficiently  early  to  arrange 
such  things  as  may  be  wanted  for  the  first  day 
or  two,  so  that  they  may  be  easy  of  access ; 
then  undress  and  go  to  bed,  before  the  vessel 
gets  under  weigh.  The  neglect  of  this  rule,  by 
those  who  are  liable  to  sea-sickness,  is  sure  to 
be  regretted. 

4.  Eat  regularly  and  heartily,  but  without 
raising  the  head  for  at  least  one  or  two  days. 
In  this  way,  the  habit  of  digestion  is  kept  up, 
the  strength  is  preserved,  while  the  system  be- 
comes accustomed  to  the  constant  change  of 
equilibrium. 

5.  On  the  first  night  out,  take  some  mild 
laxative  pills,  as,  for  example,  two  or  three  of 
the  compound  rhubarb  pills,  and  be  careful  to 
keep  the  bowels  open  the  remainder  of  the  voy- 
age. 

Most  persons  have  a tendency  to  become 
constipated  at  sea,  although  diarrhaea  occurs  in 
a certain  percentage.  Constipation  not  only 
results  from  sea-sickness,  but  in  turn  aggra- 
vates it.  The  reason  has  already  been  given 
why  cathartics  should  not  be  taken  before  start- 
ing. The  effervescing  laxatives,  like  the 
Seidlitz,  or  the  solution  of  the  citrate  of  mag- 
nesia, taken  in  the  morning  on  an  empty  stom- 
ach, are  bad  in  sea-sickness. 

6.  After  having  become  so  far  habituated  to 
the  sea  as  to  be  able  to  take  your  meals  at  the 
table  and  to  go  on  deck,  never  think  of  rising 
in  the  morning  until  you  have  eaten  something, 
as  a plate  of  oatmeal  porridge,  or  a cup  of  cof- 
fee or  tea,  with,  sea-biscuit  or  toast. 

7.  If  subsequently,  during  the  voyage,  the 
sea  should  become  unusually  rough,  go  to  bed 
before  getting  sick.  It  is  foolish  to  dare  any 
thing,  when  there  is  no  glory  to  be  won,  and 
something  may  be  lost. 

In  addition  to  the  careful  observance  of  the 
above  directions,  Dr.  Barker  recommends  those 
liable  to  sea-sickness  to  provide  themselves 
with  the  following  prescriptions,  as  they  may 
give  very  considerable  comfort  and  relief  at  a 
very  trifling  expense : 

LAXATIVE  PILLS. 

R.  Pulv.  Rhei.  (Turc),  3 ss. 

Ext.  Hyoscyami,  3 j. 

Pulv.  Aloes  Soc., 

Sapo  Cast.,  aa  gr.  xv. 

Ext.  Nux  Vomicae  Afcoh.,  gr.  x. 

Podophylin  p.,  gr.  v. 

Ipecac.,  gr.  ij. 

M.  ft.  pil,  (argent)  No.  20. 

S.  Dose — one,  two,  or  three. 

For  most  persons  two  pills  will  be  sufficient 
to  take  the  first  night  at  sea,  and  afterward, 
when  a laxative  is  necessary,  one  is  ordinarily 
all  that  will  be  required. 

In  some,  while  at  sea,  there  is  a tendency  to 


diarrhoea  instead  of  constipation,  and  the  fol- 
lowing will  be  found  a useful  medicine  in  con- 
trolling this  symptom.  It  may  also  be  found 
of  service  when  travelling  on  land  and  exposed 
to  the  ills  which  result  from  change  of  diet,  bad 
water,  etc.  The  dose  given  is  for  an  adult. 
For  a child,  one  year  old,  ten  drops  ; two  years, 
fifteen  drops,  and  so  on.  The  medicine  may 
be  put  up  wherever  an  English  druggist  (or 
chemist  as  he  is  called  in  Europe)  is  found,  as 
in  most  of  the  large  towns  on  the  Continent : 

R.  Tinct.  Camphorae,  3 vj. 

Tinct.  Capsici,  3 ij. 

Spts.  Lavendul.  Comp., 

Tinct.  Opii,  aa  5 ss. 

Syr.  Simp.,  % ij. 

M.  S.  A small  teaspoonful  in  a wineglass  of 
water  after  each  movement. 

In  cases  where  the  sickness  has  been  pro- 
longed for  several  days,  the  patient  suffering 
from  constant  nausea,  great  nervous  depression, 
and  sleeplessness,  great  benefit  may  be  derived 
from  the  following  powders  : 

R.  Potass.  Bromide,  5 j- 

Div.  in  Chart  No.  20. 

S.  One,  two  or  three  times  a day.  These 
powders  are  best  taken  in  a half-tumbler  of 
carbonic-acid  water  (ordinarily  called  soda-wa- 
ter), or,  if  this  cannot  be  obtained,  in  a half- 
tumbler of  iced  sugar-and-water.  This  should 
be  sipped  down  slowly,  so  that  the  stomach  may 
be  persuaded  to  retain  and  absorb  it.  One 
powder,  taken  at  bedtime,  will  often  secure  a 
night  of  good  refreshing  sleep.  The  powders 
should  be  kept  in  a tin  box,  or  in  a wide-mouth- 
ed phial. 

Those  who  are  confined  to  their  berths  for 
several  days  often  suffer  from  local  pains, 
cramps,  “ stitches  in  the  sides,”  and  sometimes 
colics.  These  pains  are  often  relieved  by  the 
use  of  the  following  liniment,  which  is  to  be 
applied  not  by  rubbing,  but  by  thoroughly 
saturating  a double  thickness  of  flannel,  and 
laying  it  directly  over  the  seat  of  pain,  and  then 
covering  the  flannel  with  the  clothing  to  pre- 
vent evaporation.  The  liniment  at  first  causes 
a sensation  of  coldness,  then  of  great  heat,  and 
soon  after  it  gives  a feeling  of  great  relief.  The 
flannel  may  again  be  wet  with  the  liniment,  as 
often  as  may  be  necessary,  avoiding  such  a con- 
tinued use  as  to  cause  a blister : 

R.  Lint.  Sapo  Comp.,  3 vj. 

Chloroform,  3 j. 

M.  S.  Chloroform  Liniment. 

Counter-irritation  over  the  pit  of  the  stomach, 
is  often  very  serviceable  in  relieving  the  nausea 
and  vomiting,  and  so  it  is  well  for  those  who 
are  about  to  make  a voyage,  to  provide  them- 
selves with  the  article,  now  generally  kept  by 
druggists,  and  known  as  “mustard-leaves.” 
Any  size  required  can  be  cut  off,  and,  by  sim- 
ply wetting  it,  a mustard-plaster  is  ready  at 
once. 


474 


SEDATIVES 


SERVANTS 


SEDATIVES. — These  are  medicines  which 
primarily  depress  the  vital  powers  without  in- 
ducing any  previous  excitement.  But  the  only 
remedies  of  this  class  which  are  at  all  safe  to  be 
trusted  in  the  hands  of  non-professional  persons 
are  tobacco  and  diluted  hydrocyanic  acid.  The 
former  of  these  is  only  manageable  by  means 
of  smoking,  which  even  if  prejudicial  as  a gen- 
eral practice,  may  sometimes  be  indulged  in 
with  advantage.  Hydrocyanic  acid  is  a violent 
poison  in  large  doses,  but  in  the  very  small 
doses,  recommended  below,  it  may  be  given 
without  risk  in  the  sickness  which  accompanies 
pregnancy,  or  in  other  ordinary  cases  in  which 
a sedative  is  required. 

(a)  Diluted  hydrocyanic  acid,  2 or  3 minims ; 
syrup  of  orange-peel,  1 drachm  ; distilled  water, 
x ounce,  mix,  and  give  occasionally,  the  inter- 
vals never  being  less  than  six  hours. 

(b)  Diluted  hydrocyanic  acid,  2 drachms ; 
glycerine,  3 to  6 drachms ; water,  7 ounces. 
Mix,  and  use  as  a lotion,  taking  great  care  that 
it  is  not  drunk  by  mistake.  Good  for  itching. 

SEED-BED.  ( See  Hot-Bed.) 

SEED-CAKE  (See  Cake.) 

SEIDLITZ  POWDERS.— These  are  a 
gentle  laxative,  and  one  of  the  most  useful  of 
domestic  remedies.  Nearly  all  druggists  have 
their  own  receipts  for  the  preparation  of  these 
powders,  though  the  ingredients  are  substan- 
tially the  same.  The  following  receipt  is  a 
good  one  : — two  drachms  of  Rochelle  salts  and 
two  scruples  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  in  a white 
paper;  thirty-five  grains  of  Tartaric  acid  in  a 
blue  one.  Dissolve  the  contents  of  each  paper 
(separately)  in  nearly  half  a tumblerful  of  water, 
pour  them  together,  and  drink  immediately, 
while  the  effervescence  is  at  its  height.  Syrup 
mixed  with  the  water  makes  it  more  agreeable. 

SELTZER  WATER,  (Home-made.)  Have 
ready  a half-pint  bottle  with  a metallic  capsule, 
which  fits  hermetically  close.  Fill  the  bottle 
with  clear  water  up  to  the  neck,  and  throw  into 
it  a dram  of  tartaric  acid  and  a dram  of  bicar- 
bonate of  soda,  both  in  powder ; screw  on  the 
capsule  as  promptly  as  possible.  In  a quarter 
of  an  hour  it  is  fit  for  use.  It  may  be  drunk 
unmixed,  like  soda  water,  and  it  is  also  greatly 
relished  in  summer  if  poured  into  a tumbler 
with  a few  teaspoonfuls  of  syrup,  or  a glass  of 
wine  at  the  bottom. 

SEMOLINA. — A preparation  from  wheat- 
flour,  made  by  removing  part  of  the  starch.  It  is 
chiefly  composed  of  the  gluten  of  wheat,  mixed 
with  a small  proportion  of  starch,  and  is  con- 
verted by  art  into  small  round  grains  resembling 
sago,  though  its  granules  are  more  angular  in 
shape  than  those  of  the  latter.  It  is  very  nour- 
ishing, and  less  constipating  than  ordinary 
wheat-flour.  It  is  used  for  thickening  soups, 
and  also  is  prepared  like  sago  for  invalids. 

SENNA. — As  used  in  medicine,  senna  is  of 
two  kinds,  the  so-called  Alexandrian  or  Egyptian 
senna,  and  East  Indian  or  Tinnevelly  senna. 
The  substance  is  the  leaf  of  various  species  of 
cassia.  They  all  have  a peculiar  odour,  and  all, 
if  examined,  will  be  seen  to  have  one  side  shap- 


ed differently  from  the  other  at  the  base  of  the 
leaf  where  it  joins  the  stalk.  Alexandrian  sen- 
na usually  contains,  as  imported,  the  leaf  of  a 
totally  different  plant,  which  is  irritating  and 
gripes  a good  deal.  This  is  usually  removed  by 
hand  before  it  is  sold,  and  the  senna  is  spoken 
of  as  picked. 

East  Indian  senna  has  a leaf  very  much 
larger  than  the  Alexandrian  kind.  In  some 
samples  the  leaves  are  broken  and  mixed  with 
what  may  be  considered  impurities.  Senna 
readily  yields  its  virtues  to  water.  These  are 
said  to  depend  on  a substance  in  senna  called 
cathartine,  but  this  is  by  no  means  certain.  Its 
preparations  are  a confection,  infusion,  mixture, 
tincture,  and  syrup.  The  confection  is  a good, 
useful  preparation,  consisting  of  senna,  coriand- 
er, tamarinds,  cassia  pulp,  prunes,  extract  of 
liquorice,  and  sugar.  It  is  useful  in  piles.  The 
mixture,  best  known  as  black  draught , contains 
sulphate  of  magnesia  (Epsom  salts),  extract  of 
liquorice,  tincture  of  senna,  tincture  of  card- 
amoms, and  infusion  of  senna.  The  tincture 
contains,  besides  senna,  raisins,  caraway,  and 
coriander;  the  syrup,  coriander  and  sugar. 
Senna  is  hardly  ever  given  as  powder,  the  in- 
fusion is  most  commonly  employed,  except 
among  children,  where  the  tincture  or  syrup 
takes  its  place.  About  an  ounce  may  be  given 
of  the  infusion,  the  same  of  the  mixture,  and  of 
the  confection  a dram  or  more.  The  syrup  is 
given  to  children  in  the  dose  of  a dram  or  more. 

Senna,  as  is  well  known,  is  a purgative,  stim- 
ulating the  motion  of  the  bowels,  and  also  aiding 
slightly  in  promoting  their  flow,  but  a salt  of 
some  kind,  Epsom  or  Rochelle,  is  generally  ad- 
ded to  increase  its  efficacy  in  this  way.  Senna 
is  seldom  given  alone,  as  it  is  apt  to  gripe,  and 
for  this  reason  spices  are  usually  administered 
along  with  it.  Senna  is  more  generally  used 
than  any  other  purgative  when  it  is  simply  de- 
sired to  have  the  bowels  cleared  out,  as  it  is 
apt  to  leave  no  ill  consequence  behind.  1 1 should 
not,  however,  be  given  if  there  is  any  tendency 
to  inflammation  of  the  bowels. 

SERGE.  — A twilled  stuff  of  various  colors, 
and  used  for  the  trimming  of  cloths,  particu- 
larly cloaks.  One  sort  has  one  side  smooth 
and  the  other  woolly  ; the  longest  wool  is  chosen 
for  the  warp  and  the  shortest  for  the  woof,  the 
former  being  more  twisted  than  the  latter. 
Silk  serge  is  a twilled  silk  used  chiefly  by  tailors 
for  trimming  parts  of  gentlemen’s  coats.  One 
yard  wide. 

SERPENT  (See  Snake.) 

SERVANTS.  — There  are  few  subjects  in 
which  housekeepers  are  so  keenly  and  perma- 
nently interested  as  the  management  of  domes- 
tic servants,  and  none,  perhaps,  concerning 
which  so  much  has  been  said  and  written,  lo 
pick  up  any  book  on  domestic  economy  and  see 
the  number  of  pages  devoted  to  the  discussion 
of  this  topic,  and  the  amount  of  good  advice 
which  they  contain,  one  finds  it  difficult  to  ac- 
count for  the  fact  that,  notwithstanding  it  all, 
our  household  service  has  steadily  gone  from 
bad  to  worse,  until  it  is  now  the  one  unmitigated 


SERVANTS 


475 


and  apparently  immitigable  evil  in  a house- 
keeper’s life.  Probably  the  extreme  difficulty 
of  making  suggestions  which  shall  be  at  once 
practical  and  capable  of  general  application,  ex- 
plains the  general  vagueness  of  such  advice 
and  its  tendency  towards  moral  exhortation.  In 
the  present  article  we  shall  not  consume  our 
space  in  urging  upon  employers  the  necessity 
of  courtesy  and  forbearance  toward  servants, 
for  we  do  not  think  that  Americans  often  err  in 
this  matter  on  the  side  of  severity  or  lack  of 
complaisance  ; nor  shall  we  enlarge  upon  the 
danger  of  making  a sort  of  confidential  compan- 
ion out  of  a servant,  for  this  also  we  believe  to 
be  an  altogether  exceptional  practice.  In  our 
opinion,  the  chief  cause  of  the  sort  of  veiled 
antagonism  which  unquestionably  exists  be- 
tween employers  and  servants  is,  aside  from  the 
lack  of  training  and  indisposition  to  learn  on  the 
part  of  the  latter,  the  perverted  view  which  em- 
ployers, especially  mistresses,  take  of  the  con- 
ditions of  domestic  service.  In  spite  of  all  that 
is  said  about  the  “ privileges  ” of  servants,  and 
the  advantages  of  their  position,  as  compared 
with  most  manual  workers,  there  is  a general 
disposition  to  regard  them  as  owing  not  only  a 
peculiar  deference  but  a sort  of  personal  alle- 
giance to  their  employers.  A frequent  example 
of  this  is  seen  in  the  sense  of  grievance  with 
which  most  mistresses  regard  a servant’s  leaving 
a “ good  home  ” for  another  “ place,”  when  the 
only  inducement  is  higher  wages,  or  less  work, 
or  more  convenient  or  pleasant  surroundings. 
But  the  most  striking  example  of  it  is  the  general 
disposition  to  regard  the  comparatively  high 
wages  now  demanded  (and  obtained)  by  domestic 
servants  as  a species  of  imposition  almost 
amounting  to  wickedness.  Now  the  truth  is  that 
as  to  personal  behavior,  the  relation  between 
employer  and  servant  is,  or  should  be,  exactly 
the  same  as  that  between  an  employer  and  a car- 
penter, mechanic,  or  clerk  ; the  obligation  to  be 
polite  is  mutual  and  co-extensive,  as  binding 
upon  one  as  upon  the  other,  and  with  no. varia- 
tion as  to  degree.  As  to  the  high  and  increas- 
ing wages,  that  can  be  explained  very  simply, 
for  it  is  in  accordance  with  one  of  the  most 
thoroughly-established  principles  of  political 
economy.  Owing  to  the  very  rapid  progress  of 
this  country  in  population  and  wealth,  the  de- 
mand for  household  servants  has  increased  at 
a rate  much  greater  than  that  of  the  supply ; the 
natural  and  inevitable  result  being  a higher 
valuation  of  the  labor  performed  by  such  ser- 
vants. In  demanding  higher  wages,  in  fact, 
servants  are  simply  availing  themselves  of 
social  conditions  which  they  could  neither  pro- 
duce nor  influence. 

It  is  to  be  observed,  however,  that,  owing  to 
special  circumstances,  this  excess  of  demand 
over  supply  has  resulted  in  giving  American 
servants  an  advantage  in  their  relations  with 
employers  by  no  means  inevitable,  and  of  which 
they  have,  as  was  to  be  expected,  made  a very 
disagreeable  use.  And  here  we  can  present  a 
consideration,  drawn  from  the  experience  of 
another  country,  which  we  believe  to  be  of 


great  practical  value.  In  England,  the  condi- 
tions of  which  we  have  spoken  are  exactly  the 
same  as  in  our  own  country : that  is,  the  demand 
for  household  servants  is  greatly  in  excess  of 
the  supply.  Higher  and  constantly  increasing 
wages  have  been  the  result  there  as  here,  but 
at  this  point  the  parallel  ceases  and  the  attitude 
of  English  servants  toward  their  employers  is 
very  different  from  that  surly  independence, 
amounting  in  many  cases  to  aggressiveness, 
which  is  perhaps  the  most  distinguishing  trait 
of  the  corresponding  class  here.  There,  it  is 
the  servant  who  dreads  a “notice,”  not  the 
mistress  as  with  us  ; and  dismissal  is  a punish- 
ment which  means  something  besides  the  in- 
convenience of  packing  a trunk  and  spending 
an  hour  or, two  in  an  intelligence  office.  The 
cause  of  this  immense  difference  in  the  position 
of  servants  in  the  two  countries  is  to  be  found 
simply  in  the  different  practice  of  employers 
with  respect  to  what  are  called  “ Characters  ” 
in  England,  and  “ References  ” in  this  country. 
It  would  never  occur  to  a respectable  English 
housekeeper  to  employ  a domestic  servant  who 
was  not  well  recommended  from  his  (or  her) 
last  place ; and  the  consequence  is,  that  dis- 
missal without  a “ Character  ” is  equivalent  to 
permanent  loss  of  employment,  or,  at  best,  to 
employment  under  conditions  which  almost  pre- 
clude the  possibility  of  again  rising  to  a respect- 
able position.  So  terrible  is  this  punishment, 
that  it  is  not  uncommon  for  a servant  to  offer 
to  work  on  good  behaviour  for  six  months  or 
even  a year,  merely  to  obtain  the  forfeited 
“ Character  ” at  the  end  of  that  time.  It  is  not 
difficult  to  perceive  how  powerfully  such  a 
custom  operates  both  as  a check  and  an  incen- 
tive. The  laxity  of  American  practice  with 
respect  to  “ References  ” is  almost  incredible. 
We  believe  it  to  be  less  than  the  truth  to  say 
that  nine  tenths  of  the  servants  employed  are 
engaged  without  any  such  examination  into 
their  references  as  can  make  the  process  of  the 
slightest  value  ; and  that  at  least  one  half  are 
engaged  without  being  required  to  present  any 
references  at  all.  Even  when  they  are  demand- 
ed, such  “ References  ” are  accepted  as  prove 
conclusively  that  they  are  regarded  as  a mere 
meaningless  formality.  We  have  ourselves  had 
a woman  answer  an  advertisement  bringing 
with  her  a recommendation  twelve  years  old  : 
she  acknowledged  that  she  had  in  the  mean- 
time been  to  Chicago,  St.  Paul,  and  California, 
and  yet  she  went  away  highly  indignant  at  the 
suggestion  that  her  “ Character  ” was  a trifle 
stale,  taunting  us  as  she  went  with  the  infor- 
mation that  she  had  got  two  places  on  it  without 
any  insults  being  put  upon  her.  After  an  expe- 
rience which  has  included  many  servants  we  can 
recall  but  two  cases  in  which  any  of  them  asked 
for  a reference  on  leaving.  Of  course  the 
natural  result  of  all  this  is  that  a dismissal  is 
one  of  the  most  trifling  incidents  in  an  American 
servant’s  life ; and  the  great  inducement  to 
good  behavior  and  intelligent  work,  which, 
under  other  circumstances,  self-interest  would 
bring,  is  thereby  entirely  lost.  To  sum  up  this 


476 


SERVANTS 


branch  of  the  subject  we  shall  suggest  two  rules 
which,  if  they  were  put  in  practice  and  rigidly 
adhered  to  by  every  housekeeper,  would  bring 
about  such  a revolution  in  the  relations  between 
employers  and  servants  as  would  amount  to  a 
reversal  of  the  respective  positions  of  the  two 
in  respect  to  those  matters  in  which,  as  we 
have  said,  the  servants  have  an  unmistakable 
advantage.  The  rules  are  : I.  Never  employ 
a servant  who  cannot  bring  explicit  and  thor- 
oughly satisfactory  references  from  his  ( or  her ) 
last  place.  2.  Never  give  a servant  either  a 
written  or  verbal  recommendation  which  does 
not  convey  your  real  impression  of  his  (or  her) 
character.  If  the  servant  have  bec7i  dismissed, 
give  the  exact  reasons  for  the  dismissal.  The 
second  rule  is  not  less  important  than  the  first, 
for  unless  it  is  scrupulously  observed,  “ Refer- 
ences ” become  an  additional  difficulty  rather 
than  a safeguard. 

Of  the  specific  complaints  against  servants, 
the  one  most  frequently  heard  perhaps  is  that 
they  lack  training  and  undertake  work  which 
they  are  in  no  sense  qualified  to  perform,  while 
at  the  same  time  they  are  too  stupid  to  learn. 
When  we  call  to  mind,  however,  the  class  from 
which  household  servants  in  this  country  are 
recruited,  the  wonder  is,  not  that  they  exhibit 
untrained  ignorance,  but  that  they  can  cope 
with  their  work  at  all, — work  which,  in  the 
case  of  a cook  at  least,  is  as  complex,  difficult, 
and  delicate  as  a human  being  can  undertake. 
In  point  of  fact,  too,  such  a complaint  is  as 
much  an  accusation  against  the  mistress  as 
against  the  servants.  Trained  skill  implies  some 
one  who  has  trained  it.  When  a carpenter 
wants  an  apprentice,  a merchant  a clerk,  or  a 
physician  an  assistant,  he  trains  the  lad  fixed 
upon  up  to  the  desired  point ; and  it  never 
occurs  to  him  to  complain  that  without  such 
discipline  the  lad  “ lacks  training.”  So  every 
housekeeper  should  understand  that  the  con- 
dition of  having  trained  servants  is,  and  in  the 
great  majority  of  cases  must  be,  to  train  them; 
and  from  the  determination  to  do  this  she 
should  not  allow  herself  to  be  turned  aside 
either  by  the  intractableness  of  her  subjects,  or 
by  their  assumption  of  superior  knowledge.  It 
is  not  possible,  perhaps,  to  make  servants  truth- 
ful, good-natured,  courteous,  docile,  and  honest ; 
but  it  is  possible,  in  most  cases,  to  train  them 
to  do  the  work  required  of  them  in  an  intelli- 
gent and  efficient  manner.  A housekeeper 
should  not  be  satisfied  with  merely  “ getting 
along  ” with  her  servants  ; she  should  have  a 
standard  of  cookery  up  to  which  the  cook 
should  be  trained,  a standard  of  waiting  to 
which  the  waiter  should  be  required  (that  is, 
taught)  to  attain,  and  so  of  the  lady’s-maid  and 
all  other  servants.  If  it  be  objected  that  this 
involves  an  amount  of  knowledge  on  the  part 
of  mistresses  of  the  household  which,  in  fact, 
few  of  them  possess,  the  answer  is  that  a 
lady  who  undertakes  the  management  of  a 
household  without  the  knowledge  requisite  for 
managing  it  rightly  ought  not  to  be  surprised, 
and  certainly  has  no  right  to  complain,  if  her 


servants  also  undertake  work  which  they  are 
not  qualified  to  perform.  The  truth  would 
seem  to  be,  indeed,  that  the  lack  of  training  on 
the  part  of  servants  is  far  more  often  due  to 
the  ignorance  or  indifference  of  mistresses  than 
to  the  incapacity  of  the  servants  themselves; 
and  as  this  ignorance  or  indifference  is  not 
likely  to  be  soon  removed,  probably  no  more 
truly  beneficent  work  could  be  undertaken  than 
that  of  establishing  training-schools  or  institu- 
tions where  young  girls  could  be  trained  to  do- 
mestic service  before  entering  upon  it.  Should 
such  institutions  become  numerous  enough  to 
fairly  establish  a standard  in  this  department 
of  work,  and  effect  (as  they  undoubtedly  would 
effect)  the  introduction  to  it  of  a more  intelli- 
gent class  of  workers,  they  would  contribute  as 
scarcely  anything  else  would  to  the  happiness 
of  American  family  life. 

But  before  a really  intelligent  class  of  work- 
ers,— such  a class,  for  instance,  as  used  to 
furnish  the  “ help  ” of  old  New  England  house- 
holds— can  be  induced  to  adopt  domestic  ser- 
vice as  a regular  and  permanent  employment, 
some  concessions  will  have  to  be  made  in  the 
matter  of  personal  liberty.  Even  with  such 
servants  as  we  have  now  a vast  deal  of  trouble 
arises  from  what  the  servants  are  hardly  wrong 
in  regarding  as  impertinent  interferences  and 
petty  tyrannical  exactions  on  the  part  of  their 
employers.  It  would  be  well  if  it  were  clearly 
and  generally  understood  that  the  authority  of 
the  master  and  mistress  of  a house  in  regard  to 
their  domestics  extends  simply  to  the  things 
which  the  latter  have  contracted  to  do  and  the 
hours  during  which  they  have  contracted  to 
serve  ; beyond  this  they  have  no  more  right  to 
interfere  with  the  disposal  of  their  time  than  with 
that  of  any  clerk  or  mechanic  whom  they  em- 
ploy. They  have,  of  course,  a right  to  regulate 
the  hours  and  work  of  their  own  household,  and 
servants  can  choose  between  conformity  to 
such  regulations  and  loss  of  their  situation ; 
but  within  reasonable  limits,  the  right  of  ser- 
vants to  come  and  go  at  their  own  discretion, 
in  their  own  time,  should  be  unquestioned  ; and 
their  own  time  should  be  admitted  to  include 
all  that  remains  after  they  have  done  the  work 
which  they  contracted  to  do,  or  which  their 
position  naturally  involves.  Even  in  regard  to 
the  matter  of  visiting  and  visitors,  which  is 
perhaps  more  perplexing  than  any  other,  it  is 
rapidly  becoming  the  custom  in  England  to  hold 
servants  responsible  for  the  company  they  keep 
in  the  same  way  as  for  their  general  conduct 
and  their  performance  of  their  work,  without 
dictating  special  terms  or  conditions  ; and  such 
would  seem  to  be  the  most  reasonable  arrange- 
ment. In  short,  a household  servant  should 
be  recognized  as  one  who  has  contracted  to  do 
certain  specified  or  well-understood  work,  and 
when  she  has  done  it  her  obligations  to  her 
employer  and  his  rights  over  her  cease, — that 
is,  with  the  qualifications  above  indicated. 

There  is  one  other  point,  attention  to  which 
would  do  much  to  make  domestic  service  plea- 
santer, and  by  so  much  to  elevate  its  character. 


SERVANTS 


SETONS 


477 


The  position  of  contemptuous  inferiority  to 
which  servants  feel  themselves  consigned,  and 
which  in  this  country  at  least  they  are  certain 
to  resent,  is  indicated  not  so  much  by  what  is 
done  as  by  what  is  left  undone.  Everything 
and  every  place  designed  for  their  use  is  gener- 
ally not  only  inferior  to,  but  in  marked  contrast 
with,  the  rest  of  the  house.  Their  rooms  are 
nearly  always  ill-furnished,  incommodious,  and 
neglected  ; and  the  kitchen  is  usually  the  most 
cheerless  and  comfortless  place  in  the  house, 
while  its  deficiency  in  cooking-apparatus  and 
other  conveniences  is,  as  a general  thing,  a 
disgrace  to  American  housekeeping.  It  is  not 
to  be  expected,  of  course,  that  servants  shall 
share  in  all  the  luxuries  of  the  family ; but  their 
rooms  should  be  at  least  comfortable,  and  if 
some  pains  are  taken  to  make  them  attractive 
and  tasteful,  the  effect  will  certainly  be  good. 
Pleasant  surroundings  in  this  respect  have  an 
important  influence  doubtless  in  attaching  good 
servants  to  their  homes  and  making  them  satis- 
fied to  remain  long  in  one  place,  whi'e  at  the  same 
time  doing  more  to  create  in  them  habits  of  or- 
der and  cleanliness  than  any  amount  of  mere  ver- 
bal teaching.  As  to  the  kitchen,  it  is  plainly  not 
less  to  the  interest  of  employer  than  of  servant 
that  the  room  in  which  the  most  important 
work  of  the  house  is  carried  on  should  be  light, 
cheerful,  comfortable,  and  supplied  with  at 
least  all  the  appliances  which  can  facilitate  or 
improve  labor.  (See  Kitchen.) 

All  English  books  on  domestic  economy,  and 
one  or  two  American  ones  which  follow  their 
prototypes  too  closely,  give  elaborate  directions 
for  the  division  of  the  work  of  the  household 
between  the  different  servants  ; but  this  seems 
to  us  a matter  which  must  of  necessity  be  left 
to  the  individual  housekeeper.  We  would  sug- 
gest, however,  that  where  two  or  more  servants 
are  employed,  the  duties  of  each  should  be 
clearly  marked  out,  and  the  division  rigidly  ad- 
hered to ; it  will  save  much  misunderstanding 
and  confusion.  Above  all  things  we  would 
urge  the  systematization  of  the  household  work. 
System  will  be  found  to  be  not  only  one  of  the 
most  efficient  of  labor-saving  devices,  but  an 
invaluable  element  in  the  training  of  both  mis- 
tress and  servants. 

Law  of  Master  and  Servant.  — A con- 
tract for  a term  of  service  extending  beyond 
one  year  is  not  \^did  unless  in  writing.  If 
at  the  time  of  hiring  no  term  of  service  is 
specified,  either  party  may  terminate  the  con- 
tract at  his  option,  unless  there  be  a usage  or 
custom  to  the  contrary,  which  the  parties 
may  be  presumed  to  have  contemplated  at  the 
time  the  contract  was  entered  into.  Where 
the  contract  is  for  a certain  term,  and  the  ser- 
vant is  discharged  without  cause  before  its 
expiration,  the  master  is  liable  in  damages, 
the  usual  measure  of  which  is  the  rate  of 
wages  stipulated  for  in  the  contract.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  general  rule  is  that  if 
a servant,  under  a contract  to  serve  for  a spec- 
ified time,  leave  the  master  without  cause  be- 
fore its  expiration,  he  forfeits  all  claim  for 


wages.  As  if  one  enters  into  a contract  to  serve 
six  months,  at  so  much  per  month,  and  leaves 
at  the  end  of  three  months  without  cause,  it 
seems  that  he  thereby  forfeits  all  claim  for  wages 
during  the  time  he  has  served.  So  also  if  a 
‘servant  misconducts  himself  and  is  discharged 
by  the  master  for  a justified  cause,  it  has  been 
held  that  he  forfeits  all  claim  for  wages  since 
the  last  payment.  But  if  the  servant  is  una- 
ble to  perform  his  contract  on  account  of  sick- 
ness, he  is  entitled  to  wages  up  to  the  time  he 
ceased  labor.  The  rule  is  the  same  if  he  departs 
for  a justifiable  cause,  or  if  the  contract  is  dis- 
solved by  the  consent  of  both  parties.  It  is 
the  duty  of  the  servant  to  obey  all  lawful  and 
reasonable  orders  of  the  master,  and  if  he  ne- 
glect or  refuse,  the  master  is  justified  in  dis- 
charging him.  So,  also,  if  he  misconducts 
himself  in  such  a way  as  to  injure  his  master’s 
business,  or  commits  a crime,  or  is  in  the  habit 
of  becoming  intoxicated.  It  is  the  duty  of 
the  master  to  provide  suitably  for  the  wants 
of  his  servant,  but  in  case  of  sickness  he  is 
not  bound  to  furnish  medical  attendance  or 
medicines.  If  he  does  so,  he  is  not  entitled 
to  deduct  the  expense  from  the  wages  of 
the  servant  without  his  consent.  If  the  ser- 
vant suffer  an  injury  from  any  of  the  risks 
incident  to  his  employment,  or  from  the  neg- 
ligence of  a fellow  servant,  the  master  is  not 
liable. 

SETONS. — By  a seton  is  meant  a long 
wound  artificially  made  under  the  skin,  the  walls 
of  which  wound  are  kept  in  a state  of  irritation 
and  suppuration  by  the  presence  of  some  for- 
eign body.  It  differs  from  an  issue  in  being  a 
tubular  wound  under  the  skin  and  not  an  open 
ulcer.  A seton  may  be  established  by  transfix- 
ing a pinched-up  fold  of  skin  by  a large  flat 
needle  armed  with  a strand  of  cotton  or  silk 
thread,  or  by  passing  a bistoury  through  the 
base  of  the  fold  and  then  carrying  the  thread 
through  the  canal  thus  made,  by  means  of  a 
small-eyed  probe.  After  the  thread  has  been 
allowed  to  remain  at  rest  for  two  or  three  days 
and  has  set  up  irritation  and  some  discharge,  it 
is  pulled  a little  further  through  the  wound  so 
that  a fresh  portion  may  be  included  and  the 
soiled  portion  be  cut  away.  This  manoeuvre  is 
repeated  every  second  or  third  day,  and  when 
the  strand  is  almost  used  up  a fresh  strand  is 
attached  and  substituted  for  it.  Instead  of  cot- 
ton or  silk  thread  many  surgeons  use  a small 
flat  band  of  india-rubber,  which  is  less  liable  to 
become  clogged  by  dry  and  offensively  smelling 
discharge.  Setons  are  established  for  the  pur- 
poses of  setting  up  counter-irritation,  and  of 
causing  a chronic  discharge  so  as  to  produce  a 
drain  upon  the  system.  With  the  former  ob- 
ject in  view  they  are  often  useful  when  applied 
to  the  temple  in  some  affections  of  the  eye,  and 
to  the  back  of  the  ear  in  cases  of  deafness.  As 
a means  of  producing  a constant  drain  upon  the 
system  a seton  is  often  established  in  old 
people  who  are  threatened  with  an  attack  of 
apoplexy,  or  who  suffer  from  constitutional  dis- 
turbance in  consequence  of  the  closing  by 


478 


SEWERS 


SHAGREEN 


cicatrization  of  a large  chronic  ulcer.  Chronic 
abscesses  and  tumors  with  fluid  contents  are 
often  treated  by  the  introduction  of  a long 
strand  of  silk  thread.  As  the  fluid  flows  slowly 
away  from  the  orifices  of  the  seton,  irritation 
is  set  up  in  the  walls  of  the  sac,  which  contract, 
and  are  finally  glued  together  by  inflammatory 
conditions. 

SEWERS. — The  common  drains  by  which 
the  water  and  filth  of  large  towns  and  cities  are 
conveyed  away.  The  drains  of  houses  com- 
municating with  them  should  be  trapped  on  the 
outside.  It  is  an  imperative  condition  of  the 
safety  of  every  household  that  its  own  soil- 
pipes  and  outlet  drains,  and  the  sewer  or  cess- 
pool to  which  they  lead,  should  be  thoroughly 
and  completely  ventilated  with  a current  of  air. 
{See  Drainage  and  Sinks.) 

SHAD. — Shad  are  seldom  or  never  found 
alive  in  the  markets,  as  they  die  a few  minutes 
after  being  taken  out  of  the  water.  When  fresh, 
their  gills  are  of  a bright  crimson,  the  body  is 
firm,  and  the  scales  very  bright ; when  the  eyes 
are  sunken,  and  the  gills  have  begun  to  turn  a 
whitish  blue,  the  fish  are  unfit  to  eat.  Shad 
appear  in  the  Southern  waters  (whence  they 
are  brought  North)  as  early  as  the  1st  of  Feb- 
ruary, and  by  the  20th  are  generally  plentiful ; 
in  the  Delaware  River  they  are  first  caught 
about  the  20th  of  March;  in  the  Hudson 
River,  about  the  1st  of  April ; in  the  Connec- 
ticut River,  about  the  1 5th  of  April.  They  are 


in  season  till  June.  The  usual  weight  Is  from 
three  and  a half  to  five  pounds  each.  The 
roes  are  considered  by  some  superior  to  the 
fish  itself ; the  male  has  roes,  or  rather  a melt, 
which  is  very  delicate.  Shad  are  found  salted 
and  smoked  ; those  cured  in  Connecticut  are 
considered  best. 

Baked  Shad. — Select  a large  shad,  wash 
and  scrape  it  clean,  taking  off  all  the  scales,  and 
wipe  it  dry  ; make  a dressing  of  bread-crumbs, 
a little  chopped  parsley  and  pork,  salt,  pepper, 
and  butter ; fill  up  the  shad  with  the  stuffing, 
sew  it  up  and  lay  it  into  a baking-pan  with  a 
little  water  in  it ; lay  on  it  some  small  bits  of  but- 
ter or  thin  slices  of  salt  pork,  and  dredge  on  a 
little  flour ; bake  about  forty  minutes,  basting 
well.  When  the  shad  is  done,  dish  it,  and  add 
to  the  gravy  a good  lump  of  butter,  a little  hot 
water,  a little  browned  flour  and  some  salt  and 
pepper ; boil  it  up  once  and  turn  it  over  the  fish. 
Garnish  with  parsley  and  sliced  lemon. 

Boiled  (Fresh)  Shad. — Select  a roe  shad  for 
boiling.  Prepare  the  fish  as  directed  above, 
cleansing  the  roes  thoroughly ; sprinkle  both 
fish  and  roes  with  salt,  and  wrap  them  in  sepa- 
rate cloths  and  put  them  side  by  side  into  the 
kettle ; cover  with  salted  water,  and  boil  steadily 


from  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes,  according 
to  the  size.  Dish  with  the  roes  arranged 
around  the  fish,  and  garnish  with  capers  and 
slices  of  hard-boiled  eggs.  Send  a sauce-boat 
of  drawn  butter  mingled  with  chopped  parsley 
and  egg  to  table  with  it. 

Boiled  (Salt)  Shad. — Soak  the  shad  several 
hours  in  warm  water,  changing  it  three  or  four 
times ; wipe  with  a coarse  cloth  so  as  to  get  off 
all  the  salt  crystals,  and  soak  in  very  cold  water 
for  an  hour ; then  put  it  into  the  kettle  with 
enough  cold  water  to  cover  it,  and  boil  fifteen  or 
twenty  minutes.  Serve  on  a hot  dish,  with  a 
good  lump  of  butter  spread  over  the  fish. 

Broiled  (Fresh)  Shad. — I.  Scale  and  scrape 
a shad,  split  it  down  the  back,  wash  it  well  and 
wipe  dry;  sprinkle  it  with  salt  and  pepper,  lay 
it  flesh  downward  upon  the  gridiron  and  broil 
it  ten  minutes  or  until  brown;  then  turn  the 
other  side  downwards  and  broil  ten  minutes. 
Serve  on  a hot  dish  with  some  butter  spread 
over  the  fish. 

II.  ( Whole. ) Clean  and  wash  the  fish  with 
care,  but  do  not  open  it  more  than  is  necessary; 
fill  it  with  the  same  stuffing  directed  for  baked 
shad,  or  with  oyster  stuffing,  or  any  other  made 
of  bread-crumbs,  and  with  its  own  roe  ; then 
sew  it  up,  wrap  it  in  a thickly  buttered  paper, 
and  broil  it  gently  for  an  hour  over  a slow  fire. 
Serve  it  with  caper  sauce,  or  with  Chili  vinegar 
and  melted  butter. 

Broiled  (Salt)  Shad — Soak  the  fish  as  direct- 
ed for  boiled  (salt)  shad,  wipe  it  very  dry,  and 
boil  as  directed  for  fresh  shad. 

Fried  Shad. — Clean, wash,  and  dry  a roe  shad; 
split  down  the  back,  and  divide  each  side  into 
four  pieces,  leaving  out  the  head  and  removing 
the  fins  and  tail ; fry  to  a light  brown  on  both 
sides  in  plenty  of  boiling  lard  or  dripping — 
cooking  the  roe  with  it.  Serve  catsup  with  it. 

Roast  Shad. — Scrape,  clean,  wash,  and  wipe 
dry ; tie  the  fish  round  with  twine  ; spread  salt, 
pepper,  and  melted  butter  (with  a brush)  all 
over  the  fish,  wrap  it  in  a well-buttered  paper, 
and  set  it  on  the  spit  to  roast ; baste  it  well 
with  a little  melted  butter,  and  remove  the 
paper  about  five  minutes  before  it  is  done. 
Dish  the  fish,  cut  off  the  twine,  and  serve  with 
either  caper  or  Mayonnaise  sauce. 

SHADDOCK. — This  is  a variety  of  the  same 
species  as  the  lemon  and  orange.  In  its  native 
country,  China,  it  is  a sweet,  pleasant  fruit,  with 
very  little  acidity;  but  in  the  West  Indies, 
where  it  is  extensively  cultivated,  it  has  degen- 
erated into  a sour,  bitter  fruit,  scarcely  tolerable 
to  the  palate.  It  contains  abundance  of  juice, 
which,  diluted,  is  used  as  a beverage  and  in 
making  punch.  Though  less  agreeable  in  its 
flavor,  it  keeps  fresh  and  good  longer  at  sea ; 
hence  it  is  valuable.  It  also  makes  good  pre- 
serves. Those  which  are  heavy  and  soft  are 
usually  best.  The  shaddock  is  very  similar  in 
appearance  to  the  orange,  but  much  larger ; it 
is  often  found  in  our  markets  about  the  same 
time  as  Havana  oranges. 

SHAGREEN.— A valuable  kind  of  leather, 
I used  often  for  spectacle,  instrument,  and  other 


SHALLOON 


SHAVING 


479 


cases ; it  is  a singular  manufacture,  brought  i 
chiefly  from  Astracan.  To  make  it,  the  strong  J 
skin  which  covers  the  crupper  of  the  ass  or  I 
horse  is  chosen ; this  is  soaked  in  water  and 
the  hair  taken  off ; it  is  then  scraped  until  it  is 
extremely  thin,  and  while  still  wet  and  soft,  the 
hard  round  seeds  of  a plant  called  goose-foot 
are  strewed  over  it  and  trodden  deeply  into  it, 
which  causes  it  to  become  very  hard  and 
covered  all  over  with  hemispherical  indenta- 
tions ; the  surface  is  then  scraped  until  the  holes 
have  nearly  disappeared,  after  which  the  leather 
is  again  soaked,  which  cause  the  indentations 
to  rise  and  produce  a rough  granular  surface. 
The  leather  is  now  dressed  with  oil,  dyed  of  a 
green  color,  and  allowed  to  dry.  Lastly,  the 
grains  or  projecting  warts  are  rubbed  down 
till  the  whole  is  perfectly  level,  when  the  shag- 
reen presents  the  beautiful  appearance  of  white 
spots  on  a green  ground. 

SHALLOON. — A light,  loosely-woven  wool- 
len stuff  with  a twill,  much  used  for  lining 
various  articles  of  dress.  It  is  of  various 
colors.  Width  from  32  to  36  inches. 

SHALLOT. — A plant  of  the  onion  family, 
but  resembling  garlic  in  being  divided  into 
several  cloves  enclosed  in  a skin.  Its  flavor  is 
more  pungent  than  that  of  either  garlic  or  onion, 
hut  more  agreeable.  It  is  employed  in  flavoring 
soups,  stews,  salads,  vinegar,  etc.,  the  largest 
bulbs  being  best  for  this  purpose.  The  new 
shallots  are  found  in  the  markets  about  midsum- 
mer, but  they  are  not  used  in  the  green  state ; 
in  the  dry  state  they  may  be  kept  throughout 
the  year,  and  they  are  generally  sold  thus  in 
bunches. 

“SHAMMY.”  {See  Chamois-skin.) 

SHAVING-. — Every  one  who  has  shaved 
knows  how  desirable  it  is  to  shave  with  com- 
fort, and  to  do  this  proper  apparatus  is  essen- 
tial. The  great  point  is  to  have  a razor  with  a 
keen,  smooth  edge.  Good  razors  are  made 
concave  or  hollow  between  the  back  and  edge, 
on  both  sides,  for  better  security  in  shaving, 
and  for  the  purpose  of  giving  them  a better 
edge  in  setting  or  stropping.  Good  strops  may 
be  purchased  of  any  cutler,  but  a more  satisfac- 
tory one  may  easily  be  made  as  follows  Take 
a piece  of  wood  perfectly  flat  on  both  sides, 
and  glue  on  one  side  a strip  of  thick  buff 
leather,  on  which  spread  a composition  made 
of  equal  parts  of  black-lead  in  impalpable  pow- 
der, and  strong  mercurial  ointment;  the  lead 
should  be  the  Spanish  lump,  scraped  very  fine, 
the  powder  of  the  shops  being  impure  and 
gritty.  Strop  the  razor  well  after  using  it,  not 
before , and  there  will  be  no  necessity  to  wipe 
it  until  it  is  again  wanted,  the  composition  effec- 
tually preventing  rust  in  any  climate.  This 
stropping,  with  occasional  use  of  the  hone  when 
the  edge  becomes  dull,  will  be  sufficient  to  keep 
a keen  edge  on  the  razor  for  a long  time.  When 
using  the  strop  or  hone,  keep  the  razor  perfectly 
flat,  press  lightly  upon  it,  and  draw  it  diagon- 
ally from  the  heel  to  the  point,  the  whole  length 
of  the  strop  or  hone,  turning  the  elbow  in  and 
out  evefy  time  the  razor  is  turned. 


To  sharpen  or  set  a razor,  put  it  for  half  an 
hour  in  water  to  which  has  been  added  one 
twentieth  of  its  weight  of  muriatic  or  sulphuric 
acid  ; then  slightly  wipe  it  off,  and  after  a few 
hours  set  (strop)  it  on  the  hone.  The  acid 
here  supplies  the  place  of  a whetstone,  by  cor- 
roding the  whole  surface  uniformly,  so  that  no- 
thing more  than  a smooth  polish  is  necessary;  the 
process  never  injures  good  blades,  while  badly 
hardened  ones  are  frequently  improved  by  it. 

The  hone  should  be  frequently  moistened 
with  oil,  and  kept  in  a place  where  it  will  not 
readily  become  dry.  Rubbing  the  hone  previ- 
ous to  use  with  soap  instead  of  oil,  gives  a sur- 
prising keenness  and  smoothness  to  the  edge 
of  the  razor.  Keep  the  razor-strop  moderately 
moist  with  a drop  or  two  of  sweet  oil ; a little 
crocus  and  a few  drops  of  sweet  oil  rubbed  well 
in  with  a round  glass  bottle  will  give  the  razor 
a fine  edge.  The  “ Diamond  Paste  ” sold  in 
the  shops  for  sharpening  razors  is  simply  coke 
ground  to  an  impalpable  powder. 

Razor  Paper  is  an  invention  designed  to 
supersede  the  use  of  the  ordinary  strop.  By 
merely  wiping  the  razor  on  the  paper,  to  re- 
move the  lather  after  shaving,  a keen  edge  is 
always  maintained  without  further  trouble ; 
only  one  caution  is  necessary, — that  is,  to  be- 
gin with  a sharp  razor,  and  then  the  paper 
will  keep  it  in  that  state  for  years.  It  may  be 
prepared  thus  : First,  procure  oxide  of  iron  (by 
the  addition  of  carbonate  of  soda  to  a solution 
of  persulphate  of  iron),  well  wash  the  precipi- 
tate, and  finally  leave  it  of  the  consistency  of 
cream ; secondly,  procure  some  good  paper, 
soft,  and  a little  thinner  than  ordinary  printing- 
paper;  then,  with  a soft  brush,  spread  over  the 
paper  (on  one  side  only),  very  thinly,  the  moist 
oxide  of  iron;  dry  it,  and  cut  the  paper  into 
pieces  two  inches  square;  it  will  then  be  fit 
for  use. 

Of  no  less  importance  than  the  razor  is  the 
softening  of  the  beard,  which  is  too  often  neg- 
lected. First  wash  it  well  in  cold  water. 
(Hot  water  opens  the  pores  and  makes  the  face 
tender.)  Then  rub  dry  with  a towel.  Then 
apply  the  lather.  The  soap  is  generally  rubbed 
to  a lather  with  a brush  ; but  many  prefer  to 
wet  the  beard  and  then  rub  the  cake  of  soap 
on  the  face,  making  the  lather  with  the 
brush  on  the  skin;  this  is  the  most  effectual 
way  when  the  beard  is  very  strong.  After  the 
operation,  the  face  ought  to  be  washed  with 
cold  water  and  the  razor  wiped  dry  either  with 
a cloth  or  a piece  of  chamois-skin ; the  razor 
is  usually  dipped  into  hot  water  before  using, 
but  this  is  a practice  not  always  necessary. 
Those  who,  after  shaving,  are  affected  by  frosty 
air,  will  find  a solution  of  nitre  in  soft  water 
take  off  every  unpleasant  sensation  ; and,  in- 
stead of  the  shining  and  parchment-like  ap- 
pearance consequent  on  greasy  applications, 
produce  softness  and  abate  all  swelling.  Or, 
at  first,  use  a little  spermaceti  ointment,  at 
night,  and  the  next  morning;  afterwards  fre- 
quently wash  the  parts  affected  with  the  solution 
of  nitre. ' 


480 


SHAWLS 


SHELL-FISH 


Of  the  ordinary  shaving-soaps , Naples  soft 
soap  is  a fish  oil  (mixed  with  Lucca  oil)  and 
potash, colored  brown;  it  retains,  when  pure, 
its  natural  fishy  odor.  Rypophagon  soap,  used 
as  a dentifrice,  as  well  as  for  shaving,  consists 
of  the  best  yellow  soap  and  fig  soft  soap,  per- 
fumed with  anise  and  citronella.  We  have 
found  the  small  flat  cakes,  called  Yankee  soap, 
as  satisfactory  as  any  other.  Instead  of  soap 
some  use  shaving-paste , which  may  be  made 
by  melting  together  one  drachm  each  of  al- 
mond oil,  white  wax  and  spermaceti ; beat 
them  up  with  rose-water  and  a square  of  Wind- 
sor soap.  Essence  of  soap , which  is  excellent 
for  shaving,  is  made  by  dissolving  as  much 
fine,  dry,  white  soap  in  spirits  of  wine  as  the 
spirits  will  take  up,  and  perfuming  it  with  any 
essence  ; the  mixture  should  be  placed  near 
the  fire,  and  if  all  the  soap  does  not  dissolve, 
pour  off  the  liquid  and  keep  it  for  use.  For 
shaving,  the  brush  should  be  dipped  in,  and  a 
few  drops  of  water  being  thrown  upon  the 
brush,  it  will  make  a fine  lather.  A good  liquid 
of  this  kind  may  be  made  by  dissolving  eight 
ounces  of  castile  soap  in  a pint  of  spirits  of 
wine. 

SHAWLS. — These  popular  articles  of  dress 
are  manufactured  in  such  numberless  varieties, 
most  of  which  are  so  well  known,  that  it  would 
be  useless  to  attempt  to  treat  of  them  all  here  ; 
but  a few  suggestions  respecting  the  Cashmere 
or  Indian  shawls  may  be  useful  to  those  in- 
tending to  purchase.  A real  Cashmere  shawl, 
made  by  the  inhabitants  of  that  Indian  valley 
from  the  wool  of  a peculiar  variety  of  goat, 
reared  on  the  plains  of  Thibet,  is  a most  costly 
article.  To  make  a pair  of  large  and  hand- 
some Cashmere  shawls  requires  the  labor  of 
fourteen  men  for  half  a year.  The  down  is 
collected  from  flocks  of  goats  on  the  plains  of 
Thibet,  and  brought  to  the  confines  of  Cash- 
mere  on  the  backs  of  sheep.  It  is  then  cleaned 
and  one  fourth  of  it  (being  all  that  is  fitted  for 
the  shawls)  is  carried  on  men’s  backs  the  re- 


mainder of  the  distance  to  Cashmere.  When 
arrived  thither,  it  passes  into  the  hands  of  the 
merchants,  who  sell  it  in  small  quantities  to  the 
weavers,  at  the  rate  of  about  two  rupees  per 
pound.  The  thread  is  dyed  a great  variety  of 
colors,  and  then  stiffened  with  rice  water. 
Many  articles  are  woven  with  these  colored 
threads,  the  process  being  slow  and  tedious,  on 
account  of  the  rude  construction  of  the  looms. 
The  shawls  are  washed  after  being  woven,  to 
remove  the  rice  stiffening;  and  a fine  pale  yel- 
low color  is  imparted  by  means  of  sulphur 
fumes. 

The  prices  paid  for  Indian  shawls,  especially 
those  woven  in  Cashmere,  have  sometimes 
been  almost  fabulous.  A full-sized  shawl,  such 
as  is  called  in  America  a long  shawl,  ordinarily 
commands  in  Paris  or  London  from  $500  to 
$5000.  Scarfs  and  square  shawls,  being 
smaller,  sell  for  less.  It  is  a mistake,  however, 
to  suppose  that  all  these  shawls  are  manufac- 
tured in  India  in  the  shape  in  which  they  are 
sold  here.  Generally,  indeed,  the  centres  and 
borders  are  brought  over  separately,  and  are 
put  together  afterwards  in  sizes  and  patterns 
to  suit  customers.  Moreover  a large  portion 
of  the  shawls  sold  as  real  India  ones  are  actu- 
ally made  in  France  ; for  the  Thibet  goat  was 
introduced  into  that  country  more  than  thirty 
years  ago,  and  the  Cashmere  shawls  are  imita- 
ted with  considerable  skill.  Judges  of  the  ar- 
ticle say,  however,  that  the  real  India  shawl 
can  be  detected  by  its  having  a less  evenly 
woven  web,  as  also  from  its  brighter  colors.  1 1 is 
likewise  said  that  the  border  of  the  genuine 
India  shawl  is  invariably  woven  in  small  pieces, 
which  are  afterwards  sewn  together,  as  the 
whole  border  is  subsequently  sewn  on  the 
centre. 

The  French  Brochi  shawls  and  the  English 
Paisleys  are  imitations  of  the  India  shawls, 
but  woven  in  one  piece  ; they  are  rich  and  ele- 
gant, and  less  expensive  than  the  genuine 
Indias. 


SHEEP.  ( See  Kidneys,  Lamb,  Mutton, 
Suet,  and  Tongues.) 

SHEET.  ( See  Beds  AND  BEDDING.) 


SHELL  FISH.— This  is  one  of  the  most 
highly  appreciated  divisions  of  the  fish  tribe. 
It  comprises  a vast  number  of  species,  in  its 


SHERBET 


SHIRTS 


481 


two  classes  of  crustaceans  and  molluscs,  which 
are  not  used  as  food ; those  used  as  food  are 
crabs , crayfish , clams , cockles , lobsters , mus- 
cles, oysters,  periwinkles , prawns,  and 
shrimps,  all  of  which  are  treated  of,  fully,  under 
their  respective  names.  All  shell-fish  are  very 
liable  to  decomposition,  and  when  this  takes 
place  they  are  extremely  injurious  to  health, 
frequently  producing  severe  bilious  derange- 
ment, and  in  some  cases  a most  troublesome 
eruption,  similar  to  nettlerash.  When  quite 
fresh,  however,  they  are  wholesome,  and  easily 
digested  by  sound  stomachs ; but  they  are 
never  suited  to  invalids,  with  the  exception  of 
the  oyster,  which  is  light  and  yet  nourishing, 
and  can  often  be  taken  by  them  when  any 
other  animal  food  would  be  rejected.  Ameri- 
can shell-fish  are  unequalled  elsewhere  in  the 
world. 

SHERBET.— The  favorite  Eastern  bever- 
age among  wealthy  Mohammedans,  to  whom 
the  Koran  forbids  the  use  of  wine.  It  con- 
sists of  water  and  the  juice  of  fruits,  with 
sugar,  and  is  flavored  with  spices  and  per- 
fumes. 

The  name  is,  however,  applied  to  another 
compound,  made  as  follows  : Put  into  a large 

bowl  one  pound  of  loaf  sugar  and  the  juice 
and  rinds  of  three  lemons  ; pour  over  them  a 
quart  of  boiling  water,  and  let  them  stand  all 
night.  Next  day  strain  the  liquor  through  a 
cloth,  add  to  it  five  pint  bottles  of  currant  wine, 
and  one  of  rum ; mix  well  all  together,  and 
bottle  off  for  use ; it  will  keep  a long  time. 
When  wanted,  mix  with  cold  water  in  a tum- 
bler. This  is  a very  refreshing  summer  bev- 
erage. 

Cream  Sherbet.— Put  the  yolks  of  six  eggs 
and  a dessert-spoonful  of  orange-flower  water 
into  two  quarts  of  cream.  Boil  it  up  once  in  a 
covered  stew-pan,  then  strain  it.  Add  three- 
fourths  of  a pound  of  fine  loaf  sugar,  and  stir 
till  dissolved.  When  cold  set  it  in  ice,  or 
freeze  same  as  ice  cream. 

Lemon  Sherbet. — Dissolve  a pound  and  a 
half  of  loaf-sugar  in  a quart  of  water,  take  nine 
large  lemons,  wipe  them  clean,  cut  each  in 
halves,  squeeze  them  so  as  to  get  out  both 
juice  and  some  of  the  essence  of  the  peel,  stir 
into  it  the  sugared  water,  strain  and  freeze 
same  as  ice  cream. 

Strawberry  Sherbet. — Take  one  pound  of 
best  ripe  strawberries,  crush  them  to  a smooth 
mass,  then  add  three  pints  of  water,  the  juice  of 
one  lemon  and  a tablespoonful  of  orange-flower 
water.  Let  this  stand  three  or  four  hours. 
Then  put  in  another  basin  a pound  of  best 
refined  sugar,  stretch  over  it  a cloth  or  napkin, 
and  strain  on  the  sugar  the  berries,  squeezing 
out  the  juice  as  much  as  possible.  Stir  until 
the  sugar  is  dissolved,  then  strain  again, 
and  set  in  ice  an  hour  before  serving,  in  small 
tumblers. 

SHERRY. — A strong,  full-bodied,  Spanish 
wine,  and  one  of  the  most  popular  of  all  wines. 
Sherry,  in  general,  is  of  an  amber  color,  and 
when  good  it  has  a fine  aromatic  odor,  with 
3i 


something  of  the  agreeable  bitterness  of  the 
peach-kernel.  When  new,  it  is  harsh  and  fiery, 
and  requires  to  be  mellowed  in  wood  for  four 
or  five  years.  There  are  two  kinds  of  sherries, 
the  pale  and  the  brown ; the  latter  are  colored 
by  the  addition  of  some  cheap  must  or  wine 
which  has  been  boiled  till  it  has  acquired  a 
deep  brown  tint.  The  pale  sherries  were  for- 
merly preferred,  being  supposed  to  be  more 
pure  ; but  the  brown  are  now  getting  most  into 
fashion.  The  inferior  sherries  are  often  adul- 
terated with  a cheap  light  wine  called  Mogner, 
and  are  strengthened  by  brandy  ; in  fact  it  is 
extremely  difficult  now  to  procure  a sherry  to 
which  a considerable  quantity  of  brandy  has 
not  been  added.  The  well-known  London  Dock 
Sherry  has  been  found  by  recent  analysis  to 
contain  from  twelve  to  twenty-five  per  cent. 
Two  dry  sherries  are  highly  esteemed  in  Spain, 
Amofitillado  and  Manzanilla,  they  are  said  to 
be  entirely  devoid  of  brandy,  and  equally  free 
from  acidity;  but  they  are  seldom  brought  to 
this  country.  The  Amontillado,  when  genuine 
and  old,  fetches  a high  price,  and  is  sometimes 
added  to  improve  the  ordinary  sherries  by  its 
nutty  flavor.  Most  of  the  sherries  sold  in  this 
country  are  manufactured  here  or  in  England. 

If  bought  in  the  cask,  sherry  may  be  much 
improved  by  fining  : — Draw  off  one  gallon  ; 
dissolve  two  ounces  of  isinglass  to  a jelly  and 
put  in  the  wine  ; then  add  the  whites  of  ten 
eggs  with  the  shells,  and  one  ounce  of  alum 
boiled  in  a pint  of  water  ; beat  together  well 
and  return  to  the  cask.  Sugar-candy  or  honey 
will  give  sherry  softness. 

Sherry  should  be  kept  in  a dry,  cool  place, 
and  drunk  at  the  temperature  thereby  imparted 
to  it. 

Sherry-cobbler. — L Put  plenty  of  finely 
broken  ice  into  a large  tumbler;  pour  in  two 
wineglassfuls  of  sherry  and  a good  tablespoon- 
ful of  powdered  white  sugar,  with  a few  small 
bits  (not  slices)  of  lemon ; stir  with  a W'ooden 
spoon. 

II.  To  make  a quantity  of  sherry-cobbler, 
take  a bowl  and  lay  several  slices  of  pine-apple, 
cut  in  quarters,  in  the  bottom  ; sprinkle  well 
with  sugar,  add  pounded  ice  ; add  a handful  of 
strawberries  or  raspberries,  and  not  quite  half  a 
teacupful  of  powdered  sugar;  fill  the  bowl  nearly 
half  full  of  pounded  ice,  add  two  limes,  slice 
them  and  pour  in  a bottle  of  sherry.  Stir  up  the 
ingredients  from  the  bottom  until  all  are 
thoroughly  mixed  ; in  serving  put  a slice  of 
each  kind  of  fruit  in  each  glass. 

SHIRTS. — The  principal  parts  of  a shirt 
are  the  body,  the  sleeves,  and  the  bosom; 
there  are,  besides,  the  yoke,  the  collar,  cuffs, 
gussets,  bands  and  tongue. 

The  measurements  for  this  garment  must  be 
made  with  great  accuracy.  Faults  in  the  fit 
of  a shirt  may  be  ascertained  by  noticing  the 
wrinkles  that  have  formed  in  it  after  a day’s 
wear.  The  most  common  faults  are  that  it  is 
not  cut  out  enough  in  the  neck,  and  that  it  is 
too  long  on  the  shoulders  and  too  broad 
across  the  breast.  The  first  of  these  faults, 


482 


SHIRTS 


causes  the  bosom  to  gape  and  to  bulge  ; the  two 
latter  cause  wrinkles  and  creases  around  the 
arms. 

The  following  are  the  measurements  requir- 
ed: I.  The  length  of  the  garment ; this  mea- 

sure is  taken  from  the  nape  of  the  neck  and 
may  be  longer  or  shorter  at  will,  preferences 
varying  in  regard  to  the  length  of  a shirt ; 2. 
The  length  of  the  bosom;  for  this,  two  measure- 
ments are  made,  the  first,  directly  in  front  from 
the  base  of  the  neck  to  the  waist,  the  second, 
from  the  top  of  the  shoulder  at  the  neck,  to  the 
same  point  of  the  waist ; 3.  The  breadth  of  the 
chest,  from  one  arm  to  the  other  ; 4.  The  size 
of  the  neck  (mark  this  in  full,  and  also  mark 
one  third  of  it)  ; 5.  The  length  of  the  sleeve 
(measure  down  the  inside  of  the  arm,  and  allow 
two  inches  more  for  the  length  on  the  outside) ; 
6.  The  size  of  the  wrist  (taken  loosely). 

We  will  now  for  greater  accuracy  assume 
certain  dimensions.  Let  us  suppose  the  length 
of  a shirt  to  be  a yard  and  an  eighth  ; the 
length  of  the  sleeves,  five-eighths  of  a yard  ; 
and  three-eighths  sufficient  for  yoke,  collar,  etc. 
This  will  require  ^'4  yards  of  material,  seven- 
eighths  wide.  F rom  this  quantity,  enough  for  a 
medium  sized  shirt,  we  cut  off  what  is  to  be  used 
for  sleeves,  yoke,  etc.,  and  we  have  left  for  the 
body  2'/  yards,  double  the  assumed  length,  that 
is,  since  the  shirt  is  made  of  two  breadths.  N ow 
fold  this  across  in  the  width,  but  leaving  one 
breadth  four  inches  longer  than  the  other,  and 
cut  them  apart.  The  longer  breadth  will  form 
the  back  of  the  shirt ; the  shorter,  the  front. 


shirt.  (Fig.  1.)  We  take  the  shorter  breadth 
and  begin  by  making  ready  the  bosom.  For 
this  we  cut  a slit,  a b down  directly  in  the 
middle,  commencing  at  the  top  of  the  breadth 
and  making  the  slit  the  length  indicated  as  the 
second  measure  of  the  length  of  the  shirt-bosom; 
we  will  suppose  this  measure  to  be  20  inches. 


From  the  bottom  of  this  slit  we  then  cut  across 
on  each  side,  b c,  b d , leaving  uncut  on  the  outside 
a space  of  six  or  eight  inches.  The  edges  of  the 
slit  a b , are  now  to  be  turned  down  and  hem- 
med, the  hem  being  about  an  inch  wide  ; that 
on  the  right  will  later  have  the  buttons  sewed 
on  it,  that  on  the  left,  e,  is  to  be  stitched  as 
indicated  by  the  dotted  lines,  and  will  have  the 
button-holes  made  in  it. 

We  then  make  two  or  three  plaits  at  the 
side  of  each  hem,  and  hold  them  in  place  by 
basting-threads  at  top  and  bottom.  In  the 
figure  they  are  represented  by  the  letters  g and 
f on  the  left  side ; the  right  half  being  left  in 
course  of  preparation  to  make  the  explanation 
clearer.  The  plaits  being  made  on  both  sides, 
we  cross  the  hems  over  the  other,  the  stitched 
one  outside,  and  hold  them  in  place  with  pins 
or  stitches  at  top  and  bottom  until  the  neck  has 
been  cut  out,  which  cannot  be  done  until  the 
back  and  front  of  the  shirt  have  been  put  to- 
gether. 

We  now  gather  the  lower  edge  of  the  trans- 
verse slit  c d,  and  lay  the  gathers,  and  then 
fasten  them  so  as  to  make  the  gathered  space 
of  the  same  length  as  the  breadth  of  the  shirt- 
bosom.  We  then  prepare  two  little  strips, 
about  an  inch  wide,  to  cover  this  gathering : 
turn  the  edges  of  each  strip  and  baste  one  on 
the  outside  of  the  shirt,  half  upon  the  bosom 
and  half  upon  the  gathering.  This  band  is 
then  secured  in  its  place  by  a row  of  stitching 
across  the  upper  edge,  and  by  being  hemmed 
down  upon  the  gathers  across  the  lower  edge. 
The  other  strip  is  then  put  on  the  wrong  side 


of  the  shirt  to  correspond,  and  hemmed  down 
all  around.  The  lower  edge  of  the  garment 
itself  is  then  finished  off  with  a very  narrow  hem. 

We  next  take  up  the  back  breadth  (Fig.  2). 
The  upper  edge,  a b,  is  first  to  be  gathered 


SHIRTS 


483 


straight  across,  leaving  six  or  eight  inches  plain 
on  each  side.  We  then  lay  the  gathers  and 
fasten  them,  making  the  gathered  space  cor- 
respond with  the  width  of  the  shirt-bosom.  The 
lower  edge  of  the  breadth  should  then  be 
hemmed  to  match  the  front. 

We  next  prepare  the  yoke,  which  is  to  be  put 
on  above  the  gathers  of  the  back.  This  yoke 
is  cut  by  Fig.  3,  which  represents  half  of  it, 
laid  as  it  should  be  cut  upon  a straight  piece 
of  the  material.  For  the  yoke  we  require  four 
pieces  just  alike.  T wo  of  these  are  to  be  sewed 
together  over  and  over  in  the  middle  of  the  back, 
and  make  the  outside,  the  other  two  are 
stitched  together,  and  form  the  under  side 


or  lining.  Along  the  lower  edge  of  this  yoke, 
between  the  outside  and  the  lining,  the  gathers 
are  fastened.  The  gathers  should  be  sewed 
down  on  the  outside,  and  where  the  breadth  is 
plain,  the  yoke  should  be  stitched  on  ; on  the 
under  side  it  requires  only  to  be  hemmed  across. 

The  two  parts  of  the  shirt  are  then  put  to- 
gether by  basting  the  shoulder  of  the  yoke  from 
the  neck  to  the  arm-hole,  down  upon  the  front 
from  the  point  a to  b (this  is  afterwards  to  be 
stitched),  and  by  sewing  over  and  over  the  sides 
c c,  leaving  for  the  sleeves  an  opening  on  each 
side  from  half  way  up  the  height  of  the  shirt- 
bosom,  and  also,  at  the  bottom  of  the  side  seams, 
an  opening  of  about  four  inches  in  length. 

When  these  two  halves  of  the  shirt  have 
been  thus  put  together,  we  cut  the  garment  out 
in  the  neck  from  the  point  h (Fig.  1),  the  height 
in  front,  to  i,  the  height  of  the  shoulder.  In 
the  back  we  have  the  neck  already  cut  out,  and 


we  ascertain  if  it  be  correct  by  applying  the  neck 
measure.  The  garment  is  then  finished  around 
the  neck  by  a binding  made  to  be  about  an  inch 
wide  when  it  is  finished,  upon  which  are  sewed 
the  buttons  that  will  hold  the  collar  in  place. 

The  sleeves  (Fig.  4)  are  cut  in  the  follow- 
ing manner  : take  the  five-eighths  of  material 
reserved  for  the  purpose,  lay  it  upon  the 
lap-board  or  work-table,  and  fold  it  over  from 
each  side  to  meet  in  the  middle,  the  ma- 
terial being  placed  in  such  a manner  that 
the  cut  edges  will  be  represented  by  a b g, 
c d h,  in  Fig.  4,  and  the  selvages  meet  from 
the  point  e downward.  We  have  thus  the 
two  sleeves  each  five-eighths  in  length  and  half 
the  width  of  the  material  in  breadth,  lying 
I before  us,  but  not  cut  apart,  and  our  first  care 
is  to  unite  them  still  more  by  basting  together 
the  two  selvages  and  holding  that  seam  in  its 
place  as  represented  in  the  figure,  by  pins  at 
top  and  bottom.  Thus  prepared  we  fold  it 
diagonally  as  shown  in  Fig. 
4,  and  cut  from  g to  h.  We 
then  sew  each  portion  of  the 
basted  selvages  ; and  the 
sleeves,  each  with  its  gore, 
are  ready.  Before  sewing 
them  up,  however,  we  gather 
each  at  its  lower  edge,  leaving 
about  an  inch  plain  at  each 
end,  near  the  opening  a (Fig 
5),  which  opening  is  to  be  left 
about  two  inches  long,  and  is 
hemmed  on  each  edge.  We 
then  lay  the  gathers  of  the 
sleeve,  and  apply  the  wrist- 
band or  cuff.  The  plain 
wristband  is  cut  double,  and 
is  about  four  inches  deep 
when  finished.  Its  length  is 
decided  by  the  wrist  measure. 
It  should  be  run  together  at  the  two  extremities 
and  turned  over  and  stitched  all  around  the  edge, 
then  basted  on  to  the  sleeves  and  the  gathers 
sewed  down  upon  it  on  the  upper  and  under  side. 

The  bottom  of  the  sleeves  being  thus  finished, 
we  sew  the  sleeves  up  and  prepare  the  top. 
Usually  the  sleeve  should  be  about  the  same 
width  as  the  arm-hole  into  which  it  is  to  be  sewn. 

It  may  be  larger,  and  can  then  be  gathered  a 
little  upon  the  top,  and  this  is  preferred  by 
some  ; but  it  should  on  no  account  be  smaller. 

The  arm-hole  of  the  shirt  is  cut  out  by  taking 
the  back  and  front  together  at  the  shoulder  k 
(Fig.  1),  and  cutting  straight  down  as  far  as  j; 
then  with  a curve  half  an  inch  further  to  the 
side  seam.  In  basting  in  the  sleeves,  place  the 
seam  upon  the  seam  of  the  shirt,  bringing  the 
gore  on  the  back.  Then  stitch  the  sleeves  in 
with  a wide  seam,  and  fell  it  down  upon  the 
shirt  all  around  the  arm-hole. 

We  have  now  to  make  button-holes,  three  in 
the  left-hand  hem  of  the  bosom,  one  in  each 
wristband;  or  two  if  sleeve-buttons  are  worn, 
and  to  sew  on  the  corresponding  buttons.  Also 
it  is  customary  to  sew  a little  pointed  bit  of 
double  cloth,  the  tongue  (9,  Fig.  6),  on  the  lower 


484 


SHIRTS 


SHRIMPS 


edge  of  the  shirt-bosom,  which  has  a button- 
hole, corresponding*  to  a button  on  the  waist- 
band of  the  drawers,  and  is  designed  to  keep 
the  shirt-bosom  well  in  place.  Further  it  is 
useful  to  put  very  small  gussets  in  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  side-seams  and  the  sleeve  seams, 
as  is  shown  in  Fig.  6. 

We  shall  now  explain  the  construction  of 
the  shirt-collar  which,  originally  a part  of  the 
garment  itself,  has  of  late  years  assumed  an 
independent  existence.  It  would  seem,  judg- 
ing from  the  ever  new  variety  of  names  applied 
to  that  article,  that  the  variety  in  collars  must 
be  endless ; in  fact,  however,  all  may  be  re- 
duced to  three  original 
types,  the  remaining 
variations  being  simply 
differences  of  height, or 
of  the  contour  of  the 
edge.  These  three 
styles  are:  the  standing 
collar,  the  turn-down 
collar,  and  the  collar 
divided  in  the  back.  All  collars  should  be  made 
threefold,  as  they  retain  their  stiffness  much 
longer.  All  three  varieties  require  a binding 
which  should  be  cut  of  the  same  length  as  the 
neck-band  of  the  shirt  and  have  a button  hole 
in  the  middle  to  correspond  to  the  but- 
ton on  the  neck-band.  For  this  binding 
two  strips  about  an  inch  wide  should  be  cut, 
and  should  be  cut  sloping  towards  the  ex- 
tremities ; the  collar  also  should  be  hol- 
lowed out  a little  in  the  middle,  and  as  rep- 
resented in  Figs.  7,  8,  -somewhat  more  for 
a turned  over  than  for 
a standing  collar.  The 
collar  divided  in  the 
back  is  cut  in  four  pieces 
and  is  put  together  so 
that  one  half  overlaps 
the  other. 

Cuffs  of  every  size  and 
shape  are  also  made 
In  this  case  the  wrist- 
two  inches  wide,  and 


Fig.  8. 


separate  from  the  shirt, 
band  should  be  about 
the  cuffs  require  an  additional  button  hole  by 
which  to  attach  them  to  the  button  on  the 
wristband. 


In  specifying  the  amount  of  material  neces- 
sary for  making  a shirt,  we  assumed  that  it 
was  to  be  made  throughout  of  the  same  ma- 
terial ; but  it  is  far  more  common  to  make  the 
cuffs,  collar,  and  bosom  of  something  finer  than 
the  rest  of  the  shirt;  as  for  instance  when  the 
shirt  is  cotton  ; these  portions  are  usually  made 
of  linen,  and  we  must  abate  from  the  quantity 
indicated  the  length  necessary  for  the  bosom, 
cuffs,  and  collar,  and  supply  an  equal  length  of 
the  finer  material.  Having  cut  the  lengths  as 
directed,  we  remove  from  the  front  of  the  shirt 
the  portion  which  would  have  been  used  for 
the  folds,  cutting  it  away  by  the  dotted  line  in 
Fig.  I ; we  now  take  a length  from  the  linen, 
corresponding  to  the  length  cut  away,  and  we 
retain  the  whole  breadth,  to  use  if  needed  in 
the  plaits.  This  breadth,  divided  in  halves, 
gives  the  two  sides  of  the  shirt-bosom.  The 
hems  and  plaits  are  then  made  as  explained 
above,  and  the  two  halves  are  stitched  into 
their  places,  beginning  at  the  top  at  each 
side,  after  which  the  seam  is  felled  down  upon 
the  body  of  the  shirt,  and  this  completes  the 
work. 

Besides  the  plaited  shirt-bosom,  there  is 
also  the  plain  front.  This  is  made  by  turning 
back  the  linen,  after  ascertaining  the  proper 
width  of  the  bosom,  and  facing  or  lining  it,  in 
its  whole  extent.  The  edges  should  receive  a 
double  row  of  stitching,  and  rows  of  stitching 
should  also  represent  the  hem  which  is  to  re- 
ceive the  button-holes. 

To  strengthen  a shirt-bosom  in  the  part 
most  likely  to  wear,  it  is  customary  to  put  a 
false  hem  underneath  the  left  hand  hem,  and 
to  make  the  button-holes  in  this.  It  must  of 
course  be  a little  narrower,  so  as  to  be  out  of 
sight  when  the  garment  is  worn.  Or,  if  pre- 
ferred, the  hem  of  the  front  itself  may  be  nar- 
rowed a little  and  receive  the  button-holes,  and 
a strip  of  linen,  stitched  on  outside,  conceals 
it,  and  represents  the  hem.  In  either  case,  any 
repair  of  the  button-holes  is  thus  concealed,  or 
the  whole  strip  may  be  renewed  with  but  little 
trouble. 

SHOES.  ( See  Boots  and  Shoes.) 

SHOWER-BATH.  (See  Bath.) 

SHRIMPS. — This  lively  little  animal,  of  a 
shape  somewhat  resembling  the  lobster;  is  not 
much  used  for  the  table  in  this  country,  though 
when  of  good  size  they  are  sweet  and  well- 
flavored.  Many  are  used  in  making  dressings, 
sauces,  etc.  (See  Sauces.)  The  Prawn  or 
big  Shrimp  is  much  larger  than  the  common 
shrimp,  and  more  delicate. 

To  shell  shrimps  or  prawns,  though  a most 
simple  process,  would  appear,  from  the  manner 
in  which  it  is  performed  by  many  people,  to  be 
a very  difficult  one  ; and  indeed  it  is  not  un- 
usual for  some  who,  from  lack  of  a little  skill, 
find  it  slow  and  irksome,  to  have  recourse  to 
the  dangerous  plan  of  eating  the  fish  entire. 
It  need  scarcely  be  remarked  that  very  serious 
consequences  may  result  from  the  shells  being 
swallowed  with  them,  particularly  when  they 
are  eaten  in  large  quantities.  Unless  the 


SHRIMPS 


SICK-ROOM 


485 


shrimps  are  stale,  when  they  are  apt  to  break, 
they  will  quit  their  shells  easily  if  the  head  be 
held  firmly  in  the  right  hand  and  the  tail  in  the 
other,  and  the  fish  be  straightened  out  to  the 
full  length,  then  the  two  hands  pressed  quickly 
towards  each  other,  and  the  shell  of  the  tail 
broken  by  a slight  vibratory  motion  of  the  right 
hand,  when  it  will  come  off  with  the  head  ad- 
hering to  it;  a small  portion  only  will  then 
remain  on  the  other  end,  which  can  be  removed 
in  an  instant. 

Boiled  Shrimps. — Throw  them  into  plenty 
of  fast  boiling  water  to  which  salt  has  been 
added  in  the  proportion  of  from  five  to  six 
ounces  to  a gallon ; take  off  all  the  scum,  and 
boil  the  shrimps  five  or  six  minutes,  or  less 
should  they  be  very  small.  As  soon  as  they 
are  tender,  drain  them  well  in  a cullender,  and 
spread  them  out  on  a soft  cloth  to  cool : or  dish 
them  on  a napkin,  and  send  them  hot  to  table 
when  they  are  liked  so.  Prawns  are  cooked  in 
the  same  way,  but  must  be  boiled  two  minutes 
longer. 

Potted  Shrimps. — Boil  two  quarts  of  shrimps 
in  their  shells,  shell  them  quickly,  and  just  be- 
fore they  are  put  into  the  mortar,  chop  them  a 
little  with  a very  sharp  knife ; pound  them 
perfectly  smooth  with  two  to  four  ounces  of 
butter,  a small  saltspoonful  of  mace,  and  one 
third  of  a saltspoonful  of  cayenne.  Set  the 
mixture  in  a cool  place  for  three  or  four  hours 
to  harden  before  it  is  put  into  the  potting-pans. 
If  it  is  to  be  kept  some  time,  pour  lukewarm 
melted  butter  over  the  top.  This  is  a delicious 
preparation. 

Stewed  Shrimps. — Wash  two  quarts  of 
shrimps  well,  and  put  them  into  a saucepan 
with  four  sliced  onions,  two  sprigs  of  parsley, 
one  of  thyme,  two  cloves,  salt  and  pepper ; add 
two  ounces  of  butter,  and  half  a pint  of  white 
wine,  pour  in  just  enough  water  to  cover  all, 
and  set  on  a brisk  fire  ; stew  till  quite  tender, 
drain,  and  serve  warm.  Garnish  with  green 
parsley. 

SICKNESS.  (See  Children,  Convales- 
cence, Diet,  Fever,  Nursing,  Sick-Room 
and  each  disease  by  name.) 

SICK-ROOM.  The  rooms  in  which  the 
sick  are  nursed  should  be  as  capacious  as  pos- 
sible, because  then  the  patient  has  more  air  to 
breathe,  and  it  does  not  require  renewal  so 
often  as  the  air  in  a small  room  does,  and  thus 
frequent  exposure  to  draughts  is  avoided.  A 
fair  amount  of  ventilation  is  carried  on  by  the 
door,  windows,  and  fire-place  (there  should 
always  be  a fire-place  if  possible),  but  at  least 
twice  a day  the  windows  should  be  opened  so 
as  to  thoroughly  change  the  air  of  the  room. 
If  the  patient  can  leave  the  room  for  a short 
time,  so  as  to  allow  of  a free  current  of  air,  so 
much  the  better ; if  not,  the  patient  should  be 
lightly  covered  over  during  the  airing  so  as  not 
to  feel  any  draught,  In  cases  of  fevers  and 
any  contagious  disorders,  it  is  best  to  remove 
from  the  room  all  unnecessary  articles,  as  cur- 
tains, hangings,  carpets,  etc.,  and  let  there  be 
disinfectants  about.  ( See  Disinfectants.) 


In  chronic  cases,  in  all  cases  in  fact  where  a 
contrary  course  is  not  ordered  by  the  physic- 
ian, the  sick-room  should  be  made  as  cheerful 
as  possible,  and  the  amount  of  light  should  be 
regulated  so  as  to  please  the  patient ; in  cold 
weather  the  fire  should  be  kept  nice  and  bright; 
and,  when  possible,  flowers  and  plants  should 
be  placed  in  the  room.  A thermometer  should 
be  in  the  room  so  as  to  have  the  temperature 
properly  regulated. 

The  furniture  of  a sick-room  should  consist 
only  of  such  articles  as  are  really  necessary. 
Bear  in  mind  that  wool  holds  smell  and  disease- 
germs  much  longer  than  cotton  or  linen,  there- 
fore do  not  have  woollen  curtains.  It  is  better, 
in  fact,  to  have  no  curtains  at  all,  but  if  the 
room  seems  bare  and  cheerless  without  them 
use  light  muslin,  or  something  that  may  be 
washed  easily.  Have  no  woollen-covered  sofa 
or  chairs ; cane-bottomed  or  plain  wood  are 
preferable,  and  the  floor  is  infinitely  better  with- 
out any  carpet,  except  perhaps  a narrow  strip 
to  walk  upon  just  to  prevent  noise.  In  cases 
of  accident  or  chronic  diseases,  the  bed  may  be 
placed  where  the  patient  feels  most  comfortable, 
only  in  the  former  case  it  should  be  where  there 
is  a good  light  to  see  and  dress  the  wound ; but 
in  fever  and  small-pox  let  it  be  between  the 
door  and  the  fire-place.  The  reason  for  this  is 
that  there  is  a slight  draught  from  the  door  to- 
ward the  fire-place,  which  will  insure  pure  air 
on  the  side  of  the  bed  next  the  door  while  the 
air  contaminated  by  passing  over  the  patient 
will  be  carried  up  the  chimney. 

The  bed  should  not  be  too  high,  or  it  will 
prove  a source  of  discomfort  to  both  patient 
and  nurse.  For  the  convenience  of  both,  the 
height  of  the  bed  should  be  such  as  to  admit  of 
the  patient’s  head,  when  he  is  sitting  up,  being 
on  a level  with  the  nurse’s  shoulder  as  she 
stands  beside  him.  It  is  also  a disadvantage 
to  have  the  bed  too  wide  ; and  if  the  bed  be 
very  wide,  a good  plan  is  to  make  a division 
down  the  middle  with  a board  a few  inches  high 
covered  with  the  under  bed-clothes.  This  not 
only  prevents  the  invalid  from  slipping  away 
when  he  is  lifted,  but  answers  the  purpose  in 
some  degree  of  two  beds.  As  to  the  bed  itself, 
the  best  is  the  hair,  or  prepared  spring  mat- 
tress, and  the  worst  is  one  made  of  feathers. 
A good  and  cheap  mattress  can  be  made  from 
cornhusks  ; even  clean  straw  or  chaff  is  better 
than  feathers.  Wadded  quilts  or  comforters 
are  very  objectionable,  on  account  of  the  diffi- 
culty of  cleansing  them  properly ; and  especial- 
ly when  they  are  wadded  with  cotton. 

The  bed-clothes  should  be  changed  as  fre- 
quently as  possible.  To  change  the  bed-clothes 
when  the  patient  is  unable  to  sit  up,  place  him 
on  one  side  of  the  bed,  then  roll  up  the  sheet 
lengthwise  to  the  centre  ; and  having  previous- 
ly prepared  the  clean  sheet  by  rolling  it  in  the 
same  way  to  the  middle,  (lengthwise,  of  course,) 
spread  the  part  left  unrolled  over  the  half  of 
the  bed,  bringing  the  roll  of  the  clean  sheet 
close  to  the  roll  of  the  soiled  one ; now  lift  the 
patient  over  on  to  the  clean  sheet,  pull  out  the 


48G 


SILK 


SILVER-WARE 


soiled"  one,  and  unroll  the  clean  one,  and  the 
thing  is  done.  When  it  is  desirable  to  keep 
the  head  cool,  a pillow  made  of  hair,  prepared 
sponge,  or  oat  chaff,  is  very  much  to  be  pre- 
preferred to  a feather  one. 

Foul  gas  is  generated  by  burning  a kero- 
sene lamp  all  night.  This  can  be  remedied 
by  the  following  simple  arrangement:  Take  a 
raisin,  or  any  other  box  that  will  contain  the 
lamp  when  set  up  on  end.  Place  the  lamp  in 
the  box,  outside  the  window,  with  the  open 
side  facing  the  room.  When  there  are  blinds, 
the  box  can  be  attached  to  each  by  leaving 
them  a little  open  and  fastening  with  a cord  : 
or  the  lamp-box  can  be  nailed  to  the  window- 
casing in  a permanent  manner.  The  lamp  burns 
quite  as  well  outside,  and  a decided  improve- 
ment in  the  air  of  the  room  will  be  the  result. 
(See  Hot- Water  Bag,  Ice-Bag,  Nursing 
and  Sponge  Poultice.) 

SILK. — -The  manufacture  of  silk  which  was 
first  practised  by  the  Chinese  has  now  spread 
over  a great  part  of  the  world,  though  France 
and  Italy  are  the  only  European  countries  in 
which  the  silk-worm,  which  furnishes  the  raw 
material,  seems  to  thrive.  In  California  the 
culture  of  the  silk-worm  has  succeeded  admir- 
ably, and  promises  to  become  one  of  the  lead- 
ing industries  ; and  as  good  plain  silks,  especial- 
ly black,  are  now  manufactured  in  the  United 
States  as  in  either  France  or  England.  For 
the  richest  silks,  however,  especially  in  fancy 
colors  and  patterns  the  looms  of  Lyons  are  un- 
equalled. The  English  black  silks  of  the  high- 
er grades  are  equal  to  the  French  in  appearance 
and  are  considered  more  durable. 

Figured  silks  do  not  generally  wear  well  if 
the  figure  be  large  and  satin-like.  Black  and 
plain-colored  silks  can  be  tested  by  procuring 
samples  and  making  creases  in  them  ; fold  the 
creases  in  a bunch  and  rub  them  against  the 
rough  surface  of  the  carpet  or  a rep-covered 
chair.  Those  which  are  poor  soon  wear  off  at 
the  creases.  Silk  intended  for  dress  should 
not  be  kept  long  in  the  house  before  it  is 
made  up,  as  lying  in  the  folds  will  have  a tend- 
ency to  impair  its  durability  by  causing  it  to 
cut  or  split,  especially  if  the  silk  has  been 
thickened  with  gum.  Hard  silk  should  never 
be  wrinkled,  as  the  thread  is  liable  to  break  in 
the  crease  and  it  can  never  be  rectified.  (See 
Floss.) 

Keeping  Silk, — Silk  articles  should  not  be 
kept  in  white  paper,  as  the  chloride  of  lime 
used  in  bleaching  the  paper  will  probably  im- 
pair the  color  of  the  silk.  Brown  or  blue  paper 
is  better,  and  the  yellowish  smooth  Indian 
paper  is  best  of  all. 

Renovating  Old  Silks. — In  making  over 
black  silk  dresses,  etc.,  the  following  is  an  ex- 
cellent mode  of  cleansing: — Rub  each  breadth 
carefully  with  a woollen  cloth  to  get  the  dust 
from  the  surface,  then  sponge  it  all  off  with 
water  in  which  one  or  two  black  kid  gloves  have 
been  boiled,  a quart  of  water  for  a pair  of 
gloves ; iron  while  wet,  with  extremely  hot 
irons,  on  the  wrong  side.  For  colored  silks, 


the  same  colored  gloves  to  be  boiled ; for  this 
purpose  it  is  well  to  save  old  kid  gloves  of  all 
colors.  Another  mode  is  the  same  process  of 
rubbing  off  the  dirt  with  a woolen  rag ; then 
mix  an  equal  quantity  of  strong  tea  and  vinegar, 
with  which  the  silk  is  washed  by  rubbing  it 
with  a piece  of  flannel.  It  must  be  made  very 
wet.  Smooth  the  silk  carefully,  folding  it,  and 
in  about  fifteen  minutes  iron  it  on  the  wrong 
side  with  very  hot  irons.  This  applies  only  to 
black  silks,  black  ribbons,  cravats,  etc.,  but  might 
be  injurious  to  colors. 

To  Clean  Silk. — Grate  raw  potatoes,  washed 
and  peeled,  to  a fine  pulp ; add  water  in  the 
proportion  of  a pint  to  a pound  of  potatoes  ; 
pass  the  liquid  through  a coarse  sieve  into  a 
vessel,  where  it  is  to  remain  till  the  fine  white 
starch  subsides  to  the  bottom.  Pour  off  the 
clear  mucilaginous  liquor,  which  is  to  be  used 
for  cleaning.  To  perform  this  process,  spread 
the  article  to  be  cleaned  upon  a table,  which 
should  be  covered  with  a linen  cloth ; dip  a 
sponge  in  the  potato  liquor,  and  apply  it  till  the 
dirt  is  removed ; then  wash  the  silk  in  clean 
water  several  times.  Some  use  the  whole  of 
the  pulp  and  water  for  the  scouring;  and  others 
slice  the  potatoes,  and  rub  them  on  the  stuff  as 
if  it  were  soap. 

Grease-spots  may  be  removed  as  follows : — 
To  two  ounces  of  spirits  of  wine  add  one  ounce 
of  French  chalk  and  five  ounces  of  pipe-clay, 
both  finely  powdered ; make  up  the  mixture 
into  a paste,  roll  it  into  pipes,  and  let  it  dry. 
Apply  it  by  rubbing  it  on  the  spot  of  grease, 
slightly  moistened,  and  then  brushing  it  off,  till 
the  grease  is  all  absorbed. 

Wrinkles,  to  Remove. — An  excellent  way  to 
take  the  wrinkles  out  of  silk  scarves  and  hand- 
kerchiefs is  to  moisten  the  surface  evenly  with 
a spoon  and  some  wheat  glue,  and  then  pin  the 
siik,  with  some  toilet  pins,  around  the  shelves 
or  on  a mattress  or  feather  bed,  taking  pains  to 
draw  out  the  silk  as  smooth  as  possilue.  When 
dry,  the  wrinkles  will  have  disappeared.  Some 
silk  articles  may  be  moistened  with  weak  glue 
or  gum  water,  and  the  wrinkles  ironed  out  with 
a hot  flat-iron  on  the  wrong  side. 

SILLABUB.  (See  Syllabub.) 

SILVER-WARE.— The  beauty  of  silver 
and  its  great  durability  cause  it  to  be  used  for 
many  articles  of  household  furniture.  The 
great  progress  which  has  been  made  in  recent 
years  in  the  art  of  silver-plating,  it  is  true,  has 
done  away  to  a considerable  extent  with  the 
solid  table  services  which  were  once  the  pride 
of  the  household;  but  spoons,  forks,  ladles,  etc., 
are  still  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  made  of 
the  solid  metal.  The  absence  of  any  general 
law  for  assaying  the  precious  metals  in  this 
country  is  felt  and  regretted  both  by  respect- 
able vendors  and  purchasers  of  plate.  The 
stamps  usually  found  upon  articles  of  silver  or 
gold  are  nothing  more  than  the  initials  or  trade- 
mark of  the  manufacturer,  and  his  integrity  is 
the  only  guarantee  of  the  purity  of  the  metal. 
Nor  do  the  stamps  upon  silver-plate  give  any 
indication  of  the  relative  quality  of  the  metal 


SILVER-WARE 


SITZ-BATH 


487 


all  degrees  of  alloyed  metal  being  stamped 
alike.  The  only  safety  of  the  purcnaser  lies 
in  selecting  a manufacturer  whose  reputation 
is  a guarantee  against  wilful  deception. 

To  clean  Silver-ware. — When  the  plate  is 
only  slightly  soiled,  a good  plan  is  to  put  it  into 
a large  saucepan  of  cold  water,  with  a lump  of 
whiting  and  some  shavings  of  yellow  soap  to 
make  a good  lather ; then  boil  it  half  an  hour, 
rinse  it  in  cold  water,  rub  it  with  a soft  cloth, 
and  afterwards  with  a piece  of  chamois-skin. 
This  prevents  the  rubbing  off  of  the  dead  frost- 
work from  the  chasing,  in  removing  tarnished 
spots.  No  plate-powder  or  rubbing  will  remove 
scratches,  caused  by  the  careless  mixture  of 
spoons  and  forks  w’ith  the  knives  after  using 
them.  It  is  therefore  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance to  keep  the  silver  in  a tray  by  itself,  and 
to  wash  it  in  soap  and  water  immediately  after 
it  has  been  used,  finishing  with  clean  water,  and 
rubbing  it  dry  with  a wash-leather.  When 
treated  in  this  way,  plate  requires  very  little 
powder  of  any  kind  to  renew  its  polish,  and  it 
is  only  for  ill-used  and  scratched  silver  that  the 
various  and  much-vaunted  plate-powders  are 
required.  All  those  which  are  composed  of 
chalk  in  any  shape,  or  ammonia,  are  innocent, 
whilst  the  presence  of  mercury,  as  indicated  by 
the  slight  tinge  of  a slate-blue  color  in  the 
powder,  is  exceedingly  prejudicial.  Servants 
are  very  fond  of  these  mercurial  preparations, 
because  they  act  quickly,  and  give  a good  polish 
after  cleaning ; but  this  soon  tarnishes,  because 
a certain  portion  of  the  amalgam  made  with  the 
silver  and  mercury  is  left  on  the  surface  of  the 
former,  and  the  consequence  is  that  it  tarnishes 
by  oxidation  on  exposure  to  the  air.  Gas  and 
sulphurous  coals  are  very  apt  to  blacken  silver, 
the  former  from  not  being  completely  purified 
from  sulphureted  hydrogen,  and  the  latter  from 
causing  its  presence  in  large  volume.  To  re- 
move  this  deep  stain,  or  that  caused  by  long 
exposure  to  the  air,  requires  something  more 
than  mere  chalk,  and  the  jewellers  use  an  oxide 
of  iron  called  rottge,  which  is  an  innocent  prep- 
aration, being  prepared  by  the  precipitation  of 
sulphate  of  iron  by  carbonate  of  potash,  and 
then  exposing  the  dried  powder  to  a high  heat. 
The  leathers  which  are  employed  are  the  wash- 
leathers  of  the  shops,  and  they  should  be  wash- 
ed occasionally  when  they  become  greasy  and 
blackened  with  the  oxide.  A piece  of  soft 
chamois-skin  is  as  good  as  anything  else,  but  it 
is  spoiled  by  wetting,  and  should  only  be  used 
in  polishing. 

Plate-Powder. — Take  one  pound  of  the  best 
whiting,  or  of  prepared  chalk,  and  rub  it  to  a 
fine  powder.  Then  sift  it.  Mix  together  four 
ounces  of  spirits  of  turpentine,  two  ounces  of 
spirits  of  wine,  one  ounce  of  spirits  of  camphor, 
and  half  an  ounce  of  spirits  of  hartshorn. 
Then  add  the  whiting  gradually  to  the  liquid, 
stirring  in  a little  at  a time,  and  mixing  the 
whole  thoroughly  till  it  is  of  the  consistence  of 
cream  ; put  it  into  a very  close  vessel  (a  large 
bottle  or  a white  jar),  and  cork  it  tightly,  tying 
down  a leather  over  the  cork.  To  use  the  mix- 


ture, stir  it  up,  pour  out  a sufficient  portion 
into  a bowl,  and  with  a soft  clean  sponge  cover 
the  silver  with  it  so  as  to  give  it  a coat  like 
whitewash.  Set  the  silver  aside  for  ten  minutes, 
till  the  paste  has  dried.  Brush  it  off,  and 
polish  first  with  a buckskin,  then  with  a silk 
handkerchief.  It  will  be  found  very  convenient 
to  keep  this  mixture  always  in  the  house. 

Water  in  which  Irish  potatoes  have  been 
boiled  has  a remarkable  cleansing  influence  on 
silverware  of  all  kinds,  especially  spoons  that 
have  become  blackened  by  eggs.  Delicately 
chased  and  engraved  articles  can  be  made 
bright  by  this  method  even  better  than  by  the 
use  of  polishing-powder,  which  is  apt  to  settle 
in  the  depressions,  requiring  particular  care  in 
its  removal.  The  water  should  be  strained 
(unless  the  potatoes  were  washed  before  being 
put  into  it)  and  the  articles  washed  in  it. 

SILVER-PLATING.  (See  Plate.) 

SINKS. — Every  kitchen  should  have  a sink. 
It  should  be  placed  in  a good  light.  The  water 
pipe  should  pass  below  into  a drain,  in  which 
there  should  be  a stench-trap  to  prevent  any 
bad  smells  rising.  Porous  stone  is  a bad  ma- 
terial for  sinks  ; the  best  is  either  wood  lined 
with  lead,  glazed  stone-ware,  or  stone.  When 
of  iron,  the  inside  should  be  painted  and  a fresh 
coat  given  now  and  then.  The  drain  should 
deliver  at  a distance  from  the  house,  and 
should  be  ventilated  by  having  suitable  means 
for  the  admission  of  air  at  its  mouth,  and  a pipe 
at  least  four  inches  in  diameter  rising  from  the 
end  nearest  the  house  to  a point  that  will  se- 
cure a good  draught,  and  that  is  not  under  a 
window.  {See  Drainage  and  House.) 

SIRUP.  (See  Syrup.) 

SITZ-BATH. — This  is  a form  of  the  bath 
much  used  in  the  hydropathic  practice  and  rec- 
ognized as  beneficial  in  certain  cases  by  the 
regular  physicians.  The  tub  for  the  sitz-bath 
should  be  just  large  enough  to  sit  in  with  com- 
fort ; the  patient  sits  in  this,  with  the  feet  rest- 
ing on  the  floor,  from  eight  to  forty  minutes, 
according  to  the  severity  of  his  disease,  and 


Sitz-Bath. 


sometimes  as  often  as  three  times  a day.  The 
sitz-bath  is  unquestionably  a powerful  remedy 
in  certain  disorders  of  the  head  and  abdomen. 
It  draws  the  bad  humors  from  the  head, 


488 


SKATE 


SKIRTS 


strengthens  the  digestive  organs,  and  braces 
the  entire  system.  Only  a small  quantity  of 
water  is  used  generally,  and  thus  soon  becomes 
warm.  It  is  not  advisable  to  take  the  bath 
except  under  medical  advice. 

SKATE. — The  smooth  skate  is  a variety  of 
the  Ray,  and  is  even  less  often  in  market.  It 
is  a large  fish  with  a smooth  back,  a stout  tail, 


three  rows  of  short  stiff  fins,  one  over  each 
side  and  the  other  on  top  of  the  tail.  For 
Cooking,  see  Ray. 

SKELETON,  The  Human. — The  skeleton 
of  a full  grown  human  being  consists  of  200 
distinct  bones,  exclusive  of  the  little  bones  in 
the  internal  ear.  They  are  thus  distributed:— 

The  spine 26  bones. 

Skull 8 “ 

Face 14  “ 

Ribs  and  breast-bone 26  “ 

Upper  extremity 64  “ 

Lower  extremity 62  “ 

These  bones  are  divided  into  four  classes, 
known  as  Long,  Short , Flat  and  Irregular. 

The  long  bones  are  those  which  exist  in  the 
limbs,  and  are  employed  in  locomotion  ; their 
characteristics  are,  that  they  consist  of  a shaft 
and  two  articular  extremities,  these  extremi- 
ties being  covered  with  what  is  termed  articu- 
lar cartilage,  and  being  capable  of  mutual 
movement  upon  each  other  by  one  or  another 
form  of  joint,  the  gliding  movements  of  such 
joints  being  assisted  by  the  presence  of  bags 
containing  joint  oil  (Synovia),  which  is  placed 
between  these  articular  cartilages.  The  shaft  of 
a long  bone  is  cylindrical,  or  nearly  so,  and  its 
extremities  are  expanded.  The  shaft  consists  of 
compact  tissue,  whilst  the  extremities  are  com- 
posed of  spongy,  having  a thin  layer  of  compact 
tissue  coated  over  them.  The  long  bones 
are  the  cubit,  the  two  bones  of  the  fore-arm, 
the  thigh  bone,  the  shin  and  splint  bones,  the 
bones  of  the  fingers  and  toes,  and  the  collar- 
bone. 

Short  Bones.  These  are  compact,  strong 
bones,  having  several  articular  surfaces  for 
mutual  adaptation,  and  are  found  in  those 
parts  of  the  body  where  strength  and  limited 
motion  are  required,  such  as  in  the  wrist, 
bones  of  ankle,  and  instep.  They  consist  of 
spongy  tissue,  with  a coating  of  compact  struc- 
ture. 

Flat  Bones.  These  bones  afford  broad,  flat 
surfaces  for  the  attachment  of  muscles,  and  for 
the  protection  of  cavities  ; they  consist  of  two 


layers  of  compact  tissue,  containing  a layer  of 
spongy  between  them.  They  are  the  skull 
bones,  blade  bones,  haunch  bones,  breast  bones 
and  ribs. 

Irregular  Bones  are  those  which,  as  their 
names  would  suggest,  cannot  be  grouped  with 
the  previously  named,  such  as  the  bones  of  the 
spine,  jaw  bones,  and  several  of  those  bones 
which  make  up  the  skull. 

The  natural  position  of  the  human  skele- 
ton is  erect,  and  this  is  in  great  measure  due  to 
combined  muscular  action.  The  natural  archi- 
tecture of  the  skeleton  adjusts  its  own  centre  of 
gravity.  All  those  joints  which  transmit  weight 
to  the  ground,  lie  in  one  vertical  plane,  and 
such  a line  would  be  described  as  passing  from 
the  top  of  the  head,  through  the  joints,  between 
the  head  and  first  bone  of  the  spine,  through 
that  between  the  last  bone  of  the  vertebrae  and 
the  sacrum,  and  through  those  between  the 
sacrum  and  haunch  bone,  the  hip,  knee,  and 
ankle.  The  spine,  consisting  of  a great  number 
of  bones,  peculiarly  articulated  together  by 
interposed  elastic  cushions,  increases  in  size 
from  above  downwards,  and,  moreover,  pos- 
sesses several  well-marked  curves.  The  ob- 
ject of  these  cushions  and  curves  is  to  receive 
the  shock  of  sudden  blows  and  falls,  and  to 
disperse  their  effects ; again  the  curves  are 
arranged  alternately,  so  as  to  distribute  the 
weight  with  greatest  advantage  to  the  centre 
of  gravity  of  the  body,  which  passes  through 
all  the  curves,  and  falls  on  the  centre  of  the 
base  of  the  column.  It  will  be  observed  that 
all  the  bones  of  the  limbs  are  slightly  curved, 
thus  assisting  in  the  individual  and  mutual 
transmission  of  shock.  The  pelvis  (sacrum 
and  haunch  bones)  is  very  broad  and  strong  in 
man,  and  the  plane  of  its  arch  is  in  such  a di- 
rection that  the  weight  is  transmitted  vertically 
from  the  sacrum  to  the  heads  of  the  thigh  bones. 
The  thigh  bone  being  curved  inwards,  allows 
of  the  weight  of  the  body  being  brought  under 
the  pelvis,  and  transmitted  to  the  broad  ex- 
panded ends  of  the  bones  forming  the  knee 
joint.  The  foot,  in  its  turn,  consists  of  an  arch, 
or  rather  double  arch,  which  receives  the  trans- 
mitted weight,  at  its  crown,  directly  through  the 
leg  bones.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  upper 
limbs  take  no  part  in  the  maintenance  of  this 
natural  upright  condition. 

SKEWERS.- — Small  pins  of  wood  or  iron 
for  fastening  meat  to  a spit,  or  for  keeping  it  in 
shape  while  roasting  Those  designed  for  use 
in  this  way  are  perfectly  plain ; but  some  are 
made  in  very  ornamental  shapes,  and  are  used 
to  decorate  different  joints  when  sent  to  table. 
These  should  be  removed  just  before  carving. 

SKIRTS. — A dress  is  composed  of  a waist 
and  skirt,  but  in  respect  to  the  latter,  fashions 
vary  so  much  that  it  is  impossible  to  give  any 
fixed  rule  for  the  quantity  of  material  needful 
or  the  number  of  breadths  required.  The  ac- 
companying figure  represents  the  manner  in 
which  a breadth  is  gored,  and  it  is  now  (1875) 
customary  to  use  one  straight  breadth  in  the 
back,  two  gores  on  each  side  (the  straight  side 


SKIRTS 


SLEEP 


489 


of  the  gore  nearest  the  front  of  the  skirt  in  all 
cases,)  and  a front  breadth  sloped  on  the  sides. 
With  24  or  27  inch  material,  this  makes  the 


breadth  of  the  skirt  about  four  yards,  which  is 
a fair  averagevwidth. 

The  breadths  being  cut  out  and  laid  together 
require  to  be  all  rounded  a little,  at  the  bottom 
and  at  the  top,  the  front  and  first  gores  on 
either  side,  to  make  the  skirt  hang  evenly.  A 
facing  of  suitable  depth,  12  inches  or  therea- 
bouts, should  be  cut  by  each  breadth  and  tacked 
to  it  before  the  breadths  are  run  up,  leaving  one 
edge  of  the  facing  free  on  each  side,  to  be 
hemmed  down  afterwards  in  order  to  cover  the 
raw  edges.  This  facing  is  cut  the  other  way 
of  the  material,  as  it  hangs  better  and  is  less 
likely  to  sag. 

The  skirt  thus  prepared  should  be  bordered 
by  a worsted  braid  (or  if  the  dress  is  silk,  a 
silk  braid  is  sometimes  used,)  which  has  been 
thoroughly  wet  and  dried  to  secure  it  from 
shrinking  after  it  is  put  on.  This  braid  may 
be  bound  on,  or  faced  on,  leaving  one  edge  to 
come  in  sight  below  the  edge  of  the  dress. 

A band  should  be  prepared  of  strong  mate- 
rial, or  a broad  linen  tape,  for  the  waist.  The 
skirt  is  marked  in  the  middle  of  the  front  and 
at  the  back,  and  t-he  band  marked  to  corre- 
spond. The  skirt  is  then  arranged  for  sewing 
on,  but  it  is  useless  to  give  minute  rules  for 
this,  since  fashion  constantly  varies  in  respect 
to  the  distribution  of  fulness. 


In  the  trimming  of  the  skirt  the  greatest 
variety  prevails ; crosswise  bands  or  folds, 
gathered  and  plaited  ruffles,  and  flounces  are 
the  principal  styles,  and  in  many  cases  these 
are  all  combined  upon  one  skirt. 

For  gathered  ruffles  a quarter  of  a yard  extra 
is  allowed  to  every  yard,  for  the  fulness. 
In  plaitings  which  touch  each  other’s  edges, 
whether  box-plaiting,  kilt,  or  knife-plaiting, 
three  times  the  length  around  the  skirt  must 
be  allowed.  In  all  plaitings,  however,  this 
amount  may  be  scanted  by  leaving  more  or  less 
plain  space  between  the  plaits. 

Flounces  and  ruffles  are  frequently,  and  folds 
are  always,  cut  on  the  bias,  and  much  care 
should  be  taken  to  cut  exactly  on  the  bias ; 
this  is  found  by  folding  the  material  over  cross- 
wise until  the  woof,  the  thread  that  crosses  the 
material,  lies  exactly  upon  the  selvage. 

SLAP-JACKS. — This  is  the  name  com- 
monly given  to  what  are  properly  speaking  flap- 
jacks. T o make,  scald  a quart  of  I ndian  meal 
with  enough  boiling  water  to  make  a thin  batter ; 
when  lukewarm,  stir  it  well,  and  add  half  a pint 
of  water,  half  a teacupful  of  yeast,  and  a little 
salt;  set  it  away  to  rise,  and  when  light  fry 
them  in  just  fat  enough  to  prevent  their  stick- 
ing to  the  frying-pan. 

Another  method  of  making  them,  which  is 
very  nice,  is  to  turn  boiling  milk  or  water  on 
the  Indian  meal,  in  the  proportion  of  a quart 
of  the  former  to  a pint  of  the  latter ; stir  in 
three  tablespoonfuls  of  flour,  three  eggs  well 
beaten,  and  a couple  of  teaspoonfuls  of  salt. 
Make  into  a light  batter  and  fry  as  above. 

SLAW.  (Cold.) — Cut  a head  of  fine  white 
cabbage  into  shreds  ; dissolve,  in  a teacupful  of 
vinegar,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  sugar  and  a tea- 
spoonful of  salt ; add  a little  pepper,  and  pour 
the  mixture  over  the  cabbage.  More  vinegar 
may  be  added  if  this  does  not  make  the  slaw 
sour  enough. 

Hot  Slaw.  — Cut  the  cabbage  into  fine 
shreds,  and  boil  it  in  clear  water  until  it  is  per- 
fectly tender,  allowing  so  little  water  that  when 
the  cabbage  is  cooked  sufficiently  there  will  be 
scarcely  any  left  in  the  stewpan.  Just  before 
dishing,  add  a teacupful  of  sharp  vinegar,  half  a 
tablespoonful  of  butter,  a little  salt,  and  a dust 
of  pepper ; turn  into  a deep  dish  and  cover  close. 

Or , shred  the  cabbage  and  put  it  into  a deep 
dish.  To  a teacupful  of  vinegar,  add  a table- 
spoonful of  sugar,  a tablespoonful  of  butter, 
half  a teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  a dust  of  pepper ; 
put  them  over  the  fire,  let  them  boil  a few  min- 
utes, and  turn  the  mixture  scalding  hot  over 
the  cabbage ; set  it  aside  and  let  it  become  per- 
fectly cold  before  serving. 

SLEEP. — Sleep  is  as  necessary  to  existence 
as  food,  and  yet  sleep  is  in  fact  a partial  sus- 
pension of  some  of  the  functions  of  life  itself, 
all  of  which  are  performed  with  intermissions. 
It  is  the  essential  condition  of  the  repose  and 
repair  of  those  nervous  centres  upon  which  in- 
cessant demands  are  made  during  every  mo- 
ment of  our  waking  life  ; and  without  it  these 
nervous  centres  would  soon  cease  to  perform 


490 


SLEEP 


their  functions  and  either  death  or  insanity 
would  result.  The  immediate  cause  of  sleep — 
that  is,  the  mechanism  in  the  body  by  which  it 
is  produced — was  until  recently  quite  misunder- 
stood. It  was  formerly  supposed  that  pressure 
on  the  brain  afforded  the  explanation.  Most 
writers  on  the  subject  have  adopted  this  view, 
and  some  of  the  facts  by  which  it  is  supported 
are  very  striking.  Apoplexy  is  caused  either 
by  unnatural  fulness  of  the  vessels  of  the  brain, 
or  by  the  rupture  of  a vessel  which  allows  the 
escape  of  blood,  and  in  either  case  pressure  on 
the  organ  is  established.  This  affliction  is 
attended  by  drowsiness  or  complete  uncon- 
sciousness, according  to  the  degree  of  pressure 
thus  exerted.  From  this  fact  it  was  inferred 
that  sleep  is  caused  by  accumulation  of  blood 
in  the  head  ; and  in  support  of  this  view  certain 
other  facts  have  been  advanced,  such  as  that 
full-blooded  people  are  usually  the  best  sleepers, 
and  that  the  recumbent  posture,  which  promotes 
the  flow  of  blood  to  the  brain,  induces  sleep- 
Many  instances  have  occurred  in  which  a por. 
tion  of  the  brain  has  been  laid  bare  by  accident, 
or  as  a curative  measure ; and  in  all  cases  of 
this  sort  it  was  found  that  consciousness  can  be 
instantly  suppressed  by  pressure  upon  the 
brain.  This  also  was  supposed  to  give  strong 
confirmation  to  the  pressure  theory  of  sleep. 
But  there  is  a wide  difference  between  stupor 
and  sleep ; the  one  is  a result  of  diseased  action, 
and  it  is  difficult  or  impossible  to  rouse  the  per- 
son from  it,  while  the  other  is  a natural  state 
from  which  he  is  easily  aroused. 

It  has  now  been  determined  that  so  far  from 
containing  more  blood  than  usual,  the  brain 
during  sleep  contains  much  less  blood.  We 
are  told  on  very  high  authority  that  “ the  blood 
is  the  life  ” of  the  body,  and  the  tendency  of 
modern  physiology  is  to  regard  the  blood  as 
the  origin  of  all  force,  and  of  all  the  functions 
of  the  system.  Now  when  the  circulation  in 
the  brain  is  diminished,  it  becomes  deprived  of 
the  proper  stimulus  by  which  its  state  of  activity 
is  maintained ; its  vitality,  in  fact,  becomes 
lowered,  and  it  sinks  into  a state  of  quies- 
cence. It  then  obtains  rest,  which  during  our 
waking  hours  it  never  has  for  a single  instant ; 
and  it  is  doubtless  during  sleep  that  the  waste 
which  the  brain  has  previously  undergone  is 
repaired,  and  the  injuries  inflicted  upon  it  by 
over-exertion  made  good.  For  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  every  act  of  life,  whether  it  be  the 
wielding  of  an  axe,  or  the  action  of  the  brain  in 
conceiving  a thought— or  of  the  tongue  in  ex- 
pressing it,  is  accompanied  by  waste. 

In  perfect  sleep  there  is  no  consciousness; 
it  is  a temporary  death  as  far  as  concerns  all 
action  and  motion  which  lie  under  the  power  of 
the  will.  Dreams  generally  occur  when  sleep 
is  unsound,  and  are,  in  fact,  an  indication  that 
it  is  unsound.  The  affection  called  nightmare 
is  in  certain  respects  different  from  ordinary 
dreaming.  While  the  imagination  and  the 
memory  are  in  full  activity,  the  power  of  the 
will  is  either  absent  or  greatly  impaired.  In  ad- 
dition to  this  the  function  of  respiration  is  much 


impeded ; and  out  of  this,  in  some  shape  or 
other,  a horrible  association  of  ideas  usually 
springs.  Nightmare,  in  fact,  furnishes  some  of 
the  most  distressing  sensations  that  can  be  ex- 
perienced ; all  the  store  of  horrors  which  the 
mind  has  accumulated  or  conceived  seem  to 
come  up  at  its  call,  and  from  these  whatever  is 
most  disgusting  or  appalling  is  selected  and 
moulded  into  torturing  shapes.  Indigestion  is 
unquestionably  the  chief  cause  of  nightmare, 
as  well  as  of  dreaming.  Any  one  whose  di- 
gestion is  not  strong  may  almost  infallibly  bring 
it  on  by  taking,  without  appetite,  a late  heavy 
supper.  The  disorder  also  plagues  people  who 
are  asthmatic.  The  cure  of  nightmare,  uncon- 
nected with  organic  disease,  consists  in  avoiding 
late  suppers,  attention  to  diet  in  general,  plenty 
of  fresh  air,  and  healthful  exercise. 

The  approach  of  sleep  is  generally  heralded 
by  a feeling  of  langour  and  heaviness,  during 
which  we  see  some  of  the  unobserved  functions 
of  the  nervous  system  make  themselves  appar- 
ent. Thus,  first  of  all,  the  eyelids  droop— we 
are  not  aware  of  any  strain  in  keeping  them 
open,  yet  the  moment  our  attention,  involuntary 
though  it  be,  is  taken  off,  they  gradually  sink. 
So,  too,  the  head,  ordinarily  held  erect,  falls  for- 
ward, and  the  limbs  fall  unconsciously  into  the 
easiest  posture.  Even  if  the  individual  lies 
down,  it  will  be  noticed  that  as  sleep  comes  on 
a different  posture  is  assumed,  one  which  allows 
of  relaxation  of  all  his  limbs  and  all  his  muscles. 
The  respiration,  too,  is  slower,  gentler,  and  more 
prolonged, — it  is  carried  out  with  the  least 
amount  of  work,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of 
the  heart.  Waking,  probably,  depends  on  the 
return  of  blood  to  the  brain  in  obedience  to  the 
stimulus  given  by  one  or  more  of  the  senses,  as 
light,  noise,  or  touch.  Habit,  too,  has  a strong 
effect. 

The  proper  duration  of  sleep  cannot  be  abso- 
lutely fixed.  Some  men  require  much  more 
than  others;  and  age,  the  amount  of  work  per- 
formed during  the  day,  whether  physical  or 
mental,  and  other  circumstances,  regulate  the 
demands  of  the  system.  Infants  sleep  the 
greater  part  of  the  time — children  require  more 
than  adults,  and  as  a rule,  the  middle-aged  more 
than  the  old.  In  the  dotage  of  old  age,  how- 
ever, as  if  to  complete  the  parallel  between  the 
first  and  second  childhood,  sleep  again  claims 
a great  part  of  the  time.  “ Perhaps,”  says  Dr. 
Hinton,  from  whose  excellent  work  on  physi- 
ology the  substance  of  the  present  article  was 
taken,  “ no  better  division  of  time  can  be  made 
than  that  of  Alfred  the  Great.  He  assigned 
eight  out  of  the  twenty-four  hours  to  work, 
eight  to  amusement,  and  eight  to  sleep.  1 he 
demands  of  modern  life  in  most  instances  sadly 
disturb  such  a relation  between  work  and  play  ; 
but  the  period  he  assigned  for  sleep  seems  to 
accord  with  the  general  experience.  Less  than 
eight  hours’  sleep  is  sufficient  for  most  men 
and  women  when  in  health,  and  more  is  un- 
necessary or  even  injurious.  In  this  matter, 
however,  there  are  exceptions.  Jeremy  Taylor 
trained  himself  to  exist  on  three  hours’  sleep 


SLEEPLESSNESS  491 


out  of  the  twenty-four.  Frederick  the  Great 
and  John  Hunter  slept  only  four  or  five  hours 
in  the  same  time.  Wesley  lays  down  the  pro- 
per duration  of  sleep  at  six  hours,  and  Lord 
Coke  at  seven.” 

The  hour  of  going  to  bed  must  of  course  de- 
pend on  the  habits  of  the  individual.  Persons 
who  get  up  early  should  go  to  bed  early,  and 
vice  versa.  Much  has  been  written  in  praise 
of  early  rising,  and  with  some  truth ; there  is 
an  undoubted  relation  between  sleep  and  night, 
when,  with  few  exceptions,  all  animated  nature 
reposes.  It  is  also  a good,  though  not  an  in- 
dispensable, rule  of  health  to  retire  to  rest 
early ; the  real  point  being  to  obtain,  sooner  or 
later,  the  requisite  eight  hours’  sleep. 

For  refreshing  sleep,  it  is  essential  that  the 
bedroom  be  well  ventilated,  and  those  who  ac- 
custom themselves  to  sleeping  with  the  windows 
open  find  the  practice  of  great  value.  The  bed 
should  be  in  the  middle  of  the  room,  not  in  a 
corner,  and  no  curtain  of  any  kind  should  sur- 
round it.  No  greater  domestic  improvement 
has  been  effected  than  the  substitution  of  hair 
mattresses  for  feather-beds.  Perspiration  is 
more  active  during  sleep  than  when  we  are 
awake,  and  it  is  unduly  encouraged  by  the 
sinking  of  the  body  in  a soft  bed,  which  also 
enervates  the  entire  system.  The  open  state 
of  the  pores  of  the  skin  makes  sleeping  in  the 
open  air  hazardous  ; but  the  belief  that  moon- 
beams exercise  a peculiarly  noxious  influence 
on  a sleeper  who  is  exposed  to  them  is  un- 
founded. Most  people  sleep  best  on  the  right 
side ; the  chief  reason  of  this  is  that  the  heart 
lies  toward  the  left  side,  and  when  a person 
lies  on  the  right  side,  greater  freedom  is  given 
to  its  motions.  It  is  somewhat  strange  that 
such  opposite  conditions  as  great  heat  and  great 
cold  should  equally  be  the  cause  of  sleep,  while 
a moderate  degree  of  cold  keeps  a person 
awake.  As  for  the  last,  it  seems  to  act  simply 
as  an  uneasy  sensation  would  do  in  preventing 
sleep.  Extreme  cold  causes  the  blood  to  ac- 
cumulate in  the  internal  organs,  including  the 
brain,  because  it  is  driven  from  the  surface  by 
contraction  of  the  superficial  blood-vessels ; 
the  result  of  this  is  not  sleep,  but  stupor.  The 
effect  of  great  heat,  on  the  contrary,  is  to  in- 
crease the  amount  of  blood  circulating  in  the 
superficial  parts  and  in  the  extremities  of  the 
body ; which  causes  a lessened  flow  of  blood 
through  the  brain,  followed  by  sleep. 

SLEEPLESSNESS.— The  effects  of  pro- 
tracted wakefulness  {Insomnia)  sooner  or  later 
show  themselves  on  the  strongest  constitution. 
The  person  becomes  gloomy,  irritable,  and  peev- 
ish ; the  memory  is  defective  and  the  thoughts 
confused.  Perhaps  the  most  terrible  punishment 
which  Chinese  ingenuity  has  devised  is  pro- 
longed loss  of  sleep.  In  some  instances  it  pre- 
cedes, and  even  seems  to  be  the  cause  of  in- 
sanity ; and  under  all  circumstances  it  is  one  of 
the  most  troublesome  affections  with  which  one 
can  be  called  upon  to  deal.  In  the  preceding  ar- 
ticle we  have  treated  at  length  of  the  causes  and 
conditions  of  sleep,  and  it  will  be  necessary  to 


read  that  carefully  in  order  to  understand  what 
we  now  have  to  say  about  sleeplessness. 

The  simplest  form  of  wakefulness  is  that 
which  is  produced  by  a violation  of  one  or  more 
of  the  conditions  appropriate  to  sleep.  Thus, 
a bright  light  in  the  room,  an  unusual  noise,  or 
an  uncomfortable  bed,  suffice  to  keep  most  per- 
sons awake.  An  excess  of  the  very  causes 
which  induce  sleep  also  commonly  prevents  it. 
Over-fatigue  is  usually  followed  by  wakeful- 
ness ; and,  such  is  the  effect  of  habit,  some 
persons  are  unable  to  sleep  if  they  remain  out  of 
bed  beyond  their  usual  time  of  retiring  to  rest; 
or,  on  the  other  hand,  if  they  go  to  bed  unusu- 
ally early.  When  the  brain  has  been  once 
stimulated  to  activity,  it  requires  some  time 
before  the  circulation  of  blood  through  it  re- 
gains the  balance  which  is  maintained  in  the 
waking  state  ; when  this  balance  is  regained, 
most  persons  easily  fall  asleep  if  other  circum- 
stances are  favorable.  Many  people,  indeed, 
possess  the  faculty  of  sleeping  at  will  by  merely 
closing  the  eyes  and  otherwise  shutting  out  ex- 
ternal impressions.  A great  many  persons,  on 
the  other  hand,  and  particularly  those  of  a ner- 
vous temperament,  sleep  with  difficulty,  and 
some  may  be  said  to  obtain  it  only  by  strata- 
gem. Any  intellectual  effort  immediately  be- 
fore going  to  bed  is  sure  to  be  followed  in  such 
cases  by  a restless  night.  Nothing  banishes 
sleep  more  effectually  than  pain  ; patients  suf- 
fering from  neuralgia  have  been  almost  sleep- 
less for  months.  Coldness  of  the  feet  is  a 
very  common  cause  of  wakefulness.  A sen- 
sation of  dry  burning  in  the  soles  of  the  feet  and 
palms  of  the  hands,  to  which  some  people  are 
liable,  and  which  also  accompanies  certain  dis- 
eases, is  another  cause ; sponging  the  parts 
with  vinegar  and  water  relieves  this  affection. 
Of  all  the  numerous  causes  of  wakefulness 
however,  indigestion  is  the  most  common.  Any- 
thing which  acts  as  an  irritant  to  the  stomach 
is  apt  to  irritate  the  brain  by  means  of  thj 
close  union  which  exists  between  these  organs 
through  the  medium  of  the  nerves.  On  the 
other  hand,  that  kind  of  exhaustion  which  re- 
sults from  want  of  food  frequently  prevents 
sleep : if,  for  instance,  a person  accustomed  to 
dine  late  happens  to  dine  early,  and  goes  to 
bed  without  any  substantial  refreshment,  he  is 
very  liable  to  find  himself  utterly  sleepless. 
This  kind  of  sleeplessness  is  apt  to  be  very 
persistent,  because  the  exhaustion  increases  in 
proportion  to  the  time  during  which  the  person 
remains  awake.  In  such  a condition  a sand- 
wich and  a glass  of  wine  or  ale  act  better  and 
more  speedily  than  an  opiate ; no  sooner  has 
food  been  taken  than  a glow  of  comfort  and  a 
tendency  to  repose  succeed,  and  the  person 
soon  falls  into  refreshing  sleep.  Another  cause 
of  sleeplessness,  little  recognized,  is  taking 
stimulating  drinks  ; those  who  indulge  freely 
at  night  are  apt  to  awaken  very  early  in  the 
morning  and  remain  long  sleepless.  Tea  and 
coffee  also  have  a tendency  to  produce  wake- 
fulness; and  opium,  belladonna,  and  Indian 
hemp,  or  hashish , in  small  doses,  have  the 


492 


SLEEPLESSNESS 


SMALL-POX 


same  effect.  There  are  good  reasons  for  be- 
lieving that  all  these  articles  act  alike,  in  at 
least  one  respect,  namely,  by  increasing  the 
circulation  of  blood  in  the  brain. 

In  order  to  promote  sleep  when  it  is  want- 
ing, it  is  of  course  necessary  in  the  first  place 
to  remove  every  exciting  cause  of  wakefulness. 
It  is  usually  essential  to  give  up  the  use  of 
tea  and  coffee,  and,  as  has  been  said,  it  is 
sometimes  necessary  to  leave  off  taking  stimu- 
lants. The  person  should  be  careful  not  to  go 
to  bed  either  with  cold  feet,  or  with  a stomach 
that  has  been  either  long  empty  or  recently 
filled.  Many  devices  for  inducing  somnolence 
have  been  practiced  with  more  or  less  success  ; 
one  of  these  is  combing  the  hair,  which  has  a 
very  soothing  effect  on  some  persons.  An- 
other is  to  have  the  feet  gently  shampooed. 
Walking  about  the  bedroom  in  one’s  night- 
dress, so  as  to  get  what  Dr.  Franklin  called  an 
air  bath,  is  a good  plan  ; and  the  cold  water 
bath,  just  before  retiring  to  rest,  by  virtue  of 
its  stimulating  action,  is  often  successful.  In 
more  refractory  cases  the  warm  bath  may  be 
tried — it  acts  by  withdrawing  the  blood  from 
the  brain.  On  the  same  principle,  the  upright 
position,  by  favoring  the  return  of  blood  from 
the  head,  is  sometimes  useful.  Sufficient  out- 
door exercise  should  in  every  case  be  taken, 
and  those  who  are  strong  enough  should  carry 
it  to  the  point  of  fatigue.  One  of  the  most 
effectual  modes  of  dealing  with  that  common 
form  of  wakefulness  which  results  from  over- 
action of  the  brain  is  to  force  upon  the  atten- 
tion some  monotonous  train  of  thought,  and  to 
tire  the  brain  by  its  constant  repetition.  Read- 
ing a dull  book  sometimes  answers  ; or  repeat- 
ing short  verses  over  and  over  again,  or  count- 
ing backwards.  Monotonous  sounds  act  in 
the  same  way.  Boerhaave  ordered  for  a sleep- 
less patient  that  water  should  be  so  arranged 
as  to  drop  constantly  on  a metal  pan.  The 
whole  chance  of  success  lies  in  compelling  the 
mind  by  a strong  effort  of  the  will  to  give  up 
the  train  of  ideas  by  which  it  has  been  occu- 
pied, and  to  take  up  the  less  interesting  and 
more  simple  ideas  presented  to  it. 

Some  years  ago  a curious  plan  of  procuring 
sleep  by  this  means  was  announced  as  a great 
discovery  by  a Mr  Gardner;  and  testimonials 
as  to  its  efficacy  were  given  by  the  late  Prince 
Albert,  Sir  Fowell  Buxton,  Sheridan  Knowles, 
and  other  men  of  eminence.  This  plan,  the 
secret  of  which  was  bought  by  Mr.  Binus,  and 
published  in  his  “Anatomy  of  Sleep,”  was  as 
follows  : The  person  who,  after  going  to  bed, 

finds  himself  wakeful,  is  to  lie  on  his  right 
side,  with  his  head  comfortably  placed  on  the 
pillow,  having  the  neck  straight,  so  that  respi- 
ration may  be  unimpeded.  Let  him  then  close 
his  lips  slightly,  and  take  a rather  full  inspira- 
tion, breathing  through  the  nostrils,  unless 
breathing  through  the  mouth  is  habitual.  Hav- 
ing taken  the  full  inspiration,  the  lungs  are  to 
be  left  to  their  own  action,  that  is,  expiration  is 
not  to  be  interfered  with.  Attention  must  now 
be  fixed  upon  the  respiration.  The  person 


must  imagine  that  he  sees  the  breath  passing 
from  his  nostrils  in  a continuous  stream,  and  at 
the  instant  that  he  brings  his  mind  to  conceive 
this  apart  from  all  other  ideas,  consciousness 
leaves  him,  and  he  falls  asleep.  Sometimes  it 
happens  that  the  method  does  not  at  once  suc- 
ceed. It  should  then  be  persevered  in.  Let 
the  person  take  thirty  or  forty  full  inspirations, 
and  proceed  as  before ; but  he  must  by  no 
means  attempt  to  count  the  respiratory  acts,  for 
if  he  does  the  mere  counting  will  keep  him 
awake.  The  plan  is  at  all  events  safe,  and  can 
easily  be  tested. 

In  many  cases  of  prolonged  sleeplessness, 
opium  and  other  narcotics  are  of  great  use,  not 
only  by  procuring  forced  repose,  but  by  break- 
ing through  the  habit  of  not  sleeping  into 
which  the  system  has  fallen.  But  no  one  should 
venture  upon  the  use  of  such  remedies  except 
under  medical  advice. 

SMALL-POX.-This  is  a febrile,  eruptive,  and 
contagious  disorder,  which  in  past  times  caused 
a frightful  mortality,  but  in  recent  times  has 
been  brought  largely  under  control  by  the  dis- 
covery of  vaccination.  The  most  common  va- 
rieties are  : — the  discrete , in  which  the  pustules 
are  distinct;  the  confluent,  in  which  the  pus- 
tules run  together;  the  inalignant,  which  is 
often  associated  with  purpura  and  an  eruption 
resembling  measles — a very  dangerous  form; 
the  modified , which  comes  on  in  those  partially 
protected  by  vaccination,  and  is  a kind  that 
runs  a very  mild  course.  In  cases  of  small-pox 
there  is: — i.  The  stage  of  incubation,  which 
lasts  twelve  days  from  the  date  of  receiving 
the  poison.  2.  The  stage  of  eruptive  fever 
and  invasion,  lasting  forty-eight  hours.  3.  The 
stage  of  maturation,  wherein  the  rash  is  fully 
developed,  lasting  about  nine  days.  4.  The 
stage  of  secondary  fever  or  decline,  lasting  a 
variable  time,  according  to  the  severity  of  the 
disease.  Discrete  small-pox  is  the  simplest 
form  of  the  disease,  and  is  rarely  attended  with 
danger  to  human  life  ; confluent  small-pox  de- 
stroys the  greatest  number  of  lives,  and  may 
prove  fatal  to  as  many  as  50  per  cent.  In  the 
distinct  or  discrete  form,  the  primary  fever  is 
less  intense  than,  in  the  confluent  form;  in  the 
latter,  there  is  often  delirium,  and  more  espec- 
ially in  those  who  are  intemperate  in  their 
habits. 

The  malignant  variety  is  terribly  fatal ; the 
blood  seems  profoundly  poisoned  from  the  first, 
and  is  more  fluid  than  usual;  bleeding  from 
the  mouth,  nose  and  bowels  is  not  uncommon  : 
in  women,  there  is  also  bleeding  from  the 
womb,  and  if  they  are  pregnant  abortion  may 
ensue.  In  modified  small-pox,  the  patient  is 
often  able  to  go  about  the  whole  time,  and  the 
rash  may  suddenly  decline  in  the  fourth  or  fifth 
day,  and  recovery  follow. 

The  symptoms , when  small-pox  first  comes 
on,  are  fever,  pains  in  the  limbs  and  back,  head- 
ache, vomiting,  and  pain  on  pressing  the  pit 
of  the  stomach.  On  the  third  day,  small  red 
spots  appear  on  the  face  and  head ; these 
gradually  rise  and  enlarge,  the  eruption  spreads 


SMELLING-SALTS 


SNAKE-BITES 


493 


over  the  whole  body,  into  the  ears,  eyes,  nose, 
mouth,  and  throat.  The  hands,  feet,  and  face 
swell,  there  is  great  difficulty  in  swallowing;  by 
the  eighth  day  the  face  is  a mass  of  pocks. 
In  severe  cases  the  eyes  are  often  seriously 
affected  and  the  sight  sometimes  lost.  On  the 
eleventh  day  the  sores  discharge  and  form  a 
dry  crust,  which  gradually  dries  and  falls  off. 
This  is  the  time  when  it  so  frequently  proves 
fatal.  In  seventeen  to  twenty  days  the  dis- 
ease may  be  said  to  have  run  its  course.  Small- 
pox may  be  mistaken  for  measles,  but  in  the 
latter  disease  there  is  running  at  the  eyes  and 
nose,  and  sneezing,  and  the  rash  comes  out 
about  the  fourth  day ; it  may  also  be  mistaken 
for  chicken-pox,  but  in  this  disease  there  is 
little  or  no  fever,  the  rash  comes  out  in  twenty- 
four  hours,  is  vesicular  and  not  shotty,  and 
more  abundant  on  the  body  and  not  so  much 
on  the  face  and  forehead. 

Treatment. — There  is  no  medicine  which 
can  check  this  disorder;  when  once  taken  it 
must  go  through  its  regular  stages,  and  noth- 
ing will  either  cut  short  or  cure  it.  The  pa- 
tient should  be  at  once  isolated.  The  diet 
should  be  light,  consisting  of  milk,  tea,  gruel, 
beef-tea,  chicken-broth,  and  the  like.  The  hair 
should  be  cut  close,  as  it  is  impossible  to  brush 
it  after  the  pocks  have  risen.  Great  pains 
should  be  taken  to  ventilate  the  room  well 
without  having  too  much  draught,  and  it  should 
be  kept  at  a temperature  of  about  6o°.  Scru- 
pulous cleanliness  must  be  observed,  and  all 
linen,  clothes,  etc.,  must  be  disinfected  after 
being  used.  ( See  Disinfectants.)  Bed-cur- 
tains, carpets,  and  hangings  of  any  kind  must 
be  dispensed  with.  Flour,  starch,  or  hair- 
powder  may  be  sprinkled  abundantly  over  the 
face  and  body  to  relieve  the  itching  and  dis- 
comfort, and  to  absorb  any  acrid  discharge. 
Olive  oil,  cold  cream,  and  glycerine  and  water, 
will  also  relieve  the  patient  when  locally  ap- 
plied. To  prevent  pitting,  keep  the  light  from 
the  patient’s  face,  either  by  covering  it  with 
a piece  of  something  black — say  silk — with 
holes  cut  in  it  for  the  mouth  and  nostrils  ; or 
by  keeping  the  room  dark.  Covering  the  face 
is  better  than  darkening  the  room — it  is  more 
convenient  for  the  attendants,  and  has  a better 
effect  upon  the  skin.  The  part  of  the  body 
covered  by  the  clothes  is  scarcely  marked  in 
comparison  with  the  parts  exposed — as  the 
face  and  hands.  Small-pox  is  dreadfully  infect- 
ious ; no  one,  therefore,  must  be  allowed  to 
come  in  contact  with  anything  which  the  patient 
has  touched  until  it  has  been  carefully  disin- 
fected. After  recovery,  disinfect  the  sick-room 
according  to  the  directions  given  under  scarlet- 
fever.  ( See  Vaccination.) 

SMELLING-SALTS. — This  popular  remedy 
for  faintness,  etc.,  is  prepared  as  follows : Liquid 
ammonia,  one  gill ; otto  of  rosemary  and  Eng- 
lish lavender,  a quarter  of  a dram  each ; ber- 
gamot and  cloves,  eight  drops  each  ; mix  and 
shake  together  in  a stoppered  bottle.  This 
mixture  is  used  by  filling  the  smelling  bottles 
with  asbestos,  or  sponge-cuttings,  and  pouring 


it  upon  them ; take  care  not  to  put  in  more 
than  the  sponge  will  retain,  else,  when  the  bot- 
tle is  inverted,  the  ammonia  may  run  out  and 
stain  certain  colored  fabrics. 

SMELLS.  ( See  DEODORIZERS.) 

SMELT. — A small,  nearly  transparent  fish, 
very  abundant  from  October  to  April.  Fresh 
smelts  have  a smell  resembling  that  of  cucum- 
bers ; when  stale  they  lose  their  pleasant  odor, 
and  also  their  usual  flavor.  They  weigh  from 
two  to  four  ounces,  and  are  eaten  generally 
bones  and  all. 


Smelt. 

Baked  Smelts. — Draw  the  smelts  at  the 
gills,  wash  and  wipe  them  dry  in  a cloth  ; pour 
some  clarified  butter  into  the  dish  in  which 
they  are  to  be  sent  to  table,  arrange  them  neatly 
in  it ; strew  over  them  as  much  salt,  mace,  and 
cayenne,  mixed,  as  will  season  agreeably  ; cover 
smoothly  with  a rather  thick  layer  of  very  fine 
bread-crumbs,  moisten  them  equally  with  clari- 
fied butter  poured  through  a small  strainer, 
and  bake  in  a moderately  quick  oven  until  the 
crumbs  are  of  a fine,  light  brown.  A glass  of 
sherry,  half  a teaspoonful  of  essence  of  ancho- 
vies, and  a dessertspoonful  of  lemon-juice,  may 
be  poured  into  the  dish  before  the  smelts  are 
laid  in,  and  will  improve  them  greatly. 

Fried  Smelts. — Prepare  as  for  baking  ; dip 
into  beaten  egg-yolk,  and  then  into  the  finest 
bread-crumbs,  mixed  with  a very  small  quantity 
of  flour  ; fry  to  a clear  light  brown,  and  serve 
crisp  and  dry,  with  celery  sauce,  sauce  tartare, 
or  drawn  butter.  They  may  also  be  dipped  into 
batter  instead  of  bread-crumbs,  or  rolled  in 
flour  only. 

SMOKING  CHIMNEYS.  {See  Chim- 
neys.) 

SMOKE-TREE. — This  garden  tree  or  shrub, 
also  called  the  “ purple  fringe,”  presents  a 
fine  appearance  from  midsummer  to  autumn. 
It  maybe  planted  in  spring  in  any  good  garden 
soil,  is  perfectly  hardy,  and  requires  but  little 
care. 

SNAKE-BITES. — The  rattlesnake  and  the 
viper,  or  adder,  are  the  only  snakes  in  this  coun- 
try whose  bites  are  generally  fatal.  The  more 
rapidly  the  symptoms  of  poison  appear  after 
the  bite  of  a snake,  the  more  dangerous  it  is 
likely  to  be.  The  two  fangs  of  the  reptile  com- 
monly enter  and  produce  two  minute  wounds, 
from  which  only  one  or  two  drops  of  blood  may 
at  first  issue.  A smarting,  burning  pain  is  im- 
mediately perceived,  the  part  begins  to  swell, 
and  a puffiness  almost  to  bursting  of  the  skin 
spreads  in  a short  time  over  the  whole  limb ; 
there  is  fever,  often  accompanied  by<lelirium, 
slow  pulse,  pain  in  the  region  of  the  heart,  and 
Convulsions.  These  symptoms  are  attended 
with  a feeling  of  anxiety  and  lassitude,  laborious 


494 


SNIPE 


SOAP 


respiration,  thirst,  nausea,  vomiting,  and  syn- 
cope. Death  from  the  bite  of  a rattlesnake 
has  been  known  to  occur  within  a few  hours. 
Even  if  the  individual  survive  the  first  effects, 
the  wounded  part  may  become  livid  and  gan- 
grenous ; and  he  may  sink  under  the  irritative 
fever  which  sets  in. 

Treatment. — As  soon  as  the  bite  is  received 
apply  a ligature  to  the  poisoned  extremity  as 
tightly  as  possible  above  the  bite ; suck  out 
the  wound  by  the  mouth,  if  the  mouth  is  free 
from  wounds  or  sores,  or  with  cupping  glasses. 
Afterwards  apply  red-hot  iron  or  strong  caus- 
tic, as  the  fuming  nitric  acid,  to  the  wound.  If 
the  limb  swells  from  the  ligature,  loosen  it 
for  a time,  but  replace  as  soon  as  symptoms 
of  poisoning  of  the  system  (contracted  pupils 
slow  breathing,  convulsions,  etc.),  occur.  A 
finger  or  two  if  bitten  by  a very  poisonous 
snake  should  be  amputated  at  once.  If  the 
place  is  such  that  no  ligature  can  be  apolied, 
cut  out  the  wound  and  surrounding  tissues  as 
soon  as  possible.  The  patient  should  be  kept 
quiet,  hot  spirits  and  water  should  be  frequent- 
ly given,  but  not  enough  to  produce  intoxica- 
tion. It  is  said  that  much  more  can  be  taken 
without  intoxication  than  under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances. 

SNIPE. — The  common  snipe  (also  called 
English  and  Wilson’s  snipe)  is  one  of  the  most 
highly  esteemed  of  the  smaller  birds,  the  rich- 
ness and  delicacy  of  their  flesh  being  consid- 
ered second  only  to  that  of  woodcock.  Their 
bills  are  about  twice  as  long  as  their  head, 
neck  short,  legs  slender,  feet  bluish  gray, 
feathers  brownish  black  on  the  back,  and  gray- 
ish yellow  below.  They  are  found  in  the  mar- 
kets from  about  the  20th  of  March  to  the  20th 
of  April,  and  again  in  October.  There  are 
other  varieties  of  the  snipe  which  are  sold  under 
the  same  name.  Among  these  are  the  robin 
or  red-breasted  snipe , which  are  a great  deli- 
cacy ; they  are  in  season  in  April  and  May, 
and  again  in  August,  September,  and  October  ; 
the  quail-snipe  (also  called  Dowicher),  which 
are  abundant  in  April  and  May,  and  from 
about  the  middle  of  July  till  the  end  of  Octo- 
ber, being  best  in  September  and  October ; 
the  black-breasted  or  winter  snipe , which  is  in 
season  in  April  and  May,  and  again  in  Sep- 
tember and  October ; and  the  yellow-legged 
snipe , which  are  very  plentiful  in  April  and  May 
and  again  in  August  and  September,  but  are  not 
much  esteemed  for  the  table.  Prepare,  cook, 
and  serve  snipe  as  directed  for  Woodcock. 

SNOW-DROP. — This  favorite  flower  is  the 
earliest  blooming  of  the  spring  bulbs.  Clus- 
ters of  the  roots  should  be  planted  in  October 
and  November  among  the  grass  nearest  the 
house,  and  early  in  March  and  April  they  will 
appear  in  full  bloom.  They  will  grow  in  any 
soil ; but  will  run  out  if  new  homes  are  not 
provided  for  them  every  three  or  four  years. 
They  multiply  rapidly.  The  great  Snow-drop 
is  double  the  size  of  the  common  kind,  but  does 
not  bloom  so  early.  The  small  sorts  can  be 
planted  an  inch  apart  and  two  inches  deep,  but 


the  larger  ones  should  be  planted  five  inches 
apart  and  four  inches  deep. 

The  Snow-drop  also  succeeds  well  in  the 
house  ; a large  number  must  be  planted  in  a 
pot  to  make  a display.  The  proper  soil  for 
them  is  loam  and  sand.  The  large  Crimean 
snow-drop  is  very  pretty  but  not  common. 

SOAP. — All  soap  is  a compound  in  definite 
proportions  of  some  oil,  fat,  or  resin,  with  a 
saponifying  base,  which  must  be  alkaline  if  it 
is  intended  for  cleansing  purposes.  Fats  are 
composed  of  a solid  substance  called  slearine, 
and  a liquid  one  called  oleine.  When  either 
of  these  is  boiled  with  a strong  solution  of 
caustic  potash  or  soda,  a remarkable  change 
take  place,  called  saponificatioti.  The  product 
is  a viscid  homogeneous  and  transparent  mass, 
freely  soluble  in  warm  water,  and  partially  so 
in  cold,  but  insoluble  in  saline  solutions.  The 
basis  of  all  scented  or  toilet  soaps  is  good  soap 
of  the  ordinary  kinds,  either  soft  or  hard,  which 
they  re-melt  and  mix  with  various  perfumes. 
The  soaps  are  first  reduced  to  thin  shavings, 
and  these  are  put  in  a copper  pan  with  a water- 
bath  ; if  the  soaps  are  new  they  will  melt  on  the 
application  of  heat,  but  if  they  are  old  a little 
water  is  added  ; when  the  fusion  is  complete, 
some  perfume,  and,  if  required,  some  coloring 
matter,  are  added,  and  the  soap  is  then  poured 
into  moulds.  Camphor  soap , for  instance, 
consists  of  curd  soap,  oil  of  rosemary,  and 
camphor  ; hotiey  soap , of  yellow  soap,  fig  soft 
soap  and  otto  citronella ; sand  soap  has  a large 
quantity  of  silver  sand  sifted  into  it ; and  Ful- 
ler's earth  soap  contains  that  detergent. 
Cheap  scented  soaps  contain  a very  large  pro- 
portion of  yellow  soap,  or  of  common  curd. 
Medicated  soaps  (sulphur,  iodine,  bromine, 
creosote,  mercurial,  and  croton  oil)  for  cutane- 
ous diseases,  should  be  used  only  under  medi- 
cal advice.  Glycerine  soap  is  pleasant  to  use, 
very  effective  in  curing  chapped  hands,  and, 
though  quite  unctuous,  does  not  grease  the 
skin. 

Bar  or  Yellow  Soap  is  more  economical  to 
buy  than  to  make.  Buy  a box  at  a time,  cut  it 
into  squares,  and  lay  it  away  on  a dry  shelf  to 
improve  by  hardening. 

Castile  Soap. — The  best  Castile  soap  comes 
from  Spain,  but  an  excellent  article  may  be 
made  by  mixing  the  following  articles  in  the 
given  proportions  (100  is  taken  as  the  unit): 
— Soda,  9 pounds ; olive  oil,  76 y2  pounds ; 
water  and  coloring  matter,  14 y2  pounds.  The 
coloring  matter  may  be  dispensed  with. 

Hard  Soap. — Put  six  pounds  of  common 
washing  soda  and  three  pounds  of  unslacked 
lime  into  a pot,  and  pour  over  it  four  gallons  of 
boiling  water;  let  it  stand  till  perfectly  clear, 
and  then  drain  off ; pour  in  two  gallons  of  cold 
water,  let  it  settle  clear,  and  drain  that  off  into 
a pan  or  other  vessel.  Now  add  to  the  soda 
and  lime  six  pounds  of  clean  fat,  and  boil 
them  about  two  hours,  till  the  mixture  begins 
to  harden,  thinning  from  time  to  time  with  the 
two  gallons  of  cold  water  which  was  poured  on 
the  alkaline  mixture  after  draining  off  the  four 


SOAP 


SODA 


495 


gallons  of  hot  water — add  it  when  there  is 
danger  of  boiling  over ; try  the  thickness  by 
cooling  a spoonful  on  a plate.  Stir  in  a hand- 
ful of  salt  just  before  taking  from  the  fire  ; wet 
a tub  to  prevent  sticking,  turn  the  soap  into 
it  and  let  it  stand  till  solid  ; then  cut  it  into 
bars,  and  put  on  a board  to  dry  (it  should  dry 
two  or  three  months).  This  will  make  about 
forty  pounds  of  soap,  greatly  superior  to  the 
common  bar  or  yellow  soap. 

Myrtle  Soap. — Dissolve  two  pounds  and  a 
quarter  of  white  potash  in  five  quarts  of  water, 
then  mix  it  with  ten  pounds  of  myrtle  wax. 
Boil  the  whole  over  a slow  fire  till  it  turns  to 
soap,  then  add  a tea-cup  of  cold  water — let  it 
boil  ten  minutes  longer — at  the  end  of  that 
time  turn  it  into  tin  moulds  or  pans,  and  let 
them  remain  a week  or  ten  days  to  dry,  then 
turn  them  out  of  the  moulds.  If  you  wish  to 
have  the  soap  scented,  stir  into  it  any  essential 
oil  that  has  an  agreeable  smell,  just  before  you 
turn  it  into  the  moulds.  This  kind  of  soap  is 
excellent  for  shaving  and  chapped  hands— it  is 
also  good  for  eruptions  on  the  face.  It  is  fit 
for  use  three  or  four  weeks  after  it  is  made, 
but  it  is  better  in  ten  or  twelve  months. 

Soft  Soap. — L Place  20  pounds  of  grease 
in  a barrel,  pour  upon  it  a hot  lye,  made  by 
boiling  sixteen  pounds  of  potash,  or  caustic 
soda  in  four  gallons  of  water.  Mix  well ; let 
it  stand  till  the  grease  is  eaten  up  ; then  fill  up 
the  barrel  with  cold  soft  water. 

n.  Heat  twenty-six  pounds  of  clean  grease ; 
when  melted,  mix  with  it  a lye  made  by  dissolv- 
ing twenty  pounds  of  white  potash  in  ten  gal- 
lons of  water.  Let  the  whole  stand  in  the  sun, 
stirring  it  frequently  ; in  about  a week  fill  the 
barrel  with  weak  lye.  When  more  convenient, 
a lye  made  by  letting  water  soak  through  wood 
ashes  ( See  Lye)  may  be  used. 

White,  or  Curd  Soap. — This  is  made  of 
soda  and  tallow,  or  olive  oil,  but  it  is  more  eco- 
nomical to  buy  it  ready-made.  It  improves 
with  keeping. 

Windsor  Soap. — To  make  this  celebrated 
soap  nothing  more  is  necessary  than  to  slice 
the  best  white  soap  as  thin  as  possible,  and 
melt  it  over  a slow  fire.  Remove  it  from  the 
fire  when  melted  and  when  it  is  just  lukewarm, 
add  enough  of  the  oil  of  caraway  to  scent  it ; 
if  any  other  fragrant  oil  is  liked  better  it  may 
be  substituted.  Turn  it  into  moulds,  and  set 
it  in  a dry  place  for  five  or  six  days.  To  make 
brown  Windsor , add  a little  yellow  soap  to  the 
white,  and  color  with  caramel. 

SOAP  SAVER. — -A  perforated  tin  box  used 
in  washing  china  and  glass.  It  is  three  inches 


square,  with  a stiff  wire  handle.  Place  the 
soap  in  the  box,  shake  it  in  the  hot  water  to 
make  a suds,  then  hang  it  up  to  dry. 


SODA. — The  alkali  used  in  cookery,  under 
the  name  of  soda,  is  the  crystalised  carbonate 
of  soda.  That  used  for  washing  is  sal  soda. 
It  was  once  made  by  burning  sea-weed,  but  is 
now  by  decomposing  common  salt.  It  should 
be  bought  in  moderate  quantities  and  kept  in 
tightly  corked  jars. 

Bicarbonate  of  Soda  only  occurs  in  pow- 
der. It  is  but  slightly  alkaline,  and  not  at  all 
caustic.  The  preparations  are  an  effervesc- 
ing solution — medicinal  soda-water,  and  a loz- 
enge. Ordinary  soda-water  contains  no  soda, 
only  carbonic  acid ; if  it  is  desired  to  have 
soda  in  it,  the  specially  prepared  soda-water 
must  be  used.  Bicarbonate  of  soda  is  much 
used  as  an  antacid,  and  to  render  other  sub- 
stances alkaline.  It  sits  better  on  the  stomach 
than  bicarbonate  of  potash.  It  does  not  act 
so  much  on  the  kidneys,  and  is  less  often  given 
in  acute  rheumatism.  For  ordinary  antacid 
purposes,  especially  to  allay  heart-burn,  it  is 
more  used  than  the  potash  salt.  The  dose  is 
from  5 to  30  grains,  but  more  may  be  given, 
though  seldom  necessary. 

Sulphate  of  Soda,  better  known  as  Glau- 
ber’s salt,  is  a substance  which  most  undeserv- 
edly has  fallen  out  of  repute.  It  abounds  in 
certain  mineral  waters  and  sea  water.  When 
pure  it  is  colorless  and  transparent.  Its  taste 
is  exceedingly  bitter.  It  acts  as  a purgative, 
producing  copious  watery  motions.  It  is  the 
most  important  purgative  constituent  of  many 
mineral  waters.  The  Carlsbad  waters,  which 
have  a deservedly  high  repute  in  affections 
of  the  liver,  are  chiefly  efficacious  through  the 
Glauber  salts,  which  they  contain.  It  may  be 
given  in  doses  of  2 drams  to  half  an  ounce. 
It  is  best  mixed  with  some  other  purgative. 

Acetate  of  Soda  is  only  used  in  the  pre- 
paration of  arseniate  and  phosphate  of  iron. 
By  itself  it  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  used, 
acetate  of  potash  taking  its  place. 

Sulphite  of  Soda  is  much  more  important, 
not  for  its  soda,  but  for  its  sulphurous  acid.  In 
making  it,  sulphurous  acid  is  passed  through 
carbonate  of  soda  to  saturation.  It  exists  in 
prisms  which  have  a slight  odor  of  sulphur- 
ous acid,  readily  soluble  in  water.  It  is  given 
internally  in  the  same  cases  as  sulphurous,  es- 
pecially to  arrest  vegetable  growth  in  the  form 
of  sarcinae,  etc.  Externally  it  may  be  used  as 
a lotion,  where  the  acid  would  not  be  desirable. 
The  dose  is  20  grains  to  a dram. 

Hyposulphite  of  Soda  is  frequently  em- 
ployed in  the  same  way  as  the  sulphite,  but  in 
the  pharmacopoeia  it  is  only  introduced  for 
analytic  purposes.  It  occurs  in  crystals  read- 
ily soluble  in  water.  Sometimes  it  is  used  as 
a mouth  wash. 

Phosphate  of  Soda,  or  tasteless  purging 
salt,  is  got  by  adding  to  a solution  of  bone 
earth  in  sulphuric  acid,  carbonate  of  soda  to 
neutralization,  or  more.  The  salt  then  formed 
appears  in  fine  large  crystals  of  a saline  taste. 
In  good  large  doses  it  purges,  and  having  no 
disagreeable  taste,  is  very  useful  for  children 
and  delicate  persons.  It  requires  to  be  given 


496 


SODA-WATER 


SORE-THROAT 


in  doses  of  half  an  ounce  or  so.  It  is  best 
given  in  soup  or  broth,  in  which  it  is  as  nearly 
as  possible  tasteless.  In  smaller  doses  it  acts 
on  the  kidneys,  but  is  not  much  used  this  way. 
The  dose  is  20  or  30  grains. 

Chlorinated  Soda  owes  its  efficacy  not  to 
the  soda  it  contains  but  the  chlorine.  It  is  a 
bleaching  solution  constituted  in  the  same  way 
as  bleaching  powder,  and  used  for  similar  pur- 
poses. It  is  alkaline  in  reaction,  and  is  some- 
times made  into  a poultice.  Internally,  it  has 
been  given  to  get  rid  of  foetid  sloughs  in  the 
alimentary  track,  but  is  better  used  as  a gargle, 
as  in  ulcerated  mouths  and  sore  throats.  Ex- 
ternally it  may  be  used  much  diluted  as  a wash 
to  foetid  sores.  It  is  not  much  given  internally. 
The  dose  is  10  or  20  drops  freely  diluted. 

Chloride  of  Sodium,  or  common  salt,  is 
more  important  as  a food  than  a medicine.  If 
not  used  ill-health  follows,  the  bowels  get  dis- 
ordered, and  worms  form.  In  large  doses  it  is 
emetic,  and  it  may  even  give  rise  to  dangerous 
consequences.  It  is  chiefly  used  as  an  emetic 
in  cases  of  poisoning  where  no  other  remedy  is 
at  hand.  Two  or  three  tablespoonfuls  may  be 
given  well  stirred  about  in  lukewarm  water,  fol- 
lowed by  copious  draughts  of  the  same.  Warm 
salt  water  baths  are  frequently  useful  in  chronic 
rheumatic  pains.  ( See  Salt.) 

The  Citro-Tartrate  of  Soda,  is  a salt  in 
many  respects  similar  to  Rochelle  salt,  which 
contains  tartaric  acid  only.  It  is  this  substance 
in  the  granulated  form  which  is  commonly 
called  citrate  of  magnesia.  If  well  prepared 
and  well  kept,  it  constitutes  a good  laxative  and 
sits  well  on  the  stomach.  If  not  kept  in  care- 
fully stoppered  bottles,  the  carbonic  acid  is 
gradually  given  off  and  it  will  not  effervesce. 
The  dose  is  about  a dram  or  two  drams.  (See 
Rochelle  Salt.) 

SODA-WATER. — A well-known  effervesc- 
ing beverage,  consisting  of  water  impregnated 
with  carbonic  acid  gas.  In  many  cases  of 
fever  and  thirst  this  is  a very  pleasant  and 
grateful  beverage  ; and  when  mixed  with  a 
brandy  or  wine  it  forms  an  exhilarating  draught 
in  periods  of  exhaustion  and  depression, 
often  being  preferable  to  champagne,  as  it 
contains  no  sugar.  A substitute  may  be  made 
by  dissolving,  in  separate  glasses,  one-third 
filled  with  water,  thirty  grains  of  bi-carbonate 
of  soda  and  twenty  grains  tartaric  acid.  Mix. 

SOLANUM. — A family  of  climbing  vines, 
the  most  attractive  of  which  is  the  Bitter-sweet 
(celastnis  scandens.)  In  the  autumn,  when  its 
orange  berries  are  in  full  color,  this  is  an  ex- 
tremely ornamental  vine.  It  twines  so  close 
to  the  trees  that  it  sometimes  chokes  out 
the  life  of  young  saplings.  It  grows  wild  in 
great  abundance  from  New  England  to  Arkan- 
sas, and  bears  transplanting  and  cultivating 
with  good  effect. 

One  member  of  the  family,  the  solatium  jas- 
viinoides , a pretty  climber,  with  dark  green 
foliage,  and  large  clusters  of  white  flowers,  is 
an  excellent  house-plant  and  shows  to  great 
advantage  trained  around  a window  or  to  cover 


a frame-work.  If  potted  in  a soil  of  rich  loam, 
and  placed  where  it  can  get  sun  and  air,  it 
grows  very  rapidly,  and  will  bloom  all  winter. 

SOLE.  — 1 lie  New  York  sole  is  very  in- 
ferior to  the  European  fish  of  this  name.  The 


fish  commonly  called  sole,  is  properly  flounder. 
It  is  small  and  flat,  and  unusually  full  of  bones. 

Fried  Soles. — Clean,  wash  and  wipe  the 
fish  quite  dry ; lay  them  in  a large  dish  and 
salt  and  dredge  them  with  flour  ; and  fry  in  hot 
lard,  drippings  or  butter,  to  a light  brown. 

SOLUTION. — Salt  will  dissolve  in  water, 
but  sand  or  flint  will  not;  this  illustrates 
the  distinction  between  soluble  and  insoluble 
substances;  but  every  substance  is  soluble 
in  something;  and  that  something  is  called  its 
solvent  or  menstruum.  Thus,  limestone  will 
not  dissolve  in  water,  but  it  will  in  strong  acid  ; 
all  the  metals  are  insoluble  in  water,  but 
soluble  in  some  acid  : thus  oil  of  vitriol  will 
dissolve  copper  easily,  but  lead  scarcely  at  all, 
except  it  be  heated.  Resins  are  not  soluble  in 
water,  but  are  in  alcohol.  Salt  is  soluble 
in  cold  water  as  well  as  in  hot ; but  water  can 
dissolve  only  a certain  quantity  of  it,  and  then 
the  solution  is  said  to  be  saturated.  Hot 
water  dissolves  more  of  some  salts  than  cold, 
and  when  the  hot  water  cools,  it  lets  fall  all  the 
salt  above  the  quantity  that  it  could  hold  in 
solution  when  cold.  On  the  contrary,  water 
will  dissolve  sugar  without  any  limit,  until  it 
becomes  a syrup. 

Solutions  are  said  to  be  concentrated  or  in- 
spissated when  some  of  the  water  is  driven 
from  the  solution  by  evaporation.  This  pro- 
cess, with  most  animal  and  vegetable  matters, 
is  best  performed  in  a water-bath,  to  prevent 
burning,  as  in  the  case  of  portable  soup. 

SORA.  (See  Rail.) 

SORBET.  ( See  Punch,  Roman,  and 

Sherbet.) 

SORE  EYES.  (See  Ophthalmia.) 

SORE  THROAT. — A common  symptom  in 
many  diseases.  It  may  come  from  the  follow- 
ing causes  : — I.  A common  cold;  the  throat 
may  be  slightly  relaxed,  or  it  may  be  inflamed, 
and  quinsy  produced.  W rap  some  warm  flan- 
nel around  the  throat,  inhale  steam  by  putting 
the  mouth  over  a jug  of  boiling  water,  keep  in 
a warm  room,  so  as  not  to  breathe  in  a cold 
atmosphere,  and  drink  something  warm  at  bed- 
time, so  as  to  encourage  perspiration.  (See 
Quinsy.)  II.  Relaxing  and  damp  weather,  or 
living  badly  and  working  hard.  For  this  two 
or  three  glasses  of  good  wine  at  dinner,  and 
swabbing  the  throat  with  a solution  of  tannin 
and  glycerine  (tannin,  2 drachms  ; glycerine  and 
rose  water,  2 07..  each),  or  tincture  of  steel  and 
glycerine,  arc  serviceable.  III.  Scarlet  fever, 
when  there  will  also  be  the  usual  rash  on  the 


SORGHUM 


SOUFFLE 


497 


second  day.  (See  Scarlet  Fever.)  IV.  It 
may  come  on  with  an  attack  of  diphtheria,  in 
which  case  there  will  be  an  ashy  gray  mejn- 
brane  on  the  fauces  and  back  part  of  the  mouth, 
without  much  swelling.  ( See  Diphtheria.)  V. 
Sore  throat  now  and  then  comes  on  in  clergy- 
men, but  it  is  very  doubtful  if  it  is  caused  by 
speaking  too  much.  It  is  chiefly  found  among 
the  younger  and  more  studious  clergy,  who  are 
otherwise  out  of  health.  Cold  bathing,  out-door 
exercise,  and  tonics,  with  regular  living,  will 
generally  cure  it.  VL  Sore  throat  is  common  in 
those  who  have  had  syphilis,  and  in  them  there 
is  no  swelling  of  the  part,  but  generally  ulcera- 
tion of  the  tonsils.  These  ulcers  have  a grey- 
ish surface,  are  generally  symmetrical,  and 
have  a rounded  outline;  there  may  be  also 
Other  symptoms  of  the  disorder,  but  those  who 
have  once  had  a bad  throat  are  very  liable  to 
another  slight  attack  on  taking  cold.  Iodide 
of  potassium  and  mercury  form  the  best  remedy 
in  such  cases,  and  the  throat  should  be  brushed 
over  with  some  astringent  solution. 

SORGHUM. — A species  of  sugar-cane,  also 
called  Chinese  sugar-cane , which  has  been 
much  cultivated  in  some  portions  of  the  South 
during  late  years.  The  grain  which  it  produces 
is  used  as  food  in  Asia  and  Africa,  but  it  is 
cultivated  here  only  for  the  syrup  and  sugar 
obtained  from  it.  Sorghum  syrup  has  a pleas- 
ant flavor,  and  will  readily  take  the  place  of  or- 
dinary syrup  or  molasses  in  the  principal  uses 
of  the  latter.  Its  sweetening  flavor  is  said  to 
oe  much  greater,  while  the  taste  is  more  delicate. 

SORREL.— This  plant,  which  grows  wild  in 
fields  and  meadows  throughout  the  country,  is 
used  largely  in  French  cookery,  and  to  some 
extent  in  English,  but  is  seldom  used  in  this 
country,  and  almost  never  cultivated.  There 
are  numerous  varieties  of  it,  known  as  the 
French , English , broad-leaved , blistered-leaf 
round-leaved , heart-shaped i or  wood  sorrel , etc. 
There  is  also  a species  called  tuberous  rooted 
wood  sorrel  or  tuberous  rooted  oxalis,  of  which 
the  tubers  as  well  as  the  leaves  are  edible. 
Sorrel  is  used  in  salads,  sauces,  soups,  stews, 
etc.,  and  in  France  is  boiled  and  served  like 
spinach.  It  is  as  well,  perhaps,  that  sorrel  is 
comparatively  unknown  to  our  cookery,  for 
such  herbs  when  used  at  all  are  used  much 
more  liberally  by  American  cooks  than  by  any 
others,  and  one  of  the  component  parts  of  the 
acid  which  gives  to  sorrel  its  extremely  acid 
flavor  is  oxalic  acid,  which  is  a deadly  poison. 

SOUFFLfj. — The  extreme  lightness  and  deli- 
cacy of  a well-made  souffle  render  it  generally 
a favorite  dish.  It  may  be  varied  greatly  in  its 
composition,  but  in  all  cases  it  must  be  served 
the  instant  it  is  taken  from  the  oven.  A com- 
mon souffle-pan  costs  but  little,  but  those  of 
silver  or  plated-ware,  such  as  are  represented 
in  the  engraving,  are  of  course  expensive  ; the 
paste  in  which  the  souffle  is  baked  is  placed 
within  the  more  ornamental  dish  when  it 
is  taken  from  the  oven,  and  thus  sent  to 
table.  A plain,  round  cake-mould,  with  a strip 
of  letter-paper  six  inches  high,  placed  inside 
32 


the  rim,  will  answer  very  well.  The  following 
receipt  will  serve  as  a guide  for  making 


Soufflds : the  process  is  always  the  same 
whether  the  principal  ingredient  be  whole  rice 
boiled  very  tender  in  milk  and  passed  through 
a sieve,  bread-crumbs  soaked  as  for  a pudding 
and  worked  through  a sieve  also,  arrow-root, 
corn-starch,  potato-flour,  or  anything  else  of 
which  light  puddings  in  general  are  made. 

Take  from  a pint  and  a half  of  new  milk  or 
of  cream  enough  to  mix  four  ounces  of  rice- 
flour  to  a perfectly  smooth  batter  ; put  the  re- 
mainder into  a clean  well-tinned  sauce-pan  or 
stew-pan,  and  when  it  boils  stir  the  rice  briskly 
to  it ; let  it  simmer,  stirring  it  constantly,  for 
ten  minutes,  or  until  it  is  very  thick ; then  mix 
well  with  it  two  ounces  of  butter,  one  and  a half 
ounces  of  sugar,  and  the  grated  rind  of  a lemon 
(or  let  the  sugar  which  is  used  for  it  be  well 
rubbed  on  the  lemon  before  it  is  crushed  to 
powder)  ; in  two  or  three  minutes  take  it  from 
the  fire,  and  beat  quickly  to  it  by  degrees  the 
yolks  of  six  eggs  ; whip  the  whites  to  a very 
stiff  froth,  and  when  the  pan  is  buttered  and 
all  else  quite  ready  for  the  oven,  stir  them 
gently  to  the  other  ingredients  ; pour  the  mix- 
ture immediately  into  the  pan,  and  put  it  in  a 
moderate  oven,  of  which  keep  the  door  closed 
for  a quarter  of  an  hour  at  least.  When  the 
souffle  has  risen  very  high,  is  of  a fine  color, 
and  quite  done  in  the  centre,  as  it  will  be  in  from 
a half  to  three  quarters  of  an  hour,  send  it  in- 
stantly to  table. 

The  soujffU  may  be  flavored  with  vanilla, 
orange-flowers,  or  anything  else  that  is  liked. 
Chocolate  and  coffee  also  may  be  used  for  it 
with  soaked  bread  : a very  strong  infusion  of 
the  last,  and  an  ounce  or  two  of  the  other, 
melted  with  a little  water,  are  to  be  added  to 
the  milk  and  bread.  Generally  souffles  are 
served  under  the  name  of  the  article  used  to 
flavor  them,  as  souffle  au  cafe  (souffld  flavored 
with  coffee.) 

A souffle  is  commonly  served  in  a dinner  of 
ceremony  as  a remove  of  the  second-course 
roast ; but  a good  plan  is  to  have  it  quickly  hand- 
ed round  instead  of  being  placed  upon  the  table. 

SOUP. — The  art  of  preparing  good,  whole- 
some, palatable  soup,  which  occupies  so  im- 
portant a place  in  French  cookery,  has  been 
very  much  neglected  in  this  country ; yet  it 
' presents  no  difficulties  which  a little  practice  and 


498 


SOUP 


the  most  ordinary  care  will  not  readily  overcome, 
while  if  the  art  were  more  generally  cultivated 
there  would  be  a certain  gain  to  both  pocket  and 
health.  For  a well-made  soup  is  not  only  one 
of  the  most  wholesome  forms  in  which  food  can 
be  taken,  but  it  is  also  one  of  the  most  econo- 
mical. Even  a very  rich  soup  is  less  expensive 
than  almost  any  other  dish  ; and  from  the  varied 
produce  of  a well-stocked  kitchen-garden,  or 
from  the  abundance  of  vegetables  in  American 
markets,  it  may  be  made  excellent  at  a very 
trifling  cost ; and  where  fish  is  fresh  and 
abundant  it  may  be  cheaply  supplied  nearly 
equal  in  quality  to  that  for  which  a full  propor- 


I tion  of  meat  is  commonly  used.  No  branch 
of  cookery  is  more  worthy  of  the  attention  of 
American  housewives. 

Directions  to  tlie  Cook. — I n whatever  vessel 
soup  is. boiled,  see  that  it  is  perfectly  clean,  and 
let  the  inside  of  the  cover  and  the  rim  be  equal- 
ly so.  Wash  the  meat  and  prepare  the  ve°-e- 
tables  with  great  nicety  before  they  are  laid  into 
it;  and  be  careful  to  keep  it  always  closely  shut 
when  it  is  on  the  fire.  Never,  on  any  account, 
set  the  soup  by  in  it,  but  strain  it  off  at  once  into 
a clean  pan,  and  fill  the  stock-pot  immediately 
with  water ; pursue  the  same  plan  with  all  stew- 
pans  and  sauce-pans  directly  they  are  emptied. 


The  Soup  Digester  shown  in  the  cut  is  a 
great  improvement  over  the  ordinary  pot  or 
kettle  for  making  soup.  Its  construction  is 
such  that  the  water  within  may  be  raised  to  a 


Soup  Digester. 

much  higher  temperature  than  21 2°,  without 
the  heat  escaping  into  space ; and  the  cooking 
is  thus  accomplished  more  effectually,  and  in  a 
shorter  time.  An  automatic  arrangement  pro- 
vides for  the  escape  of  steam  when  a certain 
pressure  is  reached,  thereby  removing  all 
danger  from  explosion.  A “soup  digester” 
should  be  found  in  every  kitchen. 

Skim  the  soup  thoroughly  when  it  first  begins 
to  boil,  or  it  will  not  be  easy  afterwards  to 
render  it  clear;  throw  in  some  salt,  which  will 
assist  to  bring  the  scum  to  the  surface,  and 


when  it  has  all  been  taken  off,  add  the  herbs 
and  vegetables  ; for  if  not  long  stewed  in  the 
soup,  their  flavor  will  prevail  too  strongly. 
Remember  that  the  trimmings,  and  the  bones 
of  fresh  meat,  the  necks  of  poultry,  the  liquor 
in  which  a joint  has  been  boiled,  and  the  shank- 
bones  of  mutton,  are  all  excellent  additions  to 
the  stock-pot,  and  should  be  carefully  reserved 
for  it.  The  remains  of  roast  poultry  and  game 
also  will  improve  both  the  color  and  the  flavor 
of  broth  or  soup.  ( See  STOCK.) 

Let  the  soup  be  very  slowly  heated,  and  after 
it  has  been  well  skimmed,  and  has  boiled  for  a 
few  minutes,  draw  it  to  the  side  of  the  stove 
and  keep  it  simmering  softly , but  without  ceas- 
ing, until  it  is  done ; for  on  this  as  will  hereaf- 
ter be  shown,  its  excellence  principally  depends. 

Pour  boiling  water,  in  small  quantities  at 
first,  to  the  meat  and  vegetables  of  which  the 
soup  is  to  be  made  when  they  have  been  fried 
or  browned ; but  otherwise,  always  add  cold 
water  to  the  meat. 

Unless  precise  orders  to  the  contrary  have 
been  given,  onions,  eschalots,  and  garlic  should 
be  used  for  seasoning  with  great  moderation  ; 
for  not  only  are  they  very  offensive  to  many 
eaters,  but  to  persons  of  delicate  habit  their 
effects  are  sometimes  extremely  prejudicial ; 
and  it  is  only  in  coarse  cookery  that  their  flavor 
is  allowed  ever  strongly  to  prevail. 

A small  portion  of  sugar,  about  an  ounce  to 
the  gallon,  will  very  much  improve  the  flavor  of 


SOUP 


499 


gravy-stock,  and  of  all  rich  brown  soups ; it 
may  be  added  also  to  some  others  with  advan- 
tage ; and  for  this  directions  will  be  given  in 
the  proper  places. 

Two  ounces  of  salt  may  be  allowed  for  each 
gallon  of  soup  or  broth,  in  which  large  quan- 
tities of  vegetables  are  stewed ; but  an  ounce 
and  a half  will  be  sufficient  for  such  as  contain 
few  or  none  ; it  is  always  easy  to  add  more  if 
needful,  but  oversalting  in  the  first  instance  is 
a fault  for  which  there  is  no  remedy  but  that  of 
increasing  the  proportions  of  all  the  other  ingre- 
dients, and  stewing  the  whole  afresh,  which  is 
troublesome  and  for  which  there  may  not  be  time. 

As  no  particle  of  fat  should  be  seen  floating 
in  soup  when  it  is  sent  to  table,  it  is  desirable 
that  the  stock  should  be  made  the  day  before  it  is 
wanted,  that  it  may  be  quite  cold  ; when  the  fat 
may  be  entirely  scraped  off  without  difficulty. 

Spices  should  be  put  in  whole  into  soups ; 
allspice  is  one  of  the  best,  but  beware  of  using 
it  too  freely.  Seville  orange-juice  has  a finer 
and  milder  acid  than  lemon-juice ; but  both 
should  be  used  with  caution.  Sweet  herbs , for 
soups  or  broths,  consist  of  knotted  marjoram, 
thyme,  and  parsley,  a sprig  of  each  tied  together. 
The  older  and  drier  onions  are,  the  stronger 
their  flavor ; in  dry  seasons,  also,  they  are  very 
strong;  the  quantity  should  be  proportioned 
accordingly.  Although  celery  may  be  generally 
obtained  for  soup  throughout  the  year,  it  may 
be  useful  to  know  that  a drachm  of  dried  celery 
seed  will  enrich  half  a gallon  of  soup  as  much 
as  will  two  heads  of  celery.  Mushrooms  are 
much  used,  and  when  they  cannot  be  obtained 
fresh,  mushroom  catsup  will  answer  the  purpose ; 
but  it  should  be  used  very  sparingly,  as 
nothing  is  more  difficult  to  remove  than  the 
over-flavoring  of  catsup.  A good  proportion  of 
i vine  is  a gill  to  three  pints  of  soup ; this  is  as 
much  as  can  be  used  without  the  vinous  flavor 
predominating,  which  is  never  the  case  in  well- 
made  soups.  Wine  should  be  added  late  in  the 
making,  as  it  evaporates  very  quickly  in  boiling. 

When  Cayenne  pepper  is  not  mixed  with  the 
thickening,  grind  it  down  with  the  back  of  a 
spoon  and  stir  a little  liquid  to  it  before  it  is 
thrown  into  the  stew-pan,  as  it  is  apt  to  remain  in 
lumps,  and  so  occasion  great  irritation  of  the 
throat  when  swallowed. 

For  thickening  soups,  arrow-root  is  best  for 
white  soups,  and  rice-flour  for  all  others.  It 
should  be  passed  through  a lawn  sieve,  blended 
thoroughly  with  the  salt,  spices,  catsup  or  wine 
used  in  flavoring;  sufficient  liquid  should  be 
added  to  it  very  gradually  to  render  it  of  the 
consistency  of  batter,  and  it  should  also  be  per- 
fectly smooth — to  keep  it  so  it  should  be  moist- 
ened sparingly  at  first,  and  beaten  with  the 
back  of  a spoon  until  every  lump  has  disap- 
peared. The  soup  should  boil  quickly  as  the 
thickening  is  stirred  into  it,  and  be  simmered 
for  ten  minutes  afterwards.  From  an  ounce 
and  a half  to  two  ounces  of  rice-flour  will 
thicken  a quart  of  soup. 

Serve  all  soups  as  hot  as  possible. 

Apple  Soup. — Clear  the  fat  from  five  pints 


of  goou  mutton  oroth,  bouillon , or  shin  of  beef 
stock,  and  strain  it  through  a fine  sieve;  put  it 
on  the  fire,  and  when  it  boils,  add  a pound  and 
a half  of  good  cooking  apples,  and  stew  them 
down  in  it  to  a smooth  pulp ; press  the  whole 
through  a strainer,  add  a small  teacupful  of 
powdered  sugar  and  plenty  of  pepper;  simmer 
the  soup  for  a couple  of  minutes,  skim,  and 
serve  it  very  hot,  accompanied  by  a dish  of 
boiled  rice. 

Artichoke  Soup.  (See  Palestine  Soup.) 

Asparagus  Soup. — Cut  three  pounds  of  veal 
and  half  a pound  of  salt  pork  into  small  pieces, 
pour  a gallon  of  water  to  it,  and  boil  an  hour  ; 
then  add  the  stalks  of  three  bunches  of  aspar- 
agus cut  into  bits  an  inch  long;  boil  two  hours 
longer  and  strain,  pressing  the  pulp  of  the  as- 
paragus very  hard  to  extract  the  green  color- 
ing ; return  the  liquor  to  the  pot,  add  the  heads 
of  the  asparagus,  and  boil  briskly  twenty 
minutes ; then  season  with  pepper.  Lay  small 
squares  of  toast  in  the  bottom  of  the  tureen, 
pour  the  soup  over  them,  and  serve  at  once. 

Bean  Soup. — Any  kind  of  dried  beans  will 
answer  for  this  purpose.  Soak  a quart  of  them 
over  night  in  lukewarm  water ; next  morning 
put  them  on  to  boil  with  a gallon  of  cold  water 
and  a couple  of  pounds  of  salt  pork ; cover  the 
pot,  and  boil  slowly  for  three  hours  ; then  add 
a head  of  celery  shred  fine,  and  season  well 
with  pepper ; simmer  half  an  hour  longer,  strain, 
and  serve  hot.  Send  round  slices  of  lemon 
with  it. 

Beef  Soup. — L F or  very  choice  beef  soup  see 
Bouillon  and  J ulienne  (below).  A very  good 
beef  soup  may  be  made  as  follows : — Shred  a 
head  of  celery  and  one  quarter  of  a head  of 
white  cabbage  very  fine ; cut  two  turnips,  three 
carrots,  and  two  onions  into  quite  small  pieces ; 
put  all  together  into  a soup-pot,  with  half  a 
gallon  of  cold  water,  and  boil  it  two  hours;  then 
add  two  quarts  of  good  beef-stock  and  boil  an 
hour  longer  ; mix  three  tablespoonfuls  of  flour 
with  half  a pint  of  water,  adding  a little  salt  and 
pepper,  and  half  an  hour  before  serving  stir  it 
into  the  soup;  put  two  tablespoonfuls  of  Indian 
soy  into  the  tureen  first;  pour  in  the  soup,  stir 
it  up  from  the  bottom,  and  serve. 

Soup  made  as  above  may  be  served  as  clear 
beef  soup  by  laying  some  squares  of  toast  in  the 
bottom-  of  the  tureen,  and  straining  the  soup 
over  them  through  a sieve. 

Very  good  beef  soup  may  be  made  of  beef- 
bones,  scraps  of  beef-steak,  etc.,  by  cracking 
the  bones  well,  and  boiling  them  slowly  till 
good  stock  is  made ; then  add  any  kind  of 
vegetables,  season  with  pepper  and  salt,  and 
either  thicken  with  flour  (rice-flour  is  best)  or 
serve  clear. 

IL  (Brown). — Put  a piece  of  the  round  of 
beef,  weighing  about  six  pounds,  into  a pot  with 
four  or  five  quarts  of  cold  water;  add  salt  and 
pepper  and  a dozen  cloves,  and  boil  three  hours  ; 
then  cut  three  carrots  and  two  turnips  into 
dice,  and  mince  fine  two  onions  and  a head  of 
celery ; add  all  these  to  the  beef,  with  two 
slices  of  bread  toasted  brown ; boil  two  hours 


500 


SOUP 


longer,  take  out  the  meat,  add  a little  soy,  and 
serve  hot. 

The  meat  may  be  stewed  next  day  with  veg- 
etables. 

Bouillabaisse. — This  soup  or  stew  is  ex- 
tremely popular  throughout  France,  but  is  made 
in  greatest  perfection  at  Marseilles.  The  basis 
of  it  is  fish,  and  the  more  kinds  of  fish  there 
are  in  it  the  better;  it  must  never  contain  less 
than  two  kinds.  There  are  a hundred  different 
ways  of  making  it,  and  the  following  is  easy  and 
simple  compared  with  some  of  them  : — Put  a 
gill  of  sweet-oil  in  a tin  saucepan  and  set  it 
over  a quick  fire,  and  when  it  is  hot  add  two 
onions  and  two  cloves  of  garlic  sliced  ; stir  so 
as  to  partly  fry  them,  and  then  remove  from 
the  fire.  Now  put  into  the  pan  about  three 
pounds  of  fish  cut  into  pieces  about  two  inches 
long, — halibut,  haddock,  turbot,  whitefish,  or 
any  similar  fish  will  do, — adding  also  a dozen 
muscles  dropped  into  boiling  water  and  taken 
from  the  shell ; season  with  a gill  of  white  wine, 
a bay-leaf,  two  cloves,  two  slices  of  lemon,  the 
juice  of  a tomato,  salt,  pepper,  and  a pinch  of 
saffron ; cover  the  whole  with  cold  water,  and 
set  the  pan  back  on  the  fire,  which  should  be 
brisk ; let  it  boil  half  an  hour,  then  add  a tea- 
spoonful of  chopped  parsley,  and  boil  ten 
minutes  longer.  The  usual  way  of  serving  is 
to  put  some  slices  of  bread  or  toast  in  the  bot- 
tom of  a deep  dish  and  turn  the  soup  over  it ; 
but  a nicer  way  is  to  take  out  the  fish  and  serve 
it  on  a separate  dish,  pouring  the  sauce  only 
over  the  bread.  In  the  latter  case,  serve  a 
slice  of  bread  and  a piece  of  fish  covered  with 
the  sauce  to  each  person.  The  garlic  and  saf- 
fron may  be  omitted  if  not  liked. 

Bouillon. — This  soup,  or  broth  as  we  should 
perhaps  designate  it,  is  made  once  or  twice  in 
the  week,  in  every  family  of  respectability  in 
France;  and  by  the  poorer  classes  as  often  as 
their  means  will  enable  them  to  substitute  it 
for  the  vegetable  or  maigre  soups,  on  which 
they  are  more  commonly  obliged  to  subsist.  It 
is  served  usually  on  the  first  day  with  slices  of 
untoasted  bread  soaked  in  it ; on  the  second, 
it  is  generally  varied  with  vermicelli,  rice,  or 
the  like.  The  ingredients  are,  of  course,  often 
otherwise  proportioned  than  as  we  have  given 
them,  and  more  or  less  meat  is  allowed  accord- 


Bouillon  Bowl. 


ing  to  the  taste  or  circumstances  of  the  persons 
for  whom  the  bouillon  is  prepared ; but  the 
process  of  making  it  is  always  the  same,  and  is 
thus  described  (rather  learnedly)  by  one  of  the 
most  skilful  cooks  in  Europe  : “ The  stock-pot 
of  the  French  artisan,”  says  Monsieur  Careme, 


“supplies  his  principal  nourishment;  and  it  is 
thus  managed  by  his  wife,  who,  without  the 
slightest  knowledge  of  chemistry,  conducts  the 
process  in  a truly  scientific  manner.  She  first 
lays  the  meat  into  an  earthen  stock-pot,  and 
pours  cold  water  to  it  in  the  proportion  of  about 
two  quarts  to  three  pounds  of  the  beef;  she 
then  places  it  by  the  side  of  the  fire,  where  it 
slowly  becomes  hot ; and  as  it  does  so,  the  heat 
enlarges  the  fibre  of  the  meat,  dissolves  the 
gelatinous  substances  which  it  contains,  allows 
the  albumen  (or  the  muscular  part  which  pro- 
duces the  scum)  to  disengage  itself,  and  rise  to 
the  surface,  and  the  ozmazome  ( "which  is  the 
most  savory  part  of  the  meat ) to  be  diffused 
through  the  broth.  Thus,  from  the  simple  cir- 
cumstance of  boiling  it  in  the  gentlest  manner, 
a relishing  and  nutritious  soup  will  be  obtained, 
and  a dish  of  tender  and  palatable  meat ; but  if 
the  pot  be  placed  and  kept  over  a quick  fire, 
the  albumen  will  coagulate,  harden  the  meat, 
prevent  the  water  from  penetrating  it,  and  the 
osmazome  from  disengaging  itself;  the  result 
will  be  a broth  without  flavour  or  goodness,  and 
a tough,  dry  bit  of  meat.” 

It  must  be  observed  in  addition,  that  as  the 
meat  of  which  the  bouillon  is  made,  is  almost 
invariably  sent  to  table,  a part  of  the  rump,  or 
the  leg-of-mutton  piece  of  beef,  should  be  select 
ed  for  it ; and  the  simmering  should  be  con- 
tinued only  until  this  is  perfectly  tender.  When 
the  object  is  simply  to  make  good,  pure-flavor- 
ed,  beef  broth,  part  of  the  shin  or  leg,  with  a 
pound  or  two  of  the  neck,  will  best  answer  the 
purpose.  When  the  bouilli  (that  is  to  say,  the 
beef  which  is  boiled  in  the  soup),  is  to  be  serv- 
ed, bind  it  into  a good  shape,  add  to  it  a calf’s 
foot  if  easily  procurable,  as  this  much  improves 
the  quality  of  the  bouillon  ; pour  cold  water  to 
it  in  the  proportion  mentioned  above,  and  pro- 
ceed, as  Monsieur  Careme  directs,  to  heat  the 
soup y lowly  by  the  side  of  the  fire;  remove 
carefully  the  head  of  scum  which  will  gather 
on  the  surface  before  the  boiling  commences, 
and  continue  the  skimming  at  intervals  for 
about  twenty  minutes  longer,  pouring  in  once 
or  twice  a little  cold  water.  Next,  add  salt  in 
the  proportion  of  two  ounces  to  the  gallon ; this 
will  cause  a little  more  scum  to  rise ; clear  it 
quite  off  and  throw  in  three  or  four  turnips,  as 
many  carrots,  half  a head  of  celery,  four  or  five 
young  leeks,  an  onion  stuck  with  six  or  eight 
cloves,  a large  half  tea-spoonful  of  peppercorns, 
and  a bunch  of  savory  herbs.  Let  the  whole 
stew  very  softly  without  ceasing,  from  four 
hours  and  a half  to  six  hours,  according  to  the 
quantity  : the  beef  in  that  time  will  be  extreme- 
ly tender  but  not  overdone,  and  is  excellent  eat- 
ing. It  should  be  served  with  a couple  of  cab- 
bages, which  have  been  first  boiled  in  the  usual 
way,  then  pressed  very  dry,  and  stewed  for  ten 
minutes  in  a little  of  the  broth,  and  seasoned 
with  pepper  and  salt.  The  other  vegetables 
from  the  bouillon  may  be  laid,  round  it  or  not 
at  choice.  The  soup  if  served  on  the  same 
day  must  be  strained,  well  cleared  from  fat,  and 
sent  to  table  with  fried  or  toasted  bread  ; or 


SOUP 


501 


slices  of  untoasted  bread  may  be  laid  in  the 
bottom  of  the  tureen,  and  the  soup  poured  over 
them. 

Calf 's-kead  Soup.  (See  Mock-turtle 
Soup.) 

Carrot  Soup. — Boil  some  highly  colored 
carrots  in  some  slightly-salted  water  till  they 
are  quite  tender ; then  mash  them  to  a smooth 
paste,  and  mix  with  them  boiling  gravy-soup  or 
strong  beef-broth  (see  Bouillon),  in  the  pre^or- 
tion  of  two  quarts  to  a pound  and  a half  of  the 
mashed  carrots ; pass  the  whole  through  a 
strainer,  season  it  with  salt  and  cayenne,  heat 
it  in  a clean  stew-pan,  and  serve  it  very  hot. 

A finer  carrot  soup  may  be  made  by  cutting 
the  carrots  into  quarter-inch  slices,  stewing  two 
pounds  of  these  in  three  ounces  of  butter  for 
an  hour  (without  browning),  and  then  adding 
four  pints  and  a half  of  brown  gravy  soup ; 
simmer  gently  an  hour  longer,  press  the  whole 
through  a sieve  or  strainer,  season  with  salt  and 
cayenne,  boil  five  minutes,  taking  off  all  the 
scum,  and  serve  as  hot  as  possible. 

Chestnut  Soup. — Strip  the  outer  rind  from 
some  fine,  sound  Spanish  chestnuts,  throw 
them  into  a large  pan  of  warm  water,  and  as 
soon  as  it  becomes  too  hot  for  the  fingers  to 
remain  in  it,  take  it  from  the  fire,  lift  out  the 
chestnuts,  peel  them  quickly  and  throw  them 
into  cold  water  as  they  are  done ; wipe  and 
weigh  them;  take  three-quarters  of  a pound 
for  each  quart  of  soup,  cover  them  with  good 
stock,  and  stew  them  gently  for  upwards  of 
three-quarters  of  an  hour,  or  until  they  break 
when  touched  with  a fork ; drain  and  pound 
them  smoothly,  or  bruise  them  to  a mash  with 
a strong  spoon,  and  rub  them  through  a fine 
sieve  reversed  ; mix  with  them  by  slow  degrees 
the  proper  quantity  of  stock;  add  sufficient 
mace,  cayenne  and  salt  to  season  the  soup,  and 
stir  it  often  until  it  boils.  Three-quarters  of  a 
pint  of  rich  cream,  or  even  less,  will  greatly 
improve  it.  The  stock  in  which  the  chestnuts 
are  boiled  can  be  used  for  the  soup  when  its 
sweetness  is  not  objected  to  ; or  it  may  in  part 
be  added  to  it. 

Chicken  Soup. — A full-grown  fowl  is  best 
for  making  soup.  Cut  it  into  pieces  as  for  fry- 
ing, and  put  these  with  half  a pound  of  ham 
into  a pot ; just  cover  with  cold  water,  and  stew 
gently  for  an  hour,  or  until  the  breast  will  cut 
easily ; take  out  the  breast,  leaving  the  remain- 
der of  the  meat  in  the  pot,  add  about  three 
quarts  of  boiling  water,  and  let  it  stew  slowly. 
Now  chop  the  white  meat  of  the  breast  very 
fine,  and  add  it  to  the  yolks  of  four  hard-boiled 
eggs  which  have  been  previously  rubbed  to  a 
smooth  paste  with  a few  spoonfuls  of  the  soup ; 
add  also  about  a teacupful  of  fine  bread-crumbs, 
and  roll  the  mixture  into  small  balls.  When 
the  soup  has  boiled  till  the  meat  will  drop  easily 
from  the  bones,  strain  the  soup  away  from  the 
meat  and  bones,  season  with  salt,  white  pepper, 
and  chopped  parsley,  and  return  to  the  fire  ; 
drop  in  the  meat-balls,  boil  ten  minutes,  and 
then  add  by  degrees  a pint  of  milk  thickened 
with  flour  ; boil  up  once  and  serve. 


The  meat-balls  may  be  omitted,  and  all  the 
meat  boiled  till  reduced  to  shreds,  but  the  soup 
will  not  be  so  nice. 

Cocoanut  Soup. — Pare  the  dark  rind  from 
a fresh  cocoanut ; grate  the  meat  fine  ; put  five 
ounces  to  five  pints  of  veal  stock,  gravy  soup, 
or  beef-broth,  and  simmer  it  gently  for  an  hour  ; 
then  strain  off  the  soup,  pressing  the  cocoanut 
hard ; thicken  with  five  ounces  of  rice-flour, 
a little  salt  and  pepper,  and  half  a teaspoon- 
ful of  ground  mace  mixed  with  a quarter  of 
a pint  of  cream ; boil  ten  minutes,  and  serve 
hot. 

When  cream  is  not  at  hand  a half  pint  of  the 
stock  will  do  to  mix  the  thickening,  etc.,  in. 

Comsomme. — See  Consomme. 

Cucumber  Soup. — Pare,  split,  and  empty 
from  eight  to  twenty  fine,  well  grown,  but  not 
old  cucumbers, — those  which  have  the  fewest 
seeds  are  best  for  the  purpose  ; throw  a little 
salt  over  them,  and  leave  them  for  an  hour  to 
drain,  then  put  them  with  the  white  part  only 
of  a couple  of  mild  onions  into  a deep  stew-pan 
or  clean  sauce-pan,  cover  them  nearly  half  an 
inch  with  pale,  but  good  veal  stock,  and  stew 
them  gently  until  they  are  perfectly  tender, 
which  will  be  in  from  three-quarters  of  an  hour 
to  an  hour  and  a quarter ; work  the  whole 
through  a hair  sieve,  and  add  to  it  as  much 
more  stock  as  may  be  needed  to  make  the 
quantity  of  soup  required  for  table  ; and  as  the 
cucumbers,  from  their  watery  nature,  will 
thicken  it  but  little,  stir  to  it  when  it  boils,  as 
much  arrow-root,  or  rice-flour,  as  will  bring  it 
to  a good  consistence ; add  from  half  to  a 
whole  pint  of  boiling  cream,  and  serve  the  soup 
immediately.  Salt  and  cayenne  sufficient  to 
season  it,  should  be  thrown  over  the  cucum- 
bers while  they  are  stewing.  The  yolks  of  six 
or  eight  eggs,  mixed  with  a dessertspoonful  of 
chili  vinegar,  may  be  used  for  this  soup  instead 
of  cream ; three  dessertpoonfuls  of  minced 
parsley  may  then  be  strewed  into  it  a couple  of 
minutes  before  they  are  added  ; it  must  not,  of 
course,  be  allowed  to  boil  after  they  are  stirred 
in. 

Eel  Soup. — Skin  and  clean  three  pounds  of 
eels  and  cut  them  into  pieces  about  two  inches 
long;  put  them  into  a pot,  with  half  a pound  of 
salt  pork  chopped  fine,  and  pour  to  them  two 
quarts  of  cold  water;  season  with  chopped 
sweet  herbs,  and  a head  of  celery  chopped  fine 
(a  small  bag  of  celery  seed  may  be  used  when 
celery  is  not  in  season);  boil  an  hour,  or  until 
the  fish  and  pork  are  in  shreds ; and  then 
strain ; return  the  soup  to  the  pot,  add  a pint  of 
hot  milk,  two  well-beaten  eggs,  and  a level 
tablespoonful  of  butter;  boil  up  once,  and  serve 
with  dice  of  toasted  bread  on  the  top.  This  is 
a rich  and  savory  soup. 

Fish  Soup. — An  infinite  variety  of  excellent 
soups  may  be  made  of  fish,  which  should  be 
stewed  down  for  them  in  precisely  the  same 
manner  as  meat,  and  with  the  same  addition  of 
vegetables  and  herbs.  When  the  skin  is  coarse 
or  rank  it  should  be  carefully  stripped  off  be- 
fore the  fish  is  used,  and  any  oily  particles 


502 


SOUP 


which  may  float  on  the  surface  should  be  en- 
tirely removed  from  it.  Most  fish  soups  are 
improved  by  adding  a little  anchovy  or  any 
other  store _/z\r/i-sauce  ; prawns  and  shrimps  are 
also  generally  considered  an  improvement. 

For  very  savory  soups,  fry  the  fish  and  vege- 
tables, lay  them  into  the  soup-pot,  and  add 
boiling  instead  of  cold  water. 

Giblet  Soup. — Take  the  giblets,  feet,  neck, 
and  wings  of  two  fowls,  and  put  them  into  a 
pot  with  a pound  and  a half  of  veal  and  a slice 
of  lean  ham  ; pour  to  them  three  quarts  of  cold 
water,  and  boil  gently  till  the  meat  is  very  soft ; 
then  strain  off  the  liquor,  and  when  cold,  scrape 
off  the  fat,  cut  the  giblets  and  meat  into  half- 
inch dice ; make  a thickening  with  a table- 
spoonful of  flour  and  a tablespoonful  of  butter 
mixed  with  a little  of  the  soup;  add  all  these 
to  the  soup,  with  some  sweet  herbs  tied  in  a 
bag,  and  a little  salt ; boil  half  an  hour,  and 
serve. 

Gravy  Soup. — I.  Cut  two  pounds  of  beef 
from  the  neck  into  dice  and  fry  until  brown. 
Break  small  two  or  three  pounds  of  bones  and 
lightly  fry  them ; bones  from  which  streaked 
bacon  has  been  cut  make  an  excellent  addition, 
but  too  many  must  not  be  used  lest  the  soup 
be  salt.  Slice  and  fry  brown  a pound  of  onions, 
put  them  with  the  meat  and  bones  and  three 
quarts  of  cold  water  into  the  soup-pot,  let  it 
boil  up,  and  having  skimmed,  add  two  large 
turnips,  a carrot  cut  in  slices,  a small  bundle  of 
sweet  herbs,  and  half  a dozen  peppercorns. 
Boil  gently  for  four  or  five  hours,  and  about  one 
hour  before  it  is  finished  add  a few  bits  of  celery 
or  celery-seed  tied  in  muslin.  When  done,  strain 
the  soup,  and  let  it  get  cold  in  order  to  remove 
all  the  fat ; then  put  on  the  fire  again,  and  when 
it  boils  stir  into  it  a tablespoonful  of  rice-flour 
mixed  in  four  tablespoonfuls  of  cold  water ; 
season  to  taste  and  serve.  Small  force-meat 
balls  are  an  improvement  to  this  soup. 

II.  The  shin  or  leg  of  beef,  if  not  large  or 
coarse,  will  answer  for  this  soup,  and  afford  at 
the  same  time  a highly  economical  dish  of 
boiled  meat,  which  will  be  found  very  tender, 
and  very  palatable  also,  if  it  be  served  with  a 
sauce  of  some  piquancy.  From  about  ten 
pounds  of  the  meat  let  the  butcher  cut  evenly 
off  five  or  six  from  the  thick  fleshy  part,  and 
again  divide  the  knuckle,  that  the  whole  may  lie 
compactly  in  the  vessel  in  which  -it  is  to  be 
stewed  ; pour  in  three  quarts  of  cold  water,  and 
when  it  has  been  brought  slowly  to  boil,  and 
been  well  skimmed,  as  directed  for  bouillon, 
throw  in  an  ounce  and  a half  of  salt,  half  a tea- 
spoonful of  peppercorns,  eight  cloves,  two 
blades  of  mace,  a faggot  of  savory  herbs,  a 
couple  of  small  carrots,  and  the  heart  of  a root 
of  celery ; to  these  add  a mild  onion  or  not,  at 
choice.  When  the  whole  has  stewed  very 
gently  for  four  hours,  probe  the  larger  bit  of 
beef,  and  if  quite  tender,  lift  it  out  for  table  ; 
let  the  soup  be  simmered  from  two  to  three 
hours  longer,  and  then  strain  it  through  a fine 
sieve,  into  a clean  pan.  When  it  is  perfectly 
CpJd,  clear  off  every  particle  of  fat;  heat  a 


couple  of  quarts,  stir  in,  when  it  boils,  half  an 
ounce  of  sugar,  a small  tablespoonful  of  good 
soy,  and  twice  as  much  clear  and  fine  mushroom 
or  other  catsup.  If  carefully  made,  the  soup 
will  be  perfectly  transparent  and  of  good  color 
and  flavor.  A thick  slice  of  lean  ham  will  im- 
prove it,  and  a pound  or  so  of  the  neck  of  beef 
with  an  additional  pint  of  water,  will  likewise 
enrich  its  quality.  A small  quantity  of  good 
broth  may  be  made  of  the  fragments  of  the 
whole  boiled  down  with  a few  fresh  vegetables. 

Caper  sauce,  or  hot  horse-radish  sauce,  or 
any  other  sharp  sauce,  may  be  served  with  the 
portion  of  the  meat  which  is  sent  to  table. 

Gumbo  or  Okra  Soup. — Put  two  quarts  of 
okras  sliced  thin  into  a pot  with  two  pounds  of 
beef  and  half  a pound  of  ham  cut  into  small 
pieces  ; pour  in  just  enough  cold  water  to  cover 
them,  and  stew  gently  for  an  hour ; then  add  a 
quart  of  sliced  tomatoes,  and  two  quarts  of 
boiling  water ; boil  three-quarters  of  an  hour 
longer,  skimming  often.  When  the  meat  and 
vegetables  have  boiled  to  pieces,  add  four 
tablespoonfuls  of  butter,  a pinch  of  cayenne 
pepper,  and  a little  salt,  if  the  ham  has  not 
made  it  salt  enough  ; strain  and  serve  hot.  A 
little  vermicelli  may  be  added  to  this  soup  after 
it  is  strained. 

Gumbo. — n.  (Chicken). — Cut  a good  sized 
fowl  as  for  a tricasee,  season  with  salt  and  pep- 
per, dredge  with  flour,  put  it  in  the  soup  kettle 
with  two  ounces  of  butter,  one  of  lard  and  two 
of  onion,  chopped  fine  ; fry  until  quite  brown, 
then  add  four  quarts  of  hot  water,  cover  and 
let  it  simmer  for  two  hours  ; add  a handful  of 
tender,  chopped  okra  and  let  it  simmer  half  an 
hour  longer ; add  a pinch  of  cayenne  with 
twenty  or  thirty  oysters  ; when  these  are  well 
puffed,  remove  the  kettle  from  the  fire,  sprinkle 
half  a teaspoonful  of  filet  powder  over  the 
soup,  beating  it  in  quickly,  then  serve  at  once. 

For  filet  powder,  gather  sassafras  leaves  in 
August ; dry  them  in  the  shade,  powder  them, 
sift  and  bottle.  It  is  for  sale  in  the  New  Or- 
leans market  and  probably  in  other  southern 
cities.  Prof.  Dimitry  says  : “ Never  attempt  to 
add  the  sassafras  while  the  vessel  is  on  the  fire. 
The  result  would  be  to  precipitate  the  powder, 
and  literately  send  your  gumbo  to  pot.” 

Hare  Soup.— Half  roast  a hare,  and  having 
cut  away  the  meat  in  long  slices  from  the  back- 
bone, put  it  aside  to  make  an  entree.  Fry  four 
onions,  a carrot  and  turnip,  a little  celery,  some 
bacon  bones  or  a slice  of  lean  ham,  and  having 
cut  the  body  of  the  hare  up  into  small  pieces, 
put  all  on  to  boil  in  two  quarts  of  good  stock. 
When  you  have  skimmed  the  pot,  cover  close 
and  allow  it  to  boil  gently  for  three  hours,  then 
strain  it,  take  off  every  particle  of  fat,  and  hav- 
ing allowed  it  to  boil  up,  thicken  it  with  a des- 
sertspoonful of  corn-flour.  Stir  in  two  lumps 
of  sugar,  a glass  of  port  wine,  and  season  if  ne- 
cessary. 

Hasty  Soup. — Mince  together  a pound  of 
lean  beef,  mutton,  or  veal,  a small  carrot , a small 
turnip,  half  an  ounce  of  celery,  the  white  part 
of  a medium  sized  leek  or  a very  small  onion ; 


SOUP 


503 


and  put  them  into  a deep  sauce-pan  with  three 
pints  of  cold  water ; when  the  soup  boils,  take 
off  the  scum,  and  add  a little  salt  and  pepper. 
In  half  an  hour  it  will  be  ready  to  serve  with  or 
without  straining ; it  may  be  flavored  with  cay- 
enne, catsup,  or  anything  else  that  is  preferred. 

Jenny  Lind's  Soup. — This  receipt  does  not 
merely  bear  the  name  of  “ Mademoiselle  Lind,” 
but  is  in  reality  that  of  the  soup  which  was 
constantly  served  to  her,  as  it  was  prepared  by 
her  own  cook. 

Wash  a quarter  of  a pound  of  the  best  pearl 
sago  until  the  water  poured  from  it  is  clear ; 
then  stew  it  quite  tender  and  very  thick  in 
water  or  thick  broth  (it  will  require  nearly  or 
quite  a quart  of  liquid,  which  should  be  poured 
to  it  cold,  and  heated  slowly)  : then  mix  gradu- 
ally with  it  a pint  of  good”  boiling  cream,  and 
the  yolks  of  fbur  fresh  eggs,  and  mingle  the 
whole  carefully  with  two  quarts  of  strong  veal 
or  beef  stock,  which  should  always  be  kept 
ready  boiling.  Send  the  soup  immediately  to 
table. 

Julienne  Soup. — Wash  and  scrape  a large 
carrot,  cut  away  all  the  yellow  parts  from  the 
middle,  and  slice  the  red  outside  an  inch  in 
length,  and  the  eighth  of  an  inch  thick ; take 
an  equal  quantity  of  turnip,  and  three  small 
onions,  cut  in  a similar  manner;  put  them  in  a 
stew-pan  with  two  ounces  of  butter  and  a pinch 
of  pounded  sugar,  stir  over  the  fire  until  a nice 
brown  color,  then  add  a quart  of  clear,  well- 
flavored  stock,  and  let  all  simmer  together  gently 
for  three  hours  ; when  done  skimthe  fat  off  very 
carefully,  and  ten  minutes  before  serving  add  a 
cabbage  lettuce  cut  in  shreds  and  blanched  for 
a minute  in  boiling  water;  simmer  for  five 
minutes  and  the  soup  will  be  ready.  Any  clear 
soup  may  be  converted  into  Julienne  by  adding 
prepared  vegetables  as  above. 

Lobster  Soup. — Boil  a shin  of  veal  for  three 
or  four  hours  in  a gallon  of  water,  with  two 
carrots,  two  onions,  salt,  and  mace.  At  the 
time  of  putting  the  veal  on  the  fire  break  up  a 
large  lobster  and  take  the  meat  out  of  the  shell ; 
break  up  the  shell  and  put  it  into  a sauce-pan, 
with  water  enough  to  cover  it,  and  let  it  simmer 
while  the  soup  is  boiling.  Strain  the  soup  from 
the  meat  and  vegetables,  and  the  liquor  from 
the  lobster-shell,  and  put  them  together  into 
the  soup-pot ; cut  the  lobster-meat  up  very  fine 
add  it  to  the  soup,  and  boil  two  hours  longer. 
If  there  was  a row  of  coral  (spawn)  in  the  lob- 
ster, grate  it,  and  add  it  with  the  minced  meat. 
When  nearly  done, add  a quarter  of  a pound  of 
butter  mixed  with  two  tablespoonfuls  of  flour,  a 
teacupful  of  white  wine  and  a tablespoonful  of 
vinegar,  or  the  juice  of  a lemon ; boil  ten  min- 
utes, and  serve  hot. 

Maccaroni  Soup. — Throw  four  ounces  of 
maccaroni  (the  best  Italian)  into  a pan  of  fast- 
boiling water,  with  about  an  ounce  of  butter, 
and  a small  onion  stuck  with  three  or  four 
cloves ; when  it  has  swelled  to  its  full  size  and 
become  tender,  drain  it  well,  cut  it  into  half- 
inch lengths,  and  drop  it  into  two  quarts  of 
clear  gravy  soup ; let  it  simmer  for  five  or  ten 


minutes,  when  it  will  be  ready  for  the  table. 
Observe  that  the  macaroni  should  be  boiled 
quite  tender ; but  it  must  not  be  allowed  to 
burst  nor  to  become  pulpy.  Serve  grated  Par- 
mesan cheese  with  it. 

Mock-turtle  Soup. -To  make  a single  tureen 
of  this  excellent  English  soup  in  the  most  econ- 
omical manner,  stew  gently  down  in  a gallon  of 
water  four  pounds  of  the  fleshy  part  of  a shin 
or  neck  of  beef  with  two  or  three  carrots,  one 
onion,  a small  head  of  celery,  a bunch  of  savory 
herbs,  a blade  of  mace,  a half-teaspoonful  of 
peppercorns,  and  an  ounce  of  salt.  When  the 
meat  is  quite  in  fragments,  strain  off  the  broth, 
and  pour  it  when  cold  upon  three  pounds  of  the 
knuckle  or  of  the  neck  of  veal  ; simmer  this  until 
the  flesh  has  quite  fallen  from  the  bones,  but 
be  careful  to  stew  it  gently  or  the  quantity  of 
stock  will  be  so  much  reduced  as  to  be  insuf- 
ficent  for  the  soup. 

Next,  take  the  half  of  a fine  calf’s  head  with 
the  skin  on,  remove  the  brains,  and  then  bone 
it  entirely,  or  let  the  butcher  do  this.  Strain 
the  soup  through  a hair-sieve  into  a clean  pan, 
and  let  it  drain  closely  from  the  meat.  When 
it  is  cold,  clear  off  all  the  fat  from  it ; roll  the 
head  lightly  round,  leaving  the  tongue  inside, 
or  taking  it  out,  as  is  most  convenient,  secure 
it  with  tape  or  twine,  pour  the  soup  over,  and 
bring  it  gently  to  a boil  upon  a moderate  fire  ; 
keep  it  well  skimmed,  and  simmer  it  from  an 
hour  to  an  hour  and  a quarter;  then  lift  the 
head  into  a deep  pan  or  tureen,  add  the  soup 
to  it,  and  let  it  remain  in  until  nearly  cold,  as 
this  will  prevent  the  edges  from  becoming  dark. 

Cut  into  quarter-inch  slices,  and  then  divide 
into  dice,  from  six  to  eight  ounces  of  the  lean  of 
raw  ham  ; free  it  perfectly  from  fat,  rind,  and  the 
smoked  edges;  peel  and  slice  four  moderate- 
sized eschalots,  or  if  these  should  not  be  at 
hand,  one  mild  onion.  Dissolve  in  a well-tinned 
stew-pan  or  thick  iron  sauce-pan  which  holds  a 
gallon  or  more,  four  ounces  of  butter;  put  in 
the  ham  and  eschalots,  or  onion,  with  half  a 
dozen  cloves,  two  middling-sized  blades  of  mace, 
a half-teaspoonful  of  peppercorns,  three  or  four 
very  small  sprigs  cf  thyme,  three  tcaspoonfujs 
of  mixed  parsley,  one  of  lemon  thyme  and 
winter  savory  mixed,  and  when  the  flavor  is 
liked,  the  very  thin  rind  of  half  a lemon.  Stew 
these  as  gently  as  possible  for  nearly  or  quite 
an  hour,  and  keep  the  pan  frequently  shaken; 
then  put  into  a dredging  box  two  ounces  of  fine 
dry  flour,  and  sprinkle  it  to  them  by  degrees ; mix 
the  whole  well  together,  and  after  a few  minutes 
more  of  gentle  simmering,  add  very  gradually 
five  full  pints  of  the  stock  taken  free  of  fat  and 
sediment,  and  made  boiling  before  it  is  poured 
in ; shake  the  pan  strongly  round  as  the  first 
portions  of  it  are  added,  and  continue  to  do  so 
until  it  contains  from  two  to  three  pints,  when 
the  remainder  may  be  poured  in  at  once,  and 
the  pan  placed  by  the  side  of  the  fire  that  it 
may  boil  in  the  gentlest  manner  for  an  hour. 
At  the  end  of  that  time  turn  the  whole  into  a 
hair-sieve  placed  over  a large  pan,  and  if  the 
liquid  should  not  run  through  freely,  knock  the 


504 


SOUP 


sides  of  the  sieve,  but  do  not  force  it  through 
with  a spoon,  as  that  would  spoil  the  appearance 
of  the  stock. 

The  head  in  the  meanwhile  should  have  been 
cut  up,  ready  to  add  to  it.  For  the  finest  kind 
of  mock  turtle,  only  the  skin,  with  the  fat  that 
adheres  to  it,  should  be  used  ; and  this,  with  the 
tongue,  should  be  cut  down  into  one  inch 
squares,  or,  if  preferred,  into  strips  of  an  inch 
wide.  For  ordinary  occasions,  the  lean  part  of 
the  flesh  may  be  added  also,  but  as  it  is  always 
sooner  done  than  the  skin,  it  is  better  to  add  it 
to  the  soup  a little  later.  When  it  is  quite 
ready,  put  it  with  the  strained  stock  into  a clean 
pan,  and  simmer  it  from  three-quarters  of  an 
hour  to  a full  hour ; it  should  be  perfectly  ten- 
der, without  being  allowed  to  break.  Cayenne, 
if  needed,  should  be  thrown  into  the  stock  be- 
fore it  is  strained  ; salt  should  be  used  sparingly, 
on  account  of  the  ham,  until  the  whole  of  the 
other  ingredients  have  been  mixed  together, 
when  a sufficient  quantity  must  be  stirred  into 
the  soup  to  season  it  properly.  A couple  of 
glasses  of  sherry  or  Madeira,  with  a dessert- 
spoonful of  strained  lemon-juice,  are  usually  add- 
ed two  or  three  minutes  only  before  the  soup 
is  dished,  that  the  spirit  and  flavor  of  the  wine 
may  not  have  time  to  evaporate  ; but  it  is  some- 
times preferred  mellowed  down  by  longer  boil- 
ing. 

Five  minutes  before  the  soup  is  taken  from 
the  fire,  drop  in  force-meat  balls  made  as  fol- 
lows : — Rub  the  yolks  of  three  hard-boiled  eggs 
to  a smooth  paste  with  the  back  of  a spoon,  ad- 
ding gradually  the  brains  which  were  taken 
from  the  calf’s  head,  together  with  a little  pep- 
per and  salt,  mix  with  these  one  egg  beaten 
light,  and  make  the  paste  into  balls  about  the 
size  of  a pigeon’s  egg. 

This  is  perhaps  the  most  delicious  soup  made, 
far  superior  to  real  turtle  soup.  And  it  is  not 
nearly  so  difficult  to  make  as  the  long  receipt 
would  seem  to  indicato. 

Mullagatawny  Soup. — Slice,  and  fry  gently 
in  some  good  butter  three  or  four  large  onions, 
and  when  they  are  of  a fine  equal  amber-color 
lift  them  out  with  a slice  and  put  them  into  a 
deep  stew-pot,  or  large  thick  sauce-pan  ; throw 
a little  more  butter  into  the  pan, and  then  brown 
tightly  in  it  a young  rabbit,  or  the  prime  joints 
of  two,  or  a fowl  cut  down  small  and  floured. 
When  the  meat  is  sufficiently  browned,  lay  it 
upon  the  onions,  pour  gradually  to  them  a 
quart  of  good  boiling  broth  or  stock,  and  stew 
it  gently  from  three-quarters  of  an  hour  to  an 
hour ; then  take  it  out,  and  pass  the  stock  and 
onions  through  a fine  sieve  or  strainer.  Add 
to  them  two  pints  and  a half  more  of  stock, 
pour  the  whole  into  a clean  pan,  and  when  it 
boils  stir  to  it  two  tablespoonfuls  of  curry- 
powder  mixed  with  nearly  as  much  of  browned 
flour,  and  a little  cold  water  or  broth,  put  in 
the  meat,  and  simmer  it  for  twenty  minutes  or 
longer  should  it  not  be  perfectly  tender,  add 
the  juice  of  a small  lemon,  just  before  it  is 
dished,  serve  it  very  hot,  and  send  boiled  rice 
to  table  with  it. 


We  have  given  here  the  sort  of  receipt  com- 
monly used  in  England  for  mullagatawny,  tout 
a much  finer  soup  may  be  made  by  departing 
from  it  in  some  respects.  The  onions,  of 
which  the  proportion  may  be  increased  or  di- 
minished to  the  taste,  after  being  fried  slowly 
and  with  care,  that  no  part  should  be  overdone, 
may  be  stewed  for  an  hour  in  the  first  quart  of 
stock  with  three  or  four  ounces  of  grated 
cocoa-nut,  which  will  impart  a rich  mellow  fla- 
vor to  the  whole.  After  all  of  this  that  can 
be  rubbed  through  the  sieve  has  been  added 
to  as  much  more  stock  as  will  be  required  for 
the  soup,  and  the  curry-powder  and  thickening 
have  been  boiled  in  it  for  twenty  minutes,  the 
flesh  of  part  of  a calf’s  head,  previously  stewed 
almost  tender,  and  cut  as  for  mock  turtle,  with 
a sweetbread  also  parboiled  or  stewed  in  broth, 
and  divided  into  inch-squares,  will  make  an  ad- 
mirable mullagatawny,  if  simmered  in  the  stock 
until  they  have  taken  the  flavor  of  the  curry- 
seasoning. The  flesh  of  a couple  of  calves’ feet 
with  a sweetbread  or  two  may,  when  more  con 
venient,  be  substituted  for  the  head.  A large 
cupful  of  thick  cream,  first  mixed  and  boiled 
with  a teaspoonful  of  flour  or  arrow-root  to  pre- 
vent its  curdling,  and  stirred  into  the  soup  be- 
fore the  lemon-juice,  will  enrich  and  improve 
it  much. 

Mutton  Soup. — Cut  a neck  c f mutton  into 
chops,  paring  off  every  particle  of  fat ; four 
hours  before  dinner,  put  it  in  the  stew-pan,  and 
cover  it  with  boiling  water ; add  four  carrots 
and  six  small  turnips  cut  in  slices,  and  boil 
gently  till  dinner-time  ; flavor  with  salt,  skim  off 
the  fat,  and  serve.  An  ounce  or  two  of  rice, 
added  with  the  vegetables,  will  improve  this 
soup. 

Mutton  soup  may  be  made  in  all  respects  as 
directed  for  beef  soup,  but  it  is  made  less 
savory. 

Ox-cheek  Soup. — This  is  an  economica, 
soup,  and  at  the  same  time,  if  well  made,  very 
good,  Have  the  bones  of  the  cheek  well  broken 
and  wash  it  well  in  plenty  of  salt  and  water, 
put  it  in  the  soup-pot  and  cover  with  water,  let 
it  boil  ten  minutes,  then  pour  away  this  water  ; 
fry  six  large  onions,  and  put  them  into  the 
soup-pot  with  two  carrots  and  turnips,  a lit- 
tle celery  and  blade  of  mace,  six  peppercorns 
and  cloves,  and  as  mu:h  stock  or  water  as 
will  cover  the  cheek;  let  it  boil  gently  for 
four  hours,  adding  hot  water  from  time  to 
time.  Remove  the  meat  from  the  bones,  and 
choose  some  of  the  best  pieces  to  serve  in  the 
soup.  The  remainder  can  be  used  for  other 
dishes  and  is  very  good.  When  the  soup  is 
done,  strain  it,  and  let  it  get  cold  in  order  to 
remove  all  the  fat ; this  done,  return  it  to  the 
fire,  and  when  it  boils,  season  to  taste,  and  stir 
in  a tablespoonful  of  flour  or  rice-flour  mixed  in 
four  tablespoonfuls  of  cold  water;  boil  five  or 
ten  minutes  and  serve.  A glass  of  sherry  may 
be  added  with  the  seasoning  if  liked. 

Ox-tail  Soup.— I.  Get  three  small  tails, 
joint  them,  rub  them  with  salt,  and  soak  them 
in  luke-warm  water  for  had  an  hour  ; put  them 


SOUP 


505 


into  a stew-pan  with  four  sliced  onions,  a sliced 
turnip,  a bunch  of  parsley,  a little  whole  allspice 
and  black  pepper,  and  three  quarts  of  water ; 
when  the  meat  is  quite  tender,  take  it  out  and 
cut  into  mouthfuls ; thicken  the  soup  with  rice- 
flour  or  flour  stirred  in  a little  cold  water,  strain 
it  into  a clean  stew-pan,  put  in  the  meat,  boil  up 
once,  and  serve  hot. 

II.  Ox-tail  soup  is  rather  insipid  in  flavor 
without  the  addition  of  some  other  meat,  and 
the  following  is  a better  method  of  making  it : — 
Joint  one  ox-tail,  and  fry  the  pieces  brown  in  but- 
ter ; take  out  the  meat  and  fry  in  the  same  pan  two 
carrots  and  three  onions,  sliced ; when  these 
are  done  tie  them  in  a bag  with  a bunch  of 
thyme  and  drop  into  the  soup-pot.  Lay  the 
fried  ox-tail  also  in  the  pot,  and  add  two  pounds 
of  lean  beef  cut  into  small  slices ; grate  over 
them  two  carrots,  season  with  salt  and  pepper, 
and  add  a gallon  of  cold  water ; boil  slowly  four 
or  five  hours.  When  done,  strain,  thicken  with 
two  tablespoonfuls  of  browned  flour,  and  boil 
ten  minutes  longer.  Serve  very  hot. 

Oyster  Soup. — I.  Boil  a knuckle  of  veal 

in  a gallon  of  water  till  the  water  is  reduced  to 
two  quarts,  strain  this  broth  off  and  add  to  it 
the  juice  from  a quart  of  oysters ; season  to 
taste  with  pepper  and  salt,  and  return  to  the 
fire  ; when  it  boils  well,  put  in  the  oysters  ; 
when  puffed,  skim  them  into  the  tureen;  add  8 
rolled  crackers,  and  simmer  5 minutes  ; add  | 
pt  of  boiling  milk;  pour  on  the  oysters, and  serve. 

II.  Put  three  pints  of  new  milk  over  boiling 
water ; drain  two  quarts  of  oysters ; put  the 
liquor  over  the  fire  ; wash  the  oysters  and  re- 
move all  bits  of  shell ; when  the  milk  is  hot 
add  three  ounces  of  butter  rubbed  smooth  with 
an  ounce  and  a half  of  flour,  and  stir  until 
slightly  thickened  ; then  add  the  liquor,  which 
must  be  well  boiled,  skimmed  and  hot ; add  the 
oysters ; season  with  salt,  white  pepper  and 
mace  ; when  the  oysters  are  puffed,  serve  with 
a plate  of  crackers  crisped  in  the  oven. 

Palestine  or  Artichoke  Soup. — Wash  and 
pare  quickly  some  freshly-dug  artichokes,  and 
to  preserve  their  color  throw  them  into  clear 
water  as  they  are  done,  but  take  them  out  as 
soon  as  all  are  ready.  Boil  three  pounds  of 
them  in  water  for  ten  minutes ; lift  them  out, 
and  slice  them  into  three  pints  of  boiling  beef 
or  mutton  or  veal  stock  ; when  they  have  stew- 
ed gently  in  this  from  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes, 
press  them  with  the  soup  through  a fine  sieve, 
and  put  the  whole  into  a clean  saucepan  with  a 
pint  and  a half  more  of  stock  ; season  with  salt 
and  cayenne,  skim  it  well,  and  after  it  has  sim- 
mered two  or  three  minutes,  stir  into  it  a pint 
of  boiling  cream.  Serve  immediately. 

Parsnip  Soup. — Put  four  ounces  of  butter 
into  a wide  stew-pan  or  sauce-pan,  and  as  soon 
as  it  has  melted,  slice  in  two  pounds  of  sweet 
tender  parsnips  ; let  them  stew  very  gently  till 
they  are  quite  soft,  then  pour  in  gradually 
enough  veal  stock  or  good  broth  to  cover  them, 
and  boil  the  whole  slowly  from  twenty  minutes 
to  half  an  hour ; then  work  it  with  a wooden 
spoon  through  a fine  sieve,  add  as  much  stock 


as  will  make  two  quarts  in  all,  season  with  salt 
and  white  pepper  or  cayenne,  give  it  one  boil, 
skim,  and  serve  very  hot. 

We  can  recommend  this  soup  to  those  who 
like  the  peculiar  flavor  of  parsnips. 

Pea  (Dried)  Soup. — I.  Save  the  water  in 
which  beef  or  pork  has  been  boiled,  and  if  it  is 
too  salt  put  an  equal  quantity  of  fresh  water  to 
it ; or  use  fresh  water  only  with  roast-beef 
bones,  a ham-bone,  and  an  anchovy  or  two. 
Simmer  these  with  some  dried  peas  (whole  or 
split);  the  smaller  the  quantity  of  water  at  first 
the  better.  Simmer  till  the  peas  are  quite  soft; 
then  mash  them  through  a colander,  and  return 
the  pulp  to  the  soup,  with  two  carrots,  a turnip, 
a leek,  and  a stick  of  celery  cut  into  bits,  or 
celery  seed;  stew  until  all  are  quite  tender, 
then  season  with  salt  and  pepper;  strain,  and 
serve  with  toast  cut  in  dice,  or  with  bread  fried 
in  the  same  shape. 

II.  (Rich.)  Soak  a quart  of  fine  yellow  split 
peas  for  a night,  drain  them  well,  and  put  them 
into  a large  soup-pot  with  five  quarts  of  good 
brown  gravy  soup  ; and  when  they  have  boiled 
gently  for  half  an  hour,  add  to  the  soup  three 
onions,  as  many  carrots,  and  a turnip  or  two, 
all  sliced  and  fried  carefully  in  butter  ; stew  the 
whole  softly  until  the  peas  are  reduced  to  pulp, 
then  add  as  much  salt  and  cayenne  as  may  be 
needed  to  season  it  well,  give  it  two  or  three 
minutes’  boil,  and  pass  it  through  a sieve,  pres- 
sing the  vegetables  with  it.  Put  into  a clean 
sauce-pan  as  much  as  may  be  required  for  table, 
add  a little  fresh  stock  to  it  should  it  be  too 
thick,  and  reduce  it  by  quick  boiling  if  too  thin; 
throw  in  the  white  part  of  some  fresh  celery 
sliced  a quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  and  when  this 
is  tender  send  the  soup  quickly  to  table.  A 
dessertspoonful  or  more  of  curry-powder  greatly 
improves  pea  soup : it  should  be  smoothly 
mixed  with  a few  spoonfuls  of  it,  and  poured 
to  the  remainder  when  this  first  begins  to  boil 
after  having  been  strained. 

When  more  convenient,  six  pounds  of  neck 
of  beef,  fried  brown,  may  be  boiled  gently  with 
the  peas  and  fried  vegetables  in  a gallon  of 
water  (which  should  be  poured  to  them  boiling) 
for  four  or  five  hours. 

Pea  (Green)  Soup. — I.  Put  a shin  of  veal 
in  a gallon  of  cold  water,  with  two  onions  and 
two  carrots  ; season  with  pepper  and  salt,  set  it 
on  the  fire  and  let  it  boil  four  hours  ; then  add 
two  quarts  of  green  peas  (not  very  young),  and 
boil  an  hour  and  a half  longer ; strain  the  soup 
through  a sieve,  and  return  it  to  the  pot ; add 
a quarter  of  a pound  of  butter  with  an  ounce 
of  flour,  stir  well,  boil  fifteen  minutes,  and  serve. 

IL  (Excellent.)  Take,  at  their  fullest  size, 
but  before  they  are  of  bad  color  or  worm-eaten, 
three  pints  of  green  peas,  and  boil  them  as  for 
table  (See  Peas)  with  half  a teaspoonful  of  soda 
in  the  water,  that  they  may  be  very  green. 
When  they  are  quite  tender,  drain  them  well, 
and  put  them  into  a couple  of  quarts  of  boiling 
beef  or  veal  stock,  and  stew  them  in  it  gently 
for  half  an  hour ; then  work  the  whole  through 
a fine  hair  sieve,  put  it  into  a clean  pan  and 


506 


SOUP 


bring  it  to  the  point  of  boiling;  add  salt,  should 
it  be  needed,  and  a small  teaspoonful  of  pound- 
ed sugar;  clear  off  the  scum  entirely,  and  serve 
the  soup  as  hot  as  possible.  A superior  variety 
of  it  is  made  by  adding  a half  pint  more  of  stock 
to  the  peas,  and  about  three-quarters  of  a pint 
of  asparagus  points,  boiled  apart,  and  well 
drained  before  they  are  thrown  into  it,  which 
should  be  done  only  the  instant  before  it  is 
sent  to  table. 

When  there  is  no  stock  at  hand,  four  or  five 
pounds  of  shin  of  beef  boiled  slowly  down  with 
three  quarts  of  water  to  two,  and  well  seasoned 
with  savory  herbs,  young  carrots,  and  onions, 
will  serve  instead  quite  well.  A thick  slice  of 
lean,  undressed  ham,  or  of  dried  beef,  would 
improve  it. 

III.  A common  pea  soup  for  family  use  may 
be  made  somewhat  thinner  than  the  last ; add 
to  it,  just  before  it  is  dished,  from  a half  to 
three-quarters  of  a pint  of  young  peas  boiled 
tender  and  well  drained.  This  is  often  pre- 
ferred to  any  other. 

Potato  Soup.— Mash  to  a smooth  paste 
three  pounds  of  good  mealy  potatoes,  which 
have  been  steamed,  or  boiled  very  dry ; mix 
with  them  by  degrees  two  quarts  of  boiling 
broth,  or  milk;  pass  through  a strainer,  set  it 
again  on  the  fire,  add  pepper  and  salt,  and  let 
it  boil  five  minutes  ; remove  carefully  the  black 
scum  that  will  rise  upon  it ; serve  very  hot  with 
fried  or  toasted  bread.  When  the  flavor  of 
onions  is  liked,  two  ounces  of  them,  minced 
and  fried  to  a light  brown,  may  be  added  to  the 
soup  and  stewed  in  it  ten  minutes.  With  milk  use 
grated  onion.chopped parsley, and  3ozofbutter. 

Pot-au-Feu. — Directions  for  making  this 
famous  French  soup  are  given  in  its  alphabet- 
ical place  in  the  book.  (See  Pot  au  Feu.) 

Rabbit  Soup. — L Cut  the  rabbit  up  in  small 
pieces,  break  the  bones,  and  proceed  as  direct- 
ed for  Venison  Soup,  adding  three  onions  in- 
stead of  one,  and  a bunch  of  sweet  herbs. 
Hares  or  squirrels  may  be  used  instead  of  rabbit. 

II.  Cut  down  into  joints,  flour,  and  fry  lightly, 
two  full  grown,  or  three  young  rabbits  ; add  to 
them  three  onions  of  moderate  size,  also  fried 
to  a clear  brown  ; on  these  pour  gradually  seven 
pints  of  boiling  water,  throw  in  a large  tea- 
spoonful of  salt,  clear  off  all  the  scum  with  care 
as  it  rises,  and  then  put  to  the  soup  a faggot  of 
parsley,  four  not  very  large  carrots,  and  a small 
teaspoonful  of  peppercorns ; boil  the  whole 
very  softly  from  five  to  five  and  a half  hours  ; 
add  more  salt  if  needed, strain  off  the  soup,  let  it 
cool  sufficiently  for  the  fat  to  be  skimmed  clean 
from  it,  heat  it  afresh,  and  send  it  to  table  with 
sippets  of  fried  bread.  Spice,  with  a thicken- 
ing of  rice  flour,  or  of  wheaten  flour  browned  in 
the  oven,  and  mixed  with  a spoonful  or  two  of 
very  good  mushroom  catsup,  or  of  Harvey’s 
sauce,  can  be  added  at  pleasure  to  the  above, 
with  a few  drops  of  eschalot  wine,  or  vinegar  ; 
but  the  simple  receipt  will  be  found  extremely 
good  without  them. 

Rice  Soup. — This  soup  may  be  served  either 
thickened  with  the  rice,  or  clear.  For  the  form- 


er, wash  and  wipe  in  a dry  cloth  eight  ounces  of 
rice,  and  add  it  (in  small  portions  at  a time)  to 
four  quarts  of  hot  soup  (any  kind  of  clear  meat 
soup),  of  which  the  boiling  must  not  be  checked 
as  it  is  thrown  in  ; boil  it  slowly  an  hour  and  a 
half,  and  serve.  When  a clear  soup  is  wanted, 
wash  the  rice,  boil  it  in  water  five  minutes, 
drain  it  well,  throw  it  into  as  much  boiling  stock 
or  broth  as  will  keep  it  covered  till  it  is  done, 
and  simmer  it  very  gently  until  the  grains  are 
tender  but  still  separate ; drain  it,  drop  it  into 
the  soup,  and  let  it  remain  in  it  a few  minutes 
before  it  is  served,  but  without  simmering. 

An  easy  mode  of  making  rice  soup  is  this : 
put  the  rice  into  plenty  of  cold  water,  set  it  on 
the  fire,  and  when  it  boils  add  a small  quantity 
of  salt ; let  it  simmer  ten  minutes  ; then  drain 
it  well,  throw  it  into  the  boiling  soup,  and  sim- 
mer it  gently  from  ten  to  fifteen  minutes  longer. 

Sago  Soup. — Wash  in  several  waters,  and 
float  off  the  dirt  from  three  ounces  of  fine  pearl 
sago;  put  it  into  three  pints  of  good  cold  gravy, 
let  it  stew  gently  from  half  to  three-quarters  of 
an  hour,  and  stir  it  occasionally,  that  it  may 
not  burn  nor  stick  to  the  stew-pan.  (A  quarter 
of  an  ounce  more  of  sago  to  each  pint  of  liquid, 
will  thicken  it  to  the  consistence  of  peas  soup.) 
It  may  be  flavored  with  a tablespoonful  of 
Harvey’s  sauce,  as  much  cayenne  as  it  may 
need,  the  juice  of  half  a lemon,  half  an  ounce 
of  sugar,  and  a glass  of  sherry.  Or  these  may 
be  omitted,  and  good  beef-broth  may  be  sub- 
stituted for  the  gravy-soup,  for  a simple  family 
dinner,  or  for  an  invalid.  Or  again,  it  may 
be  converted  into  inexpensive  white  soup  by 
the  addition  of  some  cream  smoothly  mixed 
with  a dessertspoonful  of  arrow-root,  or  of  thick 
cream  and  new  milk  in  equal  portions ; veal 
broth  would  be  the  most  appropriate  for  this, 
or  it  might  be  made  with  half  veal  and  half 
mutton. 

Sorrel  Soup. — Carefully  wash  half  a pound 
of  sorrel,  and  having  picked,  cut  it  in  shreds ; 
put  it  into  a stew-pan  with  two  ounces  of  fresh 
butter,  and  stir  over  the  fire  for  ten  minutes. 
Now  stir  in  an  ounce  of  flour,  mix  well  togeth- 
er, and  add  a pint  and  a half  of  good  white 
stock,  made  as  for  veal  broth.  Let  it  simmer 
for  half  an  hour.  Having  skimmed  the  soup, 
stir  in  the  yolks  of  three  eggs  beaten  up  in 
half  a pint  of  milk  or  cream.  Stir  in  a little 
pat  of  butter,  and  when  dissolved  pour  the 
soup  over  thin  sippets  of  French  roll  in  the 
soup  tureen. 

Tapioca  Soup. — This  is  made  in  all  res- 
pects like  sago  soup,  but  it  must  be  simmered 
from  fifty  minutes  to  an  hour. 

Tomato  Soup. — Put  three  pounds  of  beef, 
veal,  or  lamb  into  a gallon  of  cold  water,  set  on 
the  fire  and  boil  the  meat  to  rags  and  the 
water  down  to  two  quarts  ; strain  the  stock  away 
from  the  meat,  and  return  it  to  the  pot ; add 
two  quarts  of  fresh  tomatoes,  peeled  and  cut 
up  very  fine,  and  boil  half  an  hour;  season  with 
parsley,  or  any  other  green  herb,  salt  and  pepper; 
strain  again,  stir  in  a teaspoonful  of  sugar  and  a 
tablespoonful  of  butter,  and  serve  at  once. 


SOUP 


507 


Canned  tomatoes  maybe  used  instead  of  the 
fresh  ; a chopped  onion  and  a handful  of  chop- 
ped okra  boiled  with  the  tomatoes  would  im- 
prove the  soup. 

Turkey  Soup  may  be  made  from  the  “ leav- 
ings” of  a roast  turkey  by  the  addition  of  a little 
fresh  meat.  Cut  two  pounds  of  lean  beef  into 
small  pieces,  and  pour  to  it  five  pints  of  cold  wa- 
ter ; heat  it  very  slowly  ; skim  the  liquor  when  it 
begins  to  boil,  and  add  to  it  an  ounce  of  salt,  a 
small  onion,  a little  celery,  and  the  meat  and 
bones  of  the  turkey,  with  any  gravy  or  stuffing 
that  may  have  been  left  with  them.  Let  these 
boil  gently  for  about  three  hours  ; then  strain 
off  the  soup  through  a coarse  sieve  or  cullen- 
der, and  let  it  cool  till  the  fat  can  be  entirely 
removed  from  it.  When  this  is  done,  return 
it  to  the  pot  or  stew-pan,  thicken  with  rice  which 
has  previously  been  boiled  very  dry,  and  season 
with  a heaping  tablespoonful  of  chopped  pars- 
ley, and  as  much  salt  and  pepper  or  cayenne 
as  may  be  required ; boil  gently  for  ten  minutes, 
and  serve. 

Turnip  Soup.  — I.  Make  in  exactly  the  same 
manner  as  Carrot  Soup. 

II.  Wash  and  wipe  the  turnips,  pare  and 
weigh  them  ; allow'  a pound  and  a half  for 
every  quart  of  soup.  Cut  them  in  slices  about 
a quarter  of  an  inch  thick.  Melt  four  ounces 
of  butter  in  a clean  stew-pan,  and  put  in  the 
turnips  before  it  begins  to  boil ; stew  them 
gently  for  three-quarters  of  an  hour,  taking 
care  that  they  shall  not  brown,  then  have  the 
proper  quantity  of  soup  ready  boiling,  pour  it 
to  them,  and  let  them  simmer  in  it  for  three- 
quarters  of  an  hour.  Pulp  the  whole  through 
a coarse  sieve  or  soup  strainer,  put  it  again  on 
the  fire,  keep  it  stirred  until  it  has  boiled  three 
or  four  minutes,  take  off  the  scum,  add  salt  or 
pepper  if  required,  and  serve  it  very  hot. 

III.  Pare  and  slice  into  three  pints  of  veal  or 
mutton  stock  or  of  good  broth,  three  pounds 
of  young  mild  turnips  ; stew  them  gently  from 
twenty-five  to  thirty  minutes,  or  until  they  can 
be  reduced  quite  to  pulp ; rub  the  whole 
through  a sieve,  and  add  to  it  another  quart  of 
stock,  a seasoning  of  salt  and  white  pepper,  and 
one  lump  of  sugar ; give  it  two  or  three  min- 
utes’ boil,  skim  and  serve  it.  A large  white 
onion,  when  the  flavor  is  liked,  may  be  sliced 
and  stewed  with  the  turnips.  A little  cream 
improves  much  the  color  of  this  soup. 

Turtle  Soup.— L The  green  turtle  is  best 
for  this  purpose.  Cut  the  desired  quantity  of 
the  meat  into  dice,  and  throw  it  in  boiling 
water  for  two  or  three  minutes ; then  put  it  into 
a stew-pan  with  one-fourth  as  much  ham,  also 
cut  in  dice,  and  some  sliced  onion ; season 
with  salt,  pepper,  parsley,  thyme,  and  bay-leaf ; 
add  a wineglassful  of  Madeira  or  of  good 
brandy,  cover  the  whole  with  strong  beef  or 
veal  broth,  set  on  a good  fire,  and  boil  about 
an  hour.  Ten  minutes  before  taking  from  the 
fire,  chop  the  eggs  of  the  turtle,  after  having 
boiled  them,  and  add  them  to  the  soup ; if  the 
turtle  has  none,  chop  and  use  the  yolks  of  hard 
boiled  eggs  instead.  When  done,  throw  away 


the  parsley,  thyme,  and  bay-leaf,  turn  the  soup 
into  a tureen,  and  flavor  with  grated  lemon-peel. 
Serve  hot. 

It  may  be  strained  before  putting  it  into  the 
tureen,  if  desired,  but  it  is  better  to  serve  the 
meat  with  it. 

n.  (Dried  Turtle.) — Take  a quarter  of  a pound 
of  dried  turtle  ( see  Turtle),  soak  it  in  cold 
water  for  three  days , and  then  stew  it  in  three 
quarts  of  strong  veal  stock  for  six  hours  ; take 
the  turtle  out  and  set  the  soup  aside  to  cool  ; 
when  cold  take  off  all  the  fat,  and  return  the 
soup  to  the  pot;  fry  one  small  onion  in  butter, 
and  add  it  to  the  soup ; boil  about  ten  minutes 
and  strain.  Cut  the  turtle  up,  not  too  small, 
and  put  it  into  the  strained  soup ; add  a tea- 
spoonful of  Worcestershire  sauce,  and  a wine- 
glassful  of  sherry,  season  to  taste  with  salt  and 
cayenne,  and  simmer  all  together  a few  minutes 
before  serving.  Send  sliced  lemon  round  with 
it.  This  quantity  is  enough  for  twelve  persons, 
is  an  excellent  soup,  and  costs  scarcely  half  as 
much  as  green  turtle  soup. 

Veal  Soup. — Take  a knuckle  of  veal  and 
put  it  into  a pot  with  enough  salted  water  to 
cover  it ; add  a pound  of  lean  ham,  set  it  on  a 
moderate  fire,  and  boil  gently  till  the  meat  is 
very  tender ; then  take  up  the  meat,  strain  the 
soup,  return  it  to  the  pot,  and  add  a head  of 
celery  chopped  fine,  one  onion,  a carrot  and  a 
turnip  sliced,  four  tomatoes  also  sliced,  a dozen 
peppercorns,  and  salt  to  taste ; thicken  with 
three  tablespoonfuls  of  rice,  or  vermicelli,  or  a 
thin  flour-paste  ; simmer  gently  till  all  the  vege- 
tables are  done,  and  serve  hot.  This  is  an  ex- 
cellent plain  soup. 

Vegetable  Soup. — Take  all  kinds  of  vege- 
tables, slice  them  thin,  put  them  into  a stew-pan 
with  a good  lump  of  butter,  and  stew  until  quite 
tender  ; then  add  any  stock,  gravy,  or  broth  there 
happens  to  be  in  the  house,  thicken  with  either 
flour  or  bread-crumbs,  and  season  with  pepper 
and  salt  to  taste  ; boil  ten  minutes  and  serve. 

Venison  Soup.— Cut  three  pounds  of  venison 
and  one  pound  of  ham  or  salt  pork  into  small 
pieces,  and  put  them  into  a pot  with  a head  of 
celery  chopped  fine  and  a sliced  onion ; pour  in 
just  enough  cold  water  to  cover  them,  and  boil 
gently  for  an  hour;  then  add  two  quarts  of 
boiling  water,  and  season  with  a few  blades  of 
mace  and  a pinch  of  cayenne  ; boil  slowly  two 
hours  longer,  strain  the  soup  from  the  meat  and 
vegetables,  and  return  it  to  the  pot;  salt  to 
taste,  and  add  a tablespoonful  of  butter ; thick- 
en with  a tablespoonful  of  browned  flour,  made 
into  a thin  paste  with  four  tablespoonfuls  of 
cold  water ; add  a tablespoonful  of  mushroom 
or  walnut  catsup,  a teaspoonful  of  Worcester- 
shire or  any  other  pungent  sauce,  and  a wine- 
glassful  of  sherry,  or  Madeira  ; boil  five  minutes, 
and  serve  hot. 

Vermicelli  Soup. — I.  Put  a shin  of  veal 
into  a pot  with  four  quarts  of  cold  water,  and 
add  two  carrots,  two  turnips,  and  two  onions, 
all  cut  up  into  small  pieces ; boil  slowly  for 
three  hours,  strain  the  soup  from  the  meat  and 
vegetables,  and  return  it  to  the  pot ; add  two 


508 


SOUR-KROUT 


SPECTACLES 


teacupfuls  of  vermicelli  and  boil  half  an  hour 
longer. 

(Without  Meat). — II.  Blanch  six  ounces  of 
vermicelli  by  setting  on  the  fire  in  cold  water ; 
when  it  boils,  drain  off  the  water  and  put  it 
again  into  cold  water ; let  it  remain  a few 
minutes,  drain  the  water  entirely  from  it,  and 
put  it  into  a sauce-pan  with  two  quarts  of  milk  ; 
boil  it  till  tender;  meanwhile  beat  up  the  yolks 
of  four  eggs,  add  gradually  to  them  a pint  of 
boiling  cream,  and  strain  through  a sieve  ; now 
lift  off  the  sauce-pan,  add  the  eggs  and  cream,  a 
small  lump  of  white  sugar,  and  a teaspoonful  of 
salt ; stir  the  soup  over  the  fire  till  it  is  near 
the  boiling-point,  and  then  serve. 

White  Soup.— Break  the  bone  of  a knuckle 
of  veal  in  one  or  two  places,  and  put  it  on  to 
stew,  with  three  quarts  of  cold  water  to  five 
pounds  of  meat ; when  it  has  been  quite  cleared 
from  scum,  add  to  it  an  ounce  and  a half  of  salt, 
and  one  mild  onion,  twenty  white  pepper-corns, 
and  two  or  three  blades  of  mace,  with  a little 
cayenne  pepper.  When  the  soup  is  reduced 
one  third  by  slow  simmering,  strain  it  off,  and 
set  it  by  till  cold  ; then  free  it  carefully  from 
the  fat  and  sediment,  and  heat  it  again  in  a 
very  clean  stew-pan.  Mix  with  it,  when  it  boils, 
a pint  of  thick  cream  smoothly  mixed  with  an 
ounce  of  good  arrowroot,  two  ounces  of  very 
fresh  vermicelli  previously  boiled  tender  in 
water  slightly  salted  and  well  drained  from  it, 
and  an  ounce  and  a half  of  almonds  blanched 
and  cut  in  stripes.  Give  it  one  minute’s  boiling, 
and  turn  into  the  tureen. 

SOUR-KROUT.  (See  Sauer-Kraut.) 

SOUSE. — This  is  made  either  of  the  head, 
ears,  and  tongue  of  pigs  (when  it  is  sometimes 
called  Head-Cheese),  or  of  the  ears  and  feet 
only.  To  make  the  former  : — Boil  the  head, 
ears,  and  tongue  in  salted  water  until  the  meat 
is  ready  to  drop  from  the  bones;  take  out  the 
bones,  and  chop  the  meat  very  fine  as  for  sau- 
sage. Season  the  liquor  well  with  pepper,  salt, 
cloves,  nutmeg,  and  cinnamon,  or  with  pepper, 
salt,  and  sweet  herbs  ; mix  the  meat  with  it,  and 
while  hot  tie  in  a strong  bag,  and  lay  a board 
with  a heavy  stone  upon  it  till  quite  cold.  Or 
it  maybe  packed  into  pans  or  moulds,  and  a 
plate  with  a weight  placed  over  it  till  cold.  In 
the  latter  case  drain  off  the  liquor  as  it  is  pres- 
sed out.  The  souse  will  be  ready  for  use  in  two 
days,  or  it  may  be  kept  several  weeks  by 
immersing  it  in  enough  cold  vinegar  to  cover  it. 
It  is  usually  sliced  and  eaten  cold  for  supper, 
but  it  may  also  be  fried  lightly  in  butter. 

Or,  cleanse  pigs’  ears  and  feet  thoroughly, 
and  soak  them  in  salt  and  water  for  a week, 
changing  the  water  every  other  day ; then  boil 
them  till  they  are  tender.  When  cold,  put 
them  into  stone  jars  and  pour  on  them  boiling 
vinegar,  strongly  spiced  with  pepper-corns  anti 
mace ; cloves  improve  the  taste,  but  turn 
them  a dark  color;  add  a little  salt.  They  may 
be  kept  in  this  way  five  or  six  weeks.  When 
wanted,  either  fry  them  in  lard,  or  dip  them  in 
beaten  egg  and  then  in  cracker-crumbs  before 
frying.  The  feet  may  be  eaten  cold. 


SOY. — Put  on  the  fire  I ^ lbs.  of  sugar  with 
a half  pint  of  water  ; boil  rapidly  until  it  begins 
to  look  frothy,  and  on  being  dropped  from  the 
spoon  has  the  appearance  of  thick  gum;  then 
slacken  the  heat  and  stir  it  faithfully  until  it, 
looks  very  dark,  almost  black;  then  add  to  it 
1 6 oz  of  salt,  1 6 cloves,  5 anchovies,  a bunch 
of  thyme,  a bunch  of  marjoram,  12  blades  of 
mace,  8 large  bay  leaves,  and  a quart  of  water ; 
boil  until  the  sugar  is  dissolved,  then  strain, 
and  bottle  it  tightly. 

SPASM. — The  violent  and  uncontrollable 
action  of  some  particular  set  of  muscles. 
Spasms  are  generally  described  as  of  two  sorts, 
viz. : tonic  and  clonic.  In  tonic  spasms  the 
muscles  of  a part  contract  violently,  and  remain 
rigid  and  immovable  by  the  will  of  the  patient 
for  a greater  or  less  length  of  time.  Such  con- 
tractions occur  in  tetanus  and  in  ordinary  cramp. 
Clonic  spasms  consist  in  sudden  contraction 
and  relaxations  regularly  alternating.  The 
jumping  of  the  legs  and  arms,  which  occur 
under  certain  conditions,  are  examples  of  this. 

Spasms,  again,  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the 
word  as  used  by  the  vulgar,  mean  gripes,  and 
commonly  depend  on  indigestion  and  constipa- 
tion. In  most  cases  they  are  best  relieved  by 
a purgative,  containing  a good  deal  of  stimu- 
lant substance,  such  as  the  essential  oils.  In 
children,  the  so-called  spasms  depend  almost 
invariably  on  imperfect  digestion  of  food,  which 
ferments  in  the  bowels,  and  so  gives  rise  to 
diarrhoea  and  gripes.  To  do  any  permanent 
good  in  these  cases,  it  is  necessary  to  reform 
the  diet  completely,  as  they  are  perhaps  most 
commonly  due  to  giving  starchy  food  too  early ; 
or  the  milk  given  turns  sour.  Limewater  given 
along  with  the  milk  is  a good  thing.  One  par- 
ticular form  of  spasm,  called  trismus  nascen- 
tiuni,  is  very  fatal  to  children  when  newly 
born.  It  seems  due  to  a foul  atmosphere. 

SPECTACLES  (Hints  on  the  use  of). — 
From  a valuable  little  book,  “ Practical  Re- 
marks on  Impaired  Vision,”  by  Mr.  Cooper, 
the  well-known  London  optician,  we  extract  the 
following: — “It  cannot  be  too  strongly  urged 
upon  any  one  about  to  use  spectacles  for 
the  first  time  that  that  power  which  will  enable 
him  to  read  without  much  exertion  by  candle- 
light is  the  only  power  suitable  for  him.  It  is 
by  candle-light  only  that  he  should  use  glasses 
at  first,  and  as  soon  as  he  finds  that  he  stands 
in  need  of  glasses  by  day  as  well  as  by  candle- 
light, and  that  the  glasses  he  uses  no  longer 
afford  him  sufficient  assistance  by  candle-light, 
it  will  be  proper  to  use  the  next  power  for  the 
evening,  but  for  the  evening  only,  and  to  al- 
low himself  the  use  of  the  others — and  their 
use  only — during  the  day. 

“The  greatest  caution  as  to  increasing  the 
power  of  glasses  should  be  observed  ; for  per- 
sons who  change  their  glasses,  unnecessarily 
increasing  their  power  each  time,  are  exhausting 
the  resources  of  art,  instead  of  economizing 
them  as  much  as  possible.  Optical  aid  can 
only  be  extended  to  a certain  point,  and  the 
steps  to  that  point  should  be  as  slow  and 


SPERMACETI 


SPINACH 


509 


as  numerous  as  possible.  By  exercising  prudent 
precautions,  persons  may  often  attain  great  age, 
and  yet  never  require  the  aid  of  glasses  beyond 
a very  moderate  power  ; others,  on  the  contrary, 
who  from  ignorance  frequently  increase  the 
power  of  their  glasses,  may  run  through  the 
whole  assortment,  and  leave  themselves  only 
the  most  inconvenient  resources  to  fall  back 
upon — viz.,  the  very  highest  powers.”* 

Common,  cheap  spectacles  sometimes  appear 
to  answer  as  well  as  those  which  cost  three  or 
four  times  as  much  ; but  cheap  glasses  are  not 
to  be  depended  upon ; they  are  sometimes 
ground  irregularly  and  imperfectly,  and  then 
they  injure  the  eyes.  It  is  better,  therefore,  to 
have  spectacles  from  a respectable  optician, 
who  has  a character  to  maintain.  Spectacles 
having  lenses  called  pebbles , which  is  rock 
crystal,  are  not  liable  to  be  scratched  like  glass ; 
but  they  are  not  in  any  degree  better  than  those 
of  glass  for  the  eyesight;  and  if  care  be  taken 
of  the  latter  they  do  just  as  well. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  spectacle-glasses, 
the  convex,  the  concave,  and  the  periscopic. 
The  first  are  to  correct  short  sight,  the  second 
to  correct  long  sight,  while  the  periscopic  are 
for  either.  This  last  description  of  lens  is 
both  concave  and  convex,  the  former  on  the 
side  nearest  the  eye,  the  latter  on  the  side 
furthest  from  it.  For  long  sight,  as  well  as 
short,  the  convexity  and  concavity  are  made  to 
differ  so  as  to  furnish  any  required  focus.  It 
is  to  be  observed  that  in  glasses  of  this  form 
the  aberration  of  light  is  greater  than  in  any 
other  lenses,  and  that  periscopic  glasses  are 
liable  to  be  scratched.  They  have,  however, 
one  very  great  advantage,  which  is  this  : — With 
common  glasses,  especiallyconcave,  the  wearer 
can  see  only  through  the  exact  middle  of  the 
lens  ; he  must,  therefore,  turn  his  head  when- 
ever he  directs  his  view  to  any  lateral  object. 
With  periscopic  glasses  he  may  see  through 
any  part  of  them,  and  can  observe  objects  by 
his  side  without  turning  his  head.  If,  however, 
periscopic  glasses  be  defectively  made,  they 
are  injurious  to  the  eyes.  They  should  be 
gauged  and  examined  before  they  are  pur- 
chased, to  be  assured  of  their  accuracy. 

SPERMACETI. — A white,  waxy  substance 
obtained  from  the  head  of  the  sperm  whale, 
where  it  lies  encased  in  a large  hollow,  which 
contains  from  half  a ton  to  a ton  of  it  mixed 
with  sperm  oil.  The  two  together  are  pressed 
in  horse-hair  bags  from  which  the  oil  runs  out, 

* In  his  “ Physiology  for  Practical  Use  ” Dr.  Hinton  ob- 
serves on  this  point  : — “ The  risk  of  using  them  [spectacles] 
too  strong  is  not  great,  and  the  subject  may  be  allowed  to  se- 
lect for  himself  those  that  suit  him  best  for  reading.  They 
ought  to  enable  him  to  read  easily  at  twelve  inches’  distance. 
It  is  a natural  result  from  the  slowly  progressive  character  of 
the  failure  of  sight,  that  stronger  and  stronger  glasses  will  be 
necessary  as  age  advances.  If  the  progress  is  rapid,  and  es- 
pecially if  the  glasses  do  not  relieve  it  so  much  after  a while  as 
they  did  at  first,  then  advice  is  needed.  You  sometimes  notice 
at  church  an  old  man  with  his  spectacles  on  the  tip  of  his  nose, 
and  his  prayer-book  held  as  far  off  as  possible.  These  are 
sure  signs  that  he  wants  stronger  glasses.  The  effect  of  put- 
ting the  spectacles  further  from  the  eyes  is  to  increase  their 
power.  The  glasses  used  ought,  however,  to  be  strong  enough 
to  allow  of  their  being  kept  close  to  the  eyes,  and  it  ought  not 
to  be  necessary  to  hold  the  book  more  than  a foot  away.,, 


leaving  the  spermaceti  itself  behind,  and  it  only 
requires  to  be  heated  and  skimmed,  and  then 
washed  with  a solution  of  potash  to  make  it  fit 
for  the  market  as  pure  spermaceti  This  has 
little  or  no  smell  or  taste,  and  is  of  a semi- 
transparent whitish  color,  which  is  more  bril- 
liant than  that  of  wax.  By  the  assistance  of  a 
wick  it  burns  with  a clear  white  flame,  superior 
to  that  of  tallow,  and  without  any  disagreeable 
odor  ; consequently  it  is  much  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  candles.  (See  Candles.)  It 
also  possesses  the  property  of  softening  the 
skin,  and  is  much  used  in  making  cold  cream, 
pomatums,  etc.  In  medicine  it  is  the  principal 
ingredient  of  the  well-known  spermaceti  oint- 
ment (consisting of  spermaceti,  white  wax,  and 
almond  oil),  which  is  largely  used  as  an  emol- 
lient, and  applied  to  coverings  of  various  kinds 
to  keep  them  from  adhering  to  sores.  To 
make,  melt  together  half  an  ounce  of  sperma- 
ceti, a quarter  of  an  ounce  of  white  wax,  and 
two  ounces  of  almond  oil. 

SPICE-BUSH.— A favorite  shrub  for  the 
garden,  of  which  there  are  many  species,  all 
bearing  a general  resemblance  to  each  other. 
The  foliage  is  of  a light  glossy  green,  which  is 
highly  ornamental,  and  though  the  flowers  are 
rather  dull  in  color,  they  are  extremely  fra- 
grant. The  entire  plant — leaves,  branches,  and 
flowers — is  highly  aromatic;  and  it  is  sometimes 
called  the  strawberry  shrub,  from  a fancied 
resemblance  to  the  odor  of  that  berry.  Plant 
it  in  spring  in  a rich  soil,  and  in  a sunny  part 
of  the  garden. 

SPICES. — The  ordinary  spices  which  are 
used  in  housekeeping,  and  which  are  sold  by 
the  grocers,  are  allspice  ox  pimento,  cinnamon, 
cloves,  ginger,  mace,  mustard,  nutmegs,  and 
pepper  (white,  black,  and  cayenne).  These 
are  all  treated  of  in  their  respective  places,  and 
need  only  be  enumerated  here. 

SPINACH. — This  excellent  vegetable  (also 
called  Spinage ) succeeds  well  in  any  good  gar- 
den soil,  and  by  a succession  of  crops  is  kept 
in  season  throughout  the  greater  portion  of  the 
year.  The  best  varieties  are  the  broad-leaved, 
Savoy  or  curly-leaved,  and  prickly-leaved.  The 
Flanders  is  the  most  desirable  kind  of  all,  its 
leaves  being  the  largest  and  most  succulent. 
The  New  Zealand  Spinach  thrives  best  during 
the  heat  of  summer.  Spinach  is  generally 
boiled  as  greens,  but  it  may  also  be  used  in 
soups  and  stews. 

Boiled  Spinach — Boil  it  very  green  and 
tender  in  plenty  of  water,  drain,  and  press  all 
the  moisture  from  it ; then  chop  it  fine,  put  it 
into  a clean  sauce-pan,  with  a slice  of  butter, 
and  stir  the  whole  until  well  mixed  and  very 
hot  ; smooth  it  in  a hot  dish,  mark  it  in  dice, 
and  send  to  table. 

A common  English  way  of  preparing  spinach 
is  to  pick  leaf  by  leaf  from  the  stalks,  and  to 
free  it  by  frequent  washings  from  every  particle 
of  sand  or  earth  ; then  put  it  into  a sauce-pan 
or  stew-pan,  with  the  water  only  which  clings 
about  it ; throw  in  a teaspoonful  of  salt,  and 
keep  the  spinach  constantly  pressed  down  with 


510 


SPIREA 


SQUASH 


a wooden  spoon,  and  turned  often,  for  about  a 
quarter  of  an  hour,  or  until  perfectly  tender; 
drain,  chop  quickly,  dish,  and  serve  at  once. 
Garnish  with  fried  bits  of  bread.  Season  with 
butter,  cream,  pepper,  and  salt. 

SPIREA. — This  deservedly  popular  shrub 
in  some  one  of  its  very  numerous  varieties  is 
found  in  every  garden.  It  is  perfectly  hardy, 
and  will  thrive  without  attention  under  almost 
any  conditions  ; the  foliage  is  ornamental,  and 
the  flowers  are  both  beautiful  and  profuse. 
Plant  in  good  soil,  and  treat  every  spring  to  a 
compost  of  manure. 

Among  the  best  varieties  for  general  cultiva- 
tion are  S.  Bella,  flowers  pink,  in  June  ; S'.  Cal- 
losa, flowers  red  and  pink,  all  the  season  ; S. 
Jap07iica,  dwarf,  flowers  white,  in  June;  S’.  Opu- 
lifolio,  flowers  white,  in  June;  S.  Prunifolia, 
flowers  white,  in  May  ; S.  Revesii,  clusters  of 
pure  white  flowers,  in  June  ; S.  Salcifolia,  flow- 
ers white,  tinted  with  rose,  in  June  and  July. 

SPIRIT-LAMP.  ( See  Lamp.) 

SPIRITS. — This  term  was  formerly  applied 
by  chemists  to  all  volatile  substances  collected 
by  distillation.  Three  principal  kinds  were 
distinguished  : inflammable  or  ardent  spirits, 
acid  spirits,  and  alkaline  spirits;  at  present  the 
name  is  almost  exclusively  confined  to  the  first. 
Pure  spirits  is  alcohol.  Proof  spirits  is  that 
which  comes  up  to  the  legal  standard.  Spirits 
of  wine  or  rectified  spirit  is  the  most  concen 
trated  form  in  which  it  can  be  prepared  in  large 
quantities  for  the  purposes  of  trade.  (See 
Alcohol,  Arrack,  Brandy,  Gin,  Liqueurs, 
Rum,  Whiskey,  and  Wine.) 

SPONGE,  when  new,  usually  contains  a 
great  deal  of  sand,  which  must  be  carefully 
worked  out.  The  best  is  extremely  fine  and 
soft  to  the  touch,  while  the  common  kinds  have 
a rough  texture  with  large  pores.  Sponge  may 
be  kept  a long  time  by  attention  to  the  following 
rules  : Never  wring  a sponge,  as  this  breaks  the 
fibres  and  injures  its  elasticity  ; squeeze  it  as 
dry  as  possible  after  using,  and  hang  it  by  a 
string  to  dry  in  the  air.  Leaving  it  soapy  soon 
spoils  a sponge ; when  used  with  soap  it 
should  be  squeezed  well  in  warm  water,  and 
left  to  lie  a few  minutes  in  cold. 

SPONGE  POULTICE.— A sheet  of  felt  or 
sponge  kept  by  druggists,  which  can  be  soaked 
in  hot  water  and  used  as  a poultice.  Very 
clean  and  convenient. 

SPRAINS. — Wherever  muscles  and  tend- 
ons bind  together  joints  or  different  bones 
there  may  be  a sprain,  but  the  most  common 
sprains  are  those  of  the  ankle,  wrist,  knee,  and 
back.  Before  proceeding  to  treat  a sprain,  be 
certain  that  it  is  one  and  not  a fracture,  for  the 
feeling  is  the  same  in  both.  Examine  the  joint 
carefully,  compare  it  with  the  otherone,  and  if 
any  bone  be  loose  or  pushed  out  of  place,  go  at 
once  to  a physician.  If  it  is  only  a sprain  (a 
fact  which  frequently  can  only  be  determined 
by  a physician),  wrap  up  the  part  in  several 
folds  of  flannel,  dipped  in  water  as  hot  as  can 
be  borne  with  comfort,  and  cover  it  with  a dry 
bandage ; if  possible,  with  a sheet  of  oiled  silk 


or  sheet  gutta  percha.  If  it  is  very  painful,  wet 
a piece  of  linen  or  cotton  cloth  with  laudanum, 
place  this  next  the  skin,  and  cover  with  the  wet 
flannel  as  before.  Many  kinds  of  poultices 
have  a popular  reputation  for  sprains  ; so  long 
as  they  are  wet,  soft,  and  warm,  they  are  use- 
ful ; but  nothing  is  so  cleanly  and  so  effective 
as  the  laudanum  and  hot  water. 

Sprains  can  only  be  cured  by  thorough  rest 
of  the  injured  part.  The  part  must  be  kept 
quiet  not  only  while  painful,  but  even  after  the 
pain  has  gone  ; for  by  exercising  the  joint  too 
soon,  great  mischief  may  be  done.  Keep  the 
warm  applications  on  constantly  till  all  pain 
and  inflammation  are  gone  ; then,  twice  a day, 
hold  the  joint  under  a tap  or  stream  of  cold 
water  for  a few  minutes,  till  it  begins  to  feel 
painful ; then  bind  it  up  with  a common  band- 
age, and  bring  it  back  to  its  work  very  gradu- 
ally. A great  deal  of  pain  and  swelling  can  be 
avoided  by  keeping  the  limb  in  a proper  posi- 
tion. Whether  wrist  or  ankle,  it  must  not  hang 
down.  If  it  be  the  wrist,  let  it  be  comfortably 
supported  in  a sling;  if  the  ankle,  let  the  per- 
son lie  or  sit  with  the  foot  raised  as  high  as  is 
comfortable.  When  the  back  is  sprained  the 
patient  must  lie  as  quiet  as  possible  in  bed 
until  all  pain  has  ceased ; as  soon  as  he  can 
sit  up  comfortably,  some  stimulating  liniment 
may  be  used,  and  a warm  poultice  applied  to 
the  loins. 

SPRATS. — There  are  none  of  these  excel- 
lent little  fish  in  or  near  American  waters  ; they 
are  imported  under  their  F rench  name  Sardines. 

SPROUTS. — A ragged  leaved  plant  that 
grows  somewhat  like  the  dandelion,  in  a tuft  or 
cluster  of  long  leaves,  which  make  excellent 
greens  when  young  and  tender.  It  is  in  season 
very  early  in  spring,  and  remains  fit  for  use 
until  the  flower  stalk  begins  to  grow,  when  the 
leaves  become  tough  and  bitter.  Sprouts  are 
one  of  the  few  vegetables  which  lose  but  little 
of  their  bulk  when  boiled.  Prepare,  cook,  and 
serve  as  directed  for  Spinach. 

SPRUCE-BEER.  (See  Beer.) 

SQUABS.  (See  Pigeon.) 

SQUASH. — The  varieties  of  this  excellent 
vegetable  are  numerous,  but  are  generally  clas- 
sified as  summer  and  winter  squashes.  Of  the 
summer  varieties  the  best  are  the  early  bush, 
which  is  the  first  ready  for  use,  the  yellow  but- 
ter, the  scolloped  bush,  and  the  crook-neck ; 
these  are  in  season  from  June  to  August.  Of 
the  winter  varieties,  the  Boston  marrow  is  the 
best  of  the  early  sort,  Yokohama  is  good,  and 
the  Hubbard  is  best  of  all.  The  latter  will 
keep  all  winter,  if  stored  in  a dry  place.  1 o 
raise  squash,  plant  four  or  five  seeds  together, 
in  hills  far  enough  apart  to  allow  the  vines  to 
run.  They  do  well  in  any  good  garden  soil. 

Boiled  Squash. — Summer  squashes,  if  very 
young  and  tender,  may  be  boiled  whole  ; other- 
wise it  is  best  to  pare  them,  cutting  away 
as  little  besides  the  thin  outer  rind  as  possi- 
ble ; quarter  them,  and  take  out  the  seed. 
Boil  till  quite  tender,  and  then  put  them  in  a 
strong  cloth  and  press  out  all  the  water;  mash 


STAINING 


SQUILL 

them  perfectly  smooth,  season  them  to  taste 
with  salt,  pepper,  and  butter,  and  serve  hot. 

Winter  squashes  require  more  boiling  than 
the  summer  kinds.  Cut  in  narrow  strips,  pare 
off  the  rind,  drop  the  pieces  into  hot  water, 
and  boil  till  tender.  Dress  as  before,  or  cut 
in  pieces  four  inches  square,  bake  and  serve 
like  potatoes. 

SQUILL. — The  bulb  of  the  sea  onion  sliced 
and  dried.  It  grows  along  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean,  partly  in  the  water. 

SQUIRREL. — Cook  as  directed  for  Rabbit. 

STAIN. — Directions  for  removing  most  of 
the  stains  which  are  liable  to  be  received  in 
the  operations  of  the  household  are  given  un- 
der special  articles.  (See  Ink-stains,  Mar- 
ble, Mildew,  Mould,  and  Paint.) 

Acid  Stains. — These  will  generally  yield  to 
an  application  of  ammonia  or  hartshorn.  To 
take  acid  stains  out  of  linen,  wet  the  part  and 
lay  on  it  some  oxalate  of  potash  (salt  of  sorrel), 
or  essential  salt  of  lemons  ; rub  it  without  di- 
luting with  more  water,  and  then  wash  it  out. 
Or,  tie  up  in  the  stained  part  some  pearlash  ; 
then  scrape  some  soap  with  cold  water  to  make 
a lather,  and  boil  the  linen  in  it  till  the  stain 
disappears.  Nitric  acid  stains  require  the  ap- 
plication of  permanganate  of  potash  solution 
and  then  the  fabric  while  moist  should  be  ex- 
posed to  the  fumes  of  burning  sulphur.  If  the 
spot  is  small,  burning  a sulphur  match  under 
it  will  usually  suffice. 

Alkaline  Stains. — These  should  be  treated 
with  weak  acids  ; for  instance,  if  the  color  be 
taken  out  of  cloth  by  whitewash,  wash  it  with 
strong  vinegar. 

Bleaching  powder  (chloride  of  lime)  so- 
lution, Javelle  water  or  Labarraque's  solu- 
tion should  not  be  applied  to  any  but  white 
goods,  as  they  will  usually  partially  or  entirely 
remove  the  color  from  dyed  fabrics. 

Fruit  stains. — Moisten  with  solution  of 
bleaching  powder  or  javelle  water  followed  by 
a solution  of  i part  muriatic  acid  to  5 of  water. 

Mildew  on  cotton. — Steep  in  solution  of 
washing  soda,  then  apply  solution  of  bleaching 
powder  or  javelle  water,  and  then  a solution  of 
one  part  muriatic  acid  to  5 of  water. 

Milk  Stains. — Should  be  first  washed  with 
benzine  to  remove  the  fatty  portion  of  the  milk 
and  afterwards  with  warm  borax  water  as  strong 
as  it  can  be  made  and  containing  potash  at  the 
rate  of  half  an  ounce  to  a pint;  if  the  stain  is  old 
it  cannot  always  be  entirely  removed. 

Nitrate  of  Silver  Stains. — Wet  the  spots 
with  cold  water,  rub  into  them  some  powdered 
iodide  of  potassium,  and  let  it  remain  exposed 
to  the  light,  keeping  it  slightly  damp  for  a few 
hours.  If  the  stain  is  not  completely  removed, 
repeat  the  process. 

Paint. — Bisulphide  of  carbon,  or  turpentine, 
will  usually  prove  effective  ; when  old,  chloro- 
form will  remove  it. 

Spots  on  colored  fabrics. — May  often  be 
removed  by  a mixture  of  ammonia  and  alcohol ; 
the  color  may  sometimes  be  dulled  by  the 
ammonia,  when  a little  weak  oxalic  acid  will 
brighten  it. 


511 

| Stains  of  aniline  red  (magenta). — May  be 
removed  by  cyanide  of  potassium. 

Tar. — May  be  removed  by  first  applying 
butter  or  oil,  allowing  it  to  stand  on  the  spot  for 
a short  time  then  scraping  off  or  otherwise 
removing  the  excess  and  then  applying  turpen- 
tine, afterwards  a mixture  of  turpentine  and 
benzine  and  finally  benzine  alone.  Paint  may 
also  be  removed  in  this  manner. 

Wine  Stains. — Rub  the  linen  on  each  side 
with  yellow  soap,  then  lay  on  the  mixture  of 
starch  and  cold  water  very  thick  ; rub  it  well 
in,  and  expose  the  linen  to  the  sun  and  air  till 
the  stain  comes  out.  If  not  removed  in  three 
or  four  days,  rub  the  starch,  etc.,  off,  and  re- 
peat the  application. 

STAINING.  (For  dyeing  woven  fabrics  and 
leather  see  Dyes.) 

Bone,  Horn  or  Ivory,  may  be  colored  red  by 
first  soaking  in  hydrochloric  (muriatic)  acid 
(commercial  acid  diluted  wdth  an  equal  bulk  of 
water)  and  then  in  an  ammonia  solution  of  picric 
(carbazotic)  acid  and  magenta.  Use  “strong 
ammonia”  diluted  with  3 or  4 volumes  of  water, 
picric  acid  in  proportion  of  1 oz.  to  1 gal.  of  the 
solution,  and  magenta  enough  to  give  the  de- 
sired shade.  If  yellow  alone  is  desired,  use  the 
picric  acid  alone.  Blue  is  applied  by  a bath  con- 
taining soluble  indigo  (sulphate),  and  carbonate 
of  soda  sufficient  to  neutralize  the  acid  of  the 
solution,  so  that  the  last  addition  of  soda  gives 
no  perceptible  effervescence. 

Grasses,  &c.  may  be  colored  by  dipping  in 
water  containing  coal-tar  colors  (see  Dyes,)  in 
solution.  Hot  borax  water  will  color  immor- 
telles yellow  to  orange.  If  any  other  color  is 
desired  upon  immortelles,  the  yellow  coloring 
matter  naturally  existing  in  them  must  first  be 
removed  by  dipping  them  in  boiling  soap  suds 
and  drying,  after  which  the  color  may  be  ap- 
plied. 

Metals  may  be  superficially  colored  by 
a solution  of  4 oz.  hyposulphite  of  soda  in  1 A 
pints  of  water,  mixed  with  a sdlution  contain- 
ing 1 oz.  sugar  of  lead  in  the  same  bulk  of  wat- 
er. The  solutions  should  be  mixed  cold,  the 
articles  then  introduced  and  the  temperature 
gradually  raised.  Lead  and  tin  are  not  colored 
by  this  process.  Iron  takes  a steel  blue,  zinc  a 
bronze,  and  copper  or  brass  a yellow,  reddish 
or  blue  tint,  according  to  the  length  of  time  the 
articles  are  immersed,  By  using  blue  vitriol 
(sulphate  of  copper)  instead  of  the  sugar  of  lead, 
brass  may  be  made  to  take  a rosy,  green  or 
brown  color  according  to  the  time  of  immer- 
sion. 

Wood  may  be  colored  yellow  to  brown 
by  the  use  of  nitric  acid,  (1  part  concentrated 
acid  to  3 of  water)  or  permanganate  of  potash, 
('A  lb.  to  1 gallon  of  water)  or  by  asphaltum  in 
turpentine ; black  by  repeated  application  of  a 
decoction  of  equal  parts  of  Brazilwood  chips, 
powdered  gallnuts  and  alum  ; cherry  by  anatto 
(4  oz.  in  3 qts.  water)  with  sufficient  potash  to 
give  the  desired  tint ; purple  by  a decoction  of 
logwood  chips  in  about  three  times  their  weight 
of  water,  pearlash  and  indigo  ; blue  by  copper 


512 


STARCH 


STEWING 


filings  dissolved  in  nitric  acid  (i  part  filings  in 
6 to  8 parts  commercial  acid),  followed  by  solu- 
tion of  pearlash  (2ozs.  in  i pint  of  water)  \ green 
by  a mixture  of  verdigris  and  vinegar,  I part 
verdigris,  8 of  water,  9 of  vinegar  and  about 
yz  part  of  sap  green. 

Small  articles  in  wood  may  be  colored  with 
the  coal-tar  colors  (see  Dyes)  by  dipping  them 
first  in  a mixture  of  1 part  olive  oil,  1 part  cal- 
cined soda,  and  12  parts  boiling  water.  They 
will  then  take  a stain  from  a water  solution  of 
any  of  the  coal-tar  colors. 

STARCH. — Commercially  there  are  two 
classes  of  starch,  those  used  as  food  and  those 
for  the  laundry.  For  the  former,  see  Arrow- 
root,  Sago,  and  Tapioca.  Laundry  starch 
is  usually  made  of  wheat  or  rice.  Poland  starch 
is  considered  superior  to  the  American  or  Eng- 
lish. There  is  a potato-starch , which,  though 
inferior  to  these,  has  the  advantage  that  it  can 
be  easily  made  at  home.  Wash  good  mealy 
potatoes,  grate  them  in  a pan  or  tub  of  clean 
water  and  stir  well.  Soon  the  thickest  part  will 
subside  to  the  bottom ; then  pour  off  all  the 
white  water  into  another  vessel,  keeping  back 
all  the  pulp.  Add  more  water  to  the  pulp,  stir 
again,  and  pour  the  whitened  water  off  as  be- 
fore. Repeat  this  process  as  long  as  the  water 
comes  off  whitish.  Let  the  whitened  water  that 
was  poured  off  remain  undisturbed  for  some 
time,  and  the  white  part  will  settle  to  the  bot- 
tom,leaving  the  water  quite  clear;  this  subsided 
matter  is  the  starch.  Pour  off  the  water  and 
dry  the  starch  in  the  sun ; it  will  generally 
weigh  one-fifth  of  the  best  potatoes. 

To  make  good  flour-starch,  mix  flour  gradu- 
ally with  cokl  water,  so  that  it  may  be  free  from 
lumps.  Stir  in  cold  water  till  it  will  pour  easily; 
then  stir  it  into  a pot  of  boiling  water,  and  let 
it  boil  five  or  six  minutes,  stirring  it  frequently. 
A tallow  or  spermaceti  candle,  stirred  round  in 
the  starch  several  times,  will  make  it  smoother 
— strain  it  through  a thick  cloth.  Starch  made 
in  this  manner  will  answer  for  both  cotton  and 
linen  very  well.  Some  people  do  not  boil  their 
starch,  but  merely  turn  boiling  water  on  the 
mixed  flour  and  water,  but  it  does  not  make 
clothes  look  nice.  When  rice  is  boiled  in  a pot 
without  being  tied  up  in  a bag,  the  water  in 
which  it  is  boiled  is  as  good  as  Poland  starch 
for  clear-starching  muslins,  if  boiled  to  a thick 
consistency  after  it  is  turned  off  from  the  boiled 
rice,  and  then  strained.  Muslins  to  look  clear, 
should  be  starched  and  clapped  dry,  while  the 
starch  is  hot,  then  folded  in  a very  damp  cloth, 
and  suffered  to  remain  in  it  till  they  become 
quite  damp,  before  ironing  them.  If  muslins 
are  sprinkled  they  are  apt  to  look  spotted. 
Garments  that  are  not  worn,  when  laid  by, 
should  not  be  starched,  as  it  rots  them  when 
not  exposed  to  the  air. 

STEAM  COOKER.  (See  Cooker.) 

STEAMING. — The  application  of  steam  to 
culinary  purposes  is  becoming  general  in  kitch- 
ens at  the  present  day,  especially  in  those  of 
large  establishments,  many  of  which  are  fur- 
nished with  apparatus  for  its  use,  so  admirably 


constructed  and  so  complete,  that  the  process 
may  be  conducted  on  an  extensive  scale  with 
very  slight  trouble  to  the  cook ; and  with  the 
further  advantage  of  being  at  a distance  from 
the  fire , the  steam  being  conveyed  by  pipes  to 
the  vessels  intended  to  receive  it.  Fish,  butch- 
ers’ meat,  poultry,  vegetables,  puddings,  mac- 
caroni,  and  rice,  are  all  subjected  to  its  action, 
instead  of  being  immersed  in  water,  as  in  sim- 
ple boiling ; and  the  result  is  to  many  persons 
perfectly  satisfactory ; though,  as  there  is  a dif- 
ference in  opinion  amongst  first-rate  cooks  with 
regard  to  the  comparative  merits  of  the  two 
modes  of  dressing  meat  and  fish,  a trial  should 
be  given  to  the  steaming  on  a small  scale  be- 
fore any  great  expenses  are  incurred  for  it, 
which  may  be  done 
easily  enough  with  a 
common  saucepan  or 
boiler,  fitted  like  the 
one  shown  here  with 
a simple  tin  steam- 
er. Servants  not  ac- 
customed to  the  use 
of  these,  should  be 
warned  against  boil- 
ing in  the  vessel  itself 
any  thing  of  coarse  or 
strong  flavor,  when  the  article  steamed  is  of  a 
delicate  nature.  The  vapor  from  soup  contain- 
ing onions,  for  example,  would  have  a very  bad 
effect  on  a sweet  pudding,  and  on  many  other 
dishes.  Care  and  discretion,  therefore,  must 
be  exercised  on  this  point.  The  quite  inexpe- 
rienced cook  may  require  to  be  told  that  any 
article  of  food  which  is  to  be  cooked  by  steam 
in  a saucepan  of  the  form  exhibited  in  the  en- 
graving must  be  prepared  exactly  as  for  boiling 
and  laid  into  the  sort  of  strainer  affixed  to  the 
top  of  the  sauce-pan ; and  that  water,  or  some 
other  kind  of  liquid,  must  be  put  into  the  sauce- 
pan itself,  and  kept  boiling  in  it,  the  lid  being 
first  closely  fixed  into  the  steamer. 

STEARINE. — A white,  crystalline,  neutral 
fat,  existing  in  most  oils  and  fats.  It  forms 
the  largest  constituent  of  mutton  tallow,  from 
which  it  may  be  separated  by  heating  that  sub- 
stance with  ten  times  its  volume  of  ether;  and 
this  is  the  chief  source  from  which  the  stearine 
of  commerce  is  derived.  The  well-known 
Stearine  candles  are  among  the  best. 

STEWING. — Stewing  differs  from  boiling 
(See  Boiling) only  in  this,  that  the  heat  is  never 
raised  to  the  boiling  point,  but  only  to  a very 
gentle  simmering,  with  a very  small  quantity  of 
water.  Of  course,  it  requires  a much  longer  time 
to  cook  in  this  manner;  but  in  stewing,  the  tex- 
ture of  the  meat  is  rendered  more  tender,  the 
gelatinous  parts  are  more  completely  dissolved, 
and  instead  of  a considerable  part  going  into 
the  water,  as  in  boiling,  the  whole  of  the  juices 
are  preserved  in  the  stew,  which  is  therefore 
very  nutritious.  Stewing  is  therefore  one  of 
the  best  modes  of  cooking  ; and  it  is  also  one 
of  the  most  economical,  for  a very  small  quan- 
tity of  fuel,  properly  applied,  is  sufficient  to 
keep  up  the  required  simmering  for  a great 


Saucepan  with  Steamer. 


STIMULANTS 


STOMACH-PUMP 


513 


length  of  time.  The  constant  practice  of  stew- 
ing is  one  of  the  secrets  of  the  perfection  of 
French  cookery. 

The  enamelled  or  porcelain-lined  stew-pans 
are  much  superior  to  the  old-fashioned  metal 
ones  for  most  purposes.  They  should  always 
be  filled  with  water  immediately  after  being 
used,  and  will  then  merely  require  to  be  well 
washed  and  rinsed  with  more  boiling  water; 
but  when  they  have  been  neglected,  strong 
soda  and  water  should  be  boiled  in  them  for  a 
few  minutes. 

STIFF-NECK.  (See  Neck.) 

STIMULANTS. — In  medicine,  stimulants 
are  either  general  or  local — that  is  to  say,  they 
either  act  on  the  whole  system,  or  on  indi- 
vidual parts.  Thus,  alcohol  and  ammonia  act 
on  the  whole  system,  while  mercury  stimulates 
the  glands  and  absorbents.  This  class  of  med- 
icines is,  however,  scarcely  fit  for  domestic  use. 

(a)  Sesquicarbonate  of  ammonia,  5 to  8 grains ; 
compound  tincture  of  lavender,  20  minims ; 
sulphuric  ether,  30  minims , camphor-mixture, 
1 ounce.  Mix.  (A  stimulating  draught  in  case 
of  faintness.) 

STINGS. — These  are  not  often  very  serious, 
though  of  common  occurrence.  From  mos- 
quito-bites to  the  stings  of  bees  and  hornets, 
the  best  remedies  are  Cologne-water,  spirits  of 
hartshorn  (ammonia),  and  tincture  of  camphor. 
Sometimes  the  insect’s  sting  is  broken  off  in 
the  wound,  and  it  is  therefore  well  to  look  for 
this ; it  is  known  by  the  black  dot  in  the  centre 
of  the  poisoned  spot.  This  can  be  seized  by 
delicate  forceps  and  pulled  out,  and  the  do- 
ing of  this  affords  immediate  relief.  If  it 
remain,  there  is  no  danger,  as  is  commonly 
supposed  ; the  worst  result  is  an  increase  of 
the  soreness,  and  a formation  of  matter  by 
which  its  discharge  is  after  some  time  effected. 

STINKS.  (See  Deodorizers.) 

STOCK — The  water  in  which  meat  has  been 
boiled  as  directed  for  soups  ; it  forms  the  basis 
of  all  soups  and  gravies.  Stock  made  from 
fresh  meat,  is  made  exactly  like  soup,  omitting 
the  thickening  and  seasonings ; but  by  sav- 
ing the  bones  from  roasts,  etc.,  and  using 
them  as  follows,  a constant  supply  of  it  can 
be  kept  on  hand  at  a very  small  cost : — Put 
whatever  bones  are  at 
hand  in  a pot,  cover  them 
with  cold  water,  and  boil 
them  slowly  three  or  four 
hours  ; then  pour  off  the 
liquor  into  another  pot, 
and  add  to  each  gallon 
the  meat  off  a knuckle 
of  veal,  a pound  of  lean 
beef,  and  a pound  of 
lean  bacon,  all  sliced, with 
two  or  three  scraped  carrots,  two  onions,  two 
turnips,  and  two  quarts  of  water ; stew  till  the 
meat  is  quite  tender,  but  do  not  let  it  burn. 
Stock  thus  prepared  will  serve  either  for  soup 
or  for  brown  or  white  gravy.  ( See  Soup.) 

STOCKFISH.  (See  Hake.; 

STOCKINGS,  Silk,  To  Wash.— To  wash 

33 


Large  Stockpot. 


white  silk  stockings,  make  a lather  of  white 
soap  and  warm  soft  water ; stretch  the  stock- 
ings on  a table,  and  with  a roll  of  rough  coarse 
cloth,  dipped  in  the  lather,  rub  them  hard,  first 
on  one  side,  then  on  the  other.  Repeat  the  pro- 
cess with  three  lathers.  Then  dip  them  in  three 
waters  to  rinse  them,  and  when  quite  clean  hang 
them  up, without  rinsing,  the  wrong  side  outward. 
When  half  dry  take  them  down,  stretch  and 
pin  them,  the  right  side  out,  on  a cloth.  Do 
not  iron  them,  but  rub  them  till  smooth  with  a 
small  roll  of  clean  flannel. 

To  wash  black  silk  stockings,  cut  some  white 
soap  into  thin  bits  and  boil  it  in  soft  water  till 
thoroughly  dissolved ; then  mix  a little  of  it  in 
cold  water,  adding  a teaspoonful  of  gall.  Hav- 
ing turned  the  stockings  wrong  side  outward, 
and  rubbed  some  of  the  boiled  soap  on  the 
dirtiest  places,  wash  them  well  through  the 
lukewarm  suds ; repeat  the  washing  in  fresh 
suds  and  water,  till  they  are  quite  clean ; then 
rinse  them  through  two  cold  waters,  adding  to 
the  last  a little  blue  from  the  blue-bag ; then 
squeeze  them  well,  stretch  them  evenly,  and 
hang  them  out  immediately.  While  still  damp, 
turn  them  right  side  out,  stretch,  and  pin  them 
on  an  ironing  blanket,  and  with  the  end  of  a bit 
of  rolled-up  flannel,  on  a smooth  stone,  rub  them 
hard  and  quick  one  way,  till  they  are  quite  dry, 
and  look  smooth  and  glossy.  This  is  better 
than  to  iron  them,  which  always  gives  silk 
stockings  an  old  appearance. 

STOMACH-PUMP. — This  is  an  apparatus 
by  means  of  which,  in  cases  of  poisoning,  fluids 
can  be  introduced  artificially  into  the  stomach, 
or  be  withdrawn  from  this  organ.  It  consists 
in  a small  pumping  apparatus,  to  which  is  at- 
tached a long  elastic  tube  of  sufficient  length 
to  be  passed  down  the  gullet  into  the  stomach. 
This  tube,  at  the  point  where  it  passes  into  the 
mouth,  is  usually  guarded  from  the  action  of 
the  patient’s  teeth  by  a perforated  gag  of  wood. 
The  stomach-pump,  though  not  used  so  fre- 
quently and  indiscriminately  as  in  former  days, 
is,  however,  an  invaluable  and  indispensable 
aid  in  the  treatment  of  cases  of  poisoning  by 
opium  and  other  narcotics,  and  of  extreme 
drunkenness  caused  by  poisonous  quantities  of 
spirits.  It  may  be  laid  down  as  a general  rule, 
that  the  stomach-pump  ought  always  to  be  used 
when  the  patient,  under  the  influence  of  a nar- 
cotic or  alcoholic  poison,  is  too  much  exhausted 
or  too  insensible  to  swallow  emetics  or  anti- 
dotes, or  where,  as  in  cases  of  attempted  sui- 
cide, he  obstinately  refuses  to  swallow.  One 
or  two  pints  of  lukewarm  water  should  first  be 
pumped  into  the  stomach,  and  then  be  with- 
drawn with  part  of  the  contents  of  the  stomach 
and  of  the  poison.  This  process  should  be  re- 
peated until  the  injected  water,  when  pumped 
back  again,  is  found  to  be  clear  and  colorless. 
Very  often,  however,  the  simple  introduction  of 
the  stomach-pump,  or  the  presence  of  a small 
quantity  of  warm  water,  will  cause  vomiting ; 
but  in  cases  of  intense  narcotic  poisoning,  the 
stomach  is  generally  insensible  to  the  presence 
of  the  tube,  and  requires  to  be  well  washed 


514 


STRAINERS 


STRAWBERRY 


out.  When,  in  Cases  of  poisoning,  the  patient 
is  able  or  willing  to  swallow,  and  vomiting  can 
be  produced  by  the  frequent  administration  of 
warm  drinks,  the  stomach-pump  ought  not  to 
be  used.  This  instrument  is  not  always  a 
harmless  one,  and  when  used  by  inexperienced 
hands,  and  in  circumstances  exciting  haste  and 
confusion,  may  do  considerable  mischief.  The 
mucous  membrane  of  the  throat,  gullet,  or 
stomach,  may  be  wounded  by  the  violent  in- 
troduction of  the  tube,  and  some  bleeding  from 
the  raw  surfaces  may  be  produced.  A more 
serious  accident  is  the  introduction  of  the  tube 
into  the  air-passages  instead  of  the  gullet  and 
stomach.  A case  has  been  recorded  in  which 
after  death  from  sulphuric  add  poisoning 
treated  by  the  stomach-pump,  the  windpipe, 
bronchi,  and  large  portions  of  the  spongy  tissue 
of  the  lungs  were  found  choked  and  plugged 
with  chalk  mixture,  which  it  had  been  intended 
to  introduce  into  the  stomach.  Another  dan- 
ger attending  the  use  of  the  stomach-pump  is 
laceration  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
stomach,  strips  of  which  are  drawn  into  the 
orifices  of  the  tube  as  the  fluid  contents  of  the 
stomach  are  being  withdrawn.  This  occurs 
only  in  cases  where  the  inner  coat  of  the  stom- 
ach has  been  softened  by  some  corrosive  agent, 
and  on  this  account  it  has  been  laid  down  as  a 
rule  that  the  stomach-pump  ought  not,  except 
under  special  circumstances,  to  be  used  in  cases 
of  poisoning  by  the  mineral  acids. 

STOVES.  (See  Warming.) 

STRAINERS. — These  are  made  of  cloths, 
of  metal,  of  earthenware  pierced  with  holes,  or 
of  wire-cloth.  The  cloth  strainers  are  best,  and 
those  made  of  metal  should  not  be  used  at  all. 

STRAMONIUM. — By  this  term  is  com- 
monly implied  the  leaves  of  the  Datura  Stra- 
monium or  Thorn  Apple,  but  the  seeds  of  the 
same  plant  are  also  now  used  to  a considerable 
extent.  The  leaves  are  large  and  much  in- 
dented at  the  edges,  with  a peculiarly  rank  and 
disagreeable  odor.  These  should  be  gathered 
when  the  plant  is  flowering.  The  seeds  are 
very  small,  kidney-shaped,  and  rough  on  the 
surface,  and  have  a peculiar  taste.  All  parts 
of  the  plant  contain  an  alkaloid  identical  with 
that  contained  in  belladonna,  but  called  datura 
instead  of  atrophia.  This  may  be  obtained  in 
white  crystals,  which  yield  a peculiar  odor  on 
being  moistened  by  sulphuric  acid.  The  prep- 
arations are  made  from  the  seeds  only,  and  are 
an  extract  and  tincture.  The  leaves  are  mainly 
used  for  smoking. 

The  properties  of  stramonium  are  much  like 
those  of  belladonna,  as  might  be  expected 
from  their  similarity  of  composition.  Never- 
theless, stramonium,  more  perhaps  from  habit 
than  anything  else,  is  most  frequently  given 
for  maladies  which  are  not  usually  treated  by 
belladonna.  Stramonium  is,  in  point  of  fact, 
prescribed  almost  entirely  for  spasmodic  lung 
affections,  especially  asthma.  For  this  malady, 
whether  merely  spasmodic  or  partly  dependent 
on  disease  of  the  organ  itself,  stramonium  is 
usually  prescribed  in  the  form  of  tincture,  or 


the  leaves  are  given  for  smoking.  These  gen- 
erally do  well,  and  procure  relief  for  a time  at 
all  events.  Dose,  20  minims  of  the  tincture 
three  or  four  times  a day. 

Stramonium  is  sometimes  given  with  the 
intention  of  relieving  pain.  An  ointment  may 
be  made  of  the  leaves  and  spread  over  a pain- 
ful, part,  but  this  plan  is  not  often  adopted. 
For  smoking,  twenty  grains  of  the  dried  leaf 
may  be  made  into  a cigarette  and  smoked, 
taking  care  to  inhale  the  smoke.  This  at 
first  gives  rise  to  cough,  but  by-and-by  pro- 
fuse expectoration  follows,  and  then  comes 
relief.  Some  mix  stramonium  with  tobacco, 
but  the  smoke  of  this  is  more  irritating,  and 
cannot  well  be  inhaled.  In  some  cases  stra- 
monium fails  altogether,  and  in  all  the  dose 
must  be  increased.  The  Datura  tatula  has 
been  used  for  smoking  like  the  Datura  Stra- 
monium. 

STRANGULATION.  (See  Choking.) 

STRAWBERRY. — The  strawberry  belongs 
only  to  temperate  and  rather  cold  climates,  and 
no  fruit  of  these  latitudes  that  ripens  without  the 
aid  of  artificial  heat  is  comparable  to  it  in  point 
of  flavor.  It  has  also  a delicious  fragrance,  it 
is  sub-acid  and  cooling,  and  has  the  peculiar 
advantage  of  not  creating  acidity  when  taken 
into  the  stomach.  It  is  nutritious  and  very 
wholesome,  and  may  be  safely  eaten  where 
other  fruit  is  forbidden ; physicians  indeed 
rank  strawberries  among  their  pleasant  reme- 
dies, particularly  in  cases  of  fever.  There  are 
many  varieties  of  the  strawberry ; among  the 
earliest  and  best  being  the  early  scarlet,  Hovey 
seedlings,  McAvoy's  superior,  Burr's  pines , 
Scotch  runners,  Black  Prince,  Boston  pines, 
etc.  The  first  strawberries  make  their  appear- 
ance from  the  South  about  the  1st  of  April, 
when  they  fetch  very  high  prices  ; in  May  they 
are  more  abundant,  and  by  the  1 st ' of  June  arc 
generally  quite  plentiful,  continuing  so  till  the 
25th  of  June,  when  the  supply  begins  to  fail. 
By  the  middle  of  July  they  have  generally  dis- 
appeared entirely.  Besides  being  used  for  des- 
sert, strawberries  are  preserved  in  several  ways. 
(See  Compotes,  Ice-cream,  Ices,  Jam,  Jelly, 
Marmalade,  Pies,  Preserves,  Puddings, 
and  Tarts.) 


Chantilly  Basket.— This  is  a very  ornamen- 
tal dish.  Take  a mould  of  any  sort  that  will 


STRYCHNINE 

serve  to  form  a basket  on,  just  dip  the  edge  of 
some  macaroons  into  melted  barley  sugar,  and 
fasten  them  together  with  it;  take  it  out  of  the 
mould,  keep  it  in  a dry  place  until  wanted,  then 
fill  it  high  with  whipped  strawberry  cream  which 
has  been  drained  on  a sieve  from  the  preced- 
ing day,  and  stick  very  fine  ripe  strawberries 
over  it.  It  should  not  be  filled  until  just  before 
it  is  served. 

STRYCHNINE.  — Poison.  — Symptoms: 
Shortness  of  breath,  rigidity  of  muscles  of  neck 
and  back,  spasms  of  the  extremities.  Treat- 
ment. ( See  Nux  Vomica.)  In  proper  doses  it 
is  a valuable  tonic,  especially  in  nervous  exhaus- 
tion. It  is  also  very  useful  in  paralysis,  partic- 
ularly when  the  parts  begin  to  improve.  The 
dose  is  about  the  -^th  part  of  a grain.  It  is  a 
deadly  poison,  however,  and  should  never  be 
taken  except  under  medical  advice. 

STUARTIA. — The  Stuartia  Pentagynia  is 
one  of  the  most  desirable  of  the  hardy  shrubs. 
It  grows  wild  in  the  mountains  of  the  Middle 
and  Southern  States,  but  has  been  reduced  to 
cultivation  by  Messrs.  Parson  within  the  past 
few  years,  and  should  find  a place  in  every  gar- 
den, however  small.  The  plant  itself  is  grace- 
ful, the  foliage  is  very  pretty,  and  it  is  covered 
in  August  with  a profusion  of  large  camellia- 
like flowers,  white,  with  purple  centre.  Plant 
it  in  the  spring  in  any  good  soil,  where  the  sun 
is  not  too  powerful. 

STUCCO. — A term  frequently  applied  to  va- 
rious kinds  of  lime  or  cement  coatings  laid  in 
masonry  in  imitation  of  stone.  Speaking  more 
strictly,  it  means  a species  of  plastering  worked 
up  by  hand  to  a face  adapted  to  receive  paint. 
The  common  stucco  is  nothing  more  than  plas- 
tering which  has  received  an  additional  amount 
of  manipulation.  Marble  stucco  is  made  with 
fine  lime  mixed  with  calcareous  powder  and 
chalk  in  such  proportions  and  worked  in  such 
a way  as  to  produce  a hard  uniform  surface 
which  admits  of  being  colored,  painted,  and 
polished,  so  as  to  resemble  various  colored 
marbles.  Owing  to  the  great  variations  of  tem- 
perature— the  extreme  cold  of  winter  and  the 
heat  of  summer — in  this  country,  stucco  should 
never  be  applied  to  the  outside  walls  of  a 
house  of  any  pretensions.  It  will  begin  to 
crack  and  peel  off  within  two  years. 

STUDENT  LAMP.  (See  German  Stu- 
dent Lamp.) 

STUFFINGS.-In  making  stuffings  and  force- 
meats, the  special  tastes  of  those  who  are  to 
eat  them  must  be  consulted  in  the  matter  of 
seasoning,  and  no  exact  rules  can  be  given  on 
this  point.  No  one  flavor  should  predominate 
greatly ; and  if  several  dishes  with  force-meat 
are  served  at  the  same  meal  there  should  be  a 
marked  difference  in  their  taste.  Force-meat 
should  be  consistent  enough  to  cut  with  a 
knife,  but  not  dry  or  heavy.  The  ordinary 
stuffing  for  turkeys,  chickens,  veal,  etc.,  is  made 
of  bread-crumbs,  mixed  with  butter,  pepper, 
salt,  thyme,  or  sweet  marjoram,  and  wet  with 
hot  water  or  milk.  The  yolk  of  an  egg  or  two 
may  be  added  if  desired ; and  besides  thyme 


STUFFINGS  515 

and  sweet  marjoram,  parsley  and  sweet  basil 
may  be  used  for  seasoning. 

Bread-crumb  Stuffing. — Crhmble  bread 
quite  fine — do  not  grate  it — and  to  a pint,  allow 
an  ounce  of  butter,  an  even  teaspoonful  of 
salt,  half  a teaspoonful  of  pepper,  and  the 
same  of  celery  seed ; stir  the  whole  in 
a frying-pan  until  thoroughly  heated,  when  it 
is  ready  for  use.  Fresh  celery,  chopped,  may 
be  used  instead  of  the  seed,  or  chopped  parsley 
instead  of  either ; also  parboiled  oysters,  or 
chopped  ham.  This  is  excellent  for  all  boiled 
fowls.  For  roast  fowls  use  summer  savory, 
or  any  of  the  sweet  herbs  in  addition  to  the 
pepper  and  salt.  Use  grated  onion  if  liked. 
The  bread  is  sometimes  soaked,  but  it  makes 
a sodd?n  mass  which  can  hardly  be  preferred 
to  the  light  dry  stuffing  which  rolls  out  in  the 
carving,  and  moistens  itself  in  the  gravy.  In 
stuffing  for  veal,  omit  the  salt  and  add  a gill  of 
pork  chopped  fine.  Geese  are  often  stuffed 
with  mashed  potatoes  seasoned  with  butter, 
pepper,  salt,  and  sweet  marjoram. 

Chestnut  Stuffing. — Roast  chestnuts  and 
skin  them,  removing  also  the  white  envelope 
beneath  the  outside  skin ; fill  the  inside  of  the 
chicken  or  turkey  till  half  full,  add  one  or  two 
ounces  of  butter,  and  finish  the  filling. 

Egg  Balls. — Beat  three  hard  yolks  of  eggs 
in  a mortar,  and  make  into  a smooth  paste 
with  the  yolk  of  a raw  one  ; roll  it  into  small 
balls,  and  throw  them  into  boiling  water  two 
minutes  to  harden. 

Force-meat  Balls. — Mix  a pound  of  fresh 
suet  (for  a garnish  or  for  soup),  take:  veal,  12 
oz ; salt  pork,  3 oz ; grated  bread,  2 oz ; salt  1 even 
teaspoonful ; pepper  and  summer  savory,  '/2 
teaspoonful  each ; sweet  cream,  3 tablespoon- 
fuls ; egg  (beaten  with  the  cream),  1. 

Chop  the  meat  fine  as  possible,  mix  with  the 
other  ingredients  and  make  into  smooth  balls, 
a little  larger  than  a marble  ; roll  in  beaten  egg, 
then  in  bread  that  has  been  grated  and  sifted  ; 
place  them  on  a frying  basket  and  sink  it  in  deep 
hot  lard,  first  testing  the  heat  with  a bit  of  bread. 
They  will  brown  at  once  ; then  reduce  the  heat 
and  let  them  remain  two  or  three  minutes  that 
the  veal  maybe  well  cooked.  If  intended  for 
soup,  lay  a dozen  balls  in  the  tureen.  They 
may  be  made  of  any  cold  meat,  and  seasoned  to 
the  taste. 

Lobster  Force-meat. — Take  the  flesh  and 
soft  parts  of  a middling  sized  lobster,  half 
an  anchovy,  a large  piece  of  boiled  celery,  the 
yolk  of  a hard-boiled  egg,  a little  cayenne, 
mace,  salt,  and  white  pepper,  with  two  table- 
spoonfuls of  bread-crumbs,  and  one  of  oyster 
liquor,  two  ounces  of  butter  warmed,  and  two 
eggs  ; beat  well  together  in  a mortar,  make 
into  balls,  and  fry  to  a fine  brown  in  butter. 
This  is  excellent  for  fish,  soups,  or  stews. 

Onion  and  Sage  Stuffing. — Boil  three 
large  onions  from  ten  to  fifteen  minutes, 
press  the  water  from  them,  chop  them  small, 
and  mix  them  with  an  equal  quantity  of  bread- 
crumbs, a heaped  tablespoonful  of  minced  sage, 
an  ounce  of  butter,  a saltspoonful  of  salt,  and 


51G 


STURGEON 


SUCKER 


half  as  much  pepper.  This  is  a very  popular 
stuffing  for  geese,  ducks,  pork,  etc.  Part  of 
the  liver  of  the  goose  or  duck  boiled  two  or 
three  minutes  and  sliced  fine  is  sometimes  ad- 
ded to  these,  and  the  whole  is  then  bound 
together  with  yolk  of  egg ; but  they  are  not 
necessary.  The  onions  can  be  used  raw  when 
their  strong  flavor  is  not  objected  to ; but  the 
odor  of  the  whole  dish  will  then  be  somewhat 
overpowering. 

Oyster  Stuffing. — Prepare  a stuffing  of 
four  ounces  bread-crumbs,  mixed  with  two 
ounces  of  butter,  and  seasoned  with  salt,  pep- 
per, and  thyme  or  sweet  marjoram ; mince  a 
dozen  oysters  and  stir  into  it ; and,  if  you  are 
partial  to  the  taste,  wet  the  bread-crumbs  with 
the  oyster-liquor.  This  is  an  excellent  stuffing 
for  turkeys. 

Sausage  Stuffing. — Prepare  as  directed 
for  Oyster  Stuffing,  adding  from  four  to  six 
ounces  of  sausage-meat  instead  of  the  oysters. 

Or , set  a saucepan  on  the  fire  with  half  an 
ounce  of  butter  in  it,  and  when  the  butter  has 
melted  add  an  onion  chopped  fine,  and  fry 
nearly  brown  ; then  add  the  heart  and  liver  of 
the  chicken  or  turkey,  chopped  fine,  and  from 
six  to  eight  ounces  of  sausage-meat  (according 
to  the  size  of  the  bird)  ; stir  for  about  twelve 
minutes,  take  from  the  fire,  mix  the  yolk  of  an 
egg  in  it,  and  set  back  on  the  fire  for  five  min- 
utes, stirring  all  the  while. 

Suet  Force-meat. — Mix  well  together  six 
ounces  of  fine  stale  crumbs,  with  an  equal 
weight  of  beef-kidney  suet,  chopped  extremely 
small,  a large  dessertspoonful  of  parsley,  mixed 
with  a little  lemon-thyme,  a teaspoonful  of  salt, 
a quarter  one  of  cayenne,  and  a saltspoonful  or 
rather  more  of  mace  and  nutmeg  together; 
work  these  with  three  unbeaten  egg-yolks,  and 
three  teaspoonfuls  of  milk ; then  put  the  force- 
meat into  a large  mortar,  and  pound  it  perfectly 
smooth.  Take  it  out,  and  let  it  remain  in  a 
cool  place  for  half  an  hour  at  least  before  it  is 
used ; then  roll  it  into  balls,  if  it  be  wanted  to 
serve  in  that  form ; flour  and  fry  them  gently 
from  seven  to  eight  minutes,  and  dry  them  well 
before  they  are  dished. 

The  finely  grated  rind  of  half  a lemon  would 
improve  this  force-meat  for  many. 

STURGEON. — A very  large  fish  which  is 
taken  in  great  abundance  in  American  waters, 
and  sold  in  the  markets  cut  up  like  halibut.  It 
is  not  a delicate  fish  in  flavor,  but  it  is  whole- 
some, and,  when  properly  prepared,  far  from 
unpalatable.  The  young  fat  fish  are  consid- 
ered best ; their  flesh  has  a light  red  or  “beefy” 
appearance,  and  the  fat  is  of  a pale  yellow 
color.  The  Sturgeon  Is  in  season  from  the 
middle  of  April  to  the  1st  of  September. 

Baked  Sturgeon. — Remove  the  skin  and 
soak  the  fish  in  salt  and  water  for  halt  an 
hour  ; then  parboil  it  to  take  out  the  oil  of 
which  there  is  generally  too  much.  Make  a 
force-meat  of  bread-crumbs,  salt  pork  chopped 
very  fine,  butter,  and  sweet  herbs  ; cut  deep 
gashes  in  the  upper  part  of  the  fish,  and  rub 
this  force-meat  well  in.  Put  into  a baking-pan,  i 


add  a little  water,  and  bake  in  a moderate  oven 
for  an  hour. 

Roast  Sturgeon.— Soak  the  fish  in  salted 
water  for  an  hour,  then  wipe  dry,  and  roast 
before  a hot  fire,  basting  frequently  with  but- 
ter. Serve  with  some  piquant  sauce. 

Steak  (Sturgeon). — Skin  carefully,  soak  in 
salted  water  for  an  hour,  wipe  dry,  sprinkle 
with  salt,  and  broil  on  a gridiron  over  hot  coals  ; 
when  done,  spread  butter  liberally  over  it,  dust 
with  pepper,  and  serve  hot.  Sliced  lemon  may 
be  sent  round  with  it. 

STYE. — This  is  an  inflammation  on  the  edge 
of  the  eyelid,  resulting  in  the  formation  of  mat- 
ter which  must  be  let  out.  For  two  or  three 
days  it  is  very  painful  and  red.  Bathing  with 
hot  water  is  the  best  thing,  and  when  a yellow- 
ish spot  is  seen,  then  the  matter  is  pointing, 
and  on  being  pricked  with  a needle  or  knife- 
point, the  pus  exudes  and  gives  relief  at  once. 
Rubbing  the  spot  with  a smooth  gold  ring  when 
the  preliminary  itching  and  tenderness  are  first 
felt  is  believed  to  act  as  a preventative.  Some- 
times a succession  of  styes  follow  each  other, 
one  scarcely  yielding,  before  another  appears  ; 
this  indicates  a bad  state  of  the  blood,  and  lo- 
cal treatment  will  be  of  little  use. 

STYPTICS. — Substances  applied  to  a part 
to  arrest  bleeding.  Most  of  these  are  astrin- 
gents, and  seem  to  act  by  causing  the  minute 
blood-vessels  to  shrink,  and  so  prevent  further 
hemorrhage.  Cold  is  the  best  and  simplest 
styptic,  especially  if  applied  as  ice  ; that  will 
arrest  most  bleedings.  Astringent  substances, 
like  galls  in  powder,  catechu,  matico  in  powder, 
and  alum,  may  all  be  employed.  The  perchlo- 
ride  and  persulphate  of  iron,  are  also  powerful 
styptics.  (See  Bleeding.) 

SUCCORY.  (See  Chicory.) 

SUCCOTASH. — This  is  usually  made  of 
green  corn  and  Lima,  string  or  butter  beans. 

Take  boiled  corn  on  the  cob ; score  every  row 
of  grains  lengthwise  ; cut  off  the  outer  edge 
and  with  the  back  of  the  blade  push  out  the 
heart  and  cream ; allow  two  thirds  of  corn  to 
one  of  beans;  put  them  in  a stew-pan,  cover 
with  boiling  water,  when  tender  let  the  remaining 
water  boil  away ; add  a gill  of  rich  milk,  a lib- 
eral lump  of  butter ; pepper  and  salt  to  taste 
and  let  it  simmer  for  fifteen  minutes.  If  not 
thick  as  liked,  add  a teaspoonful  of  corn  starch. 

SUCKER. — A fair  pan  fish,  with  a somewhat 
earthy  taste.  The  large-scaled  or  blue  sucker  is 
a smaller  fish  than  the  common  sucker,  of  a pale 
blue  color,  and  not  so  good  for  the  table.  The 


horned  sucker  has  little  horns  between  the  eyes 
and  nose  ; it  is  good  but  not  delicate  eating.  All 
are  in  season  from  October  to  April,  but  are  sel- 


SUDORIFICS 


SULPHUR 


517 


clom  very  abundant.  Boil  or  fry  as  directed  for 
fresh  Mackerel. 

SUCKING-PIG.  (See  Pig.) 

SUDORIFICS. — Remedies  which  cause  and 
promote  perspiration.  They  are  also  called 
diaphoretics.  (See  Diaphoretics.) 

SUET. — The  fat  which  invests  the  kidneys 
of  oxen  or  sheep ; that  of  the  former  is  called 
beef-stiet,  and  that  of  the  latter  is  called  mutton- 
suet.  The  internal  fat  of  all  ruminating  animals 
is  harder  than  that  of  others,  and  is  slightly 
brittle ; when  melted  and  separated  from  the 
membranes  in  which  it  is  contained,  it  consti- 
tutes tallow.  Good  suet  should  be  of  a brighter 
shade  than  the  meat  or  muscle  fat,  dry  and  hard, 
should  break  or  crumble  easily,  and  should 
show  but  little  fibre  through  it.  Besides  being 
employed  instead  of  butter  or  lard  for  greasing 
gridirons,  frying-pans,  etc.,  suet  is  used  in 
many  ways.  (See  Dumplings,  Pies,  Pud- 
dings, and  Stuffings.) 

SUGAR. — There  are  two  kinds  of  sugar 
which  are  chemically  different,  and  are  known 
as  cane-sugar  and  grape-sugar,  the  •fprmer 
being  obtained  from  the  sugar-cane,  the  maple- 
tree,  the  root  of  the  beet,  the  mallow,  and  some 
other  forest  trees  and  cultivated  plants  ; while 
the  latter  is  contained  in  varying  quantities  in 
those  fruits  which  are  more  or  less  sweet,  es- 
pecially in  the  grape,  fig,  and  plum.  There  are 
several  other  peculiar  varieties  of  sugar,  but  the 
only  one  which  requires  mention  is  milk-sugar , 
which  is  found  in  the  milk  of  animals,  and 
which  may  be  obtained  by  evaporating  whey  to 
a syrup,  and  purifying  the  sugar,  which  crystal- 
lizes in  the  form  of  a four-sided  prism,  and  is 
very  hard,  white,  and  transparent.  By  far  the 
larger  part  of  the  sugar  consumed  in  this 
country  is  the  produce  of  the  sugar-cane,  some 
of  it  being  imported  from  the  West  Indies,  while 
a considerable  portion  of  the  whole  is  made  in 
the  Southern  States. 

The  impurities  of  cane-sugar  consist  of  frag- 
ments of  the  cane,  vegetable  albumen,  blood 
(from  the  material  used  in  fining  it),  an  animal- 
cule peculiar  to  it,  woody  fibre,  and  starch ; be- 
sides which  may  be  enumerated  lime,  lead,  iron, 
sand,  and  salt,  all  of  which  are  found  in  the  raw 
sugar,  and  but  seldom  in  the  refined  sugars, 
unless  these  contain  a portion  of  the  molasses 
still  adhering  to  their  crystals.  Some  of  the 
impurities  are  owing  to  the  ordinary  processes 
of  manufacture,  and  are  unintentional,  while 
others  are  due  to  those  wilful  adulterations 
called  in  the  trade  “ handling.”  This  term  is 
ostensibly  applied  to  the  mere  mixing  of  differ- 
ent qualities  of  sugar  together  ; but  too  often  it 
is  simply  a cover  for  the  introduction  of  other 
substances.  These  adulterations  have  been 
shown  to  occur  to  a very  great  extent  in  the  raw 
sugars  sold  in  our  shops ; but  as  they  are 
scarcely  practised  at  all  in  white  or  lump  sugar, 
the  public  can  avoid  them  by  purchasing  the 
latter  article  only.  Loaf  or  refined  sugar,  when 
good,  is  of  a close  texture,  of  a fine  white  gloss, 
and  is  simply  sweet  to  the  taste,  without  other 
flavor;  when  inferior,  it  is  coarse,  with  looser 


grain,  crumbles  easily,  and  is  a little  yellow- 
ish in  color,  and  its  sweetness  has  something 
of  the  taste  of  moist  sugar.  Moist  or  raw  sugar, 
when  good  and  unadulterated,  is  bright  and 
composed  of  crystallized  grains.  A dull-looking 
moist  sugar  is  always  one  of  an  inferior  or 
doubtful  quality. 

Loaf  sugar  should  be  stored  in  the  papers  on 
a shelf.  The  others  should  be  kept  in  closely- 
covered  kegs  or  covered  wooden  receptacles 
made  for  the  purpose.  It  is  not  well  to  buy 
large  quantities  at  a time. 

SUGAR-BEER.  (See  Beverages.) 

SUGAR-CANDY.  (See  Candy.) 

SUGAR-CANE. — A species  of  large,  jointed 
reed  or  grass,  of  which  there  are  several  vari- 
eties, all  of  them  being  natives  of  tropical  and 
sub-tropical  countries.  The  common  sugar- 
cane is  a perennial,  with  a creeping  root,  send- 
ing up  a number  of  stems  from  eight  to  twelve 
feet  high,  which  have  many  joints,  are  of  var- 
ious colors,  and  from  one  to  two  inches  thick. 
They  are  filled  for  about  two-thirds  of  their 
length  with  a loose,  sweet,  juicy  pith.  The 
leaves  are  ribbon-shaped,  and  four  or  five  feet 
long,  with  a strong  whitish  middle  nerve.  The 
violet-colored  sugar-cane  is  much  esteemed  and 
widely  cultivated  in  the  West  Indies  and  in  the 
Southern  States.  The  sugar-cane  is  usually 
propagated  by  cuttings,  the  top  joints  being 
used  for  this  purpose.  The  cuttings  are  planted 
in  rows  three  or  four  feet  apart,  and  at  intervals 
of  about  two  feet  in  the  rows.  The  largest  va- 
rieties, in  rich  moist  soils,  attain  a height  of 
twenty  feet;  but  in  poor  dry  soils  the  height  is 
sometimes  no  more  than  six  feet.  The  best 
varieties  are  ready  for  cutting  in  about  ten 
months  from  the  time  of  planting,  but  other 
varieties  are  unfit  for  use  until  they  have  had 
from  twelve  to  twenty  months’  growth.  Fresh 
stems,  called  rattoons,  spring  from  the  root, 
after  the  old  stalks  are  cut  off,  so  that  the  plan- 
tation does  not  require  to  be  renewed  for  several 
years ; but  the  cane  of  the  first  crop  is  largest, 
and  a gradual  decrease  of  size  takes  place. 
The  Chinese  Sugar-cane  or  Sorgho-grass  was 
introduced  into  the  United  States  in  1856, 
where  its  cultivation  has  extended  as  far  North 
as  Maine.  (See  Sorghum.) 

SULPHUR. — Sulphur  is  employed  in  medi- 
cine in  two  forms — sublimed  sulphur  and  pre- 
cipitated sulphur  or  milk  of  sulphur.  Sublimed 
sulphur  is  commonly  used  ; it  is  a bright  yellow 
powder  without  taste  or  smell.  It  burns  with 
a blue  flame,  and  produces  the  unpleasant  fumes 
of  sulphurous  acid.  The  precipitated  sulphur  is 
pale  yellow,  and  its  powder  is  much  finer.  The 
preparations  of  sulphur  are  a confection  and  an 
ointment.  The  confection  contains  sulphur, 
cream  of  tartar,  and  syrup  of  orange-peel ; it  is 
a valuable  laxative  in  piles,  or  where  it  is  not 
desired  to  do  more  than  gently  open  the  bowels. 
It  is  mainly,  however,  as  an  external  application 
that  sulphur  is  employed.  Sulphur  ointment 
still  remains  the  great  remedy  for  the  itch,  and 
it  is  useful  in  other  forms  of  skin  disease.  (See 
Itch.) 


518 


SULPHURIC  ACID 


SWANSDOWN 


SULPHURIC  ACID.  — Poison.  Symp- 
toms: Great  distress  of  the  stomach.  Treat- 
ment: Give  a tablespoonful  or  two  of  pul- 
verized chalk  or  magnesia,  with  a little 
water.  If  neither  is  at  hand,  lime,  or  even 
plaster  knocked  from  the  wall  and  ground  up. 

It  is  known  as  oil  of  vitriol;  intensely  acid, 
and  chars  any  vegetable  substance  added  to  it. 
Commercial  oil  of  vitriol  often  contains  arsenic, 
from  the  use  of  impure  sulphur.  The  diluted 
acid  is  used  in  two  forms — aromatic  sulphuric 
acid,  which  is  flavored  by  cinnamon  and  ginger ; 
and  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  in  which  water  alone 
has  been  added.  The  strong  sulphuric  acid  is 
rarely  employed,  even  as  a caustic  ; it  is  unman- 
ageable, and  less  powerful  reagents  are  prefer- 
red. Internally,  the  aromatic  or  dilute  sulphuric 
acid  is  mainly  used  as  an  astringent.  In  this 
way  it  is  of  much  service  in  the  wasting  sweats 
of  consumption ; and  it  may  be  of  service  where 
there  is  a chronic  mucous  discharge  from  the 
bowels.  It  is  also  of  importance  as  an  astrin- 
gent in  diarrhoea.  The  ordinary  dose  of 
dilute  or  aromatic  sulphuric  acid  is  about 
10  or  15  drops,  well  diluted  with  water,  3 or 
4 times  a day.  In  diarrhoea,  that  quantity 
ought  to  be  given  with  as  much  laudanum,  if 
irritating  substances  have  been  expelled. 

SULPHUROUS  ACID. — A remedy  of  some 
importance.  It  may  be  prepared  in  a variety  of 
ways,  but  it  is  most  commonly  obtained  by  redu- 
cing sulphuric  acids  by  means  of  charcoal.  1 1 is 
most  easily  prepared  by  burning  sulphur  in  the 
open  air.  It  has  the  well-known  odor  of  burning 
sulphur.  Sulphurous  acid  is  a powerful  deoxi- 
dizing reagent,  and  is  powerfully  destructive  of 
vegetable  life.  Applied  to  the  skin,  it  causes 
some  reddening  ; and  if  any  vegetable  parasite 
is  present,  as  is  not  unfrequently  the  case  in 
skin  disease,  it  is  destroyed.  Hence  arises  its 
value  in  such  maladies.  Internally,  if  there  is 
any  tendency  to  fermentation,  and  if  fungi  are 
present  in  the  stomach,  it  does  great  good. 
Used  as  spray  in  certain  forms  of  sore  throat, 
sulphurous  acid  is  also  of  great  use.  It  may 
be  used,  diluted  as  a gargle.  Sulphites  and  hy- 
drosulphites, especially  of  soda,  are  frequently 
given  internally  in  its  stead.  (See  Soda.) 

SUMACH  (POISON)  See  Poison  Plants 

SUN-STROKE. — This  is  a sudden  prostra- 
tion due  to  long  exposure  to  great  heat,  es- 
pecially when  one  is  fatigued  or  exhausted.  It 
commonly  results  from  undue  exposure  to  the 
sun’s  rays  in  summer,  but  it  may  be  caused  by 
exposure  to  too  great  heat  under  any  circumstan- 
ces. It  begins  with  pain  in  the  head  or  dizziness, 
quickly  followed  by  loss  of  consciousness  and 
complete  prostration.  Sometimes,  however, 
the  attack  is  as  sudden  as  a stroke  of  apoplexy. 
As  the  symptoms  advance,  there  is  flushing  of 
the  face  with  increased  action  of  the  heart  and 
labored  breathing,  and  then  coma,  upon  which 
in  a few  hours  death  will  supervene.  Slighter 
symptoms  may  occur,  and  either  pass  away 
under  judicious  treatment,  or  slowly  merge  into 
the  severer  form. 

Treatment. — The  immediate  aim  should  be 


to  reduce  the  excessive  heat.  Take  the  patient 
at  once  to  a cool  and  shady  place,  but  don't  cany 
him  far  to  a house  or  hospital.  Loosen  the 
clothes  well  about  his  neck  and  waist,  and  lay 
him  down  with  the  head  a little  raised.  If  the 
attack  seems  slight,  apply  wet  cloths  to  the 
head,  renewing  them  frequently,  and  mustard 
or  turpentine  to  the  calves  of  the  leg  and  the 
soles  of  the  feet.  If  the  prostration  is  great, 
dash  pails  of  cold  water  on  his  head  and  chest, 
or  put  him  under  a pump  and  pump  water  freely 
on  him.  If  he  can  swallow,  some  stimulant 
should  be  given ; aromatic  spirit  is  best,  but 
some  weak  brandy  or  whiskey  and  water  will 
answer.  The  patient  too  must  be  kept  perfectly 
quiet.  Exertion  of  any  kind  may  cause  the 
heart  to  stop,  and  thus  result  in  death.  Bleed- 
ing is  often  resorted  to  in  cases  of  sun-stroke, 
but  the  advantage  of  this  is  doubtful,  and  no  one 
but  a physician  should  venture  upon  it.  During 
convalescence  the  patient  must  avoid  fatigue  or 
exposure  to  heat,  and  must  have  a nutritious 
and  stimulating  diet. 

SUPPER  AND  TEA. — In  the  large  cities 
where  late  dinners  are  the  rule,  tea  is  an  obso- 
lete meal,  lunch  in  the  middle  of  the  day  hav- 
ing taken  its  place.  Some,  it  is  true,  have 
adopted  the  continental  practice  of  eating  late 
suppers  ; but  the  practice  is  unquestionably  a 
bad  one,  except  for  those  who  sit  up  very  late 
or  who  work  hard  at  night.  A dinner  requires 
at  least  four  hours  to  digest,  even  in  a perfect- 
ly healthy  stomach,  and  the  digestive  organs 
afterwards  require  a period  of  rest.  To  take 
in  more  food  while  the  process  of  digestion  is 
in  full  operation  cannot  but  be  injurious,  and 
the  consequences,  in  the  shape  of  dyspepsia 
and  sleeplessness,  are  not  slow  in  manifesting 
themselves.  When  dinner  is  taken  at  mid-day, 
the  tea  may  consist  of  any  of  the  dishes  sug- 
gested for  breakfast  and  lunch.  (See  Break- 
fast and  Lunch.)  For  late  suppers,  the 
lighter  the  food  the  better.  Fresh  fish,  sar- 
dines, well-ripened  fruit,  a cream,  light  pud- 
ding, blanc-mange,  a little  iced  fruit,  fruit-jelly, 
prunes,  etc.,  are  appropriate.  Strong  tea  or 
coffee  should  not  be  drunk;  nor  wine,  unless 
it  be  a very  light  one. 

SWAN. — There  are  two  varieties  of  this 
bird  which  are  found  in  our  markets.  The 
trumpeter  swan  is  most  abundant ; they  are 
generally  shot  near  the  Chesapeake  Bay.  The 
young  are  pretty  good  eating,  but  the  old  are 
very  dry  and  tough.  The  wild  or  whistling 
swan  is  only  occasionally  to  be  had.  The  cyg- 
nets (young)  are  very  fine  eating,  but  they  should 
not  be  more  than  a year  or  two  old.  They  re- 
quire five  or  six  years  to  reach  maturity.  The 
third  year  the  bill  becomes  black.  Very  old 
birds  have  a hard  protuberance  on  the  bend  of 
the  last  joint  of  the  wing.  Both  varieties  are  in 
season  from  November  to  January.  Prepare, 
cook,  and  serve  as  directed  for  wild  Duck. 

SWANSDOWN. — Properly  speaking  swans- 
down  is  the  fine,  soft,  downy  feathers  of  the 
swan,  used  for  various  articles  of  ladies’  dress, 
trimmings,  etc.  The  term  is  commonly  applied 


SWEETBREADS 


SWIMMING 


519 


to  a sort  of  twilled  fustian,  made  of  wool  with  a 
small  quantity  of  silk,  and  used  for  gentlemens’ 
waistcoats.  An  inferior  kind  has  cotton  instead 
of  silk. 

SWEETBREADS.  — These  are  rightly 
esteemed  one  of  the  greatest  delicacies  of  the 
meat  kind.  There  are  but  two  in  a calf,  one 
from  the  neck  or  throat,  called  “ throat  sweet- 
bread,” the  other  from  near  the  heart,  known 
as  the  “ heart  sweet  bread.”  The  largest  are 
the  best,  and  the  heart  sweet-bread  the  most 
delicate.  Their  color  should  be  clear,  and  a 
shade  darker  than  the  fat  of  the  same  animal. 

In  whatever  way  sweetbreads  are  dressed, 
they  should  first  be  well  soaked  in  lukewarm 
water,  then  thrown  into  boiling  water  to  blanch 
them,  as  it  is  called,  and  to  render  them  firm. 
If  lifted  out  after  they  have  boiled  from  five  to 
six  minutes,  according  to  their  size,  and  laid 
immediately  into  fresh  water  to  cool,  their  color 
will  be  better  preserved. 

Broiled  Sweetbreads.  — Parboil  them  as 
above,  spread  plenty  of  butter  over  them,  and 
broil  on  a gridiron  over  hot  coals,  turning  often. 

Fricasseed  Sweetbreads.  — Cut  up  the 
remnant  of  a cooked  sweetbread  in  small  pieces, 
and  prepare  a good  sauce  or  gravy  as  for  stew- 
ing ; lay  the  sweet  breads  in  the  pan  with  the 
gravy,  and  boil  up  once.  Garnish  with  slices 
of  lemon,  or  pieces  of  fried  bread. 

Fried  Sweetbreads. — Parboil  five  minutes, 
wipe  them  dry,  and  lard  with  narrow  strips  of 
salt  fat  pork,  using  a larding-needle ; put  a 
very  little  butter  or  lard  into  a frying-pan,  lay 
in  the  sweetbreads,  when  it  is  hot,  and  fry  to  a 
light  crisp  brown,  turning  often. 

Roast  Sweetbreads. — -Parboil  large  ones, 
and  when  cold  lard  them  with  salt  pork  as  for 
frying ; roast  them  brown  in  a moderate  oven, 
basting  often  with  butter  and  water.  For 
sauce,  plain  butter  and  mushroom  catsup. 

Stewed  Sweetbreads. — Parboil  and  lay  in 
cold  water  as  directed  above  ; then  put  them 
into  a sauce  pan,  add  a very  little  water,  and 
stew  them  until  quite  tender ; then  add  for  each 
sweetbread  a teaspoonful  of  butter,  and  a little 
cream ; season  with  pepper  and  salt  and  a little 
chopped  parsley ; let  them  simmer  in  this  for 
five  minutes,  dish  them,  and  pour  the  gravy 
over  them.  The  sweetbreads  may  be  larded  as 
for  frying,  if  liked  very  rich,  but  they  are  more 
delicate  without. 

SWEET  BRIER.  {See  Eglantine.) 

SWEET  HERBS.  {See  Herbs.) 

SWEET  MARJORAM.  (See  Marjoram.) 

SWEET  POTATO.  (See  Potato.) 

SWIMMING,  Hints  On. — Every  person 
male  or  female,  should  learn  to  swim  ; and  as 
the  art  can  be  acquired  much  easier  in  early 
life,  parents  should  encourage  their  children  to 
learn,  and  every  school  should  have  a swim- 
ming bath  attached.  In  France  all  soldiers 
are  taught  to  swim  as  a part  of  their  drill  exer- 
cise. As  Dr.  Franklin’s  hints  on  swimming 
are  generally  conceded  to  be  unsurpassed  in 
practical  usefulness,  we  will  quote  them  in 
preference  to  any  of  the  newer  and  more  tech- 


nical “guides  ; ” for  this  fact  is  both  true  and 
important : success  in  swimming  at  the  start 
depends  much  more  on  the  state  of  mind  of  the 
beginner  than  on  any  fancied  knowledge  of  the 
technique  of  the  art.  Dr.  Franklin  says: 

“ The  only  obstacle  to  improvement  in  this 
necessary  and  life-preserving  art  is  fear ; and  it 
is  only  by  overcoming  this  timidity,  that  you  can 
expect  to  become  a perfect  master  of  swimming 
It  is  a very  common  thing  for  novices  in  the 
art  of  swimming  to  make  use  of  corks  or  blad- 
ders to  assist  in  keeping  the  body  above  water; 
some  have  utterly  condemned  the  use  of  these ; 
however,  they  may  be  of  service  in  supporting 
the  body  while  one  is  learning  what  is  called 
the  stroke,  or  that  manner  of  drawing  in  and 
striking  out  the  hands  and  feet  that  is  neces- 
sary to  produce  progressive  motion.  But  you 
will  be  no  swimmer  till  you  can  place  confidence 
in  the  power  of  the  water  to  support  you  ; I 
would  therefore  advise  the  acquiring  that  con- 
fidence in  the  first  place ; especially  as  I have 
known  several  who,  by  a little  practice  neces- 
sary for  that  purpose,  have  insensibly  acquired 
the  stroke,  taught  as  if  it  were  by  Nature. 
The  practice  I mean  is  this : choosing  a place 
where  the  water  deepens  gradually,  walk  coolly 
into  it  till  it  is  up  to  your  breast,  then  turn  round 
your  face  to  the  shore,  and  throw  an  egg  into 
the  water  between  you  and  the  shore  ; it  will 
sink  to  the  bottom,  and  be  easily  seen  there  if 
the  water  be  clean.  It  must  lie  in  the  water  so 
deep  that  you  cannot  reach  to  take  it  up  but  by 
diving  for  it.  To  encourage  yourself  in  order 
to  do  this,  reflect  that  your  progress  will  be 
from  deep  to  shallow  water,  and  that  at  any 
time  you  may,  by  bringing  your  legs  under  you, 
and  standing  on  the  bottom,  raise  your  head 
far  above  the  water ; then  plunge  under  it  with 
your  eyes  open,  which  must  be  kept  open  be- 
fore going  under,  as  you  cannot  open  the  eye- 
lids for  the  weight  of  water  above  you,  throw- 
ing yourself  towards  the  egg,  and  endeavoring 
by  the  action  of  your  hands  and  feet  against 
the  water,  to  get  forward  till  within  reach  of 
it.  In  this  attempt  you  will  find  that  the  water 
buoys  you  up  against  your  inclination  ; that  it 
is  not  so  easy  to  sink  as  you  may  imagine,  and 
that  you  cannot  but  by  active  force  get  down 
to  the  egg.  Thus  you  feel  the  power  of  water 
to  support  you  and  learn  to  confide  in  that 
power,  while  your  endeavors  to  overcome  it 
and  reach  the  egg,  teach  you  the  manner  of 
acting  on  the  water  with  your  feet  and  hands, 
which  action  is  afterwards  used  in  swimming, 
to  support  your  head  higher  above  the  water, 
or  to'go  forward  through  it. 

“ I would  the  more  earnestly  press  you  to  the 
trial  of  this  method,  because,  though  I think  I 
shall  satisfy  you  that  your  body  is  lighter  than 
water,  and  that  you  might  float  in  it  a long 
time  with  your  mouth  free  for  breathing,  if 
you  would  put  yourself  into  a proper  posture, 
and  would  be  still,  and  forbear  struggling ; 
yet,  till  you  have  obtained  this  experimental 
confidence  in  the  water,  I cannot  depend  u*  Nn 
your  having  the  necessary  presence  of  mind  u 


520 


SWIMMING 


SYLLABUBS 


recollect  the  posture,  and  the  directions  I gave 
you  relating  to  it.  The  surprise  may  put  all 
out  of  your  mind. 

‘‘Though  the  legs,  arms,  and  head  of  the  hu- 
man body,  being  solid  parts,  are  specifically 
somewhat  heavier  than  fresh  water,  yet  the 
trunk,  particularly  the  upper  part,  from  its  hol- 
lowness, is  so  much  lighter  than  water,  as  that 
the  whole  of  the  body,  taken  altogether,  is  too 
light  to  sink  wholly  under  water,  but  some  part 
will  remain  above,  until  the  lungs  become 
filled  with  water,  which  happens  from  drawing 
water  to  them  instead  of  air  when  a person  in 
the  fright  attempts  breathing  while  the  mouth 
and  nostrils  are  under  water. 

“The  legs  and  arms  are  specifically  lighter 
than  salt  water,  and  will  be  supported  by  it, 
so  that  a human  body  cannot  sink  in  salt  water, 
though  the  lungs  were  filled  as  above,  but  from 
the  greater  specific  gravity  of  the  head.  There- 
fore, a person  throwing  himself  on  his  back  in 
salt  water,  and  extending  his  arms,  may  easily 
lie  so  as  to  keep  his  mouth  and  nostrils  free  for 
breathing;  and,  by  a small  motion  of  his  hand, 
may  prevent  turning  should  he  perceive  any 
tendency  to  it. 

“ In  fresh  water,  if  a man  throw  himself  on  his 
back,  near  the  surface,  he  cannot  long  continue 
in  that  situation  but  by  proper  action  of  his 
hands  upon  the  water  ; If  he  use  no  such  ac- 
tion the  legs  and  lower  part  of  the  body  will 
gradually  sink  till  he  come  into  an  upright  po- 
sition in  which  he  will  continue  suspended,  the 
hollow  of  his  breast  keeping  the  head  upper- 
most. 

“ But  if,  in  this  erect  position,  the  head  is  kept 
upright  above  the  shoulders,  as  when  we  stand 
on  the  ground,  the  immersion  will,  by  the 
weight  of  that  part  of  the  head  that  is  out  of 
the  water,  reach  above  the  mouth  and  nostrils, 
perhaps  a little  above  the  eyes,  so  that  a man 
cannot  long  remain  suspended  in  water  with 
his  head  in  that  position. 

“ The  body  continuing  suspended  as  before, 
and  upright,  if  the  head  be  leaned  quite  back, 
so  that  the  face  looks  upwards,  all  the  back 
part  of  the  head  being  under  water,  and  its 
weight,  consequently,  in  a great  measure  sup- 
ported by  it,  the  face  will  remain  above  water, 
quite  free  for  breathing,  will  rise  an  inch  high- 
er every  inspiration,  and  sink  as  much  every 
expiration,  but  never  so  low  as  that  the  water 
may  come  over  the  mouth. 

“ If,  therefore,  a person  unacquainted  with 
swimming,  and  falling  accidentally  into  the 
water,  could  have  presence  of  mind  sufficient 
to  avoid  struggling  and  plunging,  and  let  the 
body  take  this  natural  position,  he  might  con- 
tinue long  safe  from  drowning,  till,  perhaps, 
help  should  come  ; for  as  to  the  clothes,  their 
additional  weight,  when  immersed,  is  very  in- 
considerable, the  water  supporting  it ; though, 
when  he  comes  out  of  the  water,  he  would  find 
them  very  heavy  indeed. 

“ I know  by  experience  that  it  is  a great  com- 
fort to  a swimmer  who  has  a considerable  dis- 
tance to  go,  to  turn  himself  sometimes  on  his 


back,  and  to  vary  in  other  respects  the  means 
of  procuring  a progressive  motion. 

“ When  he  is  seized  with  the  cramp  in  the  leg, 
the  method  of  driving  it  away  is,  to  give  the 
parts  affected  a sudden,  vigorous,  and  violent 
shock,  which  he  may  do  in  the  air  as  he  swims 
on  his  back. 

“ During  the  great  heats  in  summer  there  is 
no  danger  in  bathing,  however  warm  we  may 
be,  in  rivers  which  have  been  thoroughly 
warmed  by  the  sun.  But  to  throw  one’s  self 
into  cold  spring  water,  when  the  body  has  been 
heated  by  exercise  in  the  sun,  is  an  imprudence 
which  may  prove  fatal. 

“The  exercise  of  swimming  is  one  of  the  most 
healthy  and  agreeable  in  the  world.  After  hav- 
ing swum  for  an  hour  or  two  in  the  evening, 
one  sleeps  coolly  the  whole  night,  even  during 
the  most  ardent  heats  of  summer.  Perhaps 
the  pores  being  cleansed,  the  insensible  perspi- 
ration increases  and  occasions  this  coolness.” 

Women  swim  more  easily  than  men.  Their 
bony  skeletons  are  lighter,  they  are  better  fur- 
nished with  adipose  tissue — the  soft  fatty  por- 
tion of  their  bodies — and  their  heads  are  smaller. 
(See  Drowned  and  Drowning.) 

SYLLABUBS. — These  are  best  made  the  day 
before  they  are  wanted,  or  at  least  early  in  the 
morning,  if  they  are  to  be  sent  to  table  the 
same  evening.  They  require  time  to  settle  and 
let  their  froth  get  firm. 

Birthday  Syllabub.  Put  into  a large  bowl 
half  a pound  of  sugar  broken  small,  and  pour 
on  it  the  strained  juice  of  two  fresh  lemons  ; 
stir  these  well  together,  and  add  a pint  of 
port  wine,  a pint  of  sherry,  and  half  a pint  of 
brandy ; grate  in  a small  nutmeg,  place  the 
bowl  under  the  cow,  and  milk  two  quarts  into 
it.  In  serving  it  put  a portion  of  the  curd  into 
each  glass,  fill  it  up  with  whey,  and  pour  a little 
rich  cream  on  the  top.  The  rind  of  a lemon 
may  be  rasped  on  part  of  the  sugar  when  the 
flavour  is  liked,  but  it  is  not  usually  added. 

Posset  Syllabub. — Mix  a quart  of  thick 
cream  with  a pound  of  lump  sugar,  and  a pint 
of  white  wine  ; rub  a few  lumps  of  sugar  upon 
the  rind  of  two  or  three  lemons  to  extract  the 
essence,  and  pour  upon  them  the  juice  of  three 
lemons  ; add  this  to  the  cream,  and  whisk  it  one 
way  for  half  an  hour,  or  until  thick. 

Solid  Syllabub. — Put  into  a bowl  three- 
quarters  of  a pint  of  cream  and  the  juice  of  one 
large  lemon ; mix  these  well  together,  and 
flavor  with  sweet  wine,  brandy,  and  sugar  to 
taste.  Put  an  ounce  of  isinglass  (or  gelatine) 
into  a sauce-pan  with  half  a pint  of  water  and 
boil  it  slowly,  with  a piece  of  lemon-peel  in  it, 
until  the  isinglass  is  quite  dissolved ; then  pour 
it  into  the  bowl  over  the  other  ingredients,  stir- 
ring well  for  five  minutes ; then  pass  it  through 
a colander,  and  put  into  moulds  to  cool  and 
stiffen.  If  this  syllabub  is  to  be  served  in 
glasses,  a smaller  quantity  of  isinglass  will 
suffice. 

Whipped  Syllabubs. — Weigh  seven  ounces 
of  fine  sugar,  and  rasp  on  it  the  rind  of  two 
fresh  lemons,  then  pound  or  roll  it  to  powder, 


SYRINGA 


TABLE-CLOTH 


521 


and  put  it  into  a bowl  with  the  strained  juice  of 
the  lemons,  two  wineglasses  of  sherry  and 
two  of  brandy ; when  the  sugar  is  dissolved 
add  a pint  of  fresh  cream,  and  whisk  or  mill 
the  mixture  well ; take  off  the  froth  as  it  rises 
and  put  it  into  glasses.  These  syllabubs  will 
keep  good  for  several  days,  and  should  always 
be  made  the  day  before  they  are  wanted. 

Another  excellent  syllabub  may  be  made  by 
using  the  same  proportions  of  cream  and  sugar 
as  above,  with  half  as  much  wine  and  brandy, 
and  a tablespoonful  of  vanilla  or  other  extract. 

SYRINGA.  (See  Lilac.) 

SYRINGES  are  chiefly  used  to  clear  out  the 
faecal  matter  from  the  lower  bowel,  and  to  wash 
out  the  ear-passage,  nd  the  vagina.  The  so-call- 
ed syphon  syringe  is  an  excellent  instrument  for 
general  household  use ; but  in  syringing  out 
the  ear  or  the  vagina,  the  jerky  character  of  the 
stream  is  objectionable.  In  such  cases,  a ves- 
sel, opening  at  the  lower  part,  into  an  india- 
rubber  tube,  can  furnish  a continuous  stream, 
the  force  being  regulated  by  the  height  of  the 


vessel.  The  so-called  “Fountain  Syringe,” 
represented  in  the  cut,  is  made  of  india-rubber, 
may  be  hung  upon  a nail,  and  fulfils  all  the  re- 
quirements. The  tube  is  longer  than  repre- 
sented in  the  cut.  The  nozzles  are : i,  a 
sprinkler,  for  wounds,  ulcers,  etc.,  also  for 
sprinkling  clothes  and  floors  ; 2,  for  the  nose, 
this  syringe  making  an  admirable  nasal  douche ; 
3,  for  the  ear ; 4,  the  rectum  ; 5,  the  vagina. 

SYRUP. — In  England,  this  term  is  applied 
only  to  sugar  dissolved  in  water,  and  boiled  till 
the  water  evaporates,  but  in  this  country  it  is 


commonly  applied  to  the  finer  grades  of  mo- 
lasses as  well.  (See  Molasses.)  Maple  Syrup 
is  made  from  the  sap  of  the  sugar-maple,  and 
is  very  agreeable  in  flavor.  (See  Sorghum.) 

Apple,  Pear,  or  Pine-apple  Syrup. — Dis- 
solve fine  white  sugar  in  water,  and  boil  it  till  it 
begins  to  thicken;  then  put  in  an  equal  weight 
of  apples,  pears,  or  pine-apples,  cut  in  small 
squares,  but  not  mashed  or  broken,  and  boil 
them  tender.  The  syrup  extracts  the  flavor, 
and  may  be  poured  off  and  bottled ; leaving 
the  fruit  to  be  used  as  preserves. 

Currant  Syrup — Express  the  juice  from 
some  fine  ripe  red  currants,  which  have  been 
gathered  in  dry  weather,  and  stripped  from  the 
stalks;  strain,  and  put  it  into  a perfectly  clean 
and  dry  earthen  pitcher,  and  let  it  stand  in  a 
cellar  or  in  some  cool  place  for  twenty-four 
hours,  or  longer,  should  it  not  then  appear  per- 
fectly curdled.  Pour  it  gently  into  a fine  hair- 
sieve,  and  let  the  clear  juice  drain  through 
without  pressure;  pass  it  through  a jelly-bag, 
or  a closely-woven  cloth,  weigh  it,  and  add  as 
much  loaf  sugar  broken  small  as  there  is  of 
the  juice,  and  when  this  is  dissolved  turn  this 
syrup  into  a preserving-pan  or  stew-pan,  and 
boil  it  gently  for  four  or  five  minutes,  being 
careful  to  clear  off  all  the  scum.  In  twelve 
hours  afterwards  the  syrup  may  be  put  into 
small  dry  bottles,  and  corked  and  stored  in  a 
cool  but  dry  place.  It  is  a most  agreeable  pre- 
paration, retaining  perfectly  the  flavor  of  the 
fresh  fruit;  and  mixed  with  water,  it  affords,  like 
strawberry  or  raspberry  vinegar,  a delicious 
summer  beverage,  and  one  which  is  peculiarly 
adapted  to  invalids.  It  makes  also  a fine  isin- 
glass jelly,  and  an  incomparable  sweet-pudding 
sauce.  Raspberry  or  cherry-juice  may  be 
mixed  with  that  of  the  currants  at  pleasure. 

Lemon  Syrup. — Put  three  pounds  of  lump 
sugar  into  one  third  of  its  weight  of  water  and 
boil  till  it  begins  to  thicken ; then  add  the  juice 
of  eighteen  good  lemons  and  the  grated  peel 
of  three;  let  it  boil  together  three  minutes, 
strain  it  through  a lawn  sieve  and  bottle  it. 
When  cold  cork  it  down  tight,  and  keep  in  a 
cold  dry  place.  This  syrup  is  excellent  for 
lemonade,  punch,  ices,  jellies,  etc. 

Orange  Syrup This  is  made  in  exactly 

the  same  way  as  the  foregoing,  substituting 
oranges  for  lemons. 


T 


TABLE.  (See  Dinner  and  Furni- 
ture.) 

TABLE-CLOTH,  Woollen,  to  Wash. — A 

bright  windy  day  is  the  best  for  this  purpose. 
Having  first  taken  out  all  the  grease-spots  and 
stains  (see  Grease  and  Stains),  put  the  table- 
cover  into  a clean  tub  with  clean  suds  of  white 
soap  and  clear  water,  warm,  but  not  hot  (in 


which  have  been  mixed  about  two  tablespoon- 
fuls of  ox-gall),  and  wash  and  squeeze  it  well. 
Then  wash  it  through  a second  lather,  some- 
what weaker  of  soap,  but  without  any  gall 
in  it.  Afterwards  rinse  it  through  lukewarm 
suds,  just  tinged  with  soap.  Instead  of 
wringing  (which  will  shrivel  it),  press  out  as 
much  of  the  water  as  you  can  with  your  hands ; 


522 


TAFFETA 


TAPE-WORM 


then  fold  it  up  in  a tight  long  fold,  and  roll 
and  press  it  hard  with  both  hands  on  a clean 
ironing-table,  having  set  a tub  to  catch  the  wa- 
ter that  drips  from  it  during  the  process. 
Roll  it  always  from  you,  towards  the  end  of 
the  table.  When  the  water  ceases  to  come 
from  it,  shake  and  stretch  it  well,  and  dry  it 
as  soon  as  possible,  but  not  by  the  fire.  Go 
to  it  frequently  while  drying  and  stretch  and 
shake  it.  While  it  is  yet  damp,  take  it  in, 
spread  it  on  an  ironing-sheet  and  iron  it  on 
the  wrong  side,  pressing  it  hard. 

TAFFETA. — A smooth  silken  stuff,  having 
usually  a remarkable  wavy  lustre,  impaired  by 
pressure  and  heat,  with  the  application  of  an 
acidulous  fluid,  to  produce  the  effect  called 
“watering.”  There  are  taffetas  of  all  colors, 
some  plain,  others  striped  with  gold,  silver 
silk,  etc.,  and  others  flowered  or  checkered. 
Taffeta  is  chiefly  used  in  summer  dresses,  for 
ladies,  a particular  kind  for  window  curtains  and 
other  drapery.  The  Chinese  manufacture  dif- 
ferent sorts  of  taffeta,  among  which  is  a sub- 
stantial kind  adapted  for  drawers  and  other  ar- 
ticles of  wearing  apparel ; it  is  so  thick  and 
pliant  that  it  may  be  folded  and  pressed  by  the 
hand  without  receiving  any  crease  or  mark,  and 
will  retain  much  of  its  lustre  after  washing. 
The  usual  width  of  taffeta  is  one  yard. 

TAFFY.  (See  Candy.) 

TAINTED  MEAT.  ( See  DECOMPOSI- 

TION.) 

TALLOW. — This  is  properly  the  hard  in- 
ternal fat  or  suet  of  the  ox  and  sheep,  but  it  is 
sometimes  mixed  with  the  tallow  of  the  horse. 
It  is  obtained  by  melting  the  suet  slowly,  after 
cutting  it  up  in  small  pieces,  and  then  preserv- 
ing it.  Tallow  is  adulterated  chiefly  with  the 
soft  fat  of  the  surface  of  animals,  and  with  lard, 
both  of  which  cause  candles  made  of  this  adul- 
terated material  to  flicker  and  sputter.  Mutton 
tallow  is  of  much  finer  consistence  than  beef 
tallow,  from  containing  less  oleine  and  more 
stearine.  Tallow  is  chiefly  used  in  making 
candles.  (See  Candles.) 

TALMA.  (See  Circular.) 

TAMARIND.— -The  fruit,  or  rather  pod,  of 
a tree  which  is  a native  of  the  East  and  West 
Indies,  and  which  thrives  in  most  tropical 
countries.  Tamarinds  are  found  here  in  a pre- 
served state,  and  are  sold  in  our  fruit  and 
grocery  stores.  The  best  are  cured  with  sugar, 
and  are  known  as  sugar  tamarinds ; the  com- 
mon kind  are  cured  with  molasses,  and  are 
known  as  West  India  tamarinds.  This  fruit 
is  in  season  all  the  year  round,  but  is  best  in 
the  months  of  May  and  June.  Tamarinds  are 
slightly  nutritive,  cooling,  and  gently  laxative, 
and  having  an  agreeable  flavor,  will  generally  be 
eaten  by  children  when  they  will  not  take  other 
medicines.  No  mother  need  be  afraid  to  allow 
children  to  eat  them  in  moderation.  The  usual 
dose  for  producing  a gentle  movement  of  the 
bowels,  is  from  half  an  ounce  to  an  ounce  of 
the  fruit ; but  a very  pleasant  drink  called  tama- 
rind whey , is  made  by  boiling  an  ounce  of 
tamarind  pulp  in  a pint  of  milk  and  then  strain- 


ing it.  The  common  drink  is  made  by  dissolv- 
ing one  ounce  of  the  pulp  in  a pint  of  warm 
water,  allowing  it  to  get  cold,  and  then  strain- 
ing. 

TANNIN. — Tannin  or  tannic  acid  has  been 
frequently  named  the  astringent  principle,  and 
is  very  abundant  in  the  barks  of  trees,  and  of 
all  plants  that  are  of  an  astringent  nature.  It 
exists  plentifully  in  the  bark  of  oak,  and  in  large 
quantity  in  the  excrescences  called  gall-nuts  on 
several  species  of  oak.  It  is  found  also  in  tea, 
sumach,  and  whortleberries ; but  in  these  it  is 
always  associated  with  gallic  acid  : in  catechu 
and  cinchona  bark  it  exists  in  the  greatest  abun- 
dance and  without  gallic  acid.  When  tannin  is 
quite  pure,  it  is  highly  astringent;  and  soluble 
in  both  water  and  alcohol.  It  is  white  and 
without  odor,  but  on  exposure  to  air  it  becomes 
brown,  as  it  is  generally  seen.  Though  it  is 
itself  soluble  in  water  it  has  the  useful  property 
of  forming  with  gelatine  a compound  not  solu- 
ble in  water,  in  fact,  rendering  gelatine,  which 
is  a very  soluble  substance,  insoluble ; hence 
the  use  of  bark  in  making  leather.  In  medi- 
cine it  is  used  chiefly  as  an  astringent  for  ex- 
ternal application ; in  the  stomach  it  is  convert- 
ed into  gallic  acid,  and  that  substance,  there- 
fore, is  more  frequently  given  internally  instead 
of  tannin. 

TANSY. — This  herb  grows  wild  in  old  fields 
in  many  parts  of  the  country,  and  is  also  cul- 
tivated to  some  extent  in  gardens.  A variety 
called  double-leaved  tansy  occurs  which  has 
dense  and  crisped  leaves.  The  whole  plant 
has  a strong  and  aromatic  smell  and  a very  bit- 
ter taste.  The  leaves  were  formerly  much  used 
for  flavoring  soups,  stews,  etc.,  but  other  herbs 
have  superseded  it  for  this  purpose,  and  it  is 
seldom  employed  now  except  in  domestic  medi- 
cine. An  infusion  of  the  leaves  will  expel 
worms  from  children ; but  the  popular  idea 
that  a decoction  of  its  leaves  will  act  as  an 
abortive  is  a delusion.  Large  bunches  of  tansy, 
or  rather  of  its  leaves,  are  found  on  the  herb- 
stands  ; it  is  best  in  the  spring  months  when  it 
is  young  and  green.  Tansy  dried  and  pressed 
may  also  be  obtained  at  the  drug  stores. 

TAPE-WORM. — There  are  several  kinds  of 
tape-worm  which  are  found  in  man.  i.  Tania 
solium,  which  is  a flat,  ribbon-like  worm,  of  a 
white  color,  about  a third  of  an  inch  broad,  and 
made  up  of  segments  about  an  inch  long  near 
the  tail  end,  each  fitting  into  the  segment  pre- 
ceeding.  Its  length  is  great,  varying  from  six 
to  twenty  feet  or  more.  The  body  is  pretty 
uniform  in  width,  but  towards  the  head  the 
neck  tapers  very  much,  not  exceeding  often  one 
eighth  of  an  inch,  and  the  segments  also  are 
very  much  shorter.  The  head  is  known  by  four 
black  spots  upon  it,  and  these  are  the  suckers 
by  which  it  clings  to  the  walls  of  the  bowels ; 
the  head  is  about  the  size  of  a pin’s  head,  and 
is  rather  wider  than  the  neck.  A tapeworm 
may  have  several  hundred  segments ; those 
near  the  neck  are  at  first  immature.  The  worm 
increases  in  length  by  fresh  segments  being 
produced  at  the  neck,  while  the  fully  developed 


TAPE-WORM 


TAR 


523 


segments  near  the  tail  drop  off.  Each  fully 
matured  segment  is  called  a “ proglottis” ; and 
when  these  pass  away  with  the  excreta,  the 
patient  is  known  to  be  suffering  from  tape- 
worm. This  worm  is  usually  solitary,  is  found 
in  the  small  intestine,  and  rarely  affects  children 
under  three  years  of  age.  2.  Taenia  tnedio- 
canellata  is  another  kind  of  tape-worm,  and 
the  more  common  of  the  two.  It  resembles 
the  preceding  in  every  respect,  except  that  there 
is  no  proboscis  on  the  head  and  no  hooklets. 
3.  Bothriocephalus  iatus,  or  broad  tape-worm  ; 
it  is  the  largest  of  all,  and  is  often  twenty  or 
thirty  feet  in  lengh  and  an  inch  broad.  The 
head  is  bluijt  and  flattened  from  behind  for- 
wards ; there  are  no  hooklets ; the  anterior  seg- 
ments are  narrow  at  first,  but  widen  gradually 
so  as  to  attain  their  greatest  widbh  towards  the 
centre  of  the  body ; towards  the  tail  end,  the 
segments  diminish  in  width,  but  increase  in 
depth,  so  that  the  worm  is  much  thicker  in  the 
posterior  than  in  the  anterior  part,  where  it  is 
flattened.  The  total  number  of  joints  has  been 
said  to  be  four  thousand.  These  three  varie- 
ties are  the  most  common,  and  they  are  called 
by  some  cestoid  worms,  because  they  belong  to 
the  natural  order  Cestoidea. 

The  mature  segment  or  “ proglottis”  of  these 
worms  contains  both  male  and  female  organs  of 
reproduction  ; when  one  mature  segment  has 
become  impregnated  with  another  mature  seg- 
ment by  contact  with  it,  eggs  are  formed.  These 
eggs  remain  in  the  “ proglottis”  until  it  escapes 
from  the  bowel,  when  the  “ proglottis”  itself 
bursts  from  the  growth  of  the  eggs  within ; 
when  the  ova  escape  in  this  way,  they  may  be 
eaten  by  some  animal,  or  even  taken  into  the 
stomach  by  drinking  water  into  which  they  have 
got.  When  the  embryo  in  this  way  enters  into 
a pig  or  rabbit,  it  breaks  its  shell,  and,  boring 
through  the  intestinal  wall,  lodges  in  the  tis- 
sues ; here  it  forms  a cyst,  where  it  may  attain 
a large  size,  and  develops  an  animal  consisting 
only  of  a head  and  neck.  Thus  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  eggs  of  a tape-worm  in  man  will  not 
produce  a tape-worm  in  another  animal,  but  a 
body  known  as  a cysticercus,  or  an  animal  in 
an  intermediate  stage  ; now  when  a cysticercus 
is  swallowed  by  man,  the  fully  developed  tamia 
or  tape-worm  will  be  produced.  The  two  stages 
cannot  take  place  in  the  same  animal.  There 
are  a great  many  tape-worms  of  different  kinds, 
and  many  animals,  as  the  dog,  cat,  and  rabbit, 
are  liable  to  them  as  well  as  man.  We  may 
chance  to  swallow  the  ova  of  the  tape-worm  in 
the  dog  by  eating  water-cresses,  or  drinking 
water  in  which  the  embryo  has  happened  to  be  ; 
and  if  this  be  done,  we  shall  not  suffer  from 
tape-worm,  but  from  the  intermediate  variety, 
and  thus  a cyst  may  form  in  some  organ,  and 
grow  so  as  to  cause  some  inconvenience,  and 
even  danger  to  life.  These  cysts  are  often 
called  hydatids,  and  the  liver  is  the  most  com- 
mon seat ; they  rarely  heal  of  themselves,  but 
generally  form  rounded  tumors  which  cause 
very  little  pain  or  disturbance ; they  generally 
contain  fluid,  and  attached  to  the  inner  wall  of 


the  cyst  are  those  curious  bodies  known  as 
cysticerci,  or  the  worm  in  the  intermediate 
stage.  These  cysticerci,  when  removed,  from 
a cyst  alive,  may  be  swallowed  by  man  with 
impunity,  but  if  given  to  a dog  again,  they  will 
develop  in  its  intestine  into  a mature  worm. 
Tape-worm  in  man  is  not  caused  by  swallow- 
ing the  ova,  but  by  eating  meat  in  which  the 
cysticerci  are  lying.  Pigs  and  rabbits  provide 
us  with  the  Tania  Solium , while  oxen  may  give 
us  the  Tania  medio-canellaia.  When  the 
mature  worm  is  developed  in  us,  the  ova  which 
escape  may  in  their  turn  supply  these  animals 
with  fresh  material  for  forming  cysticerci. 
Hence  it  is  an  important  thing  to  burn  all  por- 
tions of  worms  that  are  voided.  The  so-called 
measly  pork  is  pork  containing  hydatids;  and 
the  man  or  animal  eating  this  pork  before  it  is 
cooked  (cooking  kills  them)  takes  these  hydatids 
into  his  stomach  where  they  are  sure  to  develop 
into  tape-worms. 

Treatment.— Nothing  should  be  done  until 
the  passage  of  joints  with  the  excreta  gives  the 
infallible  sign  of  the  presence  of  the  worm. 
The  only  way  to  dislodge  tape-worms  is  to  ren- 
der their  habitation  disagreeable  to  them ; and 
for  this  purpose  various  drugs  (called  anthel- 
mintics) are  employed.  Oil  of  turpentine,  pe- 
troleum, the  oleo-resin  of  the  male  fern,  pome- 
granate bark,  or  Kousso,  the  flower  of  Brayera 
anthelmintica , may  be  used  advantageously. 
An  emulsion  prepared  from  the  seeds  of  the 
common  pumpkin  has  been  used  with  good 
effect,  and  has  the  merit  of  causing  no  disagree- 
able constitutional  symptoms.  Santonine  may 
be  given  in  doses  of  three  to  six  grains  three 
times  a day.  The  oil  of  worm-seed  is  used  in 
doses  of  five  to  ten  drops.  Probably  the  oil  of 
the  male  fern  is  the  remedy  most  generally  suc- 
cessful. Previous  to  its  use  the  bowels 
should  be  cleared  out  by  a dose  of  castor  oil. 
No  food  should  be  taken  after  the  noon-meal. 
The  following  morning  a drachm  of  the  oil 
should  be  taken  fasting,  and  followed  in  two 
hours  by  a tablespoonful  of  castor  oil.  Un- 
less the  head  of  the  worm  is  obtained  there  is 
no  cure,  for  it  will  go  on  producing  new  seg- 
ments indefinitely.  Tape-worm  may  cause 
much  inconvenience,  but  there  is  little  danger. 

TAPIOCA. — The  pith  of  the  Jatropha 
Manihot  or  cassava  tree,  imported  from  Bra- 
zil and  the  East  Indies,  and  exceedingly  nu- 
tritious and  agreeable  to  the  palate  when 
flavored  by  the  addition  of  milk,  spices,  fruits, 
&c.  It  is  very  wholesome  at  all  periods  of 
life.  It  is  adulterated  to  some  extent  with 
sago,  potato-starch,  etc.,  which  can  scarcely  be 
detected.  It  is  best  to  buy  tapioca  in  small 
quantities.  Keep  it  in  covered  jars  or  boxes, 
in  a dry  closet.  ( See  Blanc-Mange,  Jelly, 
Puddings,  and  Soup.) 

TAR. — A thick,  black,  treacly-looking  sub- 
stance, with  a strong  and  peculiar  odor,  obtain- 
ed by  the  destructive  distillation  of  various  spe- 
cies of  pine.  If  water  be  shaken  with  tar 
the  water  smokes  up,  becomes  brown,  and  has 
something  of  the  smell  of  tar.  This  water  was 


524 


TARLATAN 


TARTS 


at  one  time  much  extolled  as  a medicine. 
From  the  various  substances  it  contains,  tar  is 
a stimulant  of  value,  especially  for  outward  ap- 
plication. In  some  incorrigible  forms  of  skin 
disease,  especially  in  the  hands  and  feet,  tar 
has  done  good,  particularly  if  the  disorder  be  of 
a scaly  kind.  In  many  of  these  cases  it  may  be 
given  internally  as  well  as  externally.  Tar 
itself,  or  its  vapor,  has  been  used  with  great 
advantage  in  certain  cases  of  lung  disease,  es- 
pecially in  chronic  bronchitis  and  diseases 
complicated  by  it.  The  dose  is  about  30  grains 
made  into  a pill.  An  ounce  or  two  of  tar- 
water  may  be  taken  at  a dose.  An  ointment 
consisting  of  tar  and  beeswax  has  admirable 
healing  properties. 

TARLATAN.— A kind  of  thin,  gauzy  muslin 
much  used  for  ladies’  summer  dresses,  etc. 
French  tarlatan  is  best  in  the  finer  grades,  and 
is  one  of  the  most  delicate  of  woven  fabrics.  A 
yard  wide. 

TARRAGON. — This  aromatic  plant,  or 
rather  the  leaves  and  young  tops,  are  frequent- 
ly used  in  salads,  soups,  pickles,  etc.  It  has  a 
hot,  pungent  taste,  and  when  soaked  in  vinegar, 
is  highly  esteemed  as  a fish-sauce  ( see  Vin- 
egar.) Tarragon  is  in  season  in  the  fall 
months. 

TARTAN.  (See  Plaid.) 

TARTARIC  ACID. — This  exists  in  several 
acidulous  fruits,  particularly  the  grape  and  the 
tamarind,  but  always  combined  with  lime  or 
potash.  The  juice  of  the  grape  is  remarkable 
for  containing  abundance  of  the  bitartrate  of 
potash  ; and  during  the  process  of  making  wine 
this  salt  is  deposited  in  the  form  of  a hard 
crust,  and  particularly  on  the  sides  and  bottom 
of  the  wooden  casks  in  which  the  wine  is  kept 
to  ferment  and  purify.  This  substance  is  call- 
ed tartar , and  being  impure,  and  colored  by 
the  wine,  it  is  dissolved  and  purified  ; it  is  then 
white,  and  becomes  the  acidulous  substance 
familarly  known  as  cream  of  tartar.  From 
this  the  pure  tartaric  acid  is  prepared  by  sepa- 
rating the  potash  from  it  by  a chemical  pro- 
cess. This  acid  is  commonly  used  in  cookery, 
and  also  for  the  production  of  effervescing 
drinks  ; 10  grains  or  so  is  the  ordinary  quan- 
tity for  the  latter  purpose, — it  should  be  drop- 
ped into  a tumbler  of  water  and  drunk  instantly. 

TARTS. — Tarts  differ  from  pies  in  having 
no  upper  crust.  The  fruit  must  also  in  every 
instance  be  previously  cooked. 

Apple  Tart.  — These  may  be  made  of 
dried  or  fresh  apples.  If  of  dried  apples, 
stew  them  in  the  water  in  which  they  are  soaked, 
adding  more,  if  needful  ; beat  them  to  a pulp 
and  make  them  quite  sweet  with  sugar  ; season 
to  the  taste  with  grated  lemon  peel,  cinnamon 
or  nutmeg.  Boiled  cider  added  while  the 
apples  are  stewing  gives  a fine  flavor.  If 
made  of  fresh  apples,  pare,  quarter,  core  and 
add  hardly  enough  water  to  cover  them  ; stew 
until  the  fruit  is  broken,  and  the  water  almost 
absorbed;  beat  in  sugar  and  spices  to  the 
taste.  Put  it  in  paste  lined  plates,  ornamented 
with  bars  of  pastry,  and  bake  in  a quick  oven. 


An  ordinary  apple  pie,  flavored  with  fresh  lem- 
on, may  be  converted  into  creamed  apple  tart, 
by  cutting  out  the  cover  while  warm,  leaving 
only  about  an  inch  border  round  the  edge,  and 
pouring  over  the  apples  when  they  have  become 
cold,  from  half  to  three-quarters  of  a pint  of 
rich  boiled  custard.  The  cover  divided  into 
triangular  sippets,  was  formerly  stuck  round 
the  inside  of  the  tart,  but  ornamental  leaves  of 
pale  puff-paste  have  a better  effect.  Well- 
drained  whipped  cream  may  be  substituted  for 
the  custard  and  be  piled  lightly  over  the  fruit. 

Apricot  Tart. — Stew  green  apricots  till  ten- 
der, either  in  a jar  placed  in  an  oven  or  in  a 
stew-pan,  with  a little  water  and  sugar ; let  them 
stew  uncovered  until  the  juice  is  nearly 
absorbed  ; spread  in  paste-lined  plates  and 
bake  at  once. 

Barberry  Tart. — Put  barberries  over  the 
fire  with  a little  water ; cover  and  heat  slowly, 
stew  gently  until  cooked,  then  add  an  equal 
weight  of  sugar,  and  let  them  simmer  until  the 
syrup  is  quite  thick.  When  cold  spread  them 
on  plates  lined  with  pastry,  and  place  designs 
of  puff  paste  over  them.  It  may  be  in  flat  or 
twisted  bars,  forming  squares  or  diamonds,  or 
rings,  crescents,  or  leaves. 

Blackberry  Tart.  — Stew  ripe  Lawton 
blackberries  in  their  own  juice  until  tender; 
add  coffee  sugar  to  the  taste,  and  when  dis- 
solved take  from  the  fire ; when  cold  put  them 
on  paste-lined  plates,  ornament  with  bars,  place 
in  a quick  oven  ; remove  when  crust  is  baked. 

Cranberry  Tart. — Wash  the  cranberries 
well,  and  simmer  them  in  a very  little  water 
until  they  burst  open  and  become  soft ; then  run 
them  through  a colander  to  remove  the  skins, 
and  sweeten  to  taste ; line  small  pans  with  a 
good  crust,  fill  up  with  the  fruit,  put  a cross-bar 
of  pastry  over  the  top.  Bake  in  a moderate  oven. 

Crea-m  Tart. — Beat  three  eggs  well,  and  add 
three  heaping  teaspoonfuls  of  sifted  flour;  stir 
the  mixture  into  a pint  and  a half  of  boiling 
milk  ; add  a saltspoonful  of  salt,  and  sweeten  to 
taste ; flavor  with  rose-water  or  essence  of 
lemon.  Line  some  small  tart -pans  with  a good 
crust  and  bake  in  a quick  oven  ; fill  up  with  the 
above  mixture,  sift  powdered  sugar  over  the 
top,  and  put  them  back  into  the  oven  a few 
minutes  till  they  are  a little  browned. 

Currant  Tart. — Use  either  green  or  ripe  cur- 
rants, make  as  directed  for  Gooseberry  Tart. 

Damson  Tart. — Wash  a pound  of  damsons, 
heat  them  slowly  in  a covered  vessel,  and  let 
them  stew  until  the  skins  are  soft  ; add  a 
pound  of  sugar,  stew  a few  minutes  and  spread 
them  on  paste-lined  plates,  ornament  the  top. 
Bake  in  a quick  oven. 

Gooseberry  Tart(Green). — Take  the  stems 
and  withered  flowers  from  a pound  of  full 
grown  gooseberries  ; put  them  in  a saucepan  ; 
cover  and  shake  it  occasionally  until  there  is 
juice  enough  to  prevent  burning  ; then  stew 
until  tender  ; add  a pound  of  granulated  sugar, 
aid  when  dissolved  remove  from  the  table  ; 
put  it  in  plates  lined  with  pastry;  ornament 
with  strips  of  puff-paste.  Bake  in  a quick  oven. 


TARTLETS 


TEA 


525 


Gooseberry  Tart  (Ripe). — Make  as  directed 
in  above  recipe. 

Lemon  Tart. — I.  Mix  a tablespoonful  of 
corn- starch  with  two  of  cold  water  ; stir  in  half 
a pint  of  boiling  water ; pour  this  on  two 
Ounces  of  creamed  butter  and  half  a pint  of 
sugar ; add  the  juice  and  grated  yellow  rind  of 
a lemon,  and  one  egg  beaten  smooth  and  thick ; 
mix  well  and  bake  in  a paste-lined  plate. 

EL  Take:  eggs,  9 ; lemons, 2 ; sugar  one  pound ; 
butter,  3 oz;  milk  1 pt.  ; flour  even  table- 
spoonfuls ; almonds,  ^ lb. 

Beat  the  yolks  of  the  eggs  without  the  sugar 
until  very  light ; add  the  flour  and  butter, 
rubbed  together  until  smooth  and  soft,  the 
almonds,  blanched  and  pounded,  the  juice  and 
grated  yellow  rind  of  the  lemons,  the  milk  and 
well  beaten  yolks ; lastly  beat  in  gently  the 
whites  whisked  to  a stiff  froth.  Bake  in  paste- 
lined  plates. 

Orange  Tart.  Cream  one  ounce  of  butter  ; 
stir  in  the  grated  yellow  rind  of  two  oranges 
and  the  juice  and  soft  pulp  of  three ; add.four  well 
beaten  eggs,  half  a pint  of  sugar,  four  and  a 
half  tablespoonfuls  of  rolled  and  sifted  cracker, 
and  half  a pint  of  milk.  Bake  as  above. 

Raspberry  Tart. — Make  as  directed  for 
Blackberry  Tart. 

Raspberry  Tart  with  Cream. — Line  a small 
pie-pan  with  a thin  puff-paste  ; put  in  ripe  rasp- 
berries, strew  fine  sugar  over  them,  cover  with 
a thin  crust,  and  bake.  Cut  it  open,  and  have 
ready  the  following  mixture,  warm : Half  a 
pint  of  cream,  the  yolks  of  two  or  three  eggs 
well  beaten  and  a little  sugar ; add  this  to  the 
tart  and  return  it  to  the  oven  for  five  or  six 
minutes. 

Rhubarb  Tart. — Line  a plate  with  puff- 
paste  and  cover  it  to  the  rim  with  a rich  com- 
pote of  rhubarb ; cut  the  paste  on  the  rim  at 
intervals  of  an  inch,  making  squares  ; double 
every  one  with  one  fold  into  a triangle,  cover 
the  compote  with  large  diamonds  formed  with 
strips  of  the  paste,  and  bake  at  once. 

TARTLETS. — These  may  be  made  of  any 
kind  of  preserves  by  lining  small  patty-pans, 
of  any  shape,  with  puff-paste,  and  baking  them 
till  half  done  ; then  fill  them  with  the  preserve, 
and  finish  the  baking. 

TATTING. — A kind  of  lace  edging  woven 
or  knit  of  common  sewing  thread,  with  a pecu- 
liar stitch.  It  is  very  durable. 

TAUTOG.  ( See  Blackfish.) 

TEA.  (the  meal).  (See  Supper.) 

TEA. — As  sold  in  the  shops,  tea  is  the  leaf 
of  the  tea-tree,  dried  and  stored  for  use.  These 
leaves  are  gathered  at  three  or  four  different 
seasons, 6y  which  in  some  measure  the  different 
qualities  of  tea  are  produced,  those  first  picked 
being  the  most  valuable  and  the  last  coarse  and 
large.  The  young  leaves  are  narrow,  convo- 
luted, and  downy  ; the  middle-aged  have  their 
edges  serrated  and  veined  with  more  or  less 
delicacy,  while  in  the  old  leaves  the  serration 
and  veining  are  more  marked,  and  in  addition, 
some  peculiar  hoops  are  developed  along  the 
margins,  which  are  readily  seen  when  the  leaves 


are  closely  examined.  All  teas  are  classed  as 
black  and  green,  depending  partly  on  the  age 
of  the  leaves,  partly  upon  the  locality  where 
they  are  grown,  and  partly  upon  the  method  of 
drying.  Thus  the  black  tea  is  not  only  roasted 
in  a shallow  iron  vessel,  called  the  Hus,  but  it 
is  also  again  submitted  to  the  action  of  a char- 
coal fire,  in  sieves.  Green  tea,  on  the  other 
hand,  escapes  the  second  process.  As  the 
names  of  the  different  teas  relate  to  the  time 
of  their  being  gathered,  or  to  some  peculiarity 
in  their  manufacture,  consumers  should  know 
something  about  them. 

Black  Teas. — As  soon  as  the  leaf-bud  be- 
gins to  expand,  it  is  gathered  to  make  Pekoe. 
A few  days’  later  growth  produces  what  here  is 
called  Black-leaved  Pekoe.  The  next  picking 
is  called  Souchong.  As  the  leaves  grow  larger 
and  more  mature  they  form  Congou ; and  the 
last  and  latest  picking  is  called  Bohea. 

Bohea  is  called  by  the  Chinese  Ta-che  (large 
tea),  on  account  of  the  maturity  and  size  of  the 
leaves.  It  contains  a larger  proportion  of 
woody  fibre  than  other  teas,  and  its  infusion  is 
of  a darker  color  and  coarser  flavor. 

Congou , the  next  higher  kind,  is  named  from 
a corruption  of  the  Chinese  Koongfoo  (great 
care,  or  assiduity).  This  forms  the  bulk  of 
the  black  imported,  and  is  most  valued  for  its 
strength. 

Souchong,  Seaon-chong  (small,  scarce  sort), 
is  the  finest  of  the  stronger  black  tea,  with  a 
leaf  that  is  generally  entire  and  curly.  It  is 
much  esteemed  for  its  fragrance  and  fine  flavor. 

Pekoe  is  a corruption  of  the  Canton  name 
(Pak-ho,  white  down),  being  the  first  sprouts  of 
leaf-buds  ; they  are  covered  with  a white  silky 
down.  It  is  a delicate  tea,  rather  deficient  in 
strength,  and  it  is  principally  used  for  flavoring 
other  teas. 

Green  Teas. — The  following  are  the  princi- 
pal kinds : Twankay,  Hyson-Skin,  Hyson , 

Gunpowder , and  Young  Hyson. 

Young  Hyson  (when  genuine)  is  a delicate 
young  leaf,  called  in  the  original  language, 
Yu-tsien  (before  the  rains),  because  gathered 
in  the  early  spring. 

Hyson,  from  the  Chinese  word,  Hetchune , 
which  signifies  flourishing  spring.  This  fine 
sort  of  tea  is  gathered  in  the  early  part  of  the 
season.  There  is  extreme  care  and  labor  used 
in  the  preparation  of  this  tea ; each  leaf  is 
picked  separately,  and  nipped  off  above  the 
foot  stalk,  and  every  separate  leaf  is  twisted 
and  rolled  by  the  hand.  It  is  much  esteemed 
for  its  agreeable  flavor. 

Gunpowder,  as  it  is  called,  is  nothing  but 
Hyson  rolled  and  rounded  to  give  it  the  gran- 
ular appearance  whence  it  derives  its  name. 
The  Chinese  call  it  Choo-cha  (pearl  tea). 

Hyson-skin  is  so  named  from  the  original 
Chinese  term,  in  which  connection  the  skin 
means  the  refuse  or  inferior  portion.  In  pre- 
paring Hyson,  all  those  leaves  that  are  of  a 
coarse  yellow,  or  imperfectly  twisted  appear- 
ance, are  separated  and  sold  as  skin  tea,  at  an 
inferior  price. 


520 


TEA-POTS 


TEETH 


Twankay  is  the  last  picking  of  green  tea,  and 
in  addition  to  the  leaf  being  older  it  is  not  so 
much  rolled  or  twisted  as  the  dearer  descrip- 
tions ; there  is  altogether  less  trouble  bestowed 
on  its  preparation. 

The  nutritive  value  of  tea  is  very  small,  but 
as  Dr.  Edward  Smith  has  proved  by  an  elabo- 
rate series  of  experiments,  it  is  a powerful  res- 
piratory excitant,  and  causes  the  assimilation 
and  transformation  of  other  foods.  In  select- 
ing tea  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  all  genu- 
ine teas  possess  approximately  the  same  amount 
of  tlieine,  and  for  dietetic  purposes,  all,  what- 
ever their  price,  are  practically  equal.  The 
only  real  difference  between  the  cheapest  black 
tea  and  the  Russian  barovan  at  twelve  dollars  a 
pound  is  a difference  of  flavor.  Tea  should  be 
chosen  by  the  agreeableness  of  its  odor,  and 
as  whole  as  possible,  in  order  that  its  leaves 
may  be  readily  examined  ; and  the  greatest  care 
should  be  taken  that  it  has  not  been  exposed 
to  the  air,  which  destroys  its  flavor.  Buy  it  in 
small  quantities  and  keep  it  in  a tin  canister 
with  a closely-fitting  top. 

To  make  Tea. — Allow  one  good  teaspoonful 
of  tea  to  each  teacupful  of  the  infusion  that 
will  be  required.  Before  putting  the  tea  in, 
scald  the  tea-pot  well  and  pour  off  the  water ; 
then  put  in  the  tea,  pour  on  enough  boiling 
water  to  cover  it  well,  and  let  it  stand  ten  min- 
utes on  the  back  part  of  the  stove  to  “ draw.  ” 
Fill  up  with  as  much  boiling  water  as  will  make 
the  required  quantity  of  tea,  and  send  hot  to 
table.  The  water  used  in  making  tea  must  be 
boiling  hard  as  it  is  poured  in  ; but  tinder  no 
circumstances  must  the  tea  boil  after  the  water 
is  added. 

TEA-POTS. — With  respect  to  tea-pots,  the 
form  is  of  less  importance  than  the  material  of 
which  they  are  made.  About  thirty  years  ago 
there  was  a warm  and  learned  contest  respect- 
ing the'  best  substance  for  tea-pots,  that  is, 
what  they  should  be  made  of,  to  “ draw  the  tea” 
best.  It  is  obvious  that  the  nature  of  the  ma- 
terial itself  will  have  no  particular  action  upon 
the  tea,  and  that  the  question  would  be  decided 
by  determining  what  substance  kept  the  water 
hot  the  longest.  It  had  been  supposed,  from 
observation,  that  metal  tea-pots  performed  this 
best;  and  yet  the  doctrine  of  the  conducting 
power  of  bodies,  as  understood  at  that  time, 
appeared  to  be  in  favor  of  earthen-ware,  which, 
being  a worse  conductor  than  metal,  was  sup- 
posed to  prevent  in  a greater  degree  the  escape 
of  heat.  Each  substance,  therefore,  had  its 
advocates  : theory  appeared  to  decide  for  one, 
while  experience  declared  for  the  other.  In 
the  mean  time,  a discovery  made  by  Professor 
Leslie,  of  Edinburgh,  threw  a new  light  upon 
this  subject.  He  found  that,  although  all  heated 
substances  throw  off  invisible  rays  of  radiant 
heat,  yet  that  the  quantity  projected  depended 
much  more  upon  the  smoothness  or  roughness 
of  the  surface  than  upon  the  conducting  power 
of  the  body ; and  that  polished  metal,  although 
one  of  the  best  conductors  of  heat,  was  one  of 
the  worst  radiators,  metal  not  polished  being  a 
30 


good  radiator  as  well  as  conductor.  Although 
earthen-ware,  particularly  the  black  unglazed 
sort,  then  so  much  in  use  (Wedgwood’s),  is  a 
bad  conductor,  yet  it  is  a better  radiator  than  the 
polished  metal,  and,  consequently,  throws  off 
more  heat.  Water,  of  course,  cools  sooner  in 
an  earthen-ware  tea-pot,  particularly  if  not 
glazed,  than  in  one  of  polished  metal.  Since 
the  date  of  this  discovery,  bright  metal  tea-pots 
have  been  considered  to  be  most  effectual  in 
preserving  the  heat  of  the  water ; and  hence 
both  theory  and  practice  now  agree  as  to  the 
substance  best  adapted  for  making  a strong  in- 
fusion of  tea.  The  metal  tea-pot,  however, 
must  be  kept  bright ; for,  if  not,  it  is  worse 
than  the  earthen-ware,  as  it  is  the  polish  of  the 
surface  only  that  acts  in  preventing  the  radiant 
heat  from  escaping. 

The  tea-urn  is  certainly  the  most  elegant 
mode  of  supplying  water  for  tea  at  table.  It 
is  made  in  the  form  of  a vase,  but  in  a great 
variety  of  patterns.  In  the  old-fashioned  ones 
there  is  a vertical  tube,  into  which  a cylinder 
of  iron,  heated  red-hot,  is  slipped  down  and 
covered  by  a small  lid,  and  that  in  turn  by  the 
cover  of  the  urn.  The  improved  urns  have 
lamps  below  them,  so  that  the  water  can  be  kept 
hot  for  any  length  of  time. 

TEAL. — There  are  two  varieties  of  this  small 
fresh-water  wild  duck  : the  blue-winged  and  the 
green-winged.  The  flesh  of  both  is  excellent, 
though  that  of  the  green-winged  is  considered 
rather  the  better  of  the  two.  The  blue-winged 
teal  is  in  season  in  September,  October,  and 
November;  and  the  green-winged  from  Sep- 
tember to  January,  though  during  the  latter 
month  it  is  somewhat  scarce.  ( See  Duck.) 

TEETH.— Temporary  teeth— 20  in  number 
— begin  to  appear  at  about  the  seventh  month, 
and  their  appearance  is  generally  completed  at 
the  age  of  two  years. 

Attention  to  these  teeth  is  of  more  import- 
ance than  is  generally  supposed.  The  child 
should  be  taught  to  brush  them  every  night 
and  morning,  not  only  to  prevent  decay,  but 
to  form  the  habit  of  brushing,  so  that,  when 
the  permanent  teeth  appear,  the  child  will  be 
trained  to  give  them  proper  care.  If  the  tem- 
porary teeth  are  decayed  they  should  be  filled, 
that  pain  may  be  avoided  and  that  they  may 
serve  the  purpose  of  mastication  during  this 
period  of  rapid  growth.  As  the  eight  molars 
(double  teeth)  are  retained  until  about  the 
twelfth  year,  this  becomes  of  considerable  im- 
portance. Moreover,  if  the  temporary  teeth 
are  lost  before  the  permanent  teeth  are  ready 
to  take  their  place,  irregularities  of  position 
may  ensue.  If,  however,  the  temporary  teeth 
have  been  neglected  until  they  have  become 
decayed  and  painful,  the  nerve  should  be  de- 
stroyed, or,  as  a last,  resort,  they  should  be  ex- 
tracted. 

The  permanent  teeth — 32  in  number — begin 
to  appear  at  about  the  sixth  year,  and  their  ap- 
pearance is  completed  when  the  wisdom  teeth 
come,  between  the  eighteenth  and  twenty-fifth 
year. 


TEETH 


527 


The  first  to  make  their  appearance  are  the 
four  molars  (double  teeth).  They  come  in 
back  of  the  temporary  teeth,  the  jaw  by  this 
time  having  enlarged  sufficiently  to  give  them 
room.  As  no  teeth  are  displaced,  these  new 
molars  are  often  believed  to  belong  to  the  first 
set,  and  are  therefore  neglected  when  decayed. 
At  this  period,  decay  progresses  rapidly,  and  it 
is  of  great  importance  that  these  four  back 
teeth  should  be  carefully  watched  and  the  cavi- 
ties filled  before  they  become  large  and  painful. 
The  front  teeth  or  incisors  are  the  next  to  ap- 
pear. As  they  advance,  the  roots  of  the  tem- 
porary teeth  are  absorbed,  until  the  teeth  loosen 
and  fall  out.  The  new  teeth  are  often  crowded, 
and  appear  large  in  proportion  to  the  jaw. 
This  condition  will  generally  be  corrected  as 
the  child  grows  older  and  the  jaw  expands. 
The  teeth  do  not  increase  in  size  after  they  ap- 
pear, but  complete  their  growth  at  the  ends  of 
their  roots. 

Irregularities.  In  case  of  marked  irregular- 
ities, the  advice  of  the  dentist  should  be  sought. 
Early  attention  may  save  much  trouble  and 
annoyance.  This  is  especially  true  where  one 
or  two  of  the  upper  front  teeth  come  in  such  a 
way  as  to  close  inside  the  lower  teeth — their 
normal  position  being  on  the  outside  when  the 
jaws  are  closed.  The  longer  such  a condition 
is  neglected,  the  more  difficult  is  it  to  over- 
come. During  the  time  the  temporary  teeth 
are  being  changed  for  the  permanent  ones — a 
period  of  six  or  seven  years — the  gums  are 
more  or  less  inflamed  and  irritable,  the  fluids 
of  the  mouth  of  an  acid  nature,  and  decay 
rapid  and  destructive.  The  teeth  should,  there- 
fore, during  this  time,  be  brushed  carefully,  and 
be  frequently  examined  by  the  dentist. 

Structure.  This  should  be  considered  in  or- 
der to  fully  understand  the  diseases  to  which 
they  are  liable.  That  portion  of  a tooth  which 
projects  from  the  gum  is  covered  by  the  enamel, 
while  the  root  is  surrounded  by  a membrane 
which  connects  it  with  the  jaw.  This  mem- 
brane, the  periosteum,  holds  the  tooth  in  its 
socket,  and  forms  a sort  of  cushion,  which 
allows  a slight  movement  of  the  tooth,  and 
serves  to  break  the  shock  of  mastication.  It  is 
a vascular  membrane  and  supplies  the  outer 
portion  of  the  root  with  vitality.  It  is  often  the 
seat  of  severe  inflammatory  action,  as  will  be 
shown  hereafter. 

Under  the  enamel  lies  the  dentine,  or 
“ bone,”  which  makes  up  the  body  of  the 
tooth.  It  is  permeated  by  innumerable  minute 
tubes,  which  branch  from  the  pulp  or  “ nerve,” 
and  which  allow  the  circulation  of  the  watery, 
nutritive  part  of  the  blood.  These  tubes  are 
too  small,  however,  to  admit  the  red  cor- 
puscles. 

By  many  observers  they  are  believed  to  con- 
tain minute  nerve  filaments,  which  branch 
into  them  from  the  pulp.  This  view  seems  to 
be  supported  by  the  fact  of  the  pain  that  at- 
tends the  cutting  out  of  decay  from  cavities 
that  are  to  be  filled. 

The  pulp,  popularly  called  the  " nerve,”  oc- 


cupies a chamber  in  the  center  of  the  body  of 
the  dentine,  and  corresponds  in  shape  to  the 


Magnified  Section  of  Front  Tooth. 

1.  Enamel.  4.  Periosteum. 

2.  Dentine.  5.  Gum. 

3.  Pulp  or  nerve.  6.  Alveola  or  socket. 

outline  of  the  tooth.  It  is  composed  of  a net- 

work of  minute  arteries,  veins,  and  nerves.  It 
is  the  tissue  which  gives  nourishment  to  the 
greater  part  of  the  tooth,  and  the  one  from 
which  the  tooth  first  gradually  grew.  The 
growth  of  a tooth  is  a slow  process,  and  is  ac- 
complished by  the  gradual  ossification,  orden- 
tinification,  more  properly,  of  the  circumfer- 
ence of  the  pulp.  In  the  teeth  of  young  per- 
sons the  pulp  is  large  and  comparatively  near 
the  surface,  but  in  old  age  it  is  small,  having 
ossified  and  receded  until  sometimes  only  a 
thread-like  filament  remains. 

Decay  of  the  teeth  is  due  to  the  action  of 
acids  upon  them.  These  may  result  from  the 
decomposition  of  particles  of  food  left  between 
the  teeth,  or  may  find  their  way  into  the  mouth 
from  the  stomach.  The  mucus  of  the  mouth 
adhering  to  the  teeth  may  become  acidulated 
and  cause  decay.  Badly-cooked  and  hastily- 
eaten  food,  causing  dyspepsia  and  a disturb- 
ance of  the  whole  alimentary  tract,  is  one  of 
the  most  active  agents  in  the  production  of  de- 
cay. Acids  from  the  stomach  find  their  way 
into  the  mouth  in  the  same  manner  as  mucus 
from  the  lungs,  or  bronchial  tubes  ; hence  the 
rapid  decay  of  the  teeth  of  those  who  have  dis- 
turbed digestion.  This  is  particularly  the  case 
with  women  during  pregnancy,  when  more  or 
less  disturbance  of  the  stomach  may  be  ex- 
pected. Sweets,  in  themselves,  are  harmless. 
They  injure  the  teeth  only  as  they  disturb  di- 
gestion. To  understand  the  cause  of  decay  is 
to  suggest,  in  a measure,  the  means  of  its  pre- 
vention. If  from  particles  of  food,  they  should 


528 


TEETH 


be  removed.  If  from  acid  mucus,  it  should 
be  brushed  away.  If  from  the  acids  of  the 
stomach,  neutralizing  agents  should  be  used, 
as  bicarbonate  of  soda  (from  one-fourth  to  a 
full  teaspoonful  in  a pint  of  water),  and  used 
as  a mouth-wash  ; or  the  teeth  may  be  promptly 
brushed  with  soap,  or,  if  preferred,  with  chalk. 

TOOTHACHE. 

By  studying  the  structure  of  the  teeth  it  will 
be  easy  to  understand  the  three  sources  from 
which  pain  may  arise.  It  may  be  from  expo- 
sure of  the  dentine,  exposure  of  the  pulp,  or 
from  an  inflammation  of  the  periosteum. 

Exposure  of  the  dentine  is  generally  caused 
by  decay,  but  it  may  occur  by  a blow  breaking 
off  the  enamel,  or  by  a recession  of  the  gum 
from  the  neck  of  the  tooth.  The  pain  is  gener- 
ally not  very  severe,  though  it  may  sometimes 
become  a continual  ache.  It  is  aggravated 
by  contact  of  foreign  substances,  by  sudden 
changes  of  temperature  in  the  mouth,  and  very 
often  by  the  irritating  action  of  articles  of  food, 
as  acids,  sweets,  salt,  etc.  The  discomfort  is 
greatly  increased  if  the  saliva  be  acid,  which  is 
almost  invariably  the  case  when  there  is  disturb- 
ance of  digestion.  The  exposure  at  the  necks 
of  the  teeth  caused  by  a recession  of  the  gums, 
may  give  rise  to  such  an  irritable  condition, 
that  the  brush  cannot  be  used  without  pain. 
If,  however,  its  use  is  abandoned,  the  accumula- 
tion of  acid  mucus  adds  to  the  sensitiveness  and 
the  teeth  become  too  painful  to  be  touched  or 
used.  The  treatment  of  sensitive  dentine  gen- 
erally requires  the  services  of  the  dentist.  The 
filling  of  cavities  will  almost  invariably  give 
prompt  relief.  If  the  cavities  are  large,  and 
metallic  fillings  are  used,  tenderness  from  con- 
tact of  hot  or  cold  food  or  drink,  may  con- 
tinue for  a time.  This,  however,  will  gener- 
ally soon  pass  away.  Tenderness  from  a 
broken  tooth  may  often  be  removed  by  thor- 
oughly polishing  the  broken  surface. 

Sensitiveness  at  the  necks  of  the  teeth,  caused 
by  recession  of  the  gums,  is  more  difficult  to 
control.  If  the  teeth  at  this  point  show  signs 
of  decay,  filling  of  course  is  demanded,  and 
will  give  relief ; but  it  often  happens  that  there 
is  no  decay,  the  sensitiveness  arising  simply 
from  the  exposure  of  the  dentine  above  the  edge 
of  the  enamel,  associated  with  acid  saliva.  To 
cut  out  and  fill  these  places  is  not  always  advis- 
able, for  the  irritating  condition  of  the  saliva 
may  pass  away  and  leave  the  teeth  free  from 
tenderness,  and,  if  kept  clean,  comparatively 
safe  from  decay.  In  these  cases,  considerable 
relief  may  be  had  by  the  use  of  agents  that  will 
neutralize  the  acid  saliva,  as  the  wash  of  bicar- 
bonate of  soda,  above  described,  or  soap  or 
chalk  freely  used  for  brushing  the  teeth.  If 
these  fail,  the  tender  places  should  be  touched 
with  nitrate  of  silver  (lunar  caustic).  This  is 
certain  in  its  action,  but  has  the  objection  of 
discoloring  the  places  to  which  it  is  applied. 
Insert  a stick  of  it  in  a quill,  and  it  can  be  ap- 
plied directly  to  the  spot.  As  it  " burns  ” what 
it  touches,  it  should  be  used  with  great  care. 


Exposure  of  the  pulp  gives  much  more  se- 
vere pain.  It  is  caused,  of  course,  by  decay  of 
the  teeth.  It  is  generally  preceded  by  an  un- 
easy feeling  similar  to  that  caused  by  sensitive 
dentine.  This  may  go  on  for  weeks,  the  dis- 
comfort gradually  increasing,  until  some  un- 
usually irritating  cause  starts  the  tooth  to 
aching  steadily.  Sometimes  there  is  no  warn- 
ing of  the  progress  of  decay,  until  by  biting 
some  hard  substance  a portion  of  the  tooth 
is  broken,  a large  cavity  discovered,  and  the 
tooth  set  violently  aching.  The  pulp  being  a 
highly  organized  and  delicate  tissue,  and  lodged 
in  an  unyielding  chamber  just  large  enough 
to  accommodate  it  in  a state  of  health,  the 
slightest  inflammation  causes  swelling  and 
pressure,  and  the  pain  of  this  pressure  further 
adds  to  the  inflammation.  This  is  particularly 
the  case  when  the  point  of  exposure  is  very 
slight.  If  the  exposure  is  large,  and  the  pulp, 
in  consequence,  less  confined,  the  pain  is  likely 
to  be  less  severe,  and  more  readily  reduced. 
In  the  hands  of  a dentist,  the  treatment  of  an 
exposed  pulp  consists  in  destroying  and  remov- 
ing it  or  in  using  means  to  protect  and  con- 
serve it.  Which  course  will  be  best  to  pursue 
must  depend  upon  each  particular  case. 

Soothing  Remedies  for  Pain  from  exposure 
of  the  Pulp.  If  a dentist  cannot  be  had,  it  may 
be  alleviated  by  placing  in  the  cavity  of  the 
tooth  a roll  of  cotton  moistened  with  a quarter 
of  a drop  of  creosote,  a drop  of  oil  of  cloves,  of 
the  tincture  of  hamamelis  (Pond’s  extract),  of 
laudanum,  of  oil  of  peppermint,  or  of  laudanum 
and  lead-water.  If  the  saliva  is  acid,  and  the 
teeth  feel  “ on  edge,”  the  wash  of  bicarbonate 
of  soda  above  given,  or  a little  chalk  placed  in 
the  cavity,  will  partially  quiet  the  pain.  Some- 
times a drop  of  chloroform  placed  in  the  cavity 
on  cotton  will  soothe.  These  remedies  apply 
equally  to  exposure  of  the  pulp  in  the  perma- 
nent or  temporary  teeth. 

Saving  “ Nerves.”  Every  effort  that  promises 
a chance  of  success  should  be  made  to  save 
the  pulp  alive,  devitalization  being  accepted 
only  as  a last  resort.  No  matter  how  carefully 
a devitalized  tooth  may  be  treated,  it  is  still 
of  less  value  than  if  the  pulp  were  alive. 
Deprived  of  the  nutritive  fluids  obtained  from 
the  pulp,  the  tooth  gradually  degenerates,  and 
becomes  more  liable  to  decay.  Also,  when  a 
tooth  is  deprived  of  its  pulp,  increased  demand 
is  made  upon  the  periosteum,  which  sometimes 
results  in  inflammation  of  that  membrane.  It 
is  also  sometimes  impossible  to  thoroughly  re- 
move the  extreme  end  of  the  pulp,  particularly 
from  the  back  teeth  which  have  more  than  one 
root,  and  are  more  or  less  inaccessible.  Even 
a small  portion  allowed  to  remain  may  become 
decomposed  and  give  rise  to  inflammation  of 
the  periosteum.  If  the  exposed  portion  be  not 
too  large,  and  inflammation  and  pain  not  of 
long  standing,  a reasonable  prospect  exists  of 
still  saving  the  pulp  alive.  This  will  be  ac- 
complished, however,  only  by  the  most  careful 
treatment,  and  by  a delicate  appreciation  on 
the  part  of  the  dentist  of  the  exact  condition  of 


TEETH 


529 


the  pulp.  In  this  conservative  treatment,  ad- 
vantage is  taken  of  that  gradual  ossification 
which  takes  place  at  the  circumference  of  the 
pulp.  A non-irritating  material  is  carefully 
laid  on  the  exposed  portion,  and  over  this  cap- 
ping a temporary  tilling  is  placed,  and  the 
tooth  allowed  to  remain  for  months,  or  years. 
Ossification  may  have  then  progressed  to  the 
extent  of  closing  the  opening,  and  protecting 
the  pulp  with  a bony  wall  sufficiently  strong  to 
bear  the  insertion  ot  a permanent  filling. 

The  irritation  at  the  point  of  exposure  seems 
to  stimulate  the  ossifying  process,  and  some- 
times only  a few  months  will  be  needed  to  close 
the  opening  into  the  pulp  chamber.  On  re- 
moving the  temporary  filling  after  sufficient 
time  has  elapsed,  if  ossification  has  not  occur- 
red, the  pulp  will  be  found  sometimes  partially 
alive,  but  generally  entirely  destroyed.  It 
should  then  be  removed  and  the  root  filled. 
The  process  of  capping  the  pulp  is  compara- 
tively free  from  pain.  The  material  at  present 
most  successfully  used  is  the  white  oxide  of  zinc, 
moistened  with  sufficient  creosote  or  carbolic 
acid  to  form  a thick  paste.  After  drying  the 
cavity,  and  removing  as  much  of  the  decay  as 
can  be  done  without  wounding  the  pulp,  a little  . 
of  this  paste  is  laid  carefully  over  the  exposed 
point.  Pain  is  seldom  felt,  owing  to  the  sooth- 
ing effect  of  the  creosote.  Over  this  paste, 
which  does  not  harden,  may  then  be  placed  a 
paste  of  oxy-chloride  of  zinc,  mixed  to  the  right 
consistency.  This  hardens  in  a few  moments, 
making  a solid  covering  which  protects  the  pulp 
from  pressure,  and  serves  as  a temporary  filling. 

“ Killing  Nerves.”  The  destruction  of  the 
pulp  or  “nerve,”  is  accomplished  by  an  infini- 
tesimal quantity  of  arsenic  applied  directly  to 
the  exposed  point.  After  a sufficient  time  has 
elapsed,  the  pulp  should  be  thoroughly  re- 
moved from  its  chamber  in  the  tooth,  and 
from  the  canal  in  each  root.  The  canals  and 
chamber  should  then  be  filled  with  some  inde- 
structible material,  when  the  cavity  in  the 
crown  may  be  filled  as  if  the  pulp  had  not 
been  disturbed. 

If  the  pulp  be  destroyed,  but  not  removed, 
and  only  the  cavity  of  decay  filled,  inflamma- 
tion of  the  covering  membrane  of  the  root  (fle- 
riosteum ) and  pain  of  the  severest  kind  may 
occur  at  any  time.  In  fact  a pulp  treated  in 
this  manner,  would  be  almost  certain,  sooner 
or  later,  to  give  trouble.  In  such  cases,  de- 
composition of  the  pulp  ensues,  and  the  gases 
find  escape  only  through  the  end  of  the  root,  and 
pressing  there  upon  the  periosteum  cause  pain 
and  swelling  which  seldom  subside  until  an 
abscess  is  formed,  and  an  opening  made  in  the 
gum. 

If  the  removal  of  the  pulp  is  neglected,  there 
is  also  the  danger  of  discoloration  of  the  tooth, 
which,  in  the  front  of  the  mouth,  may  be  a 
source  of  great  annoyance.  This  discoloration 
is  due  to  the  decomposed  tissue  of  the  pulp 
becoming  injected  into  the  tubes  which  have 
been  shown  to  exist  in  dentine.  The  destruction 
of  the  pulp  is  not  necessarily  a painful  process. 

34 


If  aching  badly,  palliative  remedies  should  be 
first  applied,  and  then  in  securing  the  arsenic 
in  place,  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  pres- 
sure upon  the  pulp. 

Pain  in  the  wrong  Tooth.  Sometimes  the 
pain  from  an  exposed  pulp  will  seem  to  locate 
in  a sound  tooth.  It  will  sometimes  seem  to 
come  from  a tooth  in  the  opposite  jaw.  This 
is  because  the  nerves  that  supply  the  upper 
and  lower  jaw  are  branches  from  the  same 
root,  so  that  pain  caused  at  the  extremity  of 
one  of  them  may  be  felt  at  the  extremity  of  any 
of  the  others.  Exposed  pulps,  in  the  wisdom 
teeth  particularly,  are  quite  likely  to  cause  pain 
that  will  locate  in  some  other  tooth.  The  rude 
touch  of  an  instrument,  or  the  disturbance  of 
the  cavity,  will  generally  transfer  the  conscious- 
ness of  pain  to  its  real  source. 

“Ulcerated”  Teeth.  Pain  from  inflamma- 
tion of  the  periosteum  is  more  difficult  to  con- 
trol. It  partakes  more  of  the  character  of  a 
general  inflammation,  often  spreading  to  the 
sockets  of  the  adjoining  teeth,  and  sometimes 
involving  the  whole  side  of  the  face.  It  can  be 
traced  almost  invariably  to  a pulpless  tooth. 
It  is  not  unusual  for  sound  teeth  to  lose  their 
vitality.  The  shock  of  a blow  upon  a tooth 
may  sometimes  be  sufficient  to  cause  the  death 
of  its  pulp.  Occasionally,  in  low  states  of  the 
system,  there  will  occur  spontaneous  and  pain- 
less death  of  the  pulps.  The  first  symptoms 
of  ulceration  are  a slight  feeling  of  uneasiness 
in  the  tooth,  which  seems  to  be  longer  than  its 
fellows,  and  tender  to  the  touch.  The  pain 
increases  to  a dull,  heavy  ache,  accompanied 
by  a throbbing  sensation,  which  corresponds 
in  frequency  with  the  beating  of  the  heart. 
The  result  is  generally  an  abscess,  which  may 
ultimately  afford  relief  by  breaking  upon  the 
gum,  where  it  forms  what  is  called  a gum-boil. 

The  treatment  of  inflammation  of  the  perios- 
teum depends  upon  the  stage  it  has  reached, 
as  well  as  upon  the  cause.  If  from  a dead 
pulp,  which  has  not  been  removed,  but  little 
relief  can  be  expected  until  the  pulp  chamber 
is  opened  and  the  gases  or  fluid  confined  at  the 
apex  of  the  root  allowed  to  escape.  If  the 
trouble  is  from  a sound  tooth,  the  chamber  can 
be  reached  only  by  drilling  through  some  part 
of  the  crown.  If  the  inflammation  exists  about  a 
tooth  the  root  of  which  has  been  filled,  its  treat- 
ment must  depend  upon  the  extent  to  which  it 
has  progressed.  The  removal  of  the  filling 
might  give  relief ; but  such  fillings  are  not  easily 
removed,  and  relief  in  many  cases  must  be  had 
from  other  means.  In  the  first  stages  of  inflam- 
mation efforts  should  be  made  to  check  it.  The 
first  consideration  will  be  to  avoid  irritation  of 
all  kind.  If  the  tooth  feels  elongated  and  ten- 
der to  the  touch  of  the  opposing  teeth,  a cap 
of  gutta-percha  should  be  fitted  over  an  ad- 
joining tooth,  in  order  to  prevent  -the  tender 
tooth  from  being  struck  in  closing  the  jaws. 
The  same  effect  may  be  secured  by  a little 
block  of  wood  kept  between  the  teeth  on  the 
other  side  of  the  mouth.  Sometimes  this  se- 
curity from  irritation  will  be  all  that  is  required. 


530 


TEETH 


TETANUS 


At  this  stage  cold  should  be  persistently  ap- 
plied inside  the  mouth  to  the  gums  over  the 
aching  tooth  ; this  can  be  constantly  done 
with  a little  rubber  bag  containing  ice.  Hot 
foot-baths  should  be  employed,  in  order  to 
direct  the  volume  of  blood  from  the  head. 
Counter-irritation  of  the  intestinal  tract  by  an 
active  cathartic  may  also  be  employed  to  ad- 
vantage. In  this  early  stage  counter-irritants 
applied  upon  the  gum  over  the  tooth  may  di- 
vert the  inflammation  ; for  instance,  equal 
parts  of  the  tincture  of  aconite  and  iodine 
painted  upon  the  gum.  If  these  remedies  fail, 
and  the  irritative  •passes  on  to  the  congestive 
stage,  marked  by  swelling  and  excessive  sore- 
ness, cold  applied  to  the  gum  would  be  un- 
bearable. All  attempts  at  checking  the  inflam- 
mation should  cease.  There  can  now  be  little 
hope  of  preventing  suppuration  and  the  forma- 
tion of  an  abscess.  A leech  applied  to  the 
gum  will  relieve  pain  by  extracting  the  blood 
and  reducing  the  tension  ; in  some  cases  it 
may  even  prevent  the  impending  suppuration. 
If  this  cannot  be  prevented  means  should  be 
used  to  hasten  it.  Heat  will  be  found  most 
efficient.  Hot  water  may  be  held  in  the  mouth, 
and  warm  poultices  applied  to  the  gums.  A 
roasted  fig,  split  open  and  laid  upon  the  gum, 
by  retaining  the  heat  softens  the  part  and  en- 
courages  the  suppurative  process.  To  relieve" 
the  tension  and  pain  caused  by  the  swelling, 
warm  fomentations  may  be  applied  to  the  face. 
In  the  use  of  these,  however,  if  the  swelling  is 
very  great,  care  should  be  exercised,  as  the 
heat  may  induce  the  abscess  to  break  out  upon 
the  face.  If  such  danger  impends,  cold  should 
be  applied  upon  the  face,  and  warm  poultices 
kept  upon  the  gums.  Lancing  may  be  resorted 
to  when  the  abscess  has  made  such  progress 
that  the  pus  can  be  reached. 

Tartar.  Inflammation  of  the  periosteum  and 
of  the  surrounding  gums  may  be  induced  by 
accumulations  of  tartar  on  the  necks  of  the 
teeth.  Living  and  dead  teeth  are  equally  sub- 
ject to  this  disease.  Tartar  is  deposited  from 
the  saliva,  and  is  composed  for  the  most  part 
of  carbonate  and  phosphate  of  lime.  It  has 
also  mixed  with  it  fatty  substances,  epithelial 
scales,  remains  of  oral  parasites,  etc.  As  it  is 
derived  from  the  saliva,  its  accumulation  is  most 
rapid  upon  those  teeth  that  stand  opposite  the 
openings  of  the  salivary  ducts — upon  the  outer 
surfaces  of  the  upper  first  and  second  molars, 
and  the  inner  surfaces  of  the  lower  front  teeth. 
It  accumulates  most,  of  course,  on  those  sur- 
faces that  escape  the  friction  of  food  in  masti- 
cation, or  that  are  not  reached  by  the  brush. 
Generally,  it  first  becomes  attached  at  the 
necks  of  the  teeth,  finding  a sheltered  place 
just  at  the  margin  of  the  gums.  From  this 
point  it  extends  up  under  the  gum,  gradually 
causing  strangulation  of  the  minute  vessels 
that  give  nourishment  to  the  outer  part  of  the 
root  of  the  tooth,  as  well  as  causing  mechani- 
cal irritation  and  chronic  inflammation  of  the 
gums  and  periosteum.  It  sometimes  extends 
up  nearly  to  the  end  of  the  root,  causing  ab- 


sorption of  the  sockets  and  loosening  of  the 
teeth.  It  is  not  unusual  for  teeth  otherwise 
perfect,  to  loosen  and  fall  out  in  this  way.  Its 
presence  is  shown  by  the  spongy,  swollen  con- 
dition of  the  gums,  by  their  being  detached 
from  the  teeth,  and  their  readiness  to  bleed 
when  punctured,  or  from  the  use  of  the  brush. 
This  inflamed  condition  can  be  remedied  only 
by  the  removal  of  the  tartar  with  instruments. 
This  should  be  done  with  great  thoroughness 
and  care,  for  if  only  a little  of  the  tartar  be 
left,  it  will  form  a nucleus  for  a new  deposit. 
The  roots  should  then  be  polished  as  well  as 
their  position  will  allow.  Healing  and  con- 
traction of  the  gums  about  the  teeth  may  then 
be  hastened  by  the  use  of  astringent  washes. 
If  tartar  again  accumulates,  as  it  will  in  most 
cases,  it  must  be  again  removed,  as  only  thus 
can  the  loosening  of  teeth  be  delayed. 

Toothpicks.  At  the  temperature  of  the 
mouth,  only  a few  hours  is  sufficient  to  induce 
a putrefactive  change  of  particles  of  food  left 
between  the  teeth.  They  should  be  removed 
with  the  quill  or  wooden  toothpick,  or  with 
floss  silk.  Silk  is  preferable,  as  it  can  be 
passed  between  teeth  -that  stand  in  contact, 
and  effectually  cleanses  the  surface  that  cannot 
be  reached  by  the  pick  or  the  brush.  If  this 
be  too  expensive,  linen  threads,  such  as  used 
by  shoemakers,  may  be  substituted. 

Toothbrushes  should  be  used  with  great 
thoroughness  every  night  and  morning,  and 
if  practicable,  after  every  meal.  Great  care 
should  be  taken , however,  to  select  brushes  not 
too  harsh  and  stiff,  as  they  may  do  much  harm 
to  the  gums.  On  the  other  hand,  if  brushes 
are  too  soft,  the  teeth  will  not  be  well  cleansed. 

Powders  should  always  be  used,  as  by  their 
help  the  sticky  mucus  is  more  thoroughly 
removed  and  the  surface  kept  smooth  and 
polished.  The  chalk  of  which  they  are  mostly 
made,  has  also  an  affinity  for  the  acids,  thereby 
protecting  the  teeth.  Soap  is  very  cleansing, 
and  may  be  always  used  to  advantage.  Most 
of  the  powders  before  the  public  may  be  con- 
sidered reliable.  The  chalk  and  orris,  of 
which  they  are  chiefly  made,  are  so  cheap  that 
there  is  no  inducement  for  adulteration. 

Washes  for  the  teeth  and  gums  may  be 
used,  but  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  those 
which  are  astringent.  Such  may  be  used  to 
advantage  in  case  of  diseased  gums,  but  in  a 
state  of  health  the  teeth  and  gums  need  to  be 
cleansed, not  medicated.  (■SztTOOTH-POWDERS.) 

TEETHING.  (See  INFANTS. 

TERRAPIN.  (See  Soup  and  Turtle.) 

TETANUS.— An  affection  characterized  by 
painful  and  rigid  contraction  ot  the  voluntary 
muscles,  aggravated  from  time  to  time  by  very 
severe  spasms.  The  two  chief  forms  are  the 
traumatic,  which  occurs  after  wounds,  and  the 
idiopathic,  without  any  manifest  cause.  In  the 
former,  the  spasms  are  usually  severe  and 
acute  ; in  the  latter  they  are  milder  and  chronic. 
The  following  are  the  usual  symptoms  in  a 
severe  attack  of  traumatic  tetanus : After  gen- 
eral uneasiness,  headache,  and  feverishness,  the 


TETANUS 


531 


patient  complains  of  stiffness  of  the  jaws  and 
at  the  back  of  the  neck ; swallowing  is  difficult, 
the  voice  is  low  and  husky,  and  there  is  a pe- 
culiar expression  of  the  face  due  to  contraction 
of  the  muscles  which  move  the  lips  and  eyelids  ; 
the  patient  next  suffers  from  painful  cramp  in 
the  muscles  of  the  face  and  neck,  and,  in  con- 
sequence of  permanent  rigidity  of  the  muscles 
of  mastication  and  spasms  of  the  gullet,  is  una- 
ble to  take  any  food ; to  this  stage,  in  which 
the  mouth  is  firmly  closed,  has  been  applied  the 
name  of  locked-jaw ; the  spasms  then  attack 
the  muscles  of  the  abdominal  walls,  and  violent 
pain  is  felt  at  intervals  at  the  pit  of  the  stom- 
ach ; the  front  of  the  abdomen  is  retracted,  and 
the  muscles  during  the  severe  paroxysms  feel  to 
the  hand  like  a hard  board  ; the  voluntary  mus- 
cles of  the  back  and  limbs  finally  become  af- 
fected and  very  painful  cramps  are  felt  over 
the  whole  body,  which  as  the  affection  pro- 
gresses are  divided  by  shorter  and  shorter  in- 
tervals ; the  bowels  are  generally  bound  and 
there  is  often  retention  of  urine  ; the  symptoms 
increase  in  intensity,  and  at  last  death  occurs 
either  from  pain  and  exhaustion,  or  in  conse- 
quence of  spasms  of  the  diaphragm  and  other 
muscles  of  respiration;  the  mental  faculties 
generally  remain  unimpaired,  until  very  shortly 
before  death.  The  usual  duration  of  an  attack 
of  severe  and  fatal  tetanus  is  from  three  to  six 
days.  Cases,  however,  have  been  recorded  in 
which  death  occurred  within  a few  hours  after 
the  commencement  of  the  symptoms.  The 
symptoms  of  acute  traumatic  tetanus  vary  much 
in  different  cases  ; the  spasms  may  be  restricted 
to  a certain  region  or  a certain  set  of  muscles, 
or  they  may  commence  at  the  seat  of  the  wound 
and  not,  as  is  usually  the  case,  in  the  muscles 
of  the  jaw.  The  ordinary  tetanic  symptoms 
may  be  complicated  by  epilepsy,  delirium,  and 
coma. 

There  is  no  injury  to  the  surface  of  the  body, 
however  slight  it  may  be,  of  which  acute  te- 
tanus might  not  be  a result,  and  there  is  no  re- 
lation between  the  extent  and  degree  of  the 
injury  and  the  intensity  of  the  tetanic  symp- 
toms. It  has  been  known  to  follow  slight  con- 
tusions and  blows  with  a stick  or  cane.  It 
rarely  occurs  after  clean  cuts,  and  is  mostly 
connected  with  contused  wounds  involving 
nerves  and  the  fibrous  structures,  as  fasciae, 
tendons,  and  ligaments.  With  regard  to  local- 
ity, it  has  been  stated  that  tetanus  occurs  more 
frequently  after  wounds  of  the  hands  and  feet. 
The  interval  between  the  receipt  of  the  injury 
and  the  commencement  of  the  tetanic  symp- 
toms, the  so-called  period  of  incubation,  varies 
in  different  cases.  In  the  majority,  the  symp- 
toms come  on  between  the  fourth  and  the  tenth 
day ; the  period  in  many  lasts  from  ten  to 
twenty  days,  but  is  extended  over  the  twenty- 
second  day  in  only  ten  out  of  every  hundred 
cases.  It  has  never  been  known  to  exceed  a 
month.  The  symptoms  sometimes  come  after 
an  interval  of  only  a few  hours,  and  one  in 
stance  has  been  recorded  in  which  a negro  was 
attacked  with  tetanic  spasms  in  a quarter  of  an 


hour  after  his  hand  had  been  punctured  with  a 
fragment  of  chinaware.  The  shorter  the  inter- 
val the  more  severe  are  the  symptoms.  Teta- 
nus, when  it  occurs  before  the  tenth  day  after 
the  injury,  is  usually  fatal ; in  cases  occurring 
after  the  tenth  day,  the  mortality  is  much  re- 
duced. Tetanus  occurs  much  more  frequently 
in  males  than  in  females,  and  in  the  latter  its 
symptoms  are  less  severe.  Tetanus  may 
occur  at  any  period  of  life,  but  in  more  than 
half  the  number  of  recorded  cases  the  patients 
were  between  ten  and  thirty  years  of  age.  It 
has  been  asserted  that  tetanus  is  most  fatal  in 
patients  under  ten  years  of  age.  The  accession 
of  traumatic  tetanus  does  not  seem  to  be  in- 
fluenced in  any  way  by  morbid  conditions  of 
the  body,  or  by  previous  states  of  bad  health. 
The  healthy  and  the  unhealthy,  the  strong  and 
the  weak,  are  equally  affected.  It  has  been 
stated  that  tetanus  is  met  with  more  frequently 
at  periods  of  the  year  in  which  there  are  fre- 
quent and  sudden  changes  of  temperature. 

The  course  and  symptoms  of  an  attack  of 
idiopathic  tetamts  resemble  very  much  those 
of  the  acute  traumatic  form,  but  are  rarely  so 
intense.  The  chief  causes  of  the  so-called 
idiopathic  tetanus  are  exposure  to  cold  and 
wet,  and  intestinal  irritation.  It  is  rarely  met 
with  in  this  country,  but  occurs  frequently  in 
the  tropics. 

The  symptoms  of  tetanus  may  resemble  very 
much  at  first  sight  those  of  hydrophobia,  and 
in  some  cases  the  medical  attendant  experiences 
considerable  difficulty  in  establishing  a perfectly 
satisfactory  diagnosis.  The  following  are  the 
chief  points  of  difference  in  these  two  danger- 
ous affections  : in  tetanus  the  muscular  spasm 
is  persistent,  and  perfect  relief  never  occurs 
for  a single  instant  until  a short  time  before 
death  ; in  hydrophobia  the  spasms  are  always 
of  brief  duration,  and  alternate  with  periods  of 
complete  relaxation  and  relief  ; the  persistence 
of  the  muscular  contraction  in  tetanus  is  most 
marked  in  the  lower  jaw,  which  in  almost  all 
cases  remains  fixed  and  immovable.  In  hydro- 
phobia there  is  a constant  flow  of  saliva,  and  the 
patient  complains  of  great  thirst;  in  tetanus 
these  two  symptoms  are  usually  absent ; the 
countenance  in  tetanus  is  generally  expressive 
of  intense  suffering;  in  hydrophobia,  not  so 
much  of  physical  suffering  as  of  excessive  rest- 
lessness and  mental  excitement;  in  the  latter 
affection  the  mental  faculties  are  always  much 
disturbed  and  the  patient  often  falls  into  a state 
of  violent  delirium  and  maniacal  excitement ; 
in  tetanus,  on  the  other  hand,  the  mind  usually 
remains  undisturbed,  until  the  termination  of 
the  attack ; in  hydrophobia  there  is  an  aversion 
to  fluids,  the  very  thought  of  which  very  much 
excites  the  patient;  in  tetanus  there  is  no  men- 
tal aversion  to  fluids,  but  when  an  attempt  is 
made  to  administer  them,  the  patient  endeav- 
ours to  express  by  action  his  inability  to  open 
the  jaws  and  to  swallow.  Any  reliable  history 
as  to  the  bite  of  a dog  about  six  weeks  or  two 
months  previously,  will  at  once  establish  the 
diagnosis  in  doubtful  cases  of  hydrophobia. 


532 


TETTER 


THRUSH 


Tetanus,  though  a very  dangerous  affection,  is  i 
not  always  fatal;  in  acute  cases,  where  the 
symptoms  commence  shortly  after  the  receipt 
of  a wound,  recovery  seldom  occurs,  but  when 
the  attack  comes  on  after  the  tenth  day  from 
the  receipt  of  the  wound,  and  the  tetanic  symp- 
toms last  over  fourteen  days,  recovery  is  the 
rule  and  death  a rare  exception.  No  case  of 
recovery  from  hydrophobia  has  been  hitherto 
recorded.  Symptoms  somewhat  analagous  to 
those  met  with  in  severe  cases  of  tetanus  are 
produced  by  poisonous  doses  of  strychnia  or 
strychnine.  The  symptoms  of  poisoning  com- 
mence soon  after  the  strychnine  has  been 
swallowed,  and  set  in  with  shortness  of  breath, 
rigidity  of  the  muscles  of  the  neck  and  back, 
and  painful  tetanic  spasms  of  the  extremities  ; 
the  body  is  usually  arched  backwards  so  as  to 
rest  on  the  head  and  heels.  The  muscles  of  the 
face  are  much  convulsed,  so  as  to  produce  a 
characteristic  grinning  expression  called  the 
risus  sardonicus.  All  the  voluntary  muscles  are 
attacked  at  about  the  same  time,  and  there  is 
no  persistent  contraction  of  the  muscles  of  the 
jaw.  In  these  respects,  and  also  from  the  promi- 
nence, among  the  symptoms,  of  backward  arch- 
ing of  the  body,  and  from  the  occurrence  of  in- 
tervals of  complete  intermission,  the  phenom- 
ena of  strychnine  poisoning  differ  from  those 
of  acute  traumatic  and  idiopathic  tetanus. 

Treatment. — No  continued  success  has  yet 
attended  the  administration  of  any  one  of  the 
numerous  medicinal  agents  that  have  been  tried 
in  cases  of  severe  tetanus  ; calomel,  opium, 
chloroform,  belladonna,  aconite,  quinine,  Cala- 
bar bean,  and  Indian  hemp,  have  all  been  ex- 
tensively used,  in  some  cases  with  undoubtedly 
good  results,  in  others  with  signal  failure.  No 
drug  is  yet  known  which  has  the  power  of  ar- 
resting the  course  of  the  disease,  and  of  con- 
trolling its  severer  symptoms.  So  long  as 
tetanus  is  to  be  regarded  as  a disease  which 
must  run  a certain  course,  the  chief  indications 
of  treatment  will  be  the  support  of  the  patient’s 
strength  and  the  relief  of  suffering  and  pain. 
Fluid  and  easily  digested  food,  with  wine  or 
spirits,  must  be  freely  supplied,  and  when  the 
patient  is  unable  to  open  the  mouth  or  to  swal- 
low, should  be  administered  by  injections  or 
through  an  elastic  tube  passed  through  the  nose 
into  the  gullet.  Pain  may  be  relieved  by  the 
internal  administration  of  opium,  by  sub- 
cutaneous injections  of  morphia,  or  by  inhala- 
tion of  chloroform.  In  many  cases  painful  and 
violent  muscular  spasm  has  been  much  allayed 
by  the  application,  along  the  spine,  of  bladders 
of  ice.  Great  care  must  be  taken  to  guard  the 
patient  from  all  causes  of  excitement  and  irri- 
tation, and  the  room  in  which  he  is  confined 
should  be  kept  darkened  and  at  an  uniform 
temperature.  It  is  very  important  that  there 
should  be  a speedy  and  free  evacuation  of  the 
bowels.  In  cases  of  traumatic  tetanus  follow- 
ing a wound,  the  injured  part,  if  painful  and  in- 
flamed, should  be  poulticed  and  kept  as  much 
as  possible  at  rest. 

TETTER. — An  eruptive  disease  of  the  skin 


I which  often  appears  on  the  face  and  the  side 
of  the  mouth,  sometimes  on  the  scalp,  and  oc- 
casionally about  the  waist.  Give  bicarbonate 
of  potash  or  soda  internally,  and  occasionally 
apply  externally  powdered  oxide  of  zinc. 

THERMOMETER. — A glass  tube,  with  a 
bulb  at  one  end  and  open  at  the  other,  con- 
taining mercury  enough  to  fill  it;  is  hermeti- 
cally sealed  when  very  hot.  It  is  afterwards 
immersed  in  melting  ice,  and  the  point  at  which 
the  mercury  stands  scratched  on  the  glass  ; it 
is  next  placed  in  boiling  water  and  the  level 
of  the  mercury  again  noted.  On  the  Fahren- 
heit scale  this  distance  is  divided  into  180  de- 
grees ; on  the  Centigrade  scale  into  toodegrees ; 
and  on  the  Reaumur  scale  into  80  degrees.  The 
freezing  point  is  called  zero  on  the  last  two 
scales,  but  32  on  the  Fahrenheit  scale.  In  a 
room  where  persons  are  sitting,  the  Fahrenheit 
thermometer  should  register  from  68  to  70  de- 
grees ; in  a room  like  a nursery,  where  the  oc- 
cupants are  apt  to  be  moving  actively,  3 or  4 
degrees  lower.  Medical  thermometers  are 
seif-registering,  being  supplied  with  a small 
index  in  the  bore  of  the  tube,  which  is  pushed 
upward  by  the  mercury  in  its  ascent,  but  does 
not  fall  again  until  shaken  down  with  some 
force.  As  the  index  is  liable  to  get  shaken 
into  the  bulb,  and  thus  render  the  instrument 
useless,  many  thermometers  have  a spiral  in 
the  bore  near  the  bulb,  to  arrest  the  index. 
The  normal  temperature  of  the  body,  taken  by 
holding  the  bulb  of  the  thermometer  five  min- 
utes in  the  armpit,  with  the  arm  closed  down 
upon  it,  may  be  set  down  at  98^  degrees, 
though  it  may  normally  rise  to  100  degrees 
during  the  period  of  digestion.  102  degrees 
indicates  fever  and  need  of  attention  ; 104  de- 
grees indicates  serious  need  of  attention.  Af- 
ter 108  degrees,  recovery  is  almost  unknown. 

THROAT.  (See  Sore  Throat.) 

THRUSH.  — A disease  very  common 
amongst  infants,  very  much  dreaded  but  easily 
managed.  It  consists  in  a soreness  cf  the 
mouth,  lips,  cheeks,  tongue,  throat  (seldom  ex- 
tending to  the  stomadi),  with  white  creamy 
patches  adhering  to  the  surface.  They  can  be 
easily  removed,  and  underneath,  the  mucous 
membrane  is  red,  sore,  and  sometimes  bloody. 
These  patches  consist  of  remnants  of  food 
(milk,  etc.),  either  natural  or  decomposed,  with 
some  matter  and  very  little  blood,  and  a vege- 
table microscopic  parasite,  the  oidium  a/bitans. 
They  form  whenever  the  infant’s  mouth  is  not 
kept  scrupulously  clean ; they  will  also  form 
in  the  mouths  of  adult  patients,  who  are  either 
too  feeble  or  too  unconscious  to  attend  to  their 
own  cleanliness,  and  in  such  cases  thrush  is  al- 
ways a symptom  of  great  danger  because  of 
great  prostration.  Thrush  is  avoided  by  clean- 
liness. When  it  is  present,  wash  the  mouth 
every  half  hour  or  every  hour  with  a solution 
of  a tablespoonful  of  borax  in  a half-pint  of 
water,  or  with  a drachm  of  the  sulphate  of 
soda  in  two  ounces  of  water.  Be  sure 
that  the  white  patches  are  well  removed,  al- 
though gentle  rubbing  may  be  required. 


THYME 

THYME. — This  plant  will  grow  anywhere, 
but  it  prefers  a dry,  poor  soil ; if  the  ground  is 
rich,  the  plant  will  become  too  luxuriant,  and 
lose  its  aromatic  qualities.  There  are  several 
varieties  ; that  preferred  for  culinary  purposes 
is  the  lemon-scented  ; it  is  also  the  handsomest 
in  appearance.  It  is  propagated  by  seeds  or 
slips.  Sowing  should  be  performed  from  the 
middle  of  March  to  the  middle  of  May;  slips 
should  be  set  out  in  the  spring.  It  may  also  be 
propagated  by  layers,  like  carnations.  Al- 
though a perennial,  it  becomes  stunted  after 
two  or  three  years,  and  to  ensure  it  in  perfec- 
tion the  seed  should  be  sown  annually.  The 
culinary  use  for  thyme  is  principally  for  broths 
and  soups ; it  is  also  a common  ingredient  in 
stuffings  and  to  savor  meats.  The  lemon 
thyme  is  less  pungent  than  the  common  garden 
thyme,  but  much  more  grateful ; hence  it  is 
used  as  a seasoning  for  veal  and  other  meats 
where  lemon-peel  would  be  used,  thus  answer- 
ing the  purpose  of  two  distinct  spices.  Thyme 
that  is  intended  for  winter  use  should  be  cut 
when  in  blossom,  and  after  being  well  dried  in 
the  shade,  hung  up  in  paper  bags.  It  is  usu- 
ally found  for  sale  in  a dried  state,  tied  up  in 
small  bunches. 

TICK.  A strong,  closely-woven,  cotton  cloth, 
generally  striped  black  and  white,  which  is  used 
for  bed,  bolster,  and  pillow-cases.  It  comes  in 
pieces  a yard  wide,  and  should  be  shrunk  before 
cutting. 

TIFFANY. — A species  of  gauze  or  very 
thin  silk.  It  is  of  French  manufacture,  and  is 
used  in  lining  bonnets,  hats,  etc. 

TIGER-FLOWER.— The  Tiger-flower,  or 
Tigridia,  is  a very  showy  Mexican  bulb,  grow- 
ing about  eighteen  inches  high  ; its  flowers  are 
four  inches  in  diameter,  and  of  most  gorgeous 
coloring  and  curious  form.  They  require  the 
same  culture  as  the  Gladiolus,  but  will  not  live 
out  of  doors  in  winter  in  cold  latitudes.  There 
are  as  yet  but  four  or  five  varieties,  which  bloom 
from  July  to  October.  These  are:  T.  conchi- 
flora, orange  and  yellow,  with  black  spots ; 
T.  conchiflora  grandiflora,  lemon-color,  spotted 
with  crimson ; T.  pavonia,  scarlet,  spotted  and 
tipped  with  yellow;  T.  speciosa,  orange,  with 
deep  maroon-colored  spots ; T.  wheelcrii,  a 
seedling  from  conchiflora. 

TILES.— Plates  or  pieces  of  baked  clay  or 
earthenware,  used  for  covering  the  roofs  of 
buildings.  Tiles  make  a heavier  roof  than 
slate,  and  are  seldom  employed  in  this  country, 
and  then  only  for  offices  and  houses  of  an  in- 
ferior class.  There  are  two  kinds  of  tiles, 
plain  tiles  and  pantiles.  Plain  tiles  are  of  the 
same  form  as  slates,  but  are  bedded  and  pointed 
with  mortar.  The  pitch  of  the  roof  requires  to 
be  45  degrees,  and  the  tiles  require  frequent 
pointing.  Pantiles  are  curved,  and  are  laid  on 
each  other  dry ; they  do  not  make  so  warm  a 
roof  as  plain  tiles  and  are  more  liable  to  get 
out  of  order.  Common  tiles  are  not  nearly  so 
durable  as  slates,  being  much  affected  by  the 
frost;  but  when  glazed  they  are  very  durable. 
When  the  red  color  of  tiles  is  objectionable, 


TOAST  533 

they  may  be  covered  with  a coat  of  anti-corro- 
sive paint. 

Encaustic  tiles  are  the  finer  kinds,  used  for 
paving  and  decoration. 

TIN- WARE. — What  is  usually  called  tin, 
when  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  house- 
hold utensils,  is  in  fact  sheets  of  iron  coated 
over  or  plated  with  tin  ; and  this  is  true  whether 
they  are  described  as  “ common  tin  ” or  “ block 
tin.”  As  the  use  of  tinning  iron  is  to  prevent 
its  rusting,  it  is  obvious  that  whatever  wears 
off  the  tin  lays  bare  the  surface  of  the  iron  and 
exposes  it  to  the  action  of  moisture  and  air, 
which  occasions  its  rusting.  Care  should  be 
taken,  therefore,  that  when  frequent  cleaning 
is  necessary,  the  tinned  ware  shall  be  cleaned 
in  such  a way  as  not  to  wear  away  the  surface 
unduly. 

To  clean  tin-ware , mix  a little  of  the  finest 
whiting  (common  whiting  contains  generally  a 
little  sand)  with  a very  little  sweet  oil,  and  rub 
the  tin  with  this ; then  wipe  it  clean ; after 
that,  dust  some  dry  whiting  on  it,  and  rub  it  off 
with  chamois-skin.  To  prevent  rusting,  tin- 
ware should  be  kept  in  a dry  place. 

TINCTURE. — A tincture  is  a solution  of 
any  colored  substance  in  spirits  of  wine  ; when 
not  colored  the  solution  is  called  a spirit. 
Many  tinctures  are  used  in  cooking  for  flavor- 
ing, etc.,  and  directions  for  making  them  are 
given  elsewhere.  (See  Essences  and  Ex- 
tracts.) 

TOAST. — To  make  ordinary  dry  toast,  cut 
very  thin  slices  of  bread  from  a loaf  not  less 


than  two  days  baked ; place  either  one  or  two 
at  a time  on  the  toasting-fork,  taking  care  not 
to  hold  them  too  near 
the  fire  ; they  should 
be  just  warmed  on 
each  side,  then  turn- 
ed, and  when  brown- 
ed nicely  on  one  side, 
turn  again,  care  being 
taken  not  to  let  them 
burn.  When  they 
are  thoroughly  toast- 
ed, they  should  be 
either  placed  upright 
on  a plate, one  against 
the  other,  or  put  into 
the  toast-rack ; but 
they  should  be  kept  near  the  fire  until  required 
for  the  table.  Toast  should  never  be  made  long 
before  it  is  eaten,  or  it  becomes  tough  and 
leathery.  Some  people  cut  the  crust  off  the 


Toaster  for  Bread  or  Muffins 


534 


TOE-NAILS 


TOMATO 


bread  before  toasting.  Graham  bread  makes 
excellent  toast. 

A very  cheap  apparatus  by  which  bread  or 
chops  can  be  dressed  before  a clear  fire  is 
shown  by  the  first  of  the  preceding  figures ; 
and  the  second  is  peculiarly  convenient  when 
bread  or  muffins  are  required  to  be  toasted 
quickly  and  in  large  quantities  without  much 
time  and  attention  being  bestowed  upon  them. 

Anchovy  Toast.  (See  Anchovy.) 

Buttered  Toast. — The  bread  should  be  cut 
rather  thicker  than  for  dry  toast;  toast  in  the 
same  way,  and  as  soon  as  a slice  is  done,  but- 
ter it  well,  and  lay  in  a plate  near  the  fire. 

Cider  and  Toast.  —Take  one  third  brisk 
cider  and  two  thirds  water,  sweeten  well,  and 
crumble  in  toasted  bread  or  toasted  crackers, 
and  grate  nutmeg  over  the  top. 

Cream  or  Milk  Toast. — I.  Toast  slices  of 
stale  bread  as  directed  above;  butter  and  put 
a layer  of  them  in  the  bottom  of  a toast-dish, 
and  pour  over  them  a liberal  supply  of  cream 
or  milk,  boiling  hot  and  thickened  with  a little 
flour  or  corn-starch  ; add  another  layer  of  toast, 
and  then  more  cream ; and  so  on.  Cover 
closely,  let  it  stand  five  minutes,  and  serve. 

II.  Toast  the  bread  to  a delicate  brown,  lay 
it  on  a very  hot  plate,  and  pour  over  it  cold, 
sweet  cream;  serve  at  once.  For  invalids  and 
children  with  dainty  appetites,  this  is  very  nice 
and  easily  digested.  Some  light  fruit  jelly  will 
add  to  the  relish  and  still  be  wholesome. 

Egg  Toast. — -Break  the  eggs  carefully  into 
water,  boiling  hot,  but  not  really  boiling ; the 
water  must  be  slightly  salted,  and  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  cover  the  eggs.  Simmer  gently  till 
the  eggs  are  delicately  cooked,  or  until  the 
yolks  are  covered  with  a white  film ; then  take 
them  up  with  a skimmer  and  lay  each  on  a 
slice  of  buttered  toast.  Butter  and  pepper  may 
be  added  at  table.  Eaten  with  Worcestershire 
sauce,  this  makes  an  unequalled  breakfast  dish. 

Water  Toast. — Put  slices  of  bread  toasted 
brown,  but  not  burnt  in  the  slightest  degree, 
into  a pitcher,  pour  on  enough  boiling  water  to 
cover  them,  cover  the  top  closely,  and  let  it 
stand  till  cold ; then  strain  off  the  water  and 
sweeten  it  to  taste.  This  is  one  of  the  best  of 
beverages  for  invalids.  A little  lemon-juice 
may  be  added  when  the  patient  can  stand  it. 

TOE-NAILS.  In-Growing.  — This  most 
painful  of  the  diseases  of  the  nails  is  caused 
by  cutting  the  nail,  generally  of  the  great  toe, 
improperly,  and  then  wearing  a narrow,  badly- 
made  shoe.  The  nail  beginning  to  grow  too 
long,  and  rather  wide  at  the  corners,  is  often 
trimmed  around  the  corner,  which  gives  tem- 
porary relief.  But  then  it  begins  to  grow  wider 
in  the  side  where  it  was  cut  off ; and,  as  the 
shoe  presses  against  the  corner,  the  nail  cuts 
more  and  more  into  the  raw  flesh,  which  be- 
comes tender  and  irritable.  If  this  state  con- 
tinue long,  the  toe  becomes  more  painful  and 
ulcerated,  and  fungus  (proud  flesh)  sprouts  up 
from  the  sorest  points.  Walking  greatly  in- 
creases the  suffering,  till  positive  rest  becomes 
indispensable. 


Treatment. — Begin  the  effort  at  cure  by 
simple  application  to  the  tender  part  of  a small 
quantity  of  perchloride  of  iron.  It  is  kept  by 
chemists  in  a fluid  form,  though  sometimes  in 
powder.  There  is' immediately  a moderate 
sensation  of  pain,  constriction,  or  burning.  In 
a few  minutes  the  tender  surface  is  felt  to  be 
dried  up,  tanned,  mummified,  and  it  ceases  to 
be  painful.  The  patient,  who  before  could  not 
put  his  foot  to  the  floor,  now  finds  that  he  can 
walk  upon  it  without  pain.  By  permitting  the 
hardened,  wood-like  flesh  to  remain  for  two  or 
three  weeks,  it  can  easily  be  removed  by  soak- 
ing the  foot  in  warm  water.  A new  and  healthy 
structure  is  found,  firm  and  solid,  below.  If 
thereafter  the  nails  be  no  more  cut  around  the 
corners  or  sides,  but  always  curved  in  across 
the  front  end,  they  will  in  future  grow  only 
straight  forwards,  and  by  wearing  a shoe  of 
reasonably  good  size  and  shape,  all  further 
trouble  will  be  avoided.  There  are  cases,  how- 
ever, in  which  evulsion  of  the  entire  nail  is 
necessary.  This  requires  the  aid  of  a surgeon. 

TOFFY  OR  TOFFEE.  (See  Taffy.) 

TOMATO. — At  present  there  is  probably 
no  product  of  the  garden  which  is  used  so 
extensively  and  in  so  many  different  ways  as 
the  tomato ; to  be  produced  in  perfection  it 
must  be  grown  in  very  rich  ground  and  receive 
frequent  and  copious  watering ; the  vines  must 
be  pruned  so  as  to  admit  the  sun  freely  to  the 
clusters  of  fruit.  But  it  will  grow  well  in 
almost  any  soil,  with  no  more  care  than  is  in- 
volved in  putting  the  seed  into  the  ground  in 
spring,  and  is  extremely  prolific.  The  com- 
mon kinds  may  be  planted  in  any  out-of-the- 
way  place  where  no  other  vegetable  will  grow, 
but  the  choicer  varieties  should  be  sown  in 
rows  about  three  feet  apart,  and  the  vines  sup- 
ported by  uprights,  so  as  to  keep  the  fruit  off 
the  ground.  The  best  varieties  of  the  tomato 
are  the  Trophy , General  Grant , Cluster , Oak, 
Crimson  Cluster,  and  Tilden.  Other  good 
kinds  are  the  white  apple,  which  is  excellent 
eaten  raw,  smooth  red,  apple  and  pear  shaped, 
large  and  small  yellow,  fig,  cherry,  etc.  To- 
matoes begin  to  ripen  in  the  South  about  the 
middle  of  April,  whence  they  are  brought  to 
the  Northern  markets;  they  become  plentiful 
in  June,  and  are  in  season  until  the  first  heavy 
frosts.  The  perfection  to  which  the  art  of 
canning  fruits  and  vegetables  has  been  brought 
enables  us  to  have  tomatoes  fresh  and  good 
throughout  the  year.  (See  Catsup,  Pickles, 
Sauces,  and  Soup.) 

Baked  Tomatoes. — Scald  the  tomatoes, 
peel  them  carefully,  so  as  not  to  break  them, 
and  lay  them  in  a deep  dish  ; season  with  salt 
and  pepper,  and  spread  a teacupful  of  cracker- 
crumbs  over  the  top ; cover  the  dish  lightly, 
and  bake  in  a quick  oven  from  an  hour  to  an 
hour  and  a half ; just  before  taking  from  the 
oven  add  a few  bits  of  butter.  Slip  the  toma- 
toes out  carefully,  the  brown  side  up,  or  serve 
them  in  the  baking-dish. 

Boiled  Tomatoes. — Slice  them  and  boil  them 
in  their  own  juice.  They  should  boil  gently,  and 


TOM-COD 


TONGUE 


535 


no  longer  than  will  suffice  to  cook  them  well ; 
twenty  minutes  to  a quart  will  be  about  right. 
Season  with  salt  and  pepper  before  serving. 

Broiled  Tomatoes.  — Take  nice  “beef- 
steak ” tomatoes,  cut  them  in  half  cross-wise ; 
broil  them  over  the  fire,  skin  side  down,  until 
brown ; place  the  gridiron  in  front  of  the 
fire  to  brown  the  other  side.  Cook  slowly 
until  well  done ; season  with  pepper,  salt,  and 
butter ; serve  plain  or  on  toast. 

Canned  Tomatoes. — Pour  boiling  water 
over  ripe  tomatoes  ; after  a few  moments  pour 
it  off ; peel  them  carefully,  removing  the  thick 
base  of  the  stem;  cut  them  in  two  and  boil 
until  cooked.  Turn  up  an  old  wooden  box  by 
the  range  to  hold  the  cans  ; it  should  be  high 
enough  to  bring  the  glass  cans  in  range  with 
the  kettle;  have  a silver  fork  in  the  can 
nearest  the  kettle  ; fill  it  from  a pitcher  dipped 
out  of  the  boiling  tomato  ; instantly  remove  the 
fork,  screw  the  cover  close.  Repeat  with  each 
can.  The  fork  saves  the  necessity  of  heating 
the  cans.  When  cold,  the  covers  will  bear  an- 
other turn.  Make  each  one  perfectly  tight. 

Raw  Tomatoes. — Scald  till  the  skins  can  be 
removed,  cut  them  in  thin  slices  with  a sharp 
knife ; lay  in  a salad  dish,  and  season  with  pep- 
per, salt,  and  vinegar,  and,  if  liked,  a little 
sugar.  Stand  them  on  ice  before  serving. 

Scolloped  Tomatoes. — Take  fresh  or  canned 
tomatoes,  i qt : butter,  J-  lb ; bread-crumbs, 
A lb ; brown  sugar,  2 oz  ; pepper,  1 teaspoon- 
ful; salt,  3 teaspoonfuls;  onion  (grated),  1. 
Put  a layer  of  bread  in  a baking  dish,  then  a 
layer  of  peeled,  sliced  tomatoes,  and  cover 
with  bits  of  butter,  a little  of  the  onion,  pepper, 
salt,  and  sugar ; then  another  layer  of  bread,  and 
so  on,  having  the  last  layer  of  bread  and  leaving 
enough  of  the  pepper,  etc.,  to  sprinkle  over  it. 
Bake  canned  tomatoes  three-quarters  of  an 
hour,  and  fresh  ones  twice  as  long. 

Stewed  Tomatoes. — Scald  and  remove  the 
skins  from  some  fully  ripe  tomatoes,  cut  them 
into  small  pieces,  and  stew  in  a tin  or  'porce- 
lain sauce-pan  for  about  half  an  hour ; season 
with  salt  and  pepper,  and  add  a little  butter 
and  white  sugar.  When  stewed  tomatoes  are 
to  be  thickened , use  bread-crumbs. 

Stuffed  Tomatoes.  — Squeeze  with  the 
hands  some  stale  bread,  saturated  in  cold 
water.  Take  six  tomatoes,  as  nearly  of  a size 
as  possible,  cut  off  the  top,  and  with  a small 
spoon  take  out  the  inside  and  put  it  into  a 
colander  to  let  the  liquid  run  off.  Put  about 
an  ounce  of  butter  into  a sauce-pan,  and  when 
melted  add  a small  onion,  chopped  fine  ; stir, 
and  when  nearly  fried,  add  the  parts  of  the 
tomatoes  in  the  colander,  also  chopped ; stir 
half  a minute  ; put  in  the  soaked  bread,  stir  and 
mix  ; season  with  salt,  pepper,  and  grated  nut- 
meg ; boil  up  once,  and  take  from  the  fire.  Fill 
the  tomatoes  with  this  mixture,  dust  with  bread- 
crumbs, put  a piece  of  butter  on  each,  and 
bake  in  a quick  oven.  Before  serving,  wet 
them  with  a liitle  tomato-sauce,  broth,  or  gravy. 

TOM-COD,  or  Frost  Fish. — A small  fish 
weighing  usually  from  a half  to  three  quarters 


of  a pound,  scalcless,  but  an  excellent  pan-fish, 
being  very  delicate  and  savory.  Its  color  varies 
with  the  season,  from  a rich  orange  to  a light 
greenish  yellow,  shaded  to  dark  brown  on  the 
back.  In  season  from  September  to  April. 
Broil  or  fry  as  directed  for  Mackerel. 

TONGUE. — Beef’s  tongue,  calf’s  tongue, 
lamb’s  and  sheep’s  tongue,  and  pig’s  tongue, 
can  all  be  procured  of  the  butchers,  and  they 
are  all  prepared  in  the  same  way.  Calf’s  tongue 
is  considered  best,  but  it  is  usually  sold  with 
the  head  ; beeve’s  tongues  are  what  is  referred 
to  generally  when  “ tongue  ” is  spoken  of. 
Lambs’  tongues  are  very  nice.  In  purchasing 
tongues,  choose  those  which  are  thick,  firm, 
and  have  plenty  of  fat  on  the  under  side. 

Boiled  Tongue. — When  taken  fresh  from 
the  pickle,  tongues  require  no  soaking,  unless 
they  have  remained  in  it  much  beyond  the  usual 
time,  or  have  been  cured  with  a more  than 
common  proportion  of  salt;  but  when  they 
have  been  smoked  and  highly  dried,  they  should 
be  laid  for  two  or  three  hours  into  cold,  and  as 
much  longer  into  tepid  water,  before  they  are 
cooked ; if  extremely  dry,  ten  or  twelve  hours 
must  be  allowed  to  soften  them,  and  they  should 
always  be  brought  very  slowly  to  boil.  Two 
or  three  carrots  and  a large  bunch  of  savory 
herbs,  added  after  the  scum  is  cleared  off,  will 
improve  them.  They  should  be  simmered  until 
they  are  extremely  tender,  when  the  skin  will 
peel  from  them  easily.  A highly-dried  tongue 
of  moderate  size  will  usually  require  from  three 
and  a half  to  four  hours’  boiling  : an  unsmoked 
one  about  an  hour  less  ; and  for  one  which  has 
not  been  salted  at  all  a shorter  time  will  suffice. 

Pickled  Tongue. — Tongues  maybe  pickled 
in  any  of  the  pickles  given  for  the  beef  ( See 
Beef)  ; but  the  following  is  abetter  way.  For 
each  large  tongue  mix  with  half  a pound  of  salt 
two  ounces  of  saltpetre  and  three  quarters  of  a 
pound  of  the  coarsest  sugar;  rub  the  tongues 
daily,  and  turn  them  in  the  pickle  for  five 
weeks,  when  they  will  be  ready  for  cooking  or 
for  being  smoked. 

Smoked  Tongue. — Pickle  as  directed,  and 
hang  them  in  the  chimney  or  smoke-house. 
The  smoked  tongues  bought  in  the  grocery 
stores  are  generally  old  and  tough. 

Stewed  Tongue. — After  the  tongue  has 
been  soaked  trimmed,  and  washed  with  extreme 
nicety,  lay  it  in  a vessel  of  fitting  size,  and 
place  round  it  three  or  four  pounds  of  the  neck, 
or  of  any  other  lean  cuttings  of  beef,  with  some 
bones  of  undressed  veal,  and  pour  in  sufficient 
cold  water  to  keep  it  covered  until  it  is  done  : 
or,  instead  of  this,  use  strong  unseasoned  beef 
broth  made  with  the  shin,  and  any  odd  bits  or 
bones  of  veal  which  may  be  at  hand.  Let  the 
tongue  be  brought  to  boil  very  gradually,  that 
it  may  be  plump  and  tender.  Remove  the  scum 
when  it  first  rises,  and  when  it  is  quite  cleared 
off  add  a large  bunch  of  parsley,  thyme,  and 
winter  savory,  three  carrots,  a small  onion,  and 
ane  mild  turnip.  After  three  hours  and  a half 
of  gentle  simmering,  probe  the  tongue,  and  if 
sufficiently  done  peel  off  the  skin  and  serve  it 


536 


TONICS 


TRICHINA 


quickly.  If  not  wanted  hot  for  table,  lay  it 
upon  a very  clean  board  or  table,  and  fasten  it 
down  to  it  by  passing  a carving-fork  through 
the  root,  and  a smaller  one  through  the  tip, 
drawing  the  tongue  straight  with  the  latter 
before  it  is  fixed  in  the  board  ; let  it  remain 
thus  until  it  is  quite  cold. 

TONICS.— A class  of  remedies  used  to  give 
tone  and  strength  to  the  system  when  debili- 
tated by  disease  or  otherwise.  They  are  gene- 
rally stimulants  as  well,  inasmuch  as  they  rouse 
the  vital  energies  ; but  the  excitement  is  not  so 
rapid  as  in  those  called  general  stimulants,  and 
the  effect,  also,  is  more  permanent.  No  medi- 
cines require  more  tact  in  their  selection,  and 
in  suiting  them  to  the  time  when  they  are  to  be 
adopted,  for  it  is  far  more  easy  to  do  harm  than 
good  in  applying  them.  Thus,  it  is  generally  a 
rule  that  quinine  will  not  be  borne  with  a dry 
tongue,  and  yet  in  some  cases  of  typhus  fever,  if 
the  physician  waits  for  this  feature  changing 
before  giving  quinine,  he  will  wait  until  his 
patient  is  departed  to  the  next  world.  Some 
tonics,  as  arsenic,  which  are  very  powerful,  but 
easily  misapplied,  are  omitted  here  altogether. 

(<2)  Disulphate  of  quinine,  i grain  ; diluted 
sulphuric  acid,  3 minims  ; water,  or  infusion  of 
roses,  1 ounce  ; tincture  of  orange-peel,  30 
minims.  Mix,  and  give  twice  or  thrice  a day. 

(b)  Tincture  of  cinchona  (compound),  1 
drachm;  decoction  of  cinchona  (yellow), 
ounce.  Mix,  and  give  two  or  three  times  a day. 

(c)  Nitro-muriatic  acid,  ten  drops  in  a wine- 
glass of  sweetened  water  after  meals. 

(d)  Carbonate  ot  iron,  1 drachm,  twice  a day, 
in  neuralgia. 

(e)  Compound  tincture  of  bark,  1 drachm  ; 
infusion  of  cascarilla,  1 ounce.  Mix. 

TONKA  BEAN. — More  properly  Tonga 
Bean,  or  Tonquin  Bean.  This  is  the  seed  of 
a plant  which  is  a native  of  Guiana.  The 
aroma  of  the  seed  is  owing  to  a volatile  oil 
which  it  contains.  It  is  used  to  scent  snuff, 
and  also  to  perfume  clothes  and  keep  away 
moths.  Its  efficacy  for  the  latter  purpose  is 
very  doubtful. 

TOOTHACHE.  {See  Teeth.) 

TOOTH-POWDERS.— The  basis  of  most 
tooth-powders  is  prepared  chalk,  powdered 
bark,  myrrh,  Armenian  bole,  and  orris-root. 
Prepared  charcoal  and  camphorated  chalk  are 
also  much  used.  Salt  and  alum  are  injurious 
to  the  teeth  and  gums.  We  append  recipes  : 

I.  A mixture  of  honey  and  very  finely-pow- 
dered charcoal  is  an  excellent  tooth-powder. 

n.  Camphorated  Chalk.  Take  : - Precipi- 
tated chalk,  half  a pound  ; powdered  orris- 
root,  a quarter  of  a pound  ; powdered  cam- 
phor, two  ounces.  Powder  the  camphor  in  a 
mortar,  by,  adding  a little  spirit,  and  sift  the 
whole  together. 

HI.  Take: -Precipitated  chalk,  eight  ounces ; 
powdered  cuttle-fish  bone,  one  ounce  ; pow- 
dered orris-root,  one  ounce ; white  sugar, 
three  ounces  ; rose  oil,  ten  grains  ; carmine, 
No.  40,  fifteen  grains.  Mix  well  together. 

Tinctures  for  the  Teeth.  I.  Take  /-Floren- 


tine orris-root,  eight  ounces  ; bruised  cloves, 
one  ounce  ; ambergris,  one  scruple.  Bruise  the 
root,  and  put  all  the  ingredients  into  a glass 
bottle,  with  a quart  of  rectified  spirits  of  wine. 
Cork  close,  and  agitate  it  once  a day  for  a fort- 
night, keeping  it  in  a warm  place.  In  about 
a teaspoonful  a soft  tooth-brush  should  be 
dipped,  and  then  work  it  into  a lather  on  the 
teeth  and  gums.  It  cleanses  the  teeth,  strength- 
ens the  gums,  and  sweetens  the  breath. 

II.  Take:- Tannic  acid,  one  ounce;  pelli- 
tory  root,  one  ounce  ; orris-root,  benzoic  acid, 
and  cinnamon  bark,  each  one  ounce  ; pow- 
dered borax,  one  dram  and  a half ; soap- 
tree  bark,  eight  ounces  ; alcohol,  three  pints  ; 
distilled  water,  five  pints  ; cochineal,  three 
drams.  Digest  six  days  and  then  add  : White 
sugar,  one  pound  ; oil  of  winter-green,  half  an 
ounce  ; essence  of  peppermint,  eight  ounces. 
The  last  three  articles  should  be  rubbed  to- 
gether and  added,  then  filter  the  whole. 

TORTOISE. — This  name  is  now  restricted 
in  ordinary  use  to  the  land-tortoise,  which  is 
never  used  as  an  article  of  food,  but  it  is  occa- 
sionally applied  to  certain  species  of  the  turtle 
tribe,  such  as  the  painted  tortoise,  which  is  a 
fresh-water  turtle.  Prepare,  cook,  and  serve  as 
directed  for  turtle. 

TRAGACANTH. — A kind  of  gum  obtained 
from  a plant  which  grows  in  Asia  Minor.  It 
is  allied  to  gum  acacia.  The  gum  exists  in 
flakes,  not  easy  to  powder  till  well  heated. 
Part  of  it  is  soluble  in  water,  and  this  suspends 
the  rest,  so  that  it  forms  a thick  tenacious 
mucilage,  much  denser  than  that  formed  by 
gum  arabic.  This  mucilage  is  useful  for  sus- 
pending heavy  powders,  that  would  quickly 
settle  in  pure  water.  A compound  powder, 
consisting  of  tragacanth,  gum  acacia,  starch, 
and  sugar,  mixed  with  hot  water,  and  allowed 
to  cool,  is  useful  for  the  same  purpose. 

TRAIN-OIL. — The  oil  drawn  from  the  blub- 
ber or  fat  of  the  whale,  and  from  the  fat  of 
various  other  fishes.  Common  train-oil  or 
Greenland  oil  is  the  produce  of  the  whale  called 
Baloena  Mysticetus.  The  oil  is  of  a reddish  or 
yellowish  color,  of  a mucilaginous  consistence, 
and  when  burned  in  common  lamps  gives  out  a 
strong  unpleasant  odor.  It  is  seldom  used  for 
illuminating  purposes,  but  is  unequalled  for 
softening  and  preserving  leather,  etc. 

TRAPS,  FOR  DRAINS.  (See  Drainage.) 

TREACLE.  (See  Molasses.) 

TREACLE-BEER.  (See  Beer— Quick.) 

TRICHINA  SPIRALIS.— A genus  of  mi- 
nute worms  infesting  in  the  adult  state  the  in- 
testinal canal,  and  in  its  larval  state  the  muscu- 
lar tissue  of  man  and  other  animals,  especially 
the  hog.  They  are  introduced  into  the  human 
stomach  by  eating  “ measly  ” or  imperfectly 
cooked  pork,  and  in  many  cases  cause  death 
within  a fortnight.  Even  where  there  is  no 
fatal  result,  trichitia  are  reproduced  in  the 
stomach  in  such  vast  numbers  that  the  muscles 
(in  which  the  cysts  lodge  themselves)  have  the 
appearance  of  being  sanded.  No  treatment  has 
any  effect  on  trichina  spiralis-,  prevention  is  in 


TRIFLES 


TRUFFLES 


537 


this  case  the  only  cure,  and  no  one  should  eat 
pork  in  any  form  without  being  certain  that  it 
has  been  thoroughly  cooked  throughout. 

TRIFLES. — The  art  of  whipping  cream  is 
little  understood.  Many  cooks  think  they  must 
whip  the  mass  until  it  becomes  like  butter,  and 
as  sometimes  this  is  not  possible,  of  course  they 
blame  the  cream.  Even  from  rather  poor  cream 
a good  whip  may  be  produced,  if  the  following 
simple  directions  are  attended  to : — put  the 
cream  into  a good  sized  bowl,  whisk  for  half  a 
minute,  when  a little  froth  will  rise;  remove 
this  on  to  a piece  of  muslin  laid  on  a sieve, 
placed  over  a basin,  whip  again,  and  continue 
lightly  skimming  the  froth  from  the  cream  as  it 
rises.  When  you  have  enough,  set  the  whip 
aside  for  some  hours,  or  until  the  next  day.  if 
convenient.  It  will  then  have  become  solid, 
and  the  cream  which  has  drained  into  the  basin 
can  be  used  to  assist  in  making  the  custard  for 
the  trifle.  A little  sifted  sugar  and  any  flavor- 
ing can,  if  desired,  be  added  to  the  cream  before 
whipping;  but  it  is  not  essential  to  the  opera- 
tion. Put  at  the  bottom  of  a deep  custard  dish 
a layer  of  strawberry  and  raspberry  jam,  then 
one  of  macaroons,  and  another  of  sponge  finger 
biscuits  ; pour  over  these  sufficient  brandy  and 
sherry  mixed  to  soak  them,  then  a custard, 
made  as  for  Souffld,  and  lastly,  pile  the  whip- 
ped cream  on  the  top  as  high  as  you  can. 

Brandy  Trifle. — An  old-fashioned  way  of 
preparing  this  dish  was  to  soak  as  much  light 
sponge  cake  in  as  much  good  French  brandy  as 
it  could  absorb  ; then  to  stick  it  full  of  blanched 
almonds,  cut  into  whole  length  spikes,  and  to 
pour  a rich  boiled  custard  around  it.  It  is  more 
usual  now  to  pour  white  wine  over  the  cake,  or  a 
mixture  of  wine  and  brandy.  With  this  the 
juice  of  half  a lemon  is  sometimes  mixed. 

Fruit  Trifle. — Mix  three  dessert  spoonfuls 
of  arrowroot  with  a little  cold  milk;  boil  one 
pint  of  milk  and  half  a pint  of  cream,  sweeten 
and  flavor  it,  and  dissolve  half  an  ounce  of 
gelatine  in  it ; pour  in  the  arrowroot,  and  stir 
together  well ; wet  a mould  with  cold  water;  put 
some  dried  fruit,  or  the  driest  preserve  you  have 
in  the  bottom  of  the  mould,  then  the  arrowroot 
mixture,  then  fruit,  and  so  on  till  the  mould  is  full. 

Gooseberry  and  Apple  Trifle. — Stew  the 
gooseberries  or  apples  till  quite  soft,  strain,  and 
make  them  very  sweet.  Put  soft  custard  in  the 
bottom  of  a deep  dish,  then  the  fruit,  and  then  a 
whip  to  stand  very  high. 

TRIPE.  (See  Beef.) 

TRIPOLI.— -A  silicious  mineral,  originally 
brought  from  Tripoli,  much  used  in  polishing 
metals,  glass,  marbles,  etc.  Its  power  of  rub- 
bing down  most  substances  rapidly  is  very  great, 
while  its  extreme  fineness  does  not  cause  visible 
scratches.  Rotten  Stone  is  a variety  of  tripoli 
well  known  to  housewives,  and  constantly  used 
in  cleaning.  It  is  found  near  Albany,  N.  Y. 

TRITURATION. — The  process  of  reducing 
any  substance  to  a very  fine  powder  by  rubbing 
or  grinding  with  a pestle.  It  is  usually  done  in 
mortars  of  agate,  or  some  very  hard  material 
or  on  a slab  of  marble  or  prophyry,  or  thick 


ground  glass.  In  some  cases  it  is  necessary  to 
add  a little  spirit  or  other  liquid  during  its  trit- 
uration, to  keep  the  powder  from  flying  about. 

TROUT.— There  are  several  species  of  this 
favorite  fish,  the  most  common  being  the  brook 
or  speckled  trout.  Both  the  color  and  the 
quality  of  this  fish  depend  largely  upon  the 
waters  from  which  they  are  taken,  the  best 
being  those  taken  from  clear  running  streams 


Brook  Trout. 


The  flesh  of  brook  trout  is  rather  lighter  in 
color  than  that  of  the  salmon,  and  is  considered 
by  many  to  be  superior  to  all  other  American 
fish.  Brook  trout  are  in  season  from  March 
until  August,  during  the  greater  part  of  which 
time  they  are  quite  plentiful.  Their  weight  is 
from  half  a pound  to  four  pounds  ; the  sale  of 
those  smaller  than  half  a pound  is  forbidden  by 
law,  and  they  are  not  often  found  weighing  more 
than  four  pounds.  The  lake  trout  is  a much 
larger  fish.  It  is  taken  in  most  of  the  large 
fresh-water  lakes  of  the  Northern  States,  but 
is  not  often  to  be  found  in  the  markets.  In 
season  from  October  to  March;  weight  from 
four  to  seven  pounds.  The  Mackinaw  Trout 
(or  Mackinaw  Salmon , as  it  is  sometimes  called) 
is  the  largest  species  known,  often  exceeding 
the  true  salmon  in  size.  It  is  taken  principally 
in  the  Great  Northern  Lakes,  and  is  seldom 
found  in  eastern  markets,  except  in  a salted 
state.  It  is  in  season  during  the  winter  months  ; 
weight,  from  twelve  to  sixteen  pounds,  though 
occasionally  much  larger.  For  Salmon  Trout 
(or  Sea  Trout ),  See  Salmon. 

Boiled  Trout. — Trout  are  sometimes  cooked 
in  this  way,  and  it  is  probably  the  best  way  to 
cook  large  ones.  Put  a couple  of  large  ones 
in  enough  salted  water  to  cover  them,  and  boil 
them  gently  till  done  ; garnish  with  sliced 
lemon,  and  serve  with  drawn  butter,  or,  if  pre- 
ferred, egg  sauce,  or  some  piquant  sauce. 

Broiled  Trout Clean,  wash,  and  dry  the 

fish  ; slit  down  the  back,  and  broil  on  a buttered 
gridiron  over  a brisk  fire  ; when  done,  dish,  sea- 
son slightly  with  salt,  and  spread  pretty  freely 
with  butter.  Pepper  is  not  an  improvement  to 
this  fish. 

Fried  Trout. — Clean  and  wash  the  fish  and 
dry  them  on  a towel ; roll  lightly  in  flour,  and 
fry  to  a delicate  brown  in  hot  butter,  or  butter 
and  lard,  or  lard  alone.  When  dished,  season 
slightly  with  salt  only.  Send  to  table  as  free 
from  grease  as  possible,  and  on  a hot  dish. 

Stewed  Trout. — Cut  the  fish  into  moderate 
sized  pieces,  lay  them  in  a stewpan  with  a little 
water,  butter,  and  a few  bits  of  salt  pork,  and 
stew  gently  for  half  an  hour. 

TRUFFLES. — The  fungi  so  called,  which 
play  so  large  and  conspicuous  a part  in  Eu- 


538 


TRUSS 


TRUSSING 


ropcan  cookery,  are  not  grown  in  this  country, 
and  the  few  found  here  in  a fresh  state  are 
brought  over  in  the  European  steamers.  The 
dried  truffles  are  devoid  of  flavor,  and  almost 
entirely  useless.  Those  preserved  in  oil,  or  in 
their  own  liquor,  and  packed  in  air-tight  bottles, 
are  excellent ; but  even  these  are  but  little 
known  here.  The  external  appearance  of  the 
truffle  is  even  less  inviting  than  that  of  mush- 
rooms in  general,  being  almost  black,  with  a 
rough,  ridgy,  and  warty  surface.  The  flesh 
is  white  and  firm,  and  the  taste,  which  is  quite 
savory,  resembles  that  of  the  almond  or  wal- 
nut, and  improves  all  it  touches  in  cookery. 

TRUSS.  — T russes  are  mechanical  contriv- 
ances for  the  support  or  for  the  prevention  of 
the  protrusion  of  any  viscus,  but  most  usually 
for  the  support  of  the  parts  concerned  in  ab- 
dominal rupture  or  hernia.  If  a hernial  pro- 
trusion occurs  in  either  sex,  it  should  be  ad- 
vised that  mechanical  treatment  be  adopted  at 
once  ; for  no  matter  whether  in  infancy,  youth, 
or  middle  age,  judiciously  applied  trusses  fre- 
quently effect  a cure,  without  further  surgical 
interference,  and  at  all  events  cause  but  little 
trouble  or  annoyance.  A surgeon  should  al- 
ways be  consulted  as  to  the  form  of  truss  needed, 
and  should  himself  take  the  necessary  measure- 
ments, and  himself  apply  the  apparatus  in  the 
first  instance.  It  is  a great  mistake,  and  one  pro- 
ductive of  the  worst  results,  to  leave  the  advice 
regarding  a truss  to  an  instrument-maker,  and 
we  often  see  instances,  especially  among  the 
poor,  of  ill-fitting,  ill-shaped  contrivances,  which 
not  only  do  no  good  at  all,  but  in  many  cases 
do  absolute  harm,  by  increasing  the  mischief 
they  are  designed  to  alleviate.  A truss  should 
be  firm,  light,  and  elastic,  and  preserve  its 
shape,  and  the  strength  of  the  spring  should 
always  be  equable,  so  that  it  may  retain  the 
rupture  without  irksomeness.  A truss  consists 
essentially  of  a pad  attached  to  a metal  spring, 
having  straps  so  arranged  that  it  may  be  kept 
in  the  desired  position  in  any  of  the  various 
movements  of  the  body.  There  are  many  dif- 
ferent forms,  whether  single  or  double,  named 
after  their  inventors.  The  following  hints  on 
trusses  are  of  value,  as  the  experience  of  an 
authority  on  the  matter : — 

‘‘In  the  majority  of  cases,  the  circular  spring 
truss  is  the  best  form.  The  curve  of  the  spring 
and  the  relative  position  of  the  pad  with  it 
should  be  appropriate  to  the  configuration  of 
the  wearer.  A single  piece  of  metal  should 
form  the  spring  and  the  foundation  of  the  pad. 
As  far  as  practicable  the  spring  of  the  truss 
should  pass  around  the  bony  rim  of  the  pelvis, 
fitting  closely  to  the  figure,  and  should  lie  out 
of  the  region  of  the  great  muscles  of  the 
buttock  ( glutai ).  The  form  of  the  spring 

may  be  designed  after  the  French  model  or  the 
German.  The  former  resembles  the  cojl  of  a 
watch-spring,  and  is  very  elastic  and  clinging ; 
the  latter  almost  exactly  fits  the  outline  of  the 
body  in  its  state  of  repose  : it  is  almost  in- 
elastic, and  very  hard.  The  French  is  always 
pressing  inwards,  even  when  the  wearer  is  at 


rest ; the  German  scarcely  presses  at  all  when 
the  abdomen  is  soft,  but  resists  with  power 
when  any  expulsive  force  makes  the  abdomen 
swell.  The  best  shape  for  the  spring  is  one 
which  forms  a medium  between  the  two.  The 
pad  should  be  of  moderate  dimensions.  For 
the  adult  it  should  not  exceed  two  and  a half 
inches  in  length  and  two  inches  at  the  widest 
part.  Its  superior  edge  should  follow  the  upper 
line  of  the  spring,  which  falls  a little  from  the 
shoulder  or  bend,  where  it  lies  in  contact  with 
the  hip.  The  inner  surface  should  be  directed 
slightly  upwards.  The  proper  shape  for  the 
pad,  and  the  materials  of  which  it  should  be 
constructed,  may  be  varied  to  accommodate 
particular  cases.  The  wearer  generally  dis- 
covers after  awhile  which  kind  of  pad  is  most 
free  from  annoyance ; that  pad,  however,  is  the 
best  which  retains  perfect  and  unintermitting 
retention  of  the  hernia.  Every  pad  should 
have  attached  to  it  two  studs,  one  near  its  junc- 
tion with  the  spring,  and  another  at  its  lowest 
point.  To  the  upper  one  the  transverse  strap, 
passing  from  the  free  end  of  the  spring,  is 
attached ; the  lower  stud  is  used  with  the  high 
strap,  which  should  be  always  worn.  It  is 
loosely  fastened  on  to  the  spring  of  the  truss 
near  its  shoulder,  and  should  fall  along  the 
hollow  beneath  the  buttock.  In  the  erect  pos- 
ture of  the  wearer  this  strap  should  be  mode- 
rately tight ; it  prevents  the  pad  from  shifting, 
and  should  never  be  discarded.”  The  pad 
may  be  prevented  from  fretting  the  skin  by 
covering  it  with  fur,  or  by  the  interposition  of 
some  soft  substance. 

Trusses  for  ventral,  umbilical,  and  femoral 
hernia,  are  also  constructed.  In  the  case  of 
crural  or  femoral  hernia  “ the  spring  should 
fall  somewhat  suddenly  from  the  point  where  it 
passes  round  the  hip,  and  lie  along  the  fold  of 
the  groin  (Poupart’s  ligament).  The  pad 
should  be  rather  small  and  convex.  The  cross 
strap  should  fasten  high  up  on  to  the  shoulder 
of  the  spring,  in  order  to  keep  the  pad  well  down 
on  the  thigh.  The  thigh  strap  should  start  from 
near  the  pad,  and  return,  after  encircling  the 
thigh,  to  the  pad  itself.”  In  large  hernia,  or 
those  which  have  become  irreducible,  a bag 
truss  is  indispensable.  Trusses  are  also  in  use 
for  the  support  of  the  prolapse  of  the  womb  or 
rectum,  and  constructed  of  various  forms  by 
different  makers.  {See  Hernia.) 

TRUSSING. — This  is  an  art  which  can  hard- 
ly be  taught  by  words,  and  though  we  shall 
make  the  following  directions  as  explicit  as 
possible,  we  would  recommend  that,  instead  of 
relying  on  any  written  instructions,  persons 
who  really  desire  thoroughly  to  understand  the 
subject  should  apply  for  a few  practical  lessons 
to  some  experienced  and  skilful  cook.  The 
knowledge  is  important  enough  to  justify  any 
amount  of  trouble  in  gaining  it,  for  without  it, 
it  is  impossible  to  serve  up  poultry  or  game 
creditably. 

Before  a bird  can  be  trussed,  the  skin  must 
be  entirely  freed  from  any  down  which  may  be 
upon  it,  and  from  all  the  stubble-ends  of  the 


TRUSSING 


539 


feathers  ; the  hair  also  must  be  singed  from  it : 
with  lighted  writing-paper,  care  being  taken  not 
to  smoke  nor  blacken  it  in  the  operation. 
Directions  for  cleaning  the  insides  of  birds 
after  they  are  drawn,  are  given  in  the  receipts 
for  cooking  them. 

Chickens,  turkeys,  geese,  ducks,  wild  or 
tame,  and  pigeons,  should  have  the  heads 
taken  off  close  to  the  bodies ; but  not  the  skin 
of  the  necks,  which  should  be  left  sufficiently 
long  to  turn  down  upon  the  backs  for  a couple 
of  inches  or  more,  where  it  must  be  secured, 
either  with  a needle  and  coarse  soft  cotton,  or 
by  the  pinions  of  the  bird  when  trussed. 

For  boiling,  all  poultry  or  other  birds  must 
have  the  feet  drawn  off  at  the  first  joint  of  the 
leg.  The  skin  must  then  be  loosened  with  the 
finger  entirely  from  the  legs,  which  must  be 
pushed  back  into  the  body,  and  the  small  ends 
tucked  quite  under  the  aoron,  so  as  to  be  en- 
tirely out  of  sight. 

The  wings  of  chickens,  fowls,  turkeys  and 
pigeons,  are  left  on  entire,  whether  for  roast- 
ing or  boiling.  From  geese,  ducks,  pheasants, 
partridges,  grouse,  woodcocks,  snipe,  wild  fowl 
of  all  kinds,  and  all  small  birds,  the  first  two 
joints  are  taken  off,  leaving  one  joint  on,  thus  : — 

The  feet  are  left  on  ducks,  and  upon  roast 
fowls,  pheasants,  black  and  moor-game,  pigeons, 
woodcocks,  and  snipes.  The  thick  coarse  skin 
of  the  legs  of  these  must  be  stripped,  or  rub- 
bed off  with  a hard  cloth  after  they  have 
been  held  in  boiling  water  or  over  a clear  fire 
for  a few  minutes.  The  sharp  talons  must  be 
pulled  out,  and  the  nails  clipped.  The  toes 
of  the  pigeons  for  roasting  should  be  cut  off. 

Geese,  sucking-pigs,  hares,  and  rabbits,  have 
the  feet  taken  off  at  the  first  joint. 

The  livers  and  gizzards  are  served  in  the 
wings  of  roast  turkeys  and  chickens  only. 

The  heads  are  still  commonly  left  on 
pheasants,  partridges,  and  grouse ; but  the 
fashion  is  declining. 

Poultry  and  birds  in  general,  except  perhaps 
quite  the  larger  kinds,  are  more  easily  trussed 
into  plump  handsome  form  with  twine'  and 
needles  made  for  the  purpose  than  with 
skewers.  The  manner  in  which  the  legs  and 
wings  are  confined  is  much  the  same  for  all ; 
the  principal  difference  being  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  former  for  boiling,  which  has  al- 
ready been  explained. 

There  is  a present  mode  of  trussing  very 
large  fowls  for  boiling  or  stewing  which,  to  our 
taste,  is  more  novel  than  attractive.  The 


feet  are  left  on,  and  after  the  skin  has  been 
loosened  from  them  in  every  part,  the  legs  are 
thrust  entirely  into  the  body  by  means  of  a 
slight  incision  made  in  the  skin  just  above  the 
first  joint  on  the  underside ; the  feet  then  appear 
almost  as  if  growing  out  of  the  sides  of  the 
breast : the  effect  of  this  is  not  pleasing. 

To  truss  a chicken,  turkey,  grouse,  or  par- 
tridge for  roasting  : — First  draw  the  skin 
of  the  neck  down  over  the  back,  and  secure 
it  from  slipping  up ; then  thread  a trussing 
needle  of  convenient  size*  for  the  occasion 
with  packthread  or  small  twine  (the  for- 
mer, from  being  the  most  flexible,  is  best)  ; 

pass  it  through  the  pinion  of  the  bird, 
then  through  the  thick  part  of  the  thigh, 
which  must  be  brought  up  close  under  the 
wing , and  in  a straight  line  quite  through  the 
body,  and  through  the  leg  and  pinion  on  the 

other  side  ; draw  them  close,  and  bring  the 

needle  back,  passing  it  through  the  thick  part 
of  the  leg,  and  through  the  second  joint  of  the 
pinion,  should  it  be  left  on  the  bird  ; tie  it  quite 
tight ; and  then  to  secure  the  legs,  pierce  the 
sidebone  and  carry  the  twine  over  the  legs, 
then  pass  the  needle  through  the  other  side- 
bone,  and  tie  them  close  down.  If  skewers  be 
used,  they  should  be  driven  through  the  pinions 
and  the  legs, and  a twine  passed  across  the  back 
of  the  bird, and  caught  over  the  points  of  it,  and 
then  tied  in  the  centre  of  the  back : this  is  only 
needful  when  the  trussing  of  the  bird  is  not  firm. 

When  the  head  is  left  on  a bird,  it  may  be 
trussed  in  the  same  way,  and  the  head  brought 
round,  as  shown  here,  and  kept  in  place  by  a 
skewer  passed  through  it,  and  run  through  the 
body.  When  the  bird  is  trussed  entirely  with 
skewers,  the  point  of  one  is  brought  from  the 
other  side,  through  the  pinions  and  the  thighs, 
and  the  head  is  fixed  upon  it.  The  legs  are  then 
pressed  as  much  as  possible  under  the  breast, 


Partridge. 

between  it  and  the  sidebones,  where  they  are 
lettered  a b.  The  partridge  in  the  engraving  is 
shown  with  the  skewers  just  withdrawn  after 
being  roasted. 


Trussing  Needles. 


Hares,  after  being  filled  with  forcemeat  and 
sewn  or  securely  fastened  up  with  skewers, 
are  brought  into  proper  roasting  form  by  having 
the  head  fixed  between  the  shoulders,  and 
either  fastened  to  the  back  by  means  of  a long 


skewer,  run  through  the  head  quite  into  it,  or 
by  passing  one  through  tlje  upper  part  of  the 


* These  may  be  had,  of  various  sizes,  at  any  good  house-fur- 
nishing  stQre* 


540 


TUBEROSE 


TULIP 


shoulders  and  the  neck  together,  which  will 
keep  it  equally  well  in  place,  though  less  thrown 
back.  The  fore-legs  are  then  laid  straight 
along  the  sides  of  the  hare,  and  a skewer  is 
thrust  through  them  both  and  the  body  at  the 
same  time ; the  sinews  are  just  cut  through 
under  the  hind  legs,  and  they  are  brought  for- 
ward as  much  as  possible,  and  skewered  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  others.  A string  is  then 
thrown  across  under  the  hare  and  over 
the  points  of  both  skewers,  being  crossed  be- 
fore it  is  passed  over  the  second,  and  then  tied 
above  the  back.  The  ears  of  a hare  are  left 
on;  those  of  a rabbit,  which  is  trussed  in  the 
same  way,  are  taken  off.  ( See  Rabbit.) 

Joints  of  meat  require  but  little  arrange- 
ment, either  for  the  spit  or  for  boiling.  A 
fillet  of  veal  must  have  the  flap,  or  part  to 
which  the  fat  adheres,  drawn  closely  round  the 
outside,  and  be  skewered  or  bound  firmly  into 
good  shape : this  will  apply  equally  to  a round  of 
beef.  The  skin  or  flank  of  loins  of  meat  must 
be  wrapped  over  the  ends  of  the  bones,  and 
skewered  on  the  underside.  The  cook  should 
be  particularly  careful  to  separate  the  joints 
•when  it  has  not  been  done  by  the  butcher , and 
necks  of  veal  and  mutton  also,  ormuch  trouble 
will  be  caused  for  the  carver. 

Salmon,  pike,  pickerel,  and  some  few  other 
large  fish,  are  occasionally  trussed  in  the  form 
of  an  S by  passing  a string  through  the  head, 
and  tying  it  securely,  then  through  the  centre 
of  the  body,  and  next  round  the  tail,  which 
should  be  turned  the  reverse  way  of  the  head, 
and  the  whole  should  then  be  drawn  closely 
together  and  fastened.  Whitings  and  other 
small  fish  are  trussed  with  the  tails  merely 
skewered  into  their  mouths. 

TUBEROSE. — One  of  the  most  beautiful  of 
the  summer  flowering  bulbs,  and  unequalled  in 
fragrance  by  any  flower  that  grows.  The  bulbs 
never  bloom  but  once,  but  numerous  small 
offsets  form  around  the  parent  root,  which,  if 
kept  during  the  winter  in  a dry  place  where  the 
temperature  is  never  less  than  fifty  degrees, 
will  bloom  in  two  years.  Our  climate,  how- 
ever, is  too  uncertain  to  insure  a proper  ripen- 
ing of  the  bulbs ; and  it  is  best  to  throw  away 
those  that  have  bloomed  and  procure  fresh 
ones  each  spring.  The  price  of  the  bulbs  in 
the  seed-stores  is  a dollar  and  a half  a dozen  ; 
they  may  be  imported,  however,  for  two  dollars 
and  fifty  cents  a hundred,  costing,  with  charges, 
about  three  cents  each.  Tuberoses  bloom 
best  in  a sandy  soil,  well  enriched  with  con 
centrated  manures ; guano  water,  prepared  by 
dissolving  a tablespoonful  of  guano  in  a gallon 
of  warm  water,  will  hasten  their  flowering  and 
increase  the  number  of  buds.  It  may  be  given 
twice  a week,  if  the  bulbs  are  in  the  open 
ground  or  in  large  boxes.  In  latitudes  north 
of  New  York  city,  the  bulbs  must  be  started 
early  in  March,  in  order  to  bloom  before  the 
fir  t frost  touches  them.  By  a succession  of 
plantings  (a  fortnight  apart)  and  the  use  of  con- 
centrated manures  and  plenty  of  water,  a long 
season  of  bloom  may  be  secured. 


The  double  Tuberose  is  considered  the  most 
desirable  flower,  but  the  single  possesses  the 
same  delicious  perfume,  and  blooms  earlier.  A 
new  variety,  with  variegated  leaves  striped  with 
light  yellow,  is  admired  for  its  novelty. 

TULIP. — This  bulbous  plant  is  the  most 
gorgeous  of  the  spring  flowers,  and  though  the 
“tulip  mania”  which  attained  such  ridiculous 
dimensions  about  the  beginning  of  the  eight- 
eenth century,  has  long  ago  died  out,  it  is  still 
one  of  the  most  highly  esteemed  of  the  floral 
tribe.  It  blooms  at  a time  of  the  year  when 
few  other  flowers  are  to  be  seen,  and  it  is  so 
easy  of  culture  that  no  garden  should  be  with- 
out a bed  of  them.  Tulips  are  divided  into 
three  classes : Bizards  or  Bizarres,  having  a 
yellow  ground,  broken  with  purple  or  red ; Rose, 
which  have  a white  ground,  broken  with  cherry 
color ; and  Bybloemens,  which  are  white,  broken 
with  purple.  These  classes  are  subdivided  into 
flamed  and  feathered,  the  former  being  those 
which  are  somewhat  striped,  the  latter  those 
which  are  only  broadly  marked  on  the  edge. 

The  best  soil  for  growing  tulips  is  a fresh 
sandy  loam,  such  as  is  obtained  from  upland 
pastures  ; remove-  the  sod  from  sheep  or  cow 
pastures,  and  take  the  virgin  soil.  Good  garden 
soil,  mixed  with  cow  manure  at  least  two  years 
old,  and  a plentiful  sprinkling  of  sand,  will 
grow  them  to  advantage.  Never  put  fresh 
manure  near  them ; it  will  burn  up  the  bulbs. 
The  bulbs  should  be  planted  in  late  October  or 
November,  setting  them  firmly  in  the  soil,  six 
inches  apart  and  four  inches  deep  for  the  tall 
varieties,  and  four  inches  apart  and  three  inches 
deep  for  the  “Van  Thols.”  Sprinkle  sand  into 
each  hole  before  setting  the  bulb  in ; this  will 
keep  them  from  rotting  at  the  base.  After  the 
ground  freezes,  cover  with  straw  or  leaves. 
When  the  leaves  of  the  flowers  fall,  cut  off  the 
stems,  and  when  the  leaves  are  dried  up,  dig 
up  the  bulbs,  separate  the  offsets,  and  lay  them 
on  a shelf,  with  the  root  end  uppermost,  to  dry. 
When  the  fibrous  roots  are  sufficiently  withered 
to  be  rubbed  off,  the  bulbs  may  be  placed  in 
drawers  or  boxes,  and  kept  dry  until  the  season 
for  planting  again  arrives. 

Of  the  several  varieties  of  Tulip  the  Due 
Van  Thol  is  a very  early  kind,  blossoming  in 
temperate  climates  early  in  March.  It  is  a 
dwarf,  the  stems  not  being  over  six  inches 
high ; and  it  is  excellent  for  indoor  culture. 
There  are  white,  red,  scarlet,  yellow,  rose,  and 
striped  varieties  ; they  are  perfectly  hardy,  but 
will  bloom  better  if  taken  lip  every  spring  as 
directed  above.  The  Tournesol  comes  into 
bloom  next  after  the  Van  Thols;  it  is  double, 
and  only  in  two  kinds,  the  red  and  yellow,  and 
the  pure  yellow.  In  mixed  beds  they  are  very 
gorgeous. 

Double  Tulips. — These  arc  growing  in  fa- 
vor; their  flowers  are  very  large  and  brilliant. 
Desirable  varieties  are:  Amsterdam , brown 
and  red  curiously  blended,  late  ; Belle  Alliance , 
white,  striped  and  feathered  with  violet ; Crown 
of  Roses,  rich  rose  color;  Gloria  Afundi,  deli- 
cate primrose,  striped  with  crimson  ; La  Can- 


TUMORS 


dear,  pure  white  ; Lord  Wellington , blue,  late ; 
Marriage  de  ma  Fille , pure  white  striped  with 
cerise,  late  ; Paeony  Gold,  yellow,  beautifully 
shaded,  late ; Poupre  Agreeable,  white  and  vio- 
let, late. 

Parrot  Tulips. — These  arc  the  most  curious 
and  unique  of  all.  The  flowers  are  magnifi- 
cently striped  and  feathered,  with  many  colors, 
most  picturesquely  mingled,  while  the  edges  of 
the  sepals  are  fringed  like  fretted  lace  work. 
The  most  distinct  varieties  are  : Belle  Jaune , 
large  yellow,  feathered  with  red  and  green ; 
Constantinople,  bright  yellow  and  red  ; Glori- 
euse,  brilliant  scarlet ; Markgraf,  striped  red 
and  yellow;  Monstre  Rouge,  crimson,  large. 

TUMORS. — Tumors  are  divided  by  medical 
writers  into  two  groups  ; one  of  innocent  or 
benign  growths,  the  other  of  malignant  growths. 
The  latter  are  distinguished  by  the  following 
common  characters  : rapidity  of  growth,  ten- 
dency to  infiltrate  and  to  replace  the  tissues  of 
the  affected  part,  tendency  to  recur  after  re- 
moval by  operation,  tendency  to  multiply  locally 
and  to  infect  other  and  remote  parts  of  the 
body,  and  a tendency  to  destructive  and  pro- 
gressive ulceration,  causing  fatal  exhaustion 
through  pain  and  loss  of  blood.  To  any  tumor 
presenting  these  so-called  characters  of  malig- 
nancy, the  term  cancer  was  formerly  applied ; 
but  at  the  present  time,  in  consequence  of  the 
extensive  use  of  the  microscope  in  pathological 
research,  there  is  a tendency  to  classify  tumors 
with  regard  more  to  minute  structure  than  to 
general  symptoms.  Innocent  or  benign  tumors 
may  occur  in  almost  any  part  of  the  body,  and 
they  may  vary  in  character  from  so  simple  a 
growth  as  a wart  up  to  formations  which  may 
endanger  life  or  require  some  serious  surgical 
operation  for  their  removal. 

It  would  be  useless  to  attempt,  in  a work  like 
this,  any  systematic  classification  of  tumors,  as 
it  could  not  be  made  intelligible  to  the  unpro- 
fessional reader.  The  important  question,  when 
one  finds  a tumor  is  forming,  is  as  to  whether 
it  is  of  a cancerous  nature  or  not,  and  this  can 
only  be  answered  by  a competent  physician. 
The  great  majority  of  small  tumors  are  harm- 
less in  character,  and  often  cause  inconvenience 
rather  than  any  other  distress ; but  in  all  cases 
it  is  well  to  have  medical  advice  before  any 
treatment  is  ventured  upon.  ( See  Cancer.) 

TUNNY-FISH.— This  large  fish,  which  is 
also  called  horse  mackerel,  is  one  of  the  mack- 
erel family  and  has  much  the  form  of  the  com- 
mon mackerel.  The  back  is  of  a grayish-black 
color,  sides  bright  and  silvery,  and  belly  nearly 
white.  The  mouth  is  quite  black  inside.  Like 
all  the  very  large  fish,  such  as  halibut  and 
sturgeon,  the  tunny  is  sold  cut  up  in  pieces; 
the  middle  cuts  are  best.  The  flesh  is  consid- 
ered good,  but  it  is  lacking  in  flavor.  Prepare, 
cook,  and  serve  as  directed  for  Halibut. 

TURBOT. — It  has  been  generally  believed 
that  we  have  none  of  this  fish,  so  highly  es- 
teemed in  England,  in  American  waters,  though 
numerous  fishermen  and  others  have  at  differ- 
ent times  declared  that  they  have  either  caught 


TURKEY 


541 


Turbot. 


or  seen  it  at  various  points  on  the  New  England 
coast.  At  any  rate 
it  is  never  found  in 
our  markets,  and  may 
be  said  to  be  practi- 
cally unknown  to 
American  tables.  The 
flat-fish  sometimes  cal- 
led spotted  turbot  is 
nothing  more  than 
what  is  more  gener- 
ally known  as  New 
York  plaice. 

TURKEY. — This  most  popular  of  the  poul- 
try tribe  is  found  in  our  markets  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  year,  but  the  best  season 
for  it  is  in  the  fall  and  winter  months,  when  the 
young  ones  are  about  fully  grown.  The  young 
hen  turkey,  when  large  enough  for  the  purpose, 
is  considered  best,  being  plumper  and  generally 
fatter  than  the  male  ; but  a young  male  is  pref- 
erable to  an  old  hen.  In  buying  turkeys, bear 
the  following  facts  in  mind.  The  legs  of  a 
young  hen  turkey  are  black  ; the  cock  also  has 
black  legs,  but  he  is  provided  with  small  spurs. 
An  old  hen  has  red  and  rough  legs ; an  old 
cock’s  legs  are  very  rough  and  the  spurs  long. 
The  fatter  turkeys  are  the  better ; they  cannot 
be  too  fat.  The  breast  should  be  broad  and 
the  skin  white.  The  bird  is  fresh  enough  as 
long  as  the  legs  are  not  stiff. 

Wild  Turkeys  are  in  season  in  the  months 
of  November,  December  and  January,  but  are 
in  the  best  condition  in  January.  Their  flesh 
is  darker,  more  succulent,  and  at  the  same 
time  more  delicate  than  that  of  the  tame  tur- 
key, and  is  unsurpassed  by  that  of  any  other 
game  bird.  They  are  sent  to  the  Eastern  mar- 
kets from  Pennsylvania  and  from  further  West, 
in  a frozen  state ; they  are  generally  sold  with 
all  their  feathers  on.  Their  usual  weight  is 
from  nine  to  twenty  pounds.  Wild  turkey  is 
prepared  and  served  in  exactly  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  tame. 

Baked  Turkey. — When  cleaned,  stuffed, 
and  trussed,  put  the  turkey  in  a baking-pan, 
with  a little  cold  water  in  the  bottom,  spread 
some  butter  over  it,  sprinkle  salt  all  over,  cover 
with  a piece  of  buttered  paper,  and  set  in  a 
quick  oven  ; baste  often,  and  turn  the  bird 
over  and  around  if  necessary.  It  takes  from 
an  hour  and  a half  to  two  hours  to  bake  a tur- 
key. It  is  served  with  the  gravy  only,  after 
having  removed  the  fat,  or  with  cranberry 
sauce,  or  currant  jelly. 

Boiled  Turkey. — An  old  turkey  will  answer 
for  this,  though  a young  hen  is  better.  After 
drawing,  wash  the  inside  exceedingly  clean, 
wipe  it^ry  on  a towel,  and  fill  the  breast  with 
bread-cnimb,  chestnut  or  oyster  stuffing,  re. 
ceipts  for  which  are  given  under  Stuffings. 
In  trussing  it  draw  the  legs  into  the  body,  break 
the  breast-bone,  and  give  the  bird  as  round  and 
plump  an  appearance  as  possible.  Put  it  into 
plenty  of  warm  water,  or  into  as  much  boiling 
water  as  will  rise  an  inch  above  it,  and  when  it 
has  boiled  ten  minutes,  cool  it  down  by  the  ad- 


542 


TURKEY 


TURKISH  BATII 


dition  of  cold  water,  and  then  take  out  a por- 
tion of  it,  leaving  only  as  much  as  will  keep 
the  bird  entirely  covered  until  it  is  ready  for 


table.  Clear  off  the  scum  carefully  as  it  rises 
to  the  surface,  and  boil  the  bird  very  gc7itly 
from  an  hour  and  a half  to  two  hours  and  a 
quarter,  according  to  size.  When  oyster  stuf- 
fing is  used,  a large  tureen  of  rich  oyster-sauce 
should  be  served  with  it ; but  celery  sauce,  or 
good  white  sauce  or  chopped  parsley  in  drawn 
butter,  will  answer  otherwise. 

Boned  Turkey. — For  directions  howto  bone 
Turkey,  see  Boned  Fowl. 

Ragout  of  Turkey. — Cut  the  cold  turkey 
that  is  left  over  from  a roast  or  boil  into  bits 
an  inch  long.  Put  into  a saucepan  the  gravy 
left  from  the  roast,  adding  a little  water  if  the 
quantity  be  small ; add  a tablespoonful  of  but- 
ter, a teaspoonful  of  some  pungent  sauce,  half 
a teaspoonful  of  cloves,  a little  grated  nutmeg, 
and  a little  salt ; when  it  boils  up,  put  in  the 
meat;  stew  very  gently  for  ten  minutes,  and 
then  stir  in  a tablespoonful  of  cranberry  or 
currant  jelly,  a teaspoonful  of  browned  flour 
wet  in  a little  cold  water,  and  a wineglassful  of 
sherry  or  Madeira;  boil  up  once,  and  serve  in 
a covered  dish.  A ragout  without  spice,  jelly, 
or  wine,  is  generally  preferred. 

Roast  Turkey. — In  very  cold  weather  a 
turkey  in  its  feathers  will  hang  for  a fortnight 
with  advantage.  Pluck,  draw,  and  singe  very 
carefully ; wash,  and  then  dry  it  thoroughly 
with  clean  cloths ; fill  with  common  bread- 
crumb stuffing,  or  with  sausage-meat,  or  chest- 
nuts ( See  Stuffing)  ; truss  firmly,  and  lay 


the  bird  before  a clear  hot  fire  ; roast  from  an 
hour  and  a half  to  two  hours,  basting  con- 
stantly and  bountifully  with  butter.  S<bi  ve  with 
its  own  gravy  and  cranberry  sauce. 

A turkey  should  be  laid  at  first  far  from  the 
fire,  and  drawn  nearer  when  half  done,  though 
never  sufficiently  near  to  scorch  it.  It  is  usual 
to  fold  and  fasten  a sheet  of  buttered  writing 
paper  over  the  breast  to  prevent  its  being  too 
much  browned  ; this  should  be  removed  twenty 
minutes  before  the  bird  is  done. 


Stewed  Turkey. — An  old  turkey  is  more 
tender  stewed  than  when  cooked  in  any  other 
way.  Put  into  a large  pot  half  a pound  of 
bacon  cut  in  slices,  a quarter  of  a pound  of 
knuckle  of  veal,  three  sprigs  of  parsley,  two 
of  thyme,  six  small  onions,  one  carrot  cut  in 
small  pieces,  three  cloves,  salt  and  pepper,  and 
then  the  turkey ; add  a pint  each  of  broth  and 
white  wine,  cover  as  closely  as  possible,  and 
simmer  gently  about  two  hours  and  a half;  then 
turn  the  turkey  over,  and  put  it  back  on  the  fire 
for  another  two  hours  and  a half  ; dish  the 
turkey ; strain  the  sauce,  put  it  back  on  the 
fire,  and  after  reducing  it  to  a glaze  spread  it 
over  the  turkey  and  serve.  Some  prefer  stewed 
turkey  when  cold. 

TURKISH  BATH.— The  Turkish  bath,  as 
commonly  given  in  this  country,  consists  in 
placing  the  bather  in  an  apartment  heated  by 
stoves  or  steam  pipes  to  a temperature  of  i io° 
to  i r»5° ; in  a short  time,  as  soon  as  the  pores 
of  the  skin  begin  to  open  and  perspiration  ap- 
pears, the  bather  passes  into  a still  hotter 
chamber,  where  there  is  a temperature  of  from 
1 40°  to  2oo°,  and  where  he  remains  until  pro- 
fuse perspiration  is  induced.  He  then  passes 
into  a wash-room  having  a reduced  tempera- 
ture, where  his  whole  body  is  shampooed,  then 
washed  and  scrubbed  with  soap  and  warm  wa- 
ter, and  then  cooled  with  the  spray  bath ; he 
then  plunges  into  a swimming-bath  at  the  ordi- 
nary atmospheric  temperature,  which  completes 
the  ablutions.  He  is  then  properly  dried, 
enveloped  in  a dry  sheet,  and  conducted  to  the 
cooling-room,  where,  wrapped  in  a blanket,  he 
reclines  until  his  body  is  thoroughly  dry  and 
brought  to  its  normal  temperature. 

When  we  consider  that  the  skin  contains  no 
less  than  seven  million  pores,  designed  to  as- 
sist the  several  secretive  organs  in  discharging 
refuse  matter  from  the  system,  some  idea  may 
be  formed  of  the  vast  importance  of  keeping 
it  in  a perfectly  healthy  state;  and  the  fact  that 
the  Turkish  bath  contributes  very  largely  to 
this  renders  it  a hygienic  agent  of  the  first  or- 
der. There  is  no  doubt  also  that  in  all  dis- 
eases caused  by  obstruction  or  impairment  of 
the  functions  of  the  secretive  organs,  the  bath 
is  a most  useful  remedy ; while  in  sub-acute 
rheumatism  and  other  rheumatic  affections,  in 
colds,  influenza,  catarrh,  etc.,  it  is  recognized 
as  a specific.  As  to  the  advantages  and  gene- 
ral physiological  effect  of  the  Turkish  bath, 
we  cannot  do  better  than  quote  from  a work 
to  which  we  have  already  referred  more  than 
once — Hinton’s  “ Physiology  for  Practical 
Use.” 

“The  Turkish  bath,”  he  says,  “has  its  chief 
use  as  a means  of  thorough  cleansing.  Not, 
indeed,  that  by  it,  as  some  of  its  too  enthusi- 
astic advocates  have  implied,  every  kind  of 
morbid  agent  can  be  washed  out  of  the  blood. 
Diseases  cannot  be  filtered  away  through  the 
sweat-glands.  Still,  by  the  profuse  perspira- 
tion which  the  high  temperature  induces,  aided 
by  the  drinking  of  a few  tumblers  of  water,  a 
great  deal  of  highly  objectionable  matter  may 


TURNIP 


TURPENTINE 


543 


be  got  rid  of.  Persons  with  weak  hearts  should 
be  careful  how  they  have  recourse  to  the  Turk- 
ish bath,  although  in  some  cases,  under  care- 
ful medical  supervision,  persons  suffering  from 
confirmed  heart-disease  have  derived  the  great- 
est benefit  from  its  use.  But  for  all  other  per- 
sons an  occasional  recourse  to  it  is  a legitimate 
luxury,  and  for  some  a decided  advantage.  1 he 
temperature  of  the  heated  air,  however,  should 
not  exceed  150°,  except  under  medical  advice, 
or  after  careful  trial.  If  exhilaration  and  a 
feeling  of  increased  lightness  and  proneness  to 
exertion  follow,  benefit  has  been  gained;  if 
lassitude  and  exhaustion,  the  bath  is  unsuita- 
ble, or  its  duration  or  temperature  should  be 
diminished. 

“ The  free  perspiration  induced  by  the  Turk- 
ish bath,  judiciously  taken,  is  in  some  cases 
beneficial ; but  it  should  not  be  supposed  that 
there  is  any  special  virtue  in  this  means  of  in- 
ducing it.  Active  exercise  is  a better  one  for 
all  persons  who  can  take  > it ; and  a walk  or  a 
game,  which  within  the  *bounds  of  moderate 
fatigue  produces  a copious  secretion  from  the 
skin,  and  on  which  no  chill  is  allowed  to  super- 
vene, does  fully  as  much  to  eliminate  ill  ma- 
terials from  the  blood  as  the  most  sedulous 
votary  of  the  Turkish  bath  can  attain.  The 
latter,  indeed,  regarded  as  a means  of  health, 
may  be  looked  upon  most  justly  as  a kind  of 
substitute  for  bodily  exertion  when  this  is  unat- 
tainable through  lack  of  strength  or  time ; a 
substitute,  that  is,  in  this  one  respect,  but  by 
no  means  in  all,  for  exercise  does  much  more 
for  us  than  merely  carrying  off  fluid  through 
the  skin.  The  Turkish  bath,  accordingly,  is  most 
suitable  for  those  who,  from  unavoidable  causes, 
are  compelled  to  lead  sedentary  lives,  especially 
if  they  suffer  from  want  of  activity  of  the  se- 
creting organs.  To  them  it  affords  a partial 
supplement  for  more  natural  and  effective 
sources  of  invigoration.  It  is  useful  also  for 
those  to  whom  the  free  use  of  cold  water  with- 
out previous  warmth  is  too  severe  a shock,  the 
high  temperature  drawing  the  blood  freely  to 
the  surface  of  the  body,  and  so  preparing  it  to 
receive  with  advantage  the  cold  affusion  with 
which  the  bath  concludes.  For  the  principle 
on  which  cold  succeeds  warmth  in  the  Turkish 
bath — and  it  is  one  which  all  bathers  should 
bear  in  mind,  as  it  determines  whether  the  prac- 
tice is  beneficial  or  the  reverse — is  this,  that 
the  circulation  in  the  skin  should  be  vigorous, 
and  the  temperature  accordingly  warm,  so  that 
the  temporary  depression  from  the  cold  may 
be  followed  by  a vigorous  reaction.” 

In  another  part  of  the  work  he  adds  that 
“ perhaps  no  means  of  hardening  the  body 
against  taking  cold  is  more  valuable  than  the 
hot-air  or  Turkish  bath.  We  have  found  this 
practical  in  numerous  cases.  Nor  is  it  diffi- 
cult to  understand  how  this  is  effected.  The 
apertures  of  the  sweat-pores  are  thrown  open 
by  the  high  temperature  of  the  bath,  and  while 
in  this  condition  are  suddenly,  but  only  for  the 
instant,  closed  by  the  cold  water  douche  with 
which  the  process  of  the  bath  ends.  A brac- 


ing effect  is  by  this  means  produced  in  the 
skin  and  its  pores,  by  which  the  tendency  to  a 
more  permanent  contraction  is  prevented.” 

TURNIP. — This  is  one  of  the  most  easily 
cultivated  of  vegetables,  as  it  will  thrive  in 
almost  any  soil,  whether  of  the  garden  or  field. 
Those  for  table  use  are  best  when  grown  in 
moderately  rich  and  dry  garden  soil ; the  seed 
should  be  sown  in  the  early  spring  in  rows 
about  eighteen  inches  apart  and  half  an  inch 
deep.  The  Red  Top  Strap  leaved  and  the 
White  Strap  leaved  are  the  best  white-fleshed 
turnips,  either  for  early  summer  or  winter  use. 
Among  the  yellow-fleshed,  Robertson' s Golden 
Ball  and  Early  Yellow  Finland  are  the  finest 
grained  and  most  delicately  flavored.  The  Ruta- 
baga or  Swedish  turnip  is  excellent  for  winter 
use.  Middle-sized  turnips  are  best  for  the  table, 
as  the  larger  ones  are  apt  to  be  spongy.  The 
season  for  new  turnips  commences  about  the 
1st  of  June,  and  continues  with  the  different 
varieties  throughout  the  year.  The  tops  of  the 
Ruta-baga  turnips,  when  quite  young,  make  ex- 
cellent greens. 

Boiled  Turnips. — Pare'  the  fibrous  rind  en- 
tirely away  from  them,  and  either  split  them 
once  or  leave  them  whole ; throw  them  into 
boiling  water,  slightly  salted,  and  keep  them 
closely  covered  till  they  are  tender.  When 
small  and  young  they  will  be  done  in  from  fif- 
teen to  twenty  minutes  ; old  and  large  ones  will 
require  from  three-quarters  to  a full  hour  of 
gentle  boiling.  When  boiled  in  their  skins  and 
pared  afterwards,  turnips  are  said  to  be  of  bet- 
ter flavor,  and  much  less  watery  than  when 
cooked  in  the  usual  way. 

Mashed  Turnips. — Pare  them;  cut  into  thin 
slices  and  cover  (twice  their  depth)  with  cold 
water;  cover  the  kettle,  and  boil  the  turnips 
as  quickly  as  possible,  to  prevent  their  chang- 
ing color.  To  ensure  their  being  free  from 
lumps  it  is  better  to  press  them  through  a col- 
ander or  coarse  hair  sieve  with  a wooden  spoon; 
though,  when  quite  young,  they  may  be  worked 
sufficiently  smooth  without  this.  Put  them  into 
a saucepan  and  stir  them  constantly  on  a slow 
fire,  that  they  maybe  thoroughly  dry  ; then  add 
some  salt,  a bit  of  butter,  and  a little  cream  or 
new  milk,  and  continue  to  simmer  and  stir  them 
for  five  minutes  longer,  or  until  they  have  quite 
absorbed  all  the  liquid  that  has  been  poured  to 
them.  Serve  them  always  as  hot  as  possible. 

Stewed  in  Butter. — This  is  an  excellent  way 
of  preparing  turnips,  when  they  are  mild  and 
finely  grained;  but  their  flavor  otherwise  is  too 
strong  to  be  agreeable.  After  paring  them  as 
above,  cut  them  into  slices  nearly  half  an  inch 
thick,  and  divide  these  into  dice.  Put  an  ounce 
of  butter  for  each  half  pound  of  the  turnips  into 
a stewing  pan,  and  when  it  is  melted  lay  them 
in  as  flat  as  possible,  and  stew  them  very  gently 
from  three-quarters  of  an  hour  to  an  hour ; add 
a seasoning  of  salt  and  white  pepper  when  they 
are  half  done.  When  thus  prepared  they  may 
be  dished  in  the  centre  of  fried  or  broiled  mut- 
ton chops,  or  served  by  themselves. 

TURPENTINE. — A mixture  of  oil  and 


544 


TURTLE 


TYPHOID  FEVER 


resin  exuding  from  the  pine,  especially  from  I 
the  yellow  pine  of  the  Southern  States.  From 
this  exudation  oil  of  turpentine  is  distilled  : the 
dry  substance  remaining  is  resin.  Turpentine 
is  a valuable  remedy,  used  both  internally  and 
externally.  Applied  to  the  skin,  it  is  a power- 
ful stimulant,  acting  like  mustard.  As  a coun- 
ter irritant  in  diseases  of  the  bowels,  sprinkle 
a small  quantity  upon  a flannel  cloth,  wrung 
out  in  hot  water.  It  enters  into  soap  liniment, 
and  is  also  used  on  burns,  scalds,  and  the 
like.  If  retained  it  speedily  causes  tape  worm 
to  be  expelled  dead.  As  a stimulant  and 
diuretic,  the  dose  is  from  half  a dram  to  a 
dram  ; for  tape  worms,  half  an  ounce.  Only 
take  under  physician’s  advice. 

TURTLE. — Green  turtle  is  the  most  highly 
esteemed.  The  flesh  is  of  three  colors,  the 
dark  red  being  called  beef,  a lighter  part  veal, 
and  the  lightest  of  all,  lamb.  The  fat  is  green- 
ish in  color.  Steaks  are  taken  from  the  fore- 
quarter. In  preparing,  hang  up  by  the  hind 
fins,  and  cut  off  the  head  ; five  or  six  hours 
afterwards  take  down,  and  carefully  cut  off 
both  shells ; then  remove  the  viscera,  and  cut 
up  as  desired.  Green  turtles  from  the  West 
indies,  Florida,  etc.,  are  in  market  from  May 
to  cold  weather,  and  occasionally  in  winter. 
The  “ terrapin  ” of  the  salt  marshes  of  the 
lower,  middle  and  upper  Southern  States  is  the 
epicure’s  delight  in  Philadelphia,  Baltimore 
and  Washington.  It  weighs  from  three  to 
eight  pounds,  and  is  sold  by  “ counts,”  a 
count  meaning  three  inches  breadth  of  the  low- 
er shell,  those  under  that  measure  sell  two  as 
one.  Several  species  of  turtles  are  sold  as  ter- 
rapin, but  the  dark-shelled  “ diamond-back  ” is 
the  genuine,  though  some  declare  the  others 
tc  be  just  as  good. 

The  soft-shelled  turtle  is  also  very  highly 
esteemed.  It  has  a dark  slate-colored  shell, 
with  numerous  spots  on  it,  the  head,  neck,  feet, 
and  tail  are  variegated  with  white  and  black. 
A small,  fat,  logger-head  turtle  makes  tolerable 
soup.  The  ordinary  snapping  turtle,  weigh- 
ing from  two  to  five  pounds,  is  very  nutritious 
and  savory ; the  larger  ones  have  generally  a 
strong  musky  flavor.  The  fresh-water  turtles 
found  in  ponds  and  rivers,  are  very  good.  The 
female  of  all  turtles  is  preferred  on  account  of 
the  eggs  she  generally  carries. 

Terrapin  (and  we  presume  turtles  generally) 
can  be  kept  in  the  cellar  for  weeks  without 
food.  Being  “ cold-blooded,”  they  require  no 
heat-making  sustenance,  and  as  they  lie  nearly 
- torpid,  they  waste  no  muscle.  It  is  said  that 
a turtle  has  spme  odor  which  will  keep  a cellar 
free  from  rats  or  mice. 

Dried  Turtle,  put  up  in  the  West  Indies, 
may  be  had  at  the  leading  groceries.  Prop- 
erly handled,  it  makes  almost  as  good  a soup 
as  the  fresh  turtle,  and  is  very  much  more  eco- 
nomical. 

Soup  (Turtle).  (See  Soups.) 

Steaks  (Turtle). — Cooked  like  beef-steak. 

Stewed  Turtle,  or  Terrapin.  Recipe  I. 
From  Baltimo're. — Drop  two  full-sized  terra- 


pins into  boiling  water,  with  a little  salt,  boil 
until  the  upper  shell  will  readily  come  off,  which 
takes  about  an  hour.  Remove  it  very  carefully, 
take  out  the  gall  without  breaking  it  (it  is  im- 
bedded in  one  of  the  livers),  and  the  sand-bag 
and  the  intestines  if  desired,  though  some  con- 
sider them  quite  equal  to  the  flesh.  Pick  up  the 
meat  in  small  pieces,  being  careful  to  leave  in 
all  the  bones.  Save  the  juice  and  place  it  on 
the  fire  in  a saucepan  ; if  not  sufficient  in  itself 
for  the  sauce,  add  boiling  water.  Put  in  the 
terrapin,  and  when  thoroughly  heated  add  a 
quarter  of  a pound  of  fresh  butter,  creamed 
with  one  tablespoonful  of  plain  flour  and  one 
of  browned  flour  ; salt  and  pepper  to  taste,  and 
put  in  half  a teaspoonful  of  ground  clove.  Boil 
the  whole  about  ten  minutes,  stirring  to  pre- 
vent scorching.  Before  removing  from  the 
pan  stir  in  a gill  of  good  sherry,  or  port  wine. 
Most  persons,  not  living  near  its  native  haunts, 
ruin  terrapin  by  adding  too  many  things,  which 
detract  from  the  flavor. 

Recipe  II.  From  Philadelphia . — Boil  and 
prepare  the  meat  as  above.  One  gall  bag  used 
to  three  or  four  terrapins  may  improve  the 
flavor.*  Clean  the  entrails  and  break  them  in 
inch  pieces.  To  each  full  sized  terrapin  take 
one  quarter  pound  of  butter,  and  rub  it  with  one 
tablespoonful  of  flour,  the  yolk  of  an  egg,  half 
boiled,  and  one  wineglass  of  cream.  You  may 
add  now  the  salt,  pepper,  cloves,  mace,  nutmeg, 
cayenne  and  mushroom  catsup.  But  some 
prefer  salt  and  cayenne  pepper  only:  Just  add 
as  you  serve  one  wineglassful  of  sherry,  port, 
or  claret.  These  articles  all  being  in  your 
saucepan  or  chafing  dish,  let  them  boil  quietly 
for  a few  moments  ; a slice  of  a lemon  is  some- 
times added.  If  you  need  more  gravy  than  is 
produced  by  the  pieces  of  the  terrapin  in  cut- 
ting up,  throw  back  the  shells  into  the  water 
and  boil  longer ; the  water  can  be  used  as  a 
stock,  and  is  very  gelatinous. 

TUTTI-FRUTTI.— Ice-cream  with  small 
fruits  (either  preserved  or  fresh)  frozen  in  it. 
Sponge  cake  and  candied  chestnuts  are  some- 
times added. 

TWEED. — A woollen  fabric  of  light  sub- 
stance, lately  much  used  for  summer  clothing. 
It  is  a yard  wide,  and  should  be  shrunk  before 
cutting. 

TWILL. — A variety  of  cloth  in  which  a kind 
of  diagonal  ribbed  appearance  is  produced  on 
the  surface.  It  is  of  wool  or  silk,  the  former 
being  employed  for  gentlemen’s  clothing,  and 
the  latter  chiefly  for  linings. 

TYPHOID  FEVER. — A continued  infec- 
tious fever,  caused,  according  to  present  views, 
chiefly  by  defective  drains,  neglected  privies, 
and  sewer  gas,  lasting  an  uncertain  period  of 
from  four  to  six  weeks,  and  sometimes  followed 
by  a relapse.  The  exciting  causes  are  conta- 
gion and  spontaneous  degenerations.  Those 
nursing  the  sick  from  this  disease  sometimes 
catch  it,  but  probably  from  the  emanations  of 
the  excrement  or  clothing. 

| * Iiiit  the  editor  would  not  like  to  try  it,  although  the  recipe 

came  from  high  authority. 


TYPHOID  FEVER 


545 


Whenever  any  drainage  soaks  from  the  surface 
into  a well  used  for  drinking  purposes,  or  when 
sewer  gas  escapes  into  the  house  by  a leaky 
pipe,  or  when  the  traps  are  out  of  order,  or 
when  one  drinks  foul  and  stagnant  water,  into 
which  any  drainage  from  manure  can  enter, 
then  arise  the  conditions  which  excite  the  dis- 
ease. 

Symptoms.— The  onset  of  typhoid  fever  is 
always  very  gradual  and  insidious ; it  begins 
with  feeling  out  of  sorts,  aching  pains  in  the 
limbs,  headache,  loss  of  appetite,  and  chilliness  ; 
for  many  days  the  sufferer  is  able  to  go  about 
and  think  that  there  is  not  much  the  matter. 
Sometimes  there  is  diarrhoea,  or  some  intesti- 
nal disturbance , then  the  pulse  is  quicker,  the 
skin  hot,  and  the  tongue  red  and  dry.  The 
nights  are  disturbed  and  restless,  and  he  does 
not  care  for  any  exertion.  At  the  end  of  the 
first  week,  or  often  later,  he  takes  to  his  bed, 
and  it  is  found  that  he  is  feverish,  has  no  appe- 
tite, is  thirsty,  and  his  bowels  are  generally  re- 
laxed. The  urine  is  scanty  and  high-colored  ; 
there  is  still  more  restlessness  at  night ; there 
is  no  stupid,  heavy  expression  as  in  typhus,  nor 
are  the  eyes  suffused  ; on  the  contrary,  the  face 
is  often  pale  and  the  cheeks  have  a pink  flush, 
and  the  eyes  are  clear  and  bright.  Between 
the  seventh  and  the  twelfth  day  the  peculiar 
eruption  appears  on  the  chest,  abdomen,  and 
back,  and  it  consists  of  a few  slightly-raised, 
rose-colored  spots,  which  disappear  on  pres- 
sure under  the  finger  and  fade  away  in  two  or 
three  days,  but  in  the  meantime  others  appear, 
so  that  several  crops  are  noticed,  and  fresh 
ones  may  be  seen  every  day.  If  now  the  hand 
is  pressed  over  the  right  side  of  the  abdomen 
there  may  be  a feeling  or  expression  of  pain, 
and  one  may  also  feel  a gurgling  under  the  fing- 
ers. About  the  middle  of  the  second  week  de- 
lirium comes  on,  at  first  slight  and  only  noticed 
at  night,  and  then  more  constant,  intense,  and 
noisy.  The  tongue  is  dry,  red,  and  glazed,  and 
often  cracked  in  various  directions  ; in  children, 
however,  it  may  sometimes  remain  moist  and 
white  the  whole  time,  and  in  very  young  cases 
also  you  do  not  always  see  any  rash  at  all.  As 
the  disease  advances  the  patient  loses  flesh 
and  strength ; he  lies  prostrate  and  perhaps 
unconscious  of  what  is  going  on  around,  and  if 
it  end  fatally,  he  will  become  quite  insensible, 
have  a markedly  high  temperature,  and  fumble 
at  the  bed  clothes.  If  the  disease  progress 
favorably  the  amendment  is  very  gradual,  and 
for  this  the  temperature  is  a pretty  good  guide. 
The  temperature  rises  from  the  first,  but  not  so 
suddenly  as  in  typhus  and  relapsing  fevers  ; at 
the  end  of  the  first  week  it  may  be  1040  or  1050, 
being  generally  highest  towards  evening;  it 
keeps  high  with  slight  oscillations  for  about 
twenty-one  days,  and  then  a fall  may  often  be 
noticed  in  the  morning,  although  it  ascends 
again  at  night,  and  these  daily  variations  are 
very  marked  and  may  cover  three  or  four 
degrees ; at  about  the  thirtieth  day,  or  a little 
later,  the  symptoms  are  decidedly  less  severe 
in  ordinary  cases ; the  tongue  cleans ; there  is 
35 


less  prostration  and  delirium,  and  a general  im- 
provement is  manifested.  But  then  a relapse 
may  ensue,  and  the  temperature  will  again  rise, 
and  the  patient  go  through  a second  attack,  but 
this  is  much  shorter  than  the  first. 

Complications. — Typhoid  fever  is  a very 
dangerous  disease,  because  there  are  so  many 
accidents  to  which  patients  are  liable.  Diar- 
rhoea may  be  very  profuse  and  exhaust  the 
patient,  but  as  a rule  diarrhoea  is  not  a very  bad 
symptom,  and  should  be  left  alone,  unless  very 
profuse.  Bleeding  from  the  bowels,  when  it 
occurs  in  any  large  quantity,  is  a very  danger- 
ous sign;  it  is  due  to  the  ulceration  of  the  in- 
testines. Bleeding  from  the  nose  is  not  often 
a bad  symptom.  Perforation  of  the  bowel  is 
very  likely  to  occur  between  the  twenty-fifth 
and  thirty-second  day,  and  even  later,  and  this 
may  be  brought  on  by  an  error  of  diet ; it  is  at- 
tended by  collapse  and  is  very  fatal.  Inflamma- 
tion of  the  peritoneum,  either  with  or  without 
perforation,  adds  greatly  to  the  danger.  Bron- 
chitis and  pneumonia  may  supervene  and  in- 
crease the  general  mischief.  Some  cases  are 
very  mild,  others  very  severe,  and  there  is,  per- 
haps, no  fever  which  varies  more  in  its  forms, 
nor  about  which  so  much  anxiety  and  uncer- 
tainty must  exist  with  regard  to  a successful 
issue,  nor  is  one  safe  till  recovery  is  fully  es- 
tablished. In  many  cases  it  is  most  difficult  to 
be  certain  of  the  nature  of  the  case  in  the  first 
week.  It  is  most  likely  to  be  mistaken  in  child- 
ren for  acute  tuberculosis ; or  it  may  be  looked 
upon  as  the  so-called  gastric  fever  or  gastric 
irritation  ; or  it  may  resemble  the  symptoms  of 
arsenical  poisoning.  It  may  be  as  well  to  say 
here  that  there  is  no  such  disease  as  gastric 
fever;  it  either  means  typhoid  fever  or  it  is  a 
disturbance  of  the  stomach  and  intestines  from 
poisoning  or  eating  unripe  fruit. 

Treatment. — As  regards  ventilation,  nursing 
cleanliness,  disinfectants,  etc.,  the  rules  laid 
down  in  the  article  or  Typhus  Fever  apply  to 
typhoid  fever  also,  and  need  not  be  repeated 
here.  Yet  there  are  some  special  points  which 
are  of  importance.  The  diarrhoea  need  seldom 
be  checked  unless  excessive,  and  then  a starch 
injection  with  laudanum  may  be  given  ; if  there 
is  much  bleeding,  it  may  be  necessary  to  give 
turpentine.  There  is  no  medicine  which  can 
cure  the  fever;  the  diet  must  be  very  light,  and 
no  solid  food  should  be  taken  under  six  weeks 
or  two  months,  because,  in  consequence  of  the 
ulceration  of  the  bowels,  the  coats  are  very  thin 
and  liable  to  burst.  Eating  an  orange,  cr  a 
piece  of  potato,  or  drinking  an  effervescent 
draught,  will  cause  distension  of  the  bowel  and 
may  rupture  it,  just  when  the  patient  is  doing 
well  otherwise  ; the  greatest  precaution  should 
be  taken  during  the  third  and  fourth  weeks,  as 
then  it  is  most  liable  to  occur.  Milk  must  form 
the  main  article  of  diet,  and  then  an  egg  or  two 
may  be  beaten  up  in  it,  or  a custard  may  be 
given,  and  beef-tea;  then  a small  piece  of  mut- 
ton, and  so  on  gradually  to  more  solid  food.  If 
there  is  much  distension  of  the  bowels,  hot 
flannels,  on  which  is  sprinkled  a little  turpen- 


546 


TYPHUS  FEVER 


tine,  should  be  applied.  For  information  as  to 
disinfection,  See  Disinfectants. 

TYPHUS  FEVER.— This  is  a highly  con- 
tagious fever,  attacking  people  of  all  ages,  which 
occurs  in  an  epidemic  form,  and  generally  in 
periods  of  famine  and  destitution.  It  has  been 
known  at  different  times  under  different  names  ; 
thus  it  has  been  called  pestilential  fever,  brain 
fever,  putrid  continual  fever,  camp  fever,  jail 
fever,  etc.  Typhus  is  chiefly  met  with  in  cold 
and  temperate  climates ; never  in  the  tropics. 
The  chief  cause  is  contagion,  or  the  transmis- 
sion of  the  disease  from  one  person  to  another; 
the  other  causes  so-called,  such  as  mental  de- 
pression, overwork,  anxiety,  insufficient  food, 
overcrowding,  and  bad  ventilation,  only  render 
the  system  more  liable  to  the  action  of  the 
poison.  It  is  very  rare  fora  person  who  has 
had  the  fever  once  to  have  it  a second  time. 
Habits  of  intemperance  increase  the  danger  of 
those  attacked ; corpulent  people  die  more 
frequently  than  thin  ones  ; black  people  more 
than  white  ; and  those  who  are  overworked  and 
suffer  from  mental  worry  have  the  disease  with 
most  severity. 

Symptoms. — It  is  difficult  to  say  how  long 
the  disease  may  be  incubating  in  the  system 
before  it  appears,  but  the  period  is  certainly  not 
constant,  and  seems  to  vary  from  a few  hours  to 
several  days.  The  onset  is  marked  by  a severe 
headache,  loss  of  appetite,  and  languor,  and 
aching  of  the  limbs  ; the  invasion  of  the  symp- 
toms is  not  so  sudden  as  in  relapsing  fever,  but 
much  better  marked  than  in  typhoid  fever.  For 
three  or  four  days  the  patient  gets  worse,  being 
unable  to  go  about,  and  feeling  chilly  and  pros- 
trate ; he  then  is  worse  at  night  and  restless  ; 
the  skin  is  hot,  the  tongue  coated  ; there  is 
thirst  and  sometimes  vomiting  ; by  the  third 
day  of  the  disease  most  are  obliged  to  take  to 
their  bed,  while  this  is  not  the  case  in  typhoid 
fever,  which  is  a much  more  insidious  disorder. 
There  is  a general  aspect  of  a typhus  case, 
which  an  experienced  person  will  at  one  recog- 
nize ; the  patient  lies  prostrate  on  his  back 
with  a dull  and  weary,  if  not  stupid,  expression  ; 
the  eyes  are  suffused  and  watery,  and  a dusky 
flush  overspreads  the  face.  As  the  disease  pro- 
gresses, the  eyes  are  half  shut  and  the  mouth 
open  ; he  lies  moaning  and  unable  to  move 
himself  or  answer  questions  ; the  lips  and  teeth 
are  dry  and  covered  with  sordes  and  look  black ; 
the  mouth  is  dry,  the  tongue  dry,  brown  or 
black,  and  marked  with  cracks.  The  tempera- 
ture rises  from  the  first,  and  reaches  103°  or 
104°  Fahr.  by  the  middle  of  the  first  week  ; the 
highest  temperature  reached  in  the  fever  is 
seldom  less  than  105°,  although  it  may  be 
higher,  but  the  higher  the  point  reached  the 
greater  is  the  danger;  the  fever  may  slightly 
abate,  in  favorable  cases,  about  the  ninth  or 
tenth  day  ; no  marked  fall,  however,  takes  place 
until  the  end  of  the  second  week,  and  generally 
on  the  fourteenth  day,  when  defervescence  may 
take  place  suddenly,  and  the  normal  tempera- 
ture (98-4°)  be  reached  in  twenty-four  hours, 
but  more  commonly  it  takes  two  or  three  days 


for  the  descent  to  be  accomplished.  The  tem- 
perature generally  is  highest  of  an  evening  ; 
when  defervescence  occurs  ; the  temperature 
always  goes  below  the  normal  line  so  as  to 
mark  970  or  even  96°,  and  in  a few  days  it 
becomes  natural.  This  fall  is  a very  good  sign, 
and  then  the  patient  is  generally  out  of  danger. 
A very  high  temperature  (io(j0  or  107°)  is  a 
serious  sign.  Very  often,  in  mild  cases,  the 
fever  begins  to  leave  on  the  twelfth  day.  The 
pulse  is  generally  120  in  a minute,  but  is  very 
easily  compressed  under  the  finger  ; the  heart- 
sounds,  in  very  severe  cases,  are  feeble,  and  the 
first  sound  may  even  be  inaudible.  A rash 
appears  in  nearly  every  case,  and  is  very  char- 
acteristic ; sometimes  it  looks  as  if  there  were 
a general  mottling  just  beneath  the  skin,  or 
distinct  spots  may  appear  of  small  size  and  pur- 
plish color ; they  are  irregularly  rounded,  at 
first  may  disappear  on  pressure,  but  soon  be- 
come petechial  ; oftentimes  the  two  kinds  occur 
together,  but  sometimes  separately.  The  rash 
appears  on  the  fourth  or  fifth  day,  rarely  later  ; 
it  comes  on  the  back  of  the  wrists  first,  in  the 
armpits,  and  over  the  epigastrium  ; then  it  more 
or  less  covers  the  trunk;  it  seldom  comeson 
the  face  and  neck  ; the  rash  has  something  of  a 
measly  look,  but  the  other  symptoms  are  much 
more  severe  than  are  seen  in  measles  ; the 
rash  lasts  a variable  time,  but  generally  until 
the  fourteenth  or  fifteenth  day.  No  solid  food 
can  be  taken,  but  the  patient  is  always  thirsty. 
The  bowels  in  some  cases  are  confined,  in 
others  they  are  open  too  much.  There  may 
often  be  heard  rattling  or  wheezing  noises  in 
the  chest,  and  the  more  so  when  the  face  is 
very  dusky.  The  nervous  symptoms  are  well 
marked  ; restlessness,  loss  of  sleep,  and  con- 
fusion of  thought  first  come  on  ; then  headache, 
giddiness,  a buzzing  in  the  ears,  and  deafness  ; 
in  most  cases  there  is  delirium,  and  the  patient 
is  beset  with  horrid  fancies.  In  bad  cases  he 
lies  picking  the  bed-clothes,  twitching  his  hands, 
and  muttering  to  himself  or  moaning ; or  he 
may  be  quite  unconscious  with  wide-open  eyes, 
staring  vacantly.  Loss  of  the  power  of  swallow- 
ing and  insensibility  are  very  bad  signs,  and 
generally  precede  death.  The  urine  is  passed 
involuntarily  as  well  as  the  motions  in  most 
cases,  so  that  great  cleanliness  has  to  be  ob- 
served. 

The  duration  of  typhus  may  be  from  three  to 
twenty-one  days,  but  about  fourteen  or  fifteen 
days  is  the  average  time  ; if  a case  live  more 
than  this  time,  it  will  generally  recover.  The 
termination  in  recovery  is  sometimes  quite  rapid, 
and  the  tongue  will  clean,  the  temperature  fall, 
and  the  delirium  cease  in  a day  or  two,  but 
generally  the  improvement  is  more  gradual  and 
lasts  over  three  or  four  days.  Unlike  typhoid 
fever,  there  is  no  relapse,  so  that  when  once  the 
temperature  has  come  down,  the  best  hopes 
may  be  entertained  ; nor  is  he  liable  to  peri- 
tonitis or  perforation  of  the  bowel,  as  in  typhoid 
fever. 

Treatment. — The  patient  must  be  placed  in 
a large  well-ventilated  room,  where  draughts 


ULCERS 


547 


may  be  avoided  ; he  should  have  his  bed  so 
situated  that  the  light  from  a window  will  not 
fall  upon  his  face,  as  this  is  annoying  ; all 
curtains,  carpets,  and  bed-hangings  should  be 
at  once  removed ; the  bed  should  not  be  too  soft, 
and  a macintosh  or  india-rubber  sheet  should 
be  placed  under  the  patient.  He  should  not  be 
allowed  to  exert  himself  in  any  way,  as  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  that  he  husband  all  his 
strength.  The  greatest  cleanliness  must  be 
observed  and  all  excreta  removed  at  once,  and 
carbolic  acid  or  chloride  of  lime  should  be 
mixed  with  them  ; soiled  linen  should  be  put 
into  a tub  containing  some  carbolic  acid.  Bed- 
sores are  very  liable  to  form  on  the  back,  and  so 
the  nurse  must  always  be  on  the  look-out  and 
try  to  prevent  them  by  smoothing  the  sheets, 
drying  the  patient,  and  rubbing  brandy  and 
balsam  of  Peru  over  the  part ; better  still  to  have 
a water  cushion  or  water  bed.  The  skin  may  be 
sponged  down  with  tepid  water,  one  part  being 
sponged  at  a time,  so  as  to  prevent  any  undue 
chill  of  the  surface  from  exposure  ; this  relieves 
the  patient  and  partly  counteracts  that  disagree- 
able smell  which  the  skin  gives  off  in  typhus 
cases.  None  but  the  nurse  and  doctor  should 
see  the  patient  ; all  noises  must  be  stopped 
and  perfect  quiet  enjoined  ; at  night  there  may 
be  a small  light  in  the  room,  but  so  placed  as 
not  to  disturb  the  patient.  Milk  must  be  the 
chief  article  of  diet,  and  is  best  given  cold  ; an 
egg  or  two  may  be  beaten  up  in  it,  and  three  or 
four  pints  of  milk  may  be  given  in  the  twenty- 
four  hours ; this  must  be  done  at  regular  inter- 
vals of  two  hours,  in  equal  quantities,  special 
care  being  taken  that  it  is  given  at  night  and 


in  the  early  morning,  when  prostration  is  greatest. 
Beef-tea  and  broths,  jellies,  extract  of  beef,  cus- 
tards, etc.,  may  be  given  if  the  patient  can  take 
them  and  wants  them.  For  drinks  in  the  early 
stage,  lemonade,  cold  tea,  or  soda-water  may  be 
given,  but  do  not  let  him  have  too  much  effer- 
vescent drinks ; in  bad  cases  the  nurse  will 
have  plenty  to  do  to  get  the  milk  down.  Stim- 
ulants are  very  useful,  but  the  quantity  must 
vary  with  each  case  and  be  left  to  the  doctor’s 
judgment.  Brandy  is  the  best  stimulant,  and 
may  be  given  with  iced  milk;  too  much  must 
not  be  given  at  first,  as  it  causes  oppression 
and  inability  to  take  nutrient  food  ; but  after- 
wards, in  the  stage  of  great  prostration,  its  pro- 
per and  careful  administration  may  save  the 
patient’s  life. 

Albumen  is  often  present  in  the  urine  in 
typhus,  but  calls  for  no  special  treatment.  Much 
care  must  be  taken,  however,  that  there  is  no 
retention  of  urine  in  the  bladder,  as  that  organ 
is  very  liable  to  be  paralyzed.  When  the  crisis 
has  passed  and  the  tongue  cleans,  some  boiled 
mutton  may  be  given  ; also  jellies,  custards, 
light  puddings,  etc.  The  stimulants  may  then 
be  diminished.  If,  however,  convalescence  is 
retarded  by  bedsores  or  the  formation  of 
abcesses,  the  stimulant  must  be  continued  and 
solid  food  given  sparingly.  In  some  cases  of 
typhus  the  mind  is  childish  for  some  time  after 
recovery,  but  a trip  to  the  country,  good  food, 
and  plenty  of  fresh  air  will  complete  a cure. 

In  order  to  prevent  typhus  spreading,  the 
patient  must  be  completely  isolated.  For  the 
measures  to  adopt  in  disinfecting  the  clothes, 
room,  etc.,  See  Disinfectants. 


U 


ULCERS. — The  favorite  seat  of  ulcers  on 
the  surface  of  the  body  is  the  legs  ; here  the 
ulceration  is  generally  due  to  local  irritation 
and  obstruction  of  the  circulation  (varicose 
veins).  Ulcers,  when  present  in  parts  of  the 
body  above  the  knees,  are  usually  dependent 
upon  some  constitutional  affection,  such  as 
typhus  or  scrofula,  or  are  connected  with  some 
form  of  cancer.  In  these  cases,  of  course,  the 
treatment  must  be  general  and  directed  to  the 
originating  disease.  The  only  ulcers  which  are 
frequent  enough  to  require  mention  here,  or 
which  can  be  safely  trusted  to  domestic  treat- 
ment, are  inflammatory  ulcers  and  chronic  or 
indolent  ulcers. 

The  Inflammatory  Ulcer  is  met  with  gener- 
ally in  front  of  and  on  the  lower  half  of  the  leg, 
and  is  usually  due  to  slight  injury,  such  as  grazed 
or  broken  skin.  As  a rule  the  patient  is  either  a 
plethoric  individual,  whose  health  has  been  im- 
paired by  excesses  in  diet,  or  one  advanced  in 
years  and  exhausted  in  consequence  of  hard 
work  and  insufficient  nourishment.  The  sore  is 
small  and  circular  and  usually  single  ; its  base 
is  covered  with  small  granulations  of  a brown- 


ish-red color,  from  which  there  is  a profuse 
discharge  of  thin  and  acrid  ichor ; the  edges  of 
the  sore  are  sharply  cut,  and  the  surrounding 
skin  is  hot  and  red.  There  is  generally  severe 
burning  pain  in  the  ulcer  and  over  the  inflamed 
skin.  The  development  of  this  troublesome  and 
painful  affection  is  favored  and  in  many  cases 
caused  by  negligence  on  the  part  of  the  patient 
or  by  inability  on  his  part  to  discontinue  active 
work. 

The  treatment  of  inflammatory  ulcer  should 
consist  of  complete  rest  of  the  affected  limb  ; 
the  patient  should  remain  in  bed  with  the  limb 
elevated  on  a pillow ; the  ulcer  should  be  dress- 
ed with  a light  bread  poultice,  warm  fomenta- 
tions, or  a weak  lead  lotion.  When  the  pain 
has  subsided,  and  the  ulcer  presents  the  ap- 
pearance of  a healthy  granulating  sore,  water 
dressing,  or  a weak  solution  of  sulphate  of  zinc, 
should  be  applied,  and  the  limb  be  bandaged 
from  the  toes  to  the  middle  of  the  thigh.  Local 
applications  alone  are  quite  useless ; the  patient 
must  remain  in  bed  or  in  a recumbent  position, 
until  the  ulcer  is  changed  into  a rapidly-closing 
and  healthy  sore. 


548 


UNBOLTED  FLOUR 


UNDERGARMENTS 


The  Chronic  or  Indolent  Ulcer  is  of  fre- 
quent occurrence  among  old  and  debilitated 
individuals,  and  in  most  instances  affects  the 
lower  part  of  the  leg.  It  is  usually  of  consid- 
erable extent,  and  in  some  bad  cases  complete- 
ly encircles  the  limb.  The  surface  is  smooth 
and  glassy,  is  much  depressed  below  the  sur- 
face, and  issurrounded  by  hard  and  white  edges. 
The  skin  surrounding  the  ulcer  is  thick  and 
callous;  the  leg  below  the  ulcer  is  hide-bound, 
as  it  were,  ami  the  foot  is  often  swollen.  This 
ulcer,  though  large  and  formidable  in  appear- 
ance, is  generally  free  from  pain  and  remains 
indolent  except  when  much  irritated.  The  hard 
edges  then  rapidly  sink  down,  and  a large  and 
painful  sloughing  ulcer  is  formed. 

In  the  treatment  of  chronic  ulcers  the  es- 
sential point  is  to  establish  healthy  and  active 
granulations,  and  at  the  same  time  to  reduce  the 
thickening  and  induration  of  the  parts  around. 
The  patient  should  keep  in  the  recumbent  po- 
sition, and  take  a good  diet  with  a moderate 
amount  of  alcoholic  stimulants.  The  ulcer 
should  be  poulticed,  and  afterwards,  when  its 
surface  is  moist  and  bathed  by  a purulent  dis- 
charge, should,  together  with  the  surrounding 
hard  skin,  be  strapped  by  a surgeon  and  tightly 
bandaged.  By  this  treatment  an  indolent  ulcer, 
oval  and  not  very  large,  will  generally  be  com- 
•pletely  closed  in  the  course  of  a month  or  six 
weeks.  In  cases,  however,  where  the  ulcer  is 
old  and  very  large,  although  considerable  im- 
provement may  take  place,  and  the  raw  surface 
.may  be  much  reduced,  it  is  seldom  possible  to 
render  the  limb  sound.  There  is  always  a ten- 
dency for  the  scar  formed  over  a chronic  ulcer 
to  break  down  and  slough  whenever  the  patient 
begins  to  walk  about  again  and  take  active  ex- 
ercise. The  popular  idea  that  it  is  dangerous 
to  close  an  old  ulcer  is  not  unfounded,  as  the 
healing  over  of  a chronic  ulcer  in  a person  of 
advanced  age  is  often  followed  by  symptoms 
of  constitutional  disorder  and  slight  apoplectic 
strokes.  In  cases  of  this  kind  it  is  often  neces- 
sary to  establish  a drain  upon  the  system  by 
making  an  issue  or  a seton  wound.  ( See  Se- 
TONS.) 

UNBOLTED  FLOUR. — Flour  from  which 
the  bran  or  coarse  outer  husk  of  the  wheat 
has  not  been  separated  by  bolting  or  sifting. 
-There  are  several  kinds  of  it ; some  containing 
all  of  the  bran,  others  containing  only  the  in- 
ner cuticle  of  the  grain  from  which  seconds  are 
made.  ( See  Flour.) 

UNDERGARMENTS  (WOMEN’S). 

(Chemise.) — Necessary  measurements:  I,  the 
length,  which  varies  from  28  in.  to  i!t  yds., 
according  to  taste;  2,  the  width  at  the  top, 
which  is  determined  by  the  shoulders  (xvi)  * ; 
3,  the  arm  size  ; 4,  the  length  of  the  sleeves  and 
the  size  of  the  arm,  where  it  is  largest. 

The  quantity  needed  for  a chemise  U yds.  in 
length  is  2}  or  three  yds.,  according  to  the  size 
of  sleeves  and  yoke  ; and  cotton  or  linen  seven 
eighths  wide  is  the  most  useful. 

* For  explanation  of  Roman  numerals,  see  Cutting  and 
Fitting. 


All  varieties  of  this  garment  maybe  arranged 
under  two  principal  forms,  the  sacque  and  the 
yoke  chemise.  We  will  first  explain  the  mak- 


ing of  the  latter.  From  the  designated  quantity 
of  material  first  take  off  the  half  yard  or  three- 
quarters  for  the  yoke  and  sleeves.  This  leaves 
2]/i  yds.  for  the  body  of  the  chemise.  Fold 
this  in  three  parts,  a,  b,  c (a  being  as  large  as  b 
and  c together),  and  bring  the  two  ends,  d,  e, 
together  in  the  middle,  the  selvages  being  at 
the  top  and  bottom.  Sew  these  selvages  to- 
gether, and  we  have  a sort  of  bag  closed  at  the 
ends  and  open  across  the  middle.  In  the  fig- 
ure the  seam  is  shown  partly  made  at  the  bot- 
tom, and  on  the  left  at  the  top,  while  it  is  left 
open  and  the  material  turned  back  on  the  up- 
per right-hand  side,  to  show  the  manner  of  cut- 
ting the  gore.  The  selvages  being  entirely 
sewed  together,  put  in  the  scissors  on  the  un- 
der side  at  a point  four  inches  from  the  selvage 
a,  and  cut,  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  line,  to  the 
upper  right-hand  corner  of  the  bag.  Repeat 
this  from  the  same  points  to  the  upper  left- 
hand  corner,  and  from  a corresponding  point, 
four  inches  distant  from  the  middle  of  the  lower 
selvage  down  to  the  lower  left-hand  and  right- 
hand  corners.  Unfold  the  bag,  and  you  have 
the  body  of  a chemise  with  gores  sewed  on  on 
both  sides.  This  gives  a suitable  proportion 
to  the  width  at  top  and  bottom.  The  bottom 
of  the  garment  should  then  be  hemmed  up 
with  an  inch-wide  hem.  Thus  far,  the  sacque 
and  the  yoke  chemise  are  prepared  in  the  same 
way,  with  the  exception  that  for  the  sacque  the 
gores  are  made  wider,  diminishing  the  breadth 
at  the  top. 

For  the  yoke  chemise  we  now  cut  the  breadths 
apart  at  the  top,  and  gather  them,  leaving  a dis- 
tance of  two  or  three  inches  plain  at  each  end, 
to  receive  the  shoulder-piece,  7,  Fig.  2.  These 
shoulder-pieces  are  cut  double,  the  longest  part 
the  long  way  of  the  material,  hollowed  toward 
the  sleeve  a little,  and  still  more  toward  the 
neck,  and  are  united  to  the  body  of  the  chemise 
by  the  yoke,  which  is  only  a straight  strip,  6;  a slit 
8 is  made  in  the  front  of  the  garment,  and  a but- 
ton and  button-hole  are  required,  ortwo  button- 
holes, if  a stud  is  used.  There  are  many  other 


UNDERGARMENTS 


549 


ways  of  making  a yoke,  which  will  readily  sug- 
gest themselves  to  the  reader;  but  we  have 
preferred  this,  as  it  is  the  simplest  and  the 
surest  to  fit  well. 


Fig.  2. 

The  puffed  sleeves  are  made  by  taking  a 
straight  strip,  not  over  four  inches  deep  and  a 
third  longer  than  the  length  of  the  arm  size. 
They  must  be  cut  out  a little  under  the  arms, 
and  have  gussets  or  gores,  as  shown  in  the  fig- 
ure, and  be  gathered  into  bindings  whose  length 
is  determined  by  the  measure  of  the  arm. 

The  sacque  differs  from  the  yoke-chemise  in 
the  manner  in  which  the  neck  is  finished  off, 
and  it  may  have  also  a plainer  sleeve.  In  Fig. 
3 is  shown  the  manner  of  cutting  the  garment 
out  in  the  neck.  It  will  be  seen  that,  instead 
of  receiving  shoulder-pieces,  the  chemise  is  left 
whole  on  the  shoulder,  and  cut  out  to  a consid- 
erable distance  below  for  the  neck.  Having 
decided  the  depth  to  which  it  is  to  be  cut  out 


mark  the  point,  a,  and  cut  from  c,  on  the  shoulder, 
the  front,  c b a,  and  then  the  back,  which  must 
not  be  cut  out  as  deep  as  the  front.  Thus,  having 


cut  out  half  the  neck,  fold  back  the  strips  and 
pin  it  down  upon  the  other  half ; then  cut  that 
out  also  ; in  this  way  the  two  sides  are  sure  to 
be  exactly  alike.  The  garment  is  then  finished 
around  the  neck  by  a crosswise  facing,  and 
may  receive  whatever  trimming  is  desired.  A 
variety  of  small  sleeves  suited  to  the  sacque 
can  readily  be  designed  on  the  same  general 
plan  as  the  puffed  sleeve,  one  of  the  prettiest 
of  which  is  cut  whole  and  bias  under  the  arm, 
then  grows  narrower  toward  the  shoulder  and 
finally  crosses  its  two  ends,  they  being  sloped 
entirely  to  a point  as  they  are  set  into  the 
shoulder.  A still  simpler  pattern  is  shown  in 
Fig.  6. 

Drawers. — For  making  drawers,  only  two 
measurements  are  required:  I,  the  length  from 
the  waist  to  the  ankle,  taken  on  the  outside  of 
the  leg  ; 2,  the  size  of  the  waist. 

In  drawing  a pattern,  (Fig.  4,)  we  begin  with 
a vertical  line,  a b,  on  which  is  to  be  marked 


the  measure  of  the  length,  a c.  We  then  draw 
three  lines  horizontally,  the  first  at  the  top 
from  the  point  a ; the  second  midway  of  the 
line  a c;  the  third  at  the  lower  end,  from  the 
point  c.  These  three  lines  serve  as  points  of 


550 


UNDERGARMENTS 


departure  in  indicating  the  measure  of  the 
waist,  the  breadth  across  the  seat,  and  the 
size  of  the  leg  near  the  ankle. 

One  end  of  half  the  waist-measure  is  then 
placed  at  a,  and  marked  at  the  right  by  the 
point  e.  The  breadth  of  the  seat  is  given  by 
half  the  length  from  the  waist  to  the  ankle,  the 
space  between  a and  d.  If,  for  example,  this 
length  be  30  in.,  half  of  it,  15  in.,  will  indicate 
the  breadth  necessary  from  d Xo  f The  suita- 
ble breadth  at  the  ankle  will  be  decided  by  in- 
dividual preference.  It  is  indicated  upon  the 
pattern  by  c,  g.  Most  persons  will  prefer  to 
shorten  this  pattern  below  the  knee,  but  it  is 
requisite  to  take  the  measure  in  this  manner 
in  order  to  ensure  correct  proportions. 

Having  marked  the  above  measurements, 
we  now  draw  the  pattern  of  the  front  of  one 
side  as  follows  : two  or  three  inches  beyond  the 
point  e we  draw  a straight  line  down  to  the 
point  h,  which  point  is  half  way  between  the  two 
horizontal  lines  a e,df.  From  h a curved  line 
is  drawn  to  f and  an  oblique  line,  slightly  curv- 
ed inward  and  becoming  almost  straight  in  its 
lower  part,  to  g.  This  line  is  the  same  for  the 
front  and  back ; but  the  upper  part  of  the 
pattern  differs  in  the  back,  requiring  to  be 
broader  and  longer.  For  this  purpose  we  mark 
above  the  horizontal  a e the  point  i,  at  a dis- 
tance of  four  inches  from  the  line,  not  directly 


above  e,  but  five  or  six  inches  to  the  right.  We 
then  draw  a line  from  i to  a , and  another  curv- 
ing outwards,  from  i to  /. 

in  Fig.  4 is  shown  the  pattern  of  half  of  a 
pair  of  drawers,  the  front  and  back,  which  are 


cut  out  in  one  piece,  as  we  shall  proceed  to  ex. 
plain. 

The  quantity  of  material  required  is  twice 
the  length  of  the  side  from  waist  to  ankle,  with 
the  addition  of  a few  inches  for  binding.  The 
length  allowed  will  usually  admit  of  hem  and 
tucks  being  made  in  it.  In  making  this  esti- 
mate, however,  we  require  to  piece  the  back  of 
the  drawers  when  it  is  cut  longer  than  the  front ; 
to  escape  this  necessity,  an  additional  quarter 
of  a yard  for  each  length  should  be  allowed. 
We  fold  the  material  of  which  the  garment  is 
to  be  cut  lengthwise  in  the  middle,  and  place 
the  pattern  on  it,  the  line  a c upon  the  fold,  and 
hold  the  pattern  in  place  by  a few  pins.  We 
then  cut  the  material  double  from  the  lower 
edge,  e , as  far  up  as  f.  Here  we  unfold  the  ma- 
terial in  order  to  cut  half  after  the  outline  a o, 
h f,  and  the  other  half,  a i f,  leaving  an  inch 
margin  all  around  the  edges.  This  gives  us 
half  the  pair  of  drawers,  and  from  this  we  cut 
the  other  half. 

In  making  up  the  garment,  we  begin  by  sew- 
ing on  the  pieces,  if  it  has  been  needful  to  piece 
it.  Then  we  stitch  up  each  half  on  the  wrong 
side  from  the  lower  edge,  g to  f and  finish  off 
the  hem  and  tucks  across  the  edge  eg.  We 
then  unite  the  two  halves  in  front  by  a seam 
from  e to  h.  The  two  halves  in  the  back  re- 
main separate,  and  also  in  the  front  between  f 
and  h;  we  then  finish  these  edges  with  a very 
narrow  hem,  and  put  on  a belt,  either  measured 


by  the  waist  and  having  the  top  of  the  drawers 
gathered  to  match  it,  or  made  as  large  as  the 
breadth  of  the  drawers,  and  having  a drawing 


URINALS 


VACCINATION 


551 


string  to  hold  it  in  place,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5, 
a a. 

Another  method  of  making  drawers  consists 
in  joining  the  two  halves  completely  by  a seam 
from  i to  e.  In  this  case  the  garment  is  opened 
at  the  sides  from  a to  j.  These  edges  require  to 
be  faced  and  finished  off  with  a little  gusset 
at  j,  to  strengthen  them.  The  upper  edge  of 
the  drawers  is  then  gathered,  and  the  belt  sew- 
ed on  in  two  parts,  having  buttons  on  the  front, 
and  button-holes  on  the  back. 

In  Fig.  6 we  give  a pattern  of  bathing 
drawers,  which  may  be  used  either  with  or 
without  a short  outside  skirt.  These  drawers 
differ  from  the  preceding  pattern  in  being  made 
with  a waist  and  being  much  looser  than  the 
others.  In  order  to  make  this  waist  it  is  only 
necessary  to  prolong  the  drawers  above  the 
waist  to  a height  determined  by  the  measure 
from  the  waist  to  the  shoulder.  These  draw- 
ers are  entirely  closed,  that  is  to  say,  in  the 
back  the  seam  is  prolonged  from  f to  k,  and 
in  front  from  f to  j.  The  top  of  the  waist 
is  gathered  and  may  be  finished  off  merely 
with  a drawing-string  or  with  a yoke  and 
shoulder  pieces,  as  shown  in  the  pattern ; a 
short  sleeve  is  put  into  a very  large  arm-size  ; 
the  slit  h j is  faced  and  receives  buttons  on 
the  left  and  button-holes  on  the  right  side. 
These  garments  are  made  of  woollen  material 
in  red  or  black  flannel  and  trimmed  with  colored 
braid,  and  if  there  is  a skirt,  it  reaches  but  just 
below  the  knee,  and  is  trimmed  to  correspond 
with  the  drawers. 

Children’s  drawers  and  trowsers  are  made 
after  this  pattern,  with  slight  modifications. 
Although  we  do  not  make  them  so  very  loose 
as  bathing-drawers,  they  require  to  be  very 
easy.  They  are  put  together  by  a seam  from 
/ to  h , and  left  open  and  hemmed  from  l to  i, 
the  back  of  the  waist  from  i to  k is  hemmed  and 
closed  by  buttons. 

For  little  boys,  the  same  pattern  serves  for 
trowsers,  separated  entirely  from  the  waist. 
The  waist  is  then  made  with  a belt,  having 
buttons  sewed  on  to  correspond  with  button- 


holes in  the  binding  of  the  trowsers.  The 
trowsers  are  made  plain  across  the  front  and 
gathered  a little  at  the  sides  and  the  back.  A 
straight  slit  is  made  from  the  waist  e , to  /. 
False  hems  are  added  to  the  edges  of  this  slit, 
that  on  the  left  coming  to  h,  the  edge  and  re- 
ceiving buttonholes,  that  on  the  right  coming 
beyond  the  edge,  thus  crossing  under  the  other 
and  having  the  buttons  sewed  on  it.  Also 
slits  are  cut  at  each  side  to  receive  the  pockets. 

When  the  trowsers  are  cut  very  broad,  they 
are  gathered  on  the  edge  and  sewed  into  a 
binding  more  or  less  tight,  just  below  the  knee. 
It  is  usual  to  hem  these  with  a band  or  gal- 
loon, or  with  a row  of  buttons  from  a to  o. 

UNGUENTS.  ( See  Ointments.) 

URINALS. — These  should  be  thoroughly 
clean  and  amply  supplied  with  running  water. 
Night  and  morning  they  should  be  well  flushed 
down.  It  is  well  to  have  a piece  of  soap  lying 
in  the  vessel,  and  some  chloride  of  lime  placed 
about,  so  as  to  remove  any  noxious  odors. 
Great  pains  should  be  taken  at  all  times  to  re- 
move any  accumulation  of  fluid.  The  walls 
should  be  made  of  glazed  tiles  rather  than  of 
metal,  wood,  or  slate,  and  the  roof  should  com- 
municate freely  with  the  open  air. 

URINE,  Suppression  of.  ( See  Diuretics.) 

USQUEBAUGH.— A name  sometimes  given 
to  Irish  and  Scotch  whiskey  indiscriminately. 
Properly  speaking,  it  applies  to  a drink  formerly 
very  popular  in  Ireland  made  by  digesting 
spices  in  some  compound  spirit.  The  famous 
Meg  Dodd's  Usquebazigh  is  made  as  follows: — 
To  two  quarts  of  best  brandy  or  whiskey  put 
a pound  of  stoned  raisins,  half  an  ounce  of 
nutmeg,  a quarter  of  an  ounce  of  cloves,  and 
the  same  quantityof  cardamom  seed,  all  bruised 
in  a mortar  ; add  the  rind  of  a Seville  orange 
rubbed  off  on  lumps  of  sugar,  half  a teaspoon- 
ful of  tincture  of  saffron,  and  half  a pound  of 
brown  candy-sugar.  Shake  the  infusion  every 
day  for  a fortnight,  and  then  filter  it  into  bot- 
tles for  future  use.  Not  a drop  of  water  must 
be  pul  to  this  cordial. 


V 


VACCINATION.— A process  by  which  a 
peculiar  specific  disease,  known  as  the  cow-pox 
or  vaccinia,  is  introduced  into  the  system  with 
the  view  of  protecting  it  against  an  attack  of 
small-pox.  Its  discovery  (one  of  the  most 
beneficent  in  the  annals  of  medicine)  is  due 
to  Dr.  Jenner,  whose  attention  was  arrested  by 
the  fact  that  the  milkers  on  the  dairy-farms  in 
Gloucestershire,  to  whom  cow-pox  had  been 
communicated  from  the  cow  in  the  course  of 
their  occupation,  were  not  liable  afterwards  to  be 
affected  by  small-pox.  As  the  virus  could  not 
always  be  obtained  from  the  cow,  Dr.  Jenner 
conceived  the  idea  that  it  might  be  equally  ef- 
fectual as  a preventive  of  small-pox  if  commu- 


nicated from  one  individual  to  another ; and 
the  observations  made  during  the  first  fifteen 
years  confirmed  this  opinion.  At  first  the 
theory  was  eagerly  opposed,  both  in  and  out 
of  the  profession,  and  among  the  more  igno- 
rant some  opposition  is  still  manifested ; but 
the  accumulated  experience  of  recent  years 
has  proved  overwhelmingly  that  vaccination  is 
a real  blessing  to  the  human  race.  Even  if 
there  were  doubts  about  the  matter,  the  mere 
chance  of  substituting  so  mild  and  harmless  a 
disease  as  cow-pox  for  one  so  terrible  as  small- 
pox should  induce  parents  to  have  every  child 
vaccinated  at  the  earliest  possible  moment. 

With  regard  to  the  proper  age  for  vaccinat- 


552 


VACCINATION 


ing  an  infant,  experience  has  shown  that,  al- 
though it  may  be  proper  to  defer  it  for  the  three 
or  four  first  weeks  of  an  infant’s  life,  on  account 
of  a variety  of  circumstances  connected  with 
that  period,  yet,  if  the  organization  of  a child 
be  perfect,  and  if  it  be  in  good  health,  the 
sooner  it  is  vaccinated  afterthe  first  month  the 
better.  The  diseases  which  interfere  with  vac- 
cination as  a preventive  of  small-pox,  are  erup- 
tive diseases,  teething,  and  affections  of  an 
inflammatory  nature.  Under  eruptive  diseases 
and  teething,  the  specific  irritations  which  these 
occasion  prevent  the  fever  attending  cow-pox 
from  being  sufficient  for  the  constitutional 
change  requisite  to  secure  the  child  from  the 
infection  of  small-pox.  In  order  to  be  certain 
that  the  constitution  has  been  properly  affected, 
some  medical  practitioners  re-vaccinate  the 
child  on  the  fifth  or  sixth  day  after  the  origi- 
nal vaccination,  with  a little  of  its  own  lymph; 
while  the  original  vesicles  proceed  regularly  to 
their  termination,  if  those  from  the  re-vacci- 
nated  be  accelerated,  and  acquire  the  inflamed 
areola  and  scab  at  the  same  time  with  the  first, 
they  then  declare  that  the  system  has  been 
properly  affected. 

If  a child  be  vaccinated  with  pure  vaccine 
lymph  taken  from  the  arm  of  another  child, 
nothing  will  be  seen  locally  during  the  first 
two  days,  but  at  the  end  of  the  second  or  on 
the  third  day,  a small  red  pimple  appears, 
which  gradually  increases  in  size,  and  on  the 
fifth  or  six  day  it  has  become  a vesicle  or  little 
blister  of  a pearly  color,  with  well-defined 
raised  edges,  while  the  centre  is  depressed  and 
concave.  On  the  eighth  day  the  vesicle  has 
become  perfect ; it  is  round  and  plump,  and 
the  edges  are  more  defined  and  pellucid,  while 
the  centre  is  more  concave.  About  this  time 
a red  blush  or  areola  is  seen  round  the  vesicle, 
and  this  continues  to  spread  for  a zone  of  from 
one  to  three  inches ; the  skin  looks  red  and 
angry,  and  becomes  hard  and  painful  from  an 
affection  of  the  tissue  of  the  skin.  When  this 
areola  appears,  the  child  generally  presents 
constitutional  symptoms;  sometimes  they  are 
very  slight  and  pass  by  unnoticed  ; others  may 
be  peevish  and  restless,  and  have  some  de- 
rangement of  the  bowels  or  enlargement  and 
inflammation  of  the  glands  in  the  arm-pit.  On 
or  about  the  tenth  day  the  areola  begins  to  fade, 
the  vesicle  dries  in  the  centre,  while  the  lymph 
gets  opaque  and  turbid,  so  that  by  the  four- 
teenth or  fifteenth  day  a clark-brown  scab  is 
formed,  which  dries,  blackens,  and  falls  off 
between  the  twentieth  and  twenty-fifth  day ; a 
cicatrix  or  scar  is  left,  which  becomes  permanent, 
is  generally  circular,  and  marked  with  minute 
pits.  Such  are  the  stages  through  which  the 
vesicle  passes,  but  it  is  important  to  note  that 
only  on  the  eighth  day  is  the  vesicle  in  perfec- 
tion, and  it  is  then  only  that  lymph  should 
be  taken.  It  happens  occasionally  that  parents 
are  much  alarmed  by  skin  eruptions  occurring 
after  vaccination,  and  they  often  lay  it  down 
heedlessly  to  the  fault  of  the  surgeon  for  in- 
troducing bad  matter;  this  is  a great  mistake, 


for  in  some  children  any  constitutional  disturb- 
ance will  bring  out  an  eczematous  eruption,  as 
is  indeed  often  seen  when  they  are  teething. 
No  alarm  need  be  felt  on  this  score,  as  the 
mischief  is  soon  cured,  and  it  depends  upon 
some  peculiarity  in  the  child’s  constitution.  At 
times  a rose-colored  rash  may  appear  on  the 
body,  or  a crop  of  papules  or  vesicles;  these 
are  generally  very  transitory,  and  disappear 
when  the  scab  falls  off  the  arm.  The  shape  of 
the  scar,  and  also  its  size,  will  depend  upon  the 
way  in  which  the  vaccination  is  performed ; 
some  make  the  puncture  in  three  or  four  places 
on  the  arm,  about  an  inch  from  each  other ; 
others  scratch  or  scarify  the  skin,  and  some 
make  punctures  very  close  together,  so  that 
when  the  vesicles  form  they  coalesce  or  run  to- 
gether and  form  a large  irregular  scab.  All 
these  methods  are  equally  efficacious,  and  are 
adopted  according  to  the  fancy  of  the  operator. 
Should  the  child  be  incubating  measles  or  scar- 
let fever,  the  areola  may  not  form  until  these 
diseases  have  gone.  Mere  delay  in  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  symptoms  will  not  hinder  the 
protective  influence,  so  long  as  the  red  areola 
appears  before  the  child  is  exposed  to  small- 
pox. When  acceleration  of  the  symptoms 
occurs  the  vaccination  is  generally  useless  and 
spurious  ; if  any  doubt  exist,  the  child  should 
be  vaccinated  again  after  a short  interval.  The 
important  rule  to  remember  is  this — “ if  there 
is  any  deviation  from  the  perfect  character  of 
the  vesicle  and  the  regular  development  of  the 
areola,  the  vaccination  is  not  to  be  relied  on  as 
protection  against  small-pox.” 

Re- Vaccination. — By  vaccination  in  in- 
fancy, if  thoroughly  well-performed  and  suc- 
cessful, most  people  are  completely  insured, 
for  their  whole  life-time,  against  an  attack  of 
small-pox;  and  in  the  proportionately  few  cases 
where  the  protection  is  less  complete,  small- 
pox, if  it  be  caught,  will,  in  consequence  of  the 
vaccination,  generally  be  so  mild  a disease  as 
not  to  threaten  death  or  disfigurement.  If,  how- 
ever, the  vaccination  in  early  life  have  been 
imperfectly  performed,  or  have  from  any  other 
cause  been  but  partially  successful,  the  protec- 
tion against  small-pox  is  much  less  satisfactory, 
neither  lasting  so  long,  nor  while  it  lasts  being 
nearly  so  complete  as  the  protection  which  first- 
rate  vaccination  gives.  Hitherto,  unfortunate- 
ly, there  has  always  been  a very  large  amount 
of  imperfect  vaccination ; and  in  consequence 
the  population  always  contains  very  many  per- 
sons who,  though  nominally  vaccinated  and  be- 
lieving themselves  to  be  protected  against 
small-pox,  are  really  liable  to  infection,  and 
may  in  some  cases  contract  as  severe  forms  of 
small-pox  as  if  they  had  never  been  vaccinated. 
Partly  because  of  the  existence  of  this  large 
number  of  imperfectly  vaccinated  persons,  and 
partly  also  because  even  the  best  infantile  vac- 
cination sometimes  in  process  of  time  loses 
more  or  less  of  its  effect,  it  is  advisable  that 
all  persons  who  have  been  vaccinated  in  infancy 
should,  as  they  approach  adult  life,  undergo  rc- 
vaccination.  Generally  speaking,  the  best  time 


VALERIAN 


VARICOSE  VEINS 


553 


of  life  for  re-vaccination  is  about  the  time  when 
growth  is  completing  itself,  say,  from  fifteen  to 
eighteen  years  of  age,  and  persons  at  that 
period  of  life  ought  not  to  delay  their  re-vacci- 
nation till  the  time  when  there  shall  be  special 
alarm  of  small-pox.  In  proportion,  however, 
as  there  is  prevalence  of  small-pox  in  any 
neighborhood,  or  as  individuals  are  from  per- 
sonal circumstances  likely  to  meet  chances  of 
infection,  the  age  of  fifteen  need  not  be  waited 
for ; especially  not  by  yOung  persons  whose 
marks  of  previous  vaccination  are  unsatisfac- 
tory. In  circumstances  of  special  danger,  every 
one  past  childhood,  on  whom  re-vaccination  has 
not  before  been  successfully  performed,  ought 
without  delay  to  be  re-vaccinated.  Re-vaccina- 
tion,  once  properly  and  successfully  performed, 
does  not  appear  ever  to  require  repetition. 

Even  when  small-pox  attacks  a person  who 
has  been  properly  vaccinated,  the  febrile  symp- 
toms are  generally  mild,  and  almost  always 
subside  on  the  seventh  day,  when  the  patient 
rapidly  recovers.  . 

VALERIAN. — The  root  of  a well  known 
plant,  the  Valeriana  officinalis.  The  best 
plants  grow  in  dry  soils.  The  root  consists  of 
a kind  of  stock  or  head,  whence  numerous 
rootlets  are  given  off.  The  color  is  light 
brown,  the  odor  peculiar  and  characteristic. 
The  roots  contain  valerianic  acid  and  an  oil. 
This  oil  contains  two  substances,  vale /ole  and 
valerianin,  neither  of  very  great  importance. 
Valerole,  by  exposure,  is  slowly  converted  into 
valerianic  acid.  The  preparations  of  valerian 
are  an  infusion,  a tincture,  and  an  ammoniated 
tincture,  in  which  aromatic  spirit  of  ammonia 
replaces  the  ordinary  spirit. 

Valerian  acts  as  a powerful  stimulant.  It  is 
mostly  given  in  nervous  diseases,  especially  in 
those  of  hysterical  subjects,  as  well  as  in  chorea 
and  such  like  affections,  as  an  anti-spasmodic. 
Some  esteem  it  very  highly,  others  rather  scout 
its  efficacy.  The  ammoniated  tincture  is  the  best 
form  of  the  remedy.  The  dose  is  a drachm  re- 
peated every  two  or  three  hours  until  relieved. 

Valerianic  Acid,  though  contained  in  valer- 
ian, is  prepared  from  a totally  different  substance. 
Fusel  oil,  which  is  a waste  product  in  the  dis- 
tillation of  most  forms  of  alcohol,  though  more 
abundant  in  some  than  others,  tends,  when  kept, 
to  pass  by  oxidation  into  valerianic  acid.  This 
may  be  done  at  once  by  chemical  means,  sul- 
phuric acid  and  bichromate  of  potass  being 
employed.'  The  acid  is  then  neutralized  by 
carbonate  of  soda,  and  valerianate  of  soda  is 
produced. 

Valerianate  of  Soda  is  hardly  ever  used  it- 
self in  medicine,  but  is  employed  in  the  manu- 
facture of  another  salt,  valerianate  of  zinc. 
This  salt  occurs  in  fine  scales,  with  the  odor 
of  valerianic  acid.  It  is  not  really  soluble  in 
water.  Valerianate  of  zinc  is  commonly  es- 
teemed a very  valuable  nervine  tonic,  though 
some  prefer  to  give  sulphate  or  oxide  of  zinc 
along  with  the  ordinary  tincture  of  valerian.  It 
has  been  given  in  nervous  affections,  as  chorea, 
epilepsy,  and  hysteria.  It  has  also  been  given 


with  advantage  along  with  quinine  in  neuralgia. 
A valerianate  of  quinine  is  now  made.  The 
dose  of  valerianate  of  zinc  is  from  three  to  five 
grains  or  more.  . 

VANILLA. — The  fruit  of  a plant  native  to 
America.  In  the  form  of  beans  it  is  used  in 
perfumery,  etc.,  and  the  extract  is  extensively 
employed  for  seasoning  creams,  pastry,  etc., 
to  which  it  gives  a delicious  flavor.  Although 
the  plant  is  a native  of  America,  all  the  ex- 
tracts of  vanilla  were  formerly  imported  ; at  the 
present  time,  however,  “ Burnett’s  Extract  of 
Vanilla”  is  considered  superior  to  any  other. 
The  bottle  should  be  kept  tightly  corked. 

VAPOR  BATH. — A bath  in  which  the  va- 
por of  hot  water,  either  medicated  or  not,  is 
applied  to  the  skin.  Vapor  baths  are  used 
only  for  medical  purposes,  and  are  very  useful 
in  several  forms  of  disease  where  sweating  is 
desirable.  In  the  early  stages  of  acute  rheu- 
matism, in  bad  colds,  and  influenza,  they  often 
prove  very  serviceable  by  cutting  them  short  or 
breaking  them  up.  There  are  many  contriv- 
ances for  giving  them,  of  which  the  most  sim- 
ple is  a hot  brick  or  stone  placed  in  a bucket 
about  two-thirds  full  of  hot  water,  and  set  be- 
neath a cane-bottomed  chair.  The  patient 
must  sit  in  the  chair,  entirely  naked,  but  with  a 
large  blanket  fastened  around  the  neck  envel- 
oping the  body,  and  coming  down  to  the  floor 
on  ail  sides.  The  object  being  to  induce  a 
profuse  perspiration,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
put  into  the  water  a second,  or  even  a third, 
hot  brick.  When  the  patient  has  perspired 
very  freely,  rub  him  dry  with  hot  towels,  and  get 
him  to  bed  as  soon  as  possible.  {See  Russian 
Bath  and  Turkish  Bath.) 

VARICOSE  VEINS.— This  disease  is  an 
enlargement  of  the  veins,  which  is  very  frequent 
in  the  lower  limbs  of  persons  who,  like  cooks 
and  laundresses,  have  to  stand  many  hours  of 
the  day.  Sometimes  the  veins  become  so  large 
that  they  burst,  and  though  the  bleeding  which 
results  may  not  endanger  life,  it  causes  great 
debility.  In  old  people,  and  in  cases  where  the 
varicose  condition  is  of  long  standing,  large 
ulcers  may  form  on  the  lower  part  of  the  leg, 
constituting  the  so-called  varicose  ulcers. 

Treatment. — There  are  two  things  which 
people  afflicted  with  varicose  veins  should  at- 
tend to.  In  the  first  place,  whenever  it  is  pos- 
sible, even  for  a few  minutes,  place  the  limbs 
in  a horizontal  position,  either  by  lying  down  or 
by  raising  them.  Secondly,  support  should  be 
given  by  enveloping  the  entire  limb  in  band- 
ages (preferably  of  flannel)  put  on  evenly  and 
smoothly  in  the  morning  before  the  legs  have 
time  to  swell.  This  should  be  done  by  another 
person,  for  the  shape  of  the  leg  is  altered  by 
bending  it  or  stooping  over.  But  the  best  plan 
of  giving  support  is  by  elastic  stockings,  which 
can  be  purchased  of  the  exact  size  required ; 
they  can  be  drawn  on  over  a well-fitting  cotton 
stocking,  without  any  trouble,  give  equal  and 
gentle  support  to  any  part  of  the  limb,  and  if 
good  will  last  a long  time.  Many  operations 
have  been  devised  for  the  purpose  of  producing 


554 


VARIOLOID 


VEAL 


permanent  obliteration  of  the  distended  veins. 
Of  these  the  safest  and  the  one  most  common- 
ly practised  consists  in  the  application  of 
needles  and  twisted  suture,  tying  the  veins. 
These  operations  rarely  effect  a permanent 
cure,  but  they  often  afford  relief  for  consider- 
able periods. 

VARIOLA.  ( See  Small-pox.) 

VARIOLOID. — This  name  is  given  to  the 
mild  form  which  small-pox  takes  in  persons 
who  have  been  vaccinated,  or  who  have  already 
once  had  the  disease.  It  is  always  less  viru- 
lent than  small-pox  itself,  and  is  very  rarely  at- 
tended by  serious  results.  (See  Vaccination.) 

VARNISH. — A great  variety  of  varnishes 
are  sold  in  the  paint  and  oil  stores  ready  mixed, 
and  it  is  best  to  buy  them  in  this  way.  Of 
those  more  commonly  used,  Carriage-rubbing 
Varnish  is  used  to  fill  up  or  produce  a level 
surface  over  paint,  on  which  to  spread  other 
and  better  qualities  of  varnish.  It  dries  in 
about  ten  hours.  Hard-drying  Body  Varnish 
is  used  for  finishing-coats  over  a level  surface, 
on  work  not  requiring  the  greatest  durability, 
and  is  particularly  adapted  for  the  best  inside 
work.  Wearing  Body  Varnish  is  very  pale 
and  surpasses  all  other  varnishes  in  freedom  of 
working,  as  well  as  in  brilliancy  and  durability. 
Though  a long  time  in  hardening,  it  sets  out  of 
the  way  of  being  affected  by  dust  in  ten  or 
twelve  hours.  Furniture  Varnish  is  an  infe- 
rior quality,  containing  more  resinous  substance 
than  copal  or  mastic  gums.  It  is,  however, 
sufficiently  durable  and  glossy  for  its  purpose. 

Copal  Varnish  is  the  best  and  hardest  for 
woods,  but  can  only  be  made  in  the  factory. 

Mastic  Varnish.— Take  four  ounces  of 
mastic  tears  and  one  pint  of  oil  of  turpentine. 
Put  them  into  a stone  bottle,  which  should  be 
plunged  into  a saucepan  of  hot  water  and  kept 
over  a charcoal  fire  about  one  and  a half  hours, 
until  dissolved.  The  cork  should  be  notched 
at  the  side  to  prevent  the  bottle  bursting.  The 
time  of  boiling  varies,  of  course,  with  the  de- 
gree of  heat  employed  ; therefore  the  best  way 
to  test  its  fitness  is  to  take  a little  from  the 
bottle  and  apply  it  to  the  finger;  if  it  appears, 
on  cooling,  of  the  consistence  of  a thick  syrup, 
soon  becoming  ropy,  then  drying  and  glueing 
the  fingers  together,  and  leaving  a shining  ap- 
pearance, it  is  sufficiently  boiled. 

The  greatest  caution  should  be  exercised  in 
making  varnishes  not  to  have  a fire  with  a 
flame,  the  pot  too  low,  or  the  bottle  too  full ; 
and  always  to  have  a pail  of  water  at  hand,  to 
put  out  the  fire  in  case  the  vapor  from  the  var- 
nish inflames. 

Shellac  Varnish.— This  may  be  purchased 
ready  prepared,  but  it  is  best  to  make  it  when 
required.  Take  one  pound  of  gum  shellac, 
cover  it  with  alcohol,  and  set  it  in  a cool  place; 
shake  the  mixture  occasionally,  and  in  a day 
or  two  it  will  be  ready  for  use.  Shellac  varnish 
is  used  to  prevent  the  resinous  substance  in 
pine  knots  from  striking  through  the  paint,  by 
simply  coating  them  over  before  the  priming  is 
put  on. 


A little  lamp-black  added  to  this  varnish  con- 
verts it  into  an  excellent  harness  varnish. 

White  Varnish. — Take  an  ounce  of  gum 
mastic,  two  ounces  of  gum  juniper,  two  drachms 
of  Venice  turpentine,  and  one  pint  of  spirits 
of  wine.  Mix  well,  and  dissolve  by  heat. 

VARNISHING. — When  furniture  or  any  of 
the  interior  woodwork  of  the  house  requires 
re-varnishing,  it  should  first  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  by  rubbing  every  part  with  pulverized 
pumice-stone  and  water;  then,  when  well 
washed  and  dried,  the  varnish  should  be  laid 
on  in  a warm  room.  Furniture  varnish,  as  ob- 
tained from  the  stores,  is  generally  ready  for 
use  ; but  if  found  too  thick  to  spread  easily 
with  a brush,  set  the  vessel  containing  it  near 
the  fire,  taking  care  that  it  does  not  ignite. 
Put  the  varnish  on  quite  plentifully  and  rub 
it  lightly  with  the  brush  until  it  is  nicely  lev- 
elled down  and  there  are  no  small  air-bub- 
bles on  the  surface.  Do  not  touch  the  var- 
nished surface  with  the  brush  after  once  leav- 
ing it.  If  more  than  one  coat  of  varnish  is  ne- 
cessary to  produce  the  desired  polish,  the  sur- 
face should  be  rubbed  with  pumice-stone  and 
water  between  each  coat,  to  remove  small  pits 
or  imperfections,  and  to  form  a better  ground 
on  which  to  flow  the  succeeding  coat.  Of 
course  each  coat  must  be  dry  before  another 
is  put  on. 

VEAL. — The  flesh  of  a calf.  The  best  veal 
is  produced  by  calves  not  less  than  four  nor 
more  than  six  weeks  old.  The  veal  from  a calf 
less  than  four  weeks  old  is  unfit  for  food  and 
is  unwholesome ; after  six  weeks  the  calf  re- 
quires more  food  than  the  mother  can  give  it, 
and  the  change  to  grass,  or  hay,  or  meal  mate- 
rially alters  the  character  of  the  flesh,  which 
becomes  darker  and  less  juicy.  When  the 
calves  are  turned  out  and  fed  wholly  on  grass 
the  flesh  becomes  poor,  dry,  tasteless,  and 
nearly  as  dark-colored  as  beef.  Good  veal  is 
fine-grained,  tender,  and  juicy;  the  fat  in  such 
is  firm  and  of  a whitish  color.  If  too  white, 
the  veal  shows  that  the  calf  was  bled  before 
being  slaughtered — a process  which  may  add 
to  its  appearance,  but  which  deprives  the  meat 
of  much  of  its  juiciness  and  flavor.  Veal  will 
not  keep  as  long  as  older  meat,  especially  in 
hot  or  damp  weather  ; when  going,  the  fat  be- 
comes soft  and  moist,  the  meat  flabby  and 
spotted,  and  somewhat  porous,  like  sponge. 

The  hind  quarter  is  the  choicest  joint.  It 
is  usually  divided  by  the  butcher  into  two  parts, 
which  are  called  the  loin  and  leg  of  veal.  When 
the  loin  is  too  large,  it  is  divided  into  two  small 
joints:  the  thin  end  is  called  “kidney  end,” 
and  the  other  “ thick  end.”  From  the  leg  is 
cut  the  “fillet”  and  “veal  cutlets.”  The  “knuckle 
of  veal  ” is  the  part  of  the  leg  left  after  the 
fillet  or  cutlets  are  taken  from  it.  Many  per- 
sons prefer  the  breast  of  veal  for  roasting, 
stewing,  pies,  etc. ; it  is  sometimes  boned  so  as 
to  roll,  or  a large  hole  is  cut  into  it  for  the  re- 
ception of  stuffing.  The  neck  of  veal  is  used 
for  stewing,  fricassee,  pies,  etc.  ( See  Calk’s 
Sweetbreads,  Head,  and  Tongues.) 


VEAL 


555 


The  following  figure  represents  a calf  about 
six  weeks  old : the  marks  and  numbers  show  the 
different  joints  with  their  several  names  : — 


1.  Loin  of  Veal.  5.  Breast  of  Veal. 

2.  Leg  of  Veal.  6.  Calf’s  Head. 

3.  Shoulder  of  Veal.  7.  Calf’s  feet. 

4.  Neck  of  Veal. 

Baked  Veal. — The  loin,  leg,  and  shoulder 
are  the  best  joints  for  baking.  Put  the  piece 
of  veal  into  a baking-pan  ; spread  butter  over 
it,  and  sprinkle  with  pepper  and  salt ; cover  the 
bottom  of  the  pan  with  water  about  a quarter 
of  an  inch  deep ; place  a piece  of  buttered  let- 
ter-paper over  the  meat,  and  set  it  in  a moderate 
oven ; baste  often  with  the  water  and  juice  in 
the  pan,  over  the  paper,  which  need  not  be  re- 
moved till  about  ten  minutes  before  the  meat 
is  taken  from  the  oven,  unless  it  burns,  when 
it  must  be  replaced  by  another.  Veal  must  be 
baked  rather  overdone  Serve  with  the  gravy 
strained  and  the  fat  skimmed  off. 

Balls  (Veal).  (See  Entrees.) 

. Blanquette  of  Veal.  — Take  about  two 
pounds  of  veal  from  any  joint,  cut  it  into  pieces 
about  two  inches  square,  and  throw  them  into 
boiling  water  with  a little  salt;  let  them  boil 
five  minutes  and  then  drain  them.  Put  in  a 
stewpan  a tablespoonful  of  butter,  set  it  on  a 
good  fire,  and  when  melted  mix  in  a tablespoon- 
ful of  flour,  stirring  all  the  time ; when  this 
begins  to  turn  yellow,  pour  a pint  of  boiling 
watergradually  into  the  pan ; add  a teaspoonful  of 
chopped  parsley,  six  small  white  or  red  onions, 
two  or  three  mushrooms,  salt,  pepper,  and 
finally  the  meat;  stew  gently  about  three  hours, 
and  serve. 

Boiled  Veal. — Either  the  breast,  fillet,  leg, 
loin,  or  shoulder  may  be  boiled.  Prepare  as 
for  roasting,  and  boil  steadily  for  three  hours. 
Serve  with  celery  or  oyster  sauce. 

Breast  of  Veal,  Stuffed. — Remove  all  the 
bones  from  a breast  of  veal,  being  careful  not 
to  cut  through  the  fleshy  part ; wash  it  clean 
and  wipe  dry  ; have  ready  some  stuffing,  roll  it 
up  in  the  meat,  sew  it  tight,  lard  it,  and  put  it 
into  a saucepan  with  enough  water  to  cover  it ; 
cut  up  a head  of  celery,  a carrot,  and  an  onion, 
put  them  into  the  saucepan,  add  a little  salt, 
pepper,  and  mace,  and  stew  the  whole  about 
two  hours  and  a half.  Take  out  the  meat, 
and,  if  you  wish  to  serve  it  hot,  rub  it  well  with 
butter,  dredge  with  flour,  baste  it  with  some  of 
the  liquor,  and  set  it  in  a quick  oven  to  brown. 


Meanwhile  prepare  the  gravy  as  follows  : Take 
a pint  of  the  liquor  and  skim  off  all  the  fat ; 
stir  in  with  a tablespoonful  of  butter,  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  flour;  put  it  into  the  liquor, 
stirring  all  the  time ; add  a little  mace,  a tea- 
cupful of  cream,  and  a gill  of  white  wine ; give 
it  one  boil,  pour  a little  over  the  meat,  and 
serve  the  rest  in  a gravy-tureen. 

If  the  meat  is  to  be  cut  cold,  do  not  brown 
it,  but  serve  with  meat  jelly. 

Broth  (Veal).  (See  Broth.) 

Cakes  (Veal).  ( See  Entrees.) 

Cutlets. — -These  may  be  broiled  plain  by 
simply  spreading  butter  over  them,  sprinkling 
them  with  pepper,  and  laying  them  on  the  grid- 
iron over  a hot  fire.  But  the  best  way  of  pre- 
paring them  is  to  sprinkle  them  with  salt  and 


Cutlet  Bat. 


pepper,  dip  them  in  beaten  egg,  then  roll  them 
in  cracker-crumbs,  and  fry  them  brown  on  both 
sides  in  hot  lard  or  dripping.  If  butter  or 
dripping  is  used,  add  a little  hot  water,  thicken 
with  browned  flour,  boil  up  once,  and  send  to 
table  in  a sauce-boat.  If  the  cutlets  be  tough 
(which  they  should  not  be  if  the  veal  is  young), 
beating  with  a bat  like  that  shown  in  the  cut 
will  improve  them. 

Fricandeau  of  Veal. — Take  a piece  of  veal 
of  any  size  from  the  leg,  loin,  or  cutlet  piece, 
about  three  quarters  of  an  inch  in  thickness, 
and  lard  one  side  with  strips  of  salt  pork.  Put 
in  a saucepan  (for  two  pounds  of  veal)  one 
ounce  of  butter,  half  a middling-sized  onion,  as 
much  carrot  cut  in  slices,  two  or  three  stalks  of 
parsley,  one  of  thyme,  six  or  eight  pepper  corns, 
and  the  rind  of  the  pork  used  in  larding ; spread 
all  these  on  the  bottom  of  the  saucepan,  lay  the 
piece  of  veal  on  them,  larded  side  up,  and  set 
on  a good  fire  for  about  fifteen  minutes ; then 
raise  the  meat  and  see  if  the  under  side  is  well 
browned  ; if  so,  add  a gill  of  broth,  put  in  the 
oven  and  baste  often ; if  not,  leave  a little 
longer  on  the  fire.  Add  a little  broth  once  in 
a while,  to  keep  the  bottom  of  the  pan  wet,  and 
to  leave  enough  to  baste  the  meat  till  it  is  a lit- 
tle overdone ; dish  the  vegetables,  place  the 
fricandeau  on  the  top,  and  serve  with  the  gravy 
strained  over  all.  This  is  an  excellent  dish, 
which  is  not  at  all  difficult  to  prepare. 

Fricasseed  Veal. — Cut  into  small,  thick, 
handsome  slices  of  equal  size  about  two  pounds 
of  veal,  quite  free  from  fat,  bone,  and  skin  ; 
melt  a couple  of  ounces  of  butter  in  a wide 
stewpan,  and  just  as  it  begins  to  boil  lay  in  the 
veal  and  shake  it  over  the  fire  until  it  is  quite 
firm  on  both  sides,  but  do  not  allow  it  to  take  the 
slightest  color.  Stir  in  a tablespoonful  of  flour, 
and  when  it  is  well  mixed  with  the  cutlets  pour 
gradually  to  them,  shaking  the  pan  often, 
enough  boiling  veal  gravy  to  almost  cover 
them  ; stew  gently  for  fifteen  minutes,  or  longer 
should  they  not  be  perfectly  tender;  add  a 


556 


VEAL 


flavoring  of  mace,  some  salt,  a quarter  of  a pint 
of  cream,  a couple  of  egg-yolks,  and  a little 
lemon-juice  ; shake  the  saucepan  above  the  fire 
until  the  sauce  has  just  set,  and  then  serve  im- 
mediately. 

Gravy  (Veal).  ( See  Gravy.) 

HashedVeal. — Chop  some  cold  veal  very  fine 
and  mix  with  it,  while  chopping,  half  as  much 
stale  bread-crumbs ; put  it  in  a saucepan  and 
pour  over  it  a gravy  made  as  follows  : Put  a tea- 

cupful of  boiling  water  into  a saucepan,  and 
stir  into  it  a teaspoonful  of  flour  wet  with  a tea- 
spoonful of  cold  water;  add  not  quite  half  a 
teaspoonful  of  black  pepper,  as  much  salt,  and 
two  tablespoonfuls  of  butter,  let  it  get  hot  but 
not  boil  before  pouring  it  on  the  hash.  After 
the  gravy  is  added,  let  the  hash  simmer  on  the 
fire  for  ten  minutes ; then  serve. 

Minced  Veal. — Chop  some  cold  roast  or 
boiled  veal  very  fine,  and  season  it  well  with 
salt  and  pepper;  if  there  is  any  cold  gravy,  put 
it  with  the  meat,  if  not,  butter  will  answer ; 
heat  it  very  hot,  stirring  often  that  the  gravy 
may  not  oil.  Serve  it  on  slices  of  toasted  bread 
and  garnish  with  sliced  lemon. 

Neck  of  Veal  a la  Creme.— Take  the  best 
end  of  a neck  of  veal,  detach  the  flesh  from  the 
ends  of  the  bones,  cut  them  sufficiently  short 
to  give  the  joint  a good  square  form,  fold  and 
skewer  the  skin  over  them;  wrap  a buttered 
paper  round  the  meat,  lay  it  at  a moderate  dis- 
tance from  a clear  fire,  and  keep  it  well  basted 
with  butter  for  an  hour  and  a quarter;  then  re- 
move the  paper  and  continue  the  basting  with 
a pint  or  more  of  rich  white  sauce  (See  Sauces) 
until  the  veal  is  sufficiently  roasted,  and  well 
encrusted  with  it.  Serve  some  white  sauce 
under  it  in  the  dish,  and  send  it  very  hot  to 
table. 

Olives  (Veal).  ( See  Entrees.) 

Pie  (Veal). — Cut  some  veal  from  the  neck  or 
other  joint  into  small  slices  ; line  a pudding- 
dish  with  a good  paste,  and  put  a layer  of  veal 
in  the  bottom,  then  one  of  hard-boiled  eggs, 
sliced,  each  piece  buttered  and  peppered  before 
it  is  laid  upon  the  veal ; cover  these  with  a layer 
of  sliced  ham  or  thin  strips  of  salt  pork  ; squeeze 
a few  drops  of  lemon-juice  upon  the  ham,  add 
another  layer  of  veal,  and  so  on  as  before  until 
the  dish  is  nearly  full  ; pour  over  all  a teacup- 
ful of  stock  or  broth,  cover  with  a stout  crust, 
and  bake  in  a moderate  oven  for  two  hours. 
If  no  stock  or  broth  is  at  hand,  make  a gravy 
of  the  bones,  fat,  and  refuse  bits  cut  away  from 
the  meat,  and  a teacupful  of  cold  water ; let 
these  stew  together  while  the  pie  is  being  ar- 
ranged in  the  dish,  or  for  half  an  hour,  and 
then  pour  in. 

Pot  Pie  (Veal). — Make  a crust  as  follows: — 
Peel,  boil,  and  mash  a dozen  potatoes,  add  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  butter,  half  a teacupful  of 
milk  or  cream,  and  a teaspoonful  of  salt ; 
stiffen  with  flour  till  it  will  roll  out  easily. 

To  prepare  the  meat,  first  fry  half  a dozen 
slices  of  salt  pork,  and  then  cut  up  the  veal  and 
pork  and  boil  them  in  just  enough  water  to 
cover  them  till  the  veal  is  nearly  done.  Then 


peel  a dozen  potatoes  and  slice  them  thin.  Roll 
the  crust  out  half  an  inch  thick,  and  cut  it  into 
oblong  pieces.  Put  a layer  of  the  crust  at  the 
bottom  of  a small  pot,  then  a layer  of  meat  and 
potatoes,  then  a sprinkle  of  salt  and  pepper, 
then  another  layer  of  crust,  and  so  on  till  all  is 
used,  making  the  top  layer  of  crust;  lastly, 
pour  on  the  liquor  in  which  the  meat  was 
boiled,  until  it  just  covers  the  whole,  and  let  it 
simmer  from  half  to  three  quarters  of  an  hour, 
or  until  the  top  crust  is  well  cooked.  The  ex- 
cellence of  this  pie  depends  on  the  crust  being 
very  light  ; therefore  the  meat  must  first  be 
nearly  cooked  before  it  is  put  into  the  pie,  and 
the  crust  must  be  in  only  long  enough  to  cook, 
or  it  will  be  clammy  and  tough.  When  nearly 
done,  the  crust  may  be  browned  with  a hot 
shovel  (held  near  it)  or  a bake-lid  with  hot 
coals  on  it. 

Roast  Veal. — I.  Breast — Place  the  joint  at 
a moderate  distance  from  a good  fire  and  roast 
slowly,  basting  often,  first  with  salt  and  water, 
then  with  gravy,  and  once  with  melted  butter 
when  nearly  done  ; just  before  the  butter  is 
spread  on,  dredge  lightly  with  flour.  Skim  the 
gravy,  thicken  with  browned  flour,  boil  up  once, 
and  send  to  table  in  a gravy-boat.  The  veal 
may  be  garnished  with  fried  balls  of  stuffing 
(See  Stuffing)  about  the  size  of  a walnut. 

In  roasting  veal  allow  at  least  a quarter  of 
an  hour  to  a pound. 

II.  Fillet. — Remove  the  bone  carefully,  roll 
the  meat  up  and  pin  it  into  a round  with  skew- 
ers ; then  pass  a twine  or  band  of  muslin  sev- 
eral times  round  it  and  tie.  Fill  the  cavity  with 
a dressing  made  of  bread-crumbs,  chopped 
thyme  and  parsley,  a little  nutmeg,  salt,  and 
pepper, rubbed  together  with  some  melted  butter 
or  beef-suet,  moistened  with  milk  or  hot  water, 
and  bound  together  with  a beaten  egg;  stuff 
the  dressing  between  the  folds  of  the  meat  also, 
and  make  incisions  here  and  there  with  a thin, 
sharp  knife  to  receive  it ; now  and  then  slip  in 
a strip  of  salt  pork  or  bacon.  Roast  slowly, 
basting  often,  at  first  with  salt  and  water,  then 
with  gravy,  at  last  with  flour  and  melted  butter, 
as  directed  in  preceding  recipe. 

III.  Leg  or  Loin. — Roast  exactly  as  directed 
for  Breast  of  Veal.  Should  the  meat  brown 
too  fast,  cover  with  buttered  paper.  Send  its 
own  gravy  to  table  with  it  in  a boat. 

IV.  Neck. — The  best  end  of  the  neck  makes 
an  excellent  and  economical  roast.  A stuffing 
may  be  inserted'between  the  skin  and  the  flesh 
by  first  separating  them  with  a sharp  knife,  or 
the  dish  may  be  garnished  with  the  forcemeat 
in  balls.  Let  it  be  floured  when  first  laid  to 
the  fire,  basted  constantly,  and  kept  throughout 
at  a sufficient  distance  to  prevent  scorching. 
Pour  melted  butter  over  it  when  it  is  dished, 
and  serve  it  like  other  joints. 

V.  Shoulder.— Make  horizontal  incisions 
near  the  bone,  fill  them  with  a dressing  like 
that  for  Fillet,  and  roast  as  directed  for  Breast. 

Shoulder  of  Veal,  Stuffed. — Before  the 
joint  can  be  stuffed  it  must  be  boned,  for  which 
proceed  as  follows : Spread  a clean  cloth  upon 


VEGETABLES 


VELVET 


557 


Shoulder  of  Veal  Boned. 


a table,  or  dresser,  and  lay  the  joint  flat  upon 
it,  skin  downwards ; with  a sharp  knife  cut  off 
the  flesh  from  the  inner  side  nearly  down  to  the 
blade-bone,  of  which 
detach  the  edges  first, 
then  work  the  knife 
under  it,  keeping  it 
always  close  to  the 
botie , and  using  all 
possible  care  not  to 
pierce  the  outer  skin  ; 
when  the  bone  is  de- 
tached from  the  flesh 
in  every  part, loosen  it  from  the  socket  with  the 
point  of  the  knife  and  remove  it ; or,  without 
dividing  the  two  bones,  cut  round  the  joint 
until  it  is  freed  entirely  from  the  meat,  and 
proceed  to  detach  the  second  bone.  That  of 
the  knuckle  is  frequently  left  in,  but  for  some 
dishes  it  is  necessary  to  take  it  out;  in  doing 
this,  be  careful  not  to  tear  the  skin. 

Fill  the  inside  with  common  stuffing  {See 
Stuffing),  or  with  sausage-meat ; roll  it  up, 
and  when  proparly  tied  with  twine,  roast  or 
bake  it  as  directed  above. 

Steak  (Veal). — This  should  be  cut  in  thinner 
slices  than  beef-steak,  and  must  be  thoroughly 
cooked.  Broil  on  a greased  gridiron  over  a hot 
fire,  and  when  done,  spread  butter  over  them, 
sprinkle  with  salt  and  pepper,  and  serve  hot. 

Stewed  Veal. — Cut  four  pounds  of  veal  into 
strips  an  inch  thick  and  three  inches  long ; 
peel  a dozen  large  potatoes  and  cut  them  into 
slices  an  inch  thick ; spread  a layer  of  the  veal 
on  the  bottom  of  a pot,  and  sprinkle  a little  salt 
and  pepper  over  it,  then  put  a layer  of  potatoes, 
then  a layer  of  veal  seasoned  as  before  ; use  up 
the  veal  thus,  and  over  the  last  layer  of  veal 
put  a layer  of  slices  of  salt  pork,  and  over  the 
whole  a layer  of  potatoes  ; pour  in  water  till  it 
rises  an  inch  above  the  whole,  and  cover  the  pot 
as  closely  as  possible;  stew  very  gently  for  an 
hour  and  twenty  minutes. 

VEGETABLES.— For  an  explanation  of  the 
relative  qualities  of  vegetable  as  compared 


with  animal  food,  see  Food  and  Diet.  All  green 
vegetables  should  be  as  fresh  as  possible,  and 
should  not  be  eaten  at  all  when  really  stale,  as 
they  often  are  in  the  markets.  Put  them  into 
cold  water  with  some  salt  in  it  for  about  ten 
minutes,  to  clear  them  from  dirt  and  insects. 
If  not  quite  fresh,  let  them  remain  in  the  water 
some  time  longer  ; then  drain  them  in  a co- 
lander, and  put  them  into  a pot  with  plenty  of 
boiling  water,  adding  a spoonful  of  salt.  Veg- 
etables should  generally  be  boiled  quickly,  and 
all  scum  that  rises  should  be  carefully  removed. 
Do  not  allow  them  to  remain  in  the  water  after 
they  are  done,  but  drain  them  in  a colander 
and  dress  as  directed  in  the  various  receipts. 

The  following  list  comprises  the  vegetables 
treated  of  in  their  proper  places  : 


Artichoke, 

Okra, 

Asparagus, 

Onions, 

Beets, 

Oyster-plant, 

Broccoli, 

Parsley, 

Brussells  Sprouts, 

Parsnip, 

Bushbean, 

Potatoes, 

Cabbage, 

Purslane, 

Carrots, 

Radishes, 

Cauliflower, 

Rhubarb, 

Celery, 

Salsify, 

Corn, 

Savory, 

Cucumber, 

Sea-Kale, 

Egg-plant, 

Shallots, 

Endive, 

Spinach, 

Eschalots, 

Sprouts, 

Garlic, 

Squash, 

Gherkins, 

Tomato, 

Kale, 

Turnip, 

Lettuce, 

Water-Cress, 

Nasturtium, 

Yams. 

VEILS,  To  Clean. — For  black  veils  use  ox- 
gall, as  directed  for  black  silk.  For  white  veils 
wash  them  in  a warm  lather  of  white  soap  and 
water,  then  squeeze  them,  and  rinse  them  in 
cold  water  with  a drop  of  liquid  blue  in  it 
Then  starch  the  veil,  clap  it  between  the  hands 
and  pin  it  out  on  a frame  to  dry. 

VELVET. — A rich  kind  of  stuff  in  which, 
besides  the  ordinary  warp  and  weft,  which  are 
usually  arranged  as  in  twill-weaving,  there  is 
also  a supplementary  weft,  consisting  of  short 
pieces  of  silk,  cotton,  or  woollen  thread  doubled 


under  the  regular  weft  and  brought  to  the  sur- 
face in  loops,  which  are  so  close  together  as  to 
conceal  the  regular  web.  The  loops  are  after- 


wards cut  evenly,  and  the  ends  thus  made  con- 
stitute a covering  resembling  very  short  fur. 
Of  velvet  there  are  properly  only  two  kinds, 


558 


VENISON 


that  which  is  plain,  and  that  with  a twilled  or, 
as  it  is  called,  Genoa  ground  or  back.  When 
the  material  is  silk  it  is  called  velvet ; when 
cotton,  velveteen.  The  latter  is  a kind  of  fus- 
tian which,  under  a variety  of  names,  is  largely 
used  for  men’s  clothing.  In  the  finer  qualities, 
the  French  or  Lyons  velvet  surpasses  all  others, 
though  the  Euglish  looms  furnish  a very  good 
qualify.  Usual  width,  27  inches. 

To  Raise  the  Crushed  Pile  of  Velvet. — 
Hold  the  reverse  side  of  the  velvet  over  a bowl 
of  boiling  water,  stretching  it  tight,  and  the  pile 
of  the  velvet  will  be  gradually  raised. 

VELVETEEN.  (See  Velvet.  ) 

VENISON. — The  flesh  of  all  the  different 
varieties  of  deer  is  called  venison,  but  there  is 
only  one  kind  which  is  plentiful;  and,  as  com- 
monly used,  “ venison  ” means  the  flesh  of  the 
common  or  Virginia  deer.  This  animal  is 
found  in  nearly  all  the  sparsely  inhabited  por- 
tions of  the  country,  especially  in  Northern 
New  York;  but  the  Estern  markets  are  sup- 
plied to  a great  extent  from  the  Western  States 
and  Canada,  the  entire  animal,  with  the  skin  on, 
being  shipped  in  a frozen  state.  Buck  venison 
is  best  from  the  1 st  of  August  to  the  1 st  of  No- 
vember ; after  the  latter  date  Doe  venison  is 
preferred,  and  it  continues  good  until  the  1 st  of 
January,  after  which  no  deer  should  be  killed. 
It  is  sometimes  found,  however,  as  late  as 
March,  having  kept  for  months  in  a frozen 
state  ; but  it  is  then  very  high-priced.  Veni- 
son is  cut  and  sold  in  joints,  called  respectively, 
saddle,  haunch,  leg,  loin,  fore-quarter,  and 
steaks ; the  latter  should  not  be  cut  until  de- 
sired for  immediate  cooking.  Venison  cannot 
be  too  fat,  and  if  it  have  no  fat  on  the  back  it  is 
of  very  poor  quality,  and  will  be  dry  and  flavor- 
less. When  of  good  quality,  it  is  extremely 
nutritious  and  wholesome.  It  is  not  so  deli- 
cate when  fresh  as  when  it  has  been  kept  from 
three  to  eight  days.  To  know  if  it  is  fresh 
enough,  run  a knife  or  skewer  through  the  leg 
or  shoulder,  and  if  it  does  not  smell  rank,  it  is 
good.  When  not  consumed  at  once,  keep  it  in 
a cool,  dark  cellar,  with  a cloth  round  it. 

Baked  Venison. — Any  of  the  pieces  used 
for  roasting  wili  also  serve  for  baking.  Pre- 
pare as  for  roasting,  and  lay  the  joint  in  a bak- 
ing-pan with  about  a quarter  of  an  inch  of  wa- 
ter in  it;  spread  some  butter  over  it,  and  bake 
in  a rather  quick  oven,  basting  often;  turn  it 
over  if  necessary  to  brown  the  under  side. 
Serve  with  currant  jelly  or  cranberry  sauce. 
Thicken  the  gravy  in  the  pan  with  a little 
browned  flour,  and  send  to  table  in  a boat. 
Venison  must  be  rather  underdone  when  baked 
or  roasted. 

Cutlets  (Venison). — Trim  the  cutlets  into 
a neat  shape,  lard  them  with  strips  of  salt  pork, 
spread  a little  butter  over  each,  and  broil  on  a 
buttered  gridiron  over  a clear  fire.  They  may 
also  be  enveloped  in  a piece  of  buttered  paper 
and  then  broiled. 

Hash  of  Venison. — What  is  left  from  a 
roast  will  answer  for  this.  Slice  the  meat  from 
the  bones,  and  put  the  latter  into  a saucepan 


with  the  fat  and  other  scraps  ; add  a teacupful 
of  cold  water,  a small  onion  minced,  pepper  and 
salt,  a few  sprigs  of  parsley  and  thyme,  and 
three  or  four  whole  cloves  ; set  on  the  fire  and 
stew  slowly  for  an  hour.  Strain  the  liquor  and 
return  in  a saucepan,  with  whatever  gravy 
was  left  from  the  roast,  a tablespoonful  of  cur- 
rant jelly,  one  of  tomato  or  mushroom  catsup,  a 
teaspoonful  of  anchovy  sauce,  and  a little 
browned  flour;  boil  for  three  minutes,  lay  in 
the  slices  of  venison,  and  heat  for  ten  minutes, 
but  do  not  let  it  boil.  Stir  often,  and  serve  hot 
in  a covered  dish. 

Pasty  (Venison). — Cut  the  venison  from 
the  bones,  and  keep  the  latter  with  the  scraps 
for  making  gravy;  cut  the  meat  into  small 
squares  or  slices,  put  them  into  a saucepan  with 
enough  cold  water  or  weak  beef-stock  to  cover 
them,  and  stew  gently  until  nearly,  but  not 
quite,  done ; line  the  sides  (not  the  bottom) 
of  a deep  pie-dish  with  a thick  crust  of  puff- 
paste  ; butter  the  bottom  of  the  dish  and  lay  in 
the  venison  neatly  and  compactly  : add  a good 
seasoning  of  salt  and  pepper,  a tablespoonful 
of  butter,  and  half  a teacupful  of  the  liquor  in 
which  the  venison  was  stewed  ; cover  with  a 
thick  crust,  and  set  the  pan  in  a moderate  oven 
for  a half  to  three-quarters  of  an  hour.  While 
the  venison  is  stewing  and  baking  prepare  a 
gravy  with  the  bones,  fat,  and  scraps  (a  few 
bits  of  mutton  will  improve  it),  by  boiling  them 
in  a half  pint  of  water  for  an  hour  ; strain  the 
liquor,  return  it  to  the  saucepan,  let  it  come  to 
a boil,  and  skim  it ; then  add  a glass  of  port  wine, 
a tablespoonful  of  butter,  the  juice  of  a lemon, 
and  a little  browned  flour;  boil  up  once  and  set 
it  where  it  will  keep  warm.  When  the  pie  is 
done,  cut  a small  hole  in  the  centre  of  the  top 
crust,  insert  a funnel,  and  pour  in  as  much  of 
the  gravy  as  the  pie  will  hold.  Serve  the  pasty 
very  hot,  and  send  the  rest  of  the  gravy  to  table 
with  it.  This  is  a famous  dish  in  English 
cookery. 

Pie  (Venison).— The  breast  and  neck  will 
answer  for  this.  Cut  the  cold  meat  into  small 
pieces,  season  with  salt,  pepper,  and  a little 
ground  cloves,  and  dredge  well  with  flour;  put 
them  into  a buttered  pie-dish  as  close  as  possi- 
ble, fill  up  the  dish  with  the  gravy  from  roast 
venison  or  some  gravy  prepared  in  the  same 
manner,  cover  with  a good  crust  of  puff-paste, 
and  set  in  a moderate  oven.  Bake  half  an  hour, 
and  serve  hot. 

Roast  Venison. — I.  Haunch. — Remove  the 
thin  skin,  after  washing  off  in  lukewarm  water, 
and  lard  the  joint  with  strips  of  salt  pork  ; it 
may  be  roasted  without  larding,  but  the  larding 
is  a great  improvement,  the  meat  being  natu- 
rally dry.  Place  it  on  the  spit  before  a brisk 
fire,  and  near  it ; baste  often,  with  melted  butter 
at  first  and  then  with  the  drippings  ; if  it  is 
larded  it  will  require  less  butter.  As  soon  as 
a kind  of  crust  forms  on  the  surface  of  the  meat, 
remove  it  further  from  the  fire  by  degrees.  As- 
certain with  a skcWcr  or  small  knife  when  it  is 
done;  if  these  pass  easily  to  the  bone  through 
the  thickest  part,  it  is  ready  to  serve. 


VENTILATION 


559 


For  gravy,  put  a pound  or  so  of  the  scraps  of 
raw  venison  left  from  trimming  the  joint  into  a 
saucepan  with  a quart  of  water,  a pinch  of 
cloves,  a blade  of  mace,  half  a nutmeg,  and  salt 
and  cayenfie  to  taste  ; stew  slowly  till  it  is 
reduced  one  half,  then  strain,  and  return  it  to 
the  saucepan  with  three  tablespoonfuls  of  currant 
jelly,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  butter,  and  a wine- 
glassful  of  claret ; thicken  with  browned  flour 
and  boil  up  once. 

Always  serve  currant  jelly  with  roast  venison. 

II.  Neck. — This  joint  is  not  very  highly  es- 
teemed, but  it  makes  an  excellent  roast  when 
done  properly,  and  has  the  advantage  that  it 
requires  a shorter  time  to  cook.  Roast  as 
directed  for  Haunch,  allowing  about  twelve 
minutes  to  a pound,  and  serve  with  a similar 
gravy,  or  with  a gravy  seasoned  simply  with 
salt  and  pepper,  watercress,  and  a little  lemon 
juice  or  vinegar,  and  thickened  with  browned 
flour.  Send  around  currant  jelly  with  it. 

III.  Saddle. — A saddle  of  venison  is  much 
the  best  piece  of  the  deer,  when  a very  large 
joint  is  not  required.  Roast  it  as  directed  for 
Haunch  and  Neck,  and  serve  with  the  same 
gravies. 


IV.  Shoulder. — This  may  be  cooked  entire, 
or  boned  as  directed  for  Shoulder  of  Veal. 
In  either  case,  roast  like  Haunch  and  Neck,  and 
serve  with  same  gravies  and  currant  jelly. 
Carve  as  shown  in  the  lines,  a b and  b c. 

Steaks  (Venison). — These  should  be  about 
half  an  inch  thick.  Season  them  with  pepper 
and  salt,  spread  butter  on  both  sides,  and  broil 
them  six  minutes  on  a clear  fire,  turning  them 
often.  They  may  be  served  plain,  but  are 
greatly  improved  by  a gravy  made  of  equal  parts 
of  red  wine  and  currant  jelly,  thickened  with  a 
little  flour  and  butter ; boil  up  once  and  turn 
hot  upon  the  steaks.  A teaspoonful  of  roast 
venison  gravy,  poured  over  them  hot,  is  also  an 
improvement. 

Stewed  Venison. — Cut  the  meat  in  two- 
inch  squares.  Put  a heaping  tablespoonful  of 
butter  into  a stewpan  and  set  it  over  a good 
fire  ; when  it  has  melted,  sprinkle  in  by  degrees 
a tablespoonful  of  flour,  stirring  all  the  time 
with  a wooden  spoon  ; when  it  begins  to  get 
thick  add  two  ounces  of  salt  pork  cut  small, 
half  a pint  of  warm  water,  half  a pint  of  claret 
wine,  salt  and  pepper,  a pinch  of  allspice, 
two  shallots,  and  six  onions  chopped  fine,  and, 
if  at  hand,  four  or  five  mushrooms;  lay  the 
meat  on  the  whole,  and  stew  gently  till  cooked. 
Dish  the  meat,  boil  the  sauce  hard  till  it  is  of  a 
brownish  color,  turn  it  on  the  meat,  and  serve 
hot. 


Stewed  Shoulder  of  Venison. — Take  out 
the  bone  as  directed  for  Shoulder  of  Veal  ; lay 
in  the  holes  thus  made  some  slices  of  mutton 
fat  that  has  lain  a few  hours  in  a little  port 
wine,  and  sprinkle  pepper  and  powdered  all- 
spice over  it  ; roll  it  up  tight  and  tie  it  with  a 
piece  of  broad  tape  ; set  it  in  a stewpan  that 
will  just  hold  it,  with  some  beef  or  mutton 
gravy  (or  some  broth  made  by  boiling  the  bones 
and  scraps  of  venison  with  bits  of  mutton  in 
water),  half  a pint  of  port  or  Madeira  wine,  and 
some  pepper  and  allspice ; cover  closely,  and 
simmer  very  slowly  three  or  four  hours.  When 
quite  tender  take  off  the  tape,  set  the  meat  in 
a dish,  strain  the  gravy  over  it,  and  serve  with 
currant  jelly.  This  is  an  extremely  savory  dish. 

VENTILATION. — In  the  article  on  Air  we 
have  already  shown  how,  in  its  effect  on  the 
animal  economy,  pure  air  must  be  regarded  as  a 
food  and  a highly  indispensable  one,  and  have 
pointed  out  the  numerous  ways  in  which  it  is 
contaminated  after  it  enters  a dwelling-house ; 
but  the  subject  is  so  very  important,  and  an 
appreciation  of  its  importance  is  so  necessary 
to  a right  understanding  of  what  is  meant  by 
ventilation,  that  we  shall  emphasize  one  or  two 
additional  points  here.  Briefly,  then,  the  atmos- 
phere which  surrounds  the  earth,  forming  a 
gaseous  envelope  about  forty  miles  thick,  has  a 
definite  and  very  uniform  composition.  Every 
hundred  parts  of  it  consist  of  21  volumes  of 
oxygen  and  79  volumes  of  nitrogen ; or,  if  we 
estimate  its  composition  by  weight,  of  23  parts 
of  oxygen  and  77  of  nitrogen,  and  four  parts  in 
10,000  of  carbonic  acid.  Practically,  we  may 
say  that  a fifth  part  of  the  atmosphere  consists 
of  oxygen,  and  this  is  the  true  necessary  of  life, 
though  without  being  mixed  with  nitrogen  it 
would  be  too  stimulating  and  could  sustain  life 
but  a short  time.  The  atmosphere  also  con- 
tains about  four  parts  in  ten  thousand  of  car- 
bonic acid, , a gas  which,  unless  it  be  highly 
diluted,  is  destructive  to  animal  life. 

This  carbonic  acid  gas  is  the  subtle  enemy 
we  have  constantly  to  deal  with  in  our  houses, 
and  against  which  we  should  be  constantly  on 
our  guard.  It  is  given  off  by  animals  in  the 
process  of  respiration,  both  when  asleep  and 
awake.  A man  produces  by  respiration  about 
ten  cubic  feet  in  twenty-four  hours  ; so,  if  we 
suppose  him  to  be  confined  in  a room  contain- 
ing 1,000  cubic  feet  of  air  (which  a space  ten 
feet  square  and  ten  feet  high  would  afford),  he 
would,  in  twenty-four  hours,  contaminate  atmos- 
phere to  the  extent  of  one  part  of  carbonic 
acid  in  100  parts  of  air.  A certain  amount  of 
carbonic  acid  given  off  by  the  skin  would  have 
to  be  added  to  this.  But  suppose  twelve  per- 
sons to  occupy  the  same  chamber,  and  a like 
effect  would  be  produced  in  two  hours.  Now 
air  containing  one  per  cent,  of  carbonic  acid  is 
highly  injurious,  and  even  half  that  quantity 
cannot  be  long  breathed  with  impunity.  Res- 
piration can  be  continued  only  with  difficulty  in 
an  atmosphere  containing  five  per  cent,  of  the 
gas,  while  thirty  per  cent,  speedily  destroys 
life.  Besides  carbonic  acid,  the  air  contains 


5 GO 


VENTILATION 


another  still  more  deadly  compound,  carbonic 
oxide,  which  is  produced  in  our  houses  chiefly 
by  the  imperfect  combustion  of  carbon  in  fuel. 
Even  the  most  perfect  system  of  sewage  and 
drains  cannot  prevent  the  escape  of  more  or 
less  sulphuretted  and  carburetted  hydrogen ; 
and  the  burning  of  candles,  lamps,  and  gas- 
lights is  a prolific  source  of  contamination. 
The  burning  of  gas  is  especially  unwholesome, 
not  only  on  account  of  its  consumption  of  oxy- 
gen being  very  large,  but  because  of  the  other 
deleterious  gases  besides  carbonic  acid  which 
are  evolved.  In  fact,  as  we  have  observed 
elsewhere  ( See  Aik),  nearly  every  process  of 
household  life,  from  cooking  to  mere  speaking 
or  breathing,  vitiates  the  air  to  a greater  or  less 
extent. 

The  problem  of  ventilation  is  to  remove 
vitiated  air  and  supply  fresh  with  the  least  in- 
convenience. The  greatest  difficulty  is  to  ac- 
complish this  without  so  lowering  the  tempera- 
ture as  to  induce  cold,  or  if  artificial  heat  alone 
be  used,  to  prevent  great  variations  of  temper- 
ature in  the  same  room,  an  undue  dryness  of 
the  air,  and  too  great  consumption  of  fuel.  The 
different  means  employed  may  be  divided  into 
two  classes— forced  or  mechanical  ventilation, 
and  ventilation  by  spontaneous  action.  The 
first  method  is  necessary  whenever  a larger 
number  of  persons  are  assembled  in  one  apart- 
ment than  its  relative  amount  of  cubic  space 
would  warrant ; and  elaborate  preparations  are 
often  necessary  to  accomplish  it.  Manifestly 
these  can  only  be  employed  in  churches,  public 
halls,  and  those  private  houses  in  which  ex- 
pense is  no  objection ; but  the  scope  of  the 
present  article  is  limited  to  showing  how  venti- 
lation can  best  be  effected  in  ordinary  houses 
under  ordinary  conditions.  The  commonest 
and  by  no  means  the  worst  method  of  ventilat- 
ing a room  is  by  opening  the  windows.  But 
since  the  heated  and  most  of  the  impure  air 
always  ascends,  windows  should  open  at  the  top 
and  extend  to  near  the  ceiling.  It  is  a great 
mistake,  however,  to  suppose  that  opening  win- 
dows on  one  side  only  suffices  to  ventilate  an 
apartment.  It  often  happens  in  the  still  and 
sultry  atmosphere  of  summer  that  the  tempera- 
ture inside  a room  is  the  same  as  that  outside, 
and  as  difference  of  temperature  is  essential 
to  spontaneous  movement  in  the  air,  no  change 
whatever  will  take  place  under  these  circum- 
stances in  the  air  of  a room  having  windows 
only  on  one  side.  To  secure  good  ventilation 
under  ordinary  conditions  of  the  air,  ample 
means  of  escape  as  well  as  of  entrance  must 
be  provided.  If  the  door  be  kept  open  this 
will  generally  suffice.  The  great  objection  to 
open  windows  and  doors  is  the  draught,  and 
there  are  numerous  contrivances  to  avoid  it. 
One  of  the  simplest  Js  to  have  a portion  of  the 
window  filled  with  perforated  zinc  plates  or 
perforated  glass  ; the  draught  produced  by  air 
entering  through  numerous  small  apertures  is 
diffused  and  rendered  less  perceptible.  But 
ventilation  by  this  means  is  necessarily  very 
imperfect.  Another  plan  is  to  insert  a revolv- 


ing tin  fan  in  place  of  a pane  of  glass.  Venth 
lators  made  of  plates  of  glass,  which  can  be 
opened  or  closed  after  the  fashion  of  a Venetian 
blind,  are  in  every  way  superior  to  the  preced- 
ing, as  they  do  not  interfere  with  the  light,  and 
the  current  of  air  can  be  directed  upwards  or 
downwards. 

The  mechanical  expedients  for  securing  ven- 
tilation are  in  most  houses  connected  with  ar- 
rangements for  heating.  Wherever  there  is  a 
fire  there  must  be  a stream  of  air  passing  out 
of  the  room  through  the  chimney,  and  as  this 
must  be  replaced  by  air  fairly  well  supplied 
with  oxygen,  a draught  through  a chimney  im- 
plies openings  somewhere  for  air  to  enter  the 
room,  and  thus  there  is  some  ventilation  as  a 
matter  of  necessity.  Even  in  summer  the 
chimney  acts  as  an  air-shaft  and  for  this  reason 
it  should  never  be  closed  (as  it  generally  is) 
with  a fireboard.  In  the  open  fireplace,  the 
magnitude  of  the  open  space  above  the  fire 
represents  the  ventilating  capacity  of  the  chim- 
ney. But,  unfortunately,  it  is  from  the  air  below 
the  level  ofthe  mantel — the  purest  in  the  room — 
that  the  fireplace  is  supplied  ; only  so  much  of 
the  foul  imprisoned  air  above  as  gradually  cools 
and  descends  being  swept  into  the  chimney. 

Stoves  afford  the  least  ventilation  of  all  our 
means  of  heating.  They  take  little  more  air 
than  just  sufficient  to  consume  the  fuel,  and 
that  is  withdrawn  from  the  purer  portion  near 
the  floor.  Yet  they  may  be  made  subservient 
to  ventilation  in  various  ways  : first,  by  allow- 
ing air  to  pass  through  tubes  in  the  body  of 
the  stove  ; second,  by  admitting  it  between 
the  stove  and  external  casing  ; and  third, 
by  simply  allowing  it  to  strike  against  the  ex 
ternal  surface  of  the  stove.  In  either  case  the 
entering  air  will  be  partially  warmed,  thus 
avoiding  the  unpleasant  cold  draughts  too  often 
attendant  on  the  introduction  of  fresh  air. 

Furnaces,  hot-water  apparatus,  etc.,  in  which 
air  itself  is  made  the  vehicle  for  conveying 
heat  into  the  room,  furnish  the  most  effective 
means  of  ventilation.  The  hot  air,  by  diffusion 
through  the  apartment,  displaces  the  air  already 
present,  which  must  find  escape  somewhere. 
Rooms  warmed  in  this  manner  require  a chim- 
ney or  other  opening  by  which  air  may  escape ; 
but  under  the  impression  that  apartments  heated 
by  air-currents  require  no  other  channel,  houses 
are  frequently  constructed  with  no  flues  at  all. 

There  are  several  different  modes  of  com- 
bining warming  and  ventilation,  both  by  con- 
vection and  radiation,  very  much  resembling 
the  open  fire-place  in  its  effect  upon  the  air, 
and  yet  securing  great  economy  of  fuel.  Coils 
of  steam  or  hot-water  pipes  are  placed  under 
the  windows,  and  these  warm  the  walls  and 
furniture  of  the  rooms,  partly  by  radiation  and 
partly  by  the  air  warmed  on  the  heated  surfaces 
of  the  coils.  At  the  same  time,  by  regulating 
registers,  or  by  simply  opening  the  lower  part 
of  the  window,  the  pure  air  is  admitted  directly 
upon  the  coils,  so  that  it  is  partially  warmed  be- 
fore it  reaches  the  person,  and  thus  cold 
draughts  are  prevented.  The  vitiated  air  is 


VENTILATION 


561 


drawn  off  through  registers  both  at  the  top  and 
bottom  of  the  room,  opening  into  a heated  ex- 
hausting flue,  through  which  the  constantly 
ascending  current  of  warm  air  carries  it  off. 
Moisture  should  be  carefully  and  abundantly 
supplied  by  a broad  vessel  placed  on  or  close 
to  the  heated  coils,  providing  a large  surface 
for  evaporation. 

When  rooms  are  warmed  chiefly  by  radiated 
heat,  the  air  can  be  borne  much  cooler  than  in 
those  warmed  by  hot-air  furnaces,  just  as  a 
person  in  the  radiating  sun  can  bear  much 
cooler  air  than  in  the  shade.  Where  direct 
radiation  is  not  used,  any  plan  of  ventilation,  in 
order  to  be  effective,  should  include  an  opening 
near  the  top  of  the  room  into  an  independ- 
ent heated  flue  of  the  chimney ; and  if  provision 
is  made  for  the  entrance  of  plenty  of  fresh  air 
this  alone  will  generally  suffice  to  keep  the  at- 
mosphere of  the  room  pure  and  sweet.  The 
upward  draught  in  a good  chimney  is  very 
strong;  and  in  houses  without  independent 
flues,  if  an  opening  into  the  chimney  be  made 
by  knocking  out  two  or  three  bricks  near  the 
ceiling,  the  foul  gases  in  the  room  will  rush  in, 
and,  mingling  with  the  ascending  current,  will 
escape.  The  only  objection  to  these  openings 
is  that  when  from  any  cause  the  current  of  the 
chimney  is  interrupted,  smoke  is  driven  into 
the  room.  Some  authorities  (principally  in 
England)  claim  that  this  is  met  by  inserting  in 
them  Arnoifs  Valve,  and  call  it  the  simplest, 
cheapest,  and  most  effective  mechanical  con- 
trivance that  the  art  of  ventilation  has  yet 
secured.*  It  is  self-acting,  and  is  so  adjusted 
that  a current  of  air  passing  into  the  chimney 
opens  it,  while  the  slightest  current  in  the  con- 
trary direction  shuts  it,  and  thus  prevents  the 
backward  flow  of  smoke  into  the  room.  Owing 
to  the  unsteadiness  of  the  currents,  the  valve 
is  constantly  vibrating  or  trembling,  and  would 
be  noisy  but  that  it  is  made  to  strike  against 
soft  leather.  Many  of  the  stove  or  furnace- 
heated  rooms  whose  foul  air  is  a constant 
menace  to  the  health  of  those  who  breathe  it, 
may  by  its  aid  alone  be  thoroughly  drained  of 
their  gaseous  pollutions.  If  the  orifice  in  the 
chimney  be  deemed  unsightly,  it  may  be 
screened  from  view  by  placing  a picture  before 
it.  It  must  be  said,  however,  that  other  emi- 
nent authorities  object  to  the  Arnott  valve, 
and  claim  that  but  little  benefit  is  gained  in 
comparison  with  the  dirt  and  smoke  that  is  al- 
lowed to  come  in  in  spite  of  the  valve,  and  that 
the  draught  of  the  flue  is  seriously  interfered 
with  in  many  cases.  The  present  editors  would 
hesitate  to  introduce  it  in  this  climate,  after  try- 
ing it  on  several  houses.  It  was  thought  best, 
however,  to  state  both  sides. 

One  of  the  best  and  simplest  methods  of 
ventilation  with  which  we  are  acquainted  is 
described  in  Dr.  Hinton’s  “ Physiology  for  Prac- 
tical Use."  It  is  equally  applicable  in  summer 
and  winter,  because  all  downward  draught  is 

* Amott’s  Va^ve  cannot  always  be  obtained  at  local  stores, 
but  it  is  manufactured  by  S.  B.  James,  No.  77  White  St.,  N.Y. 
Price  $2.50  to  $5.00,  according  to  size.  It  is  very  easily  inserted. 

36 


avoided ; and  as  it  can  be  applied  for  a few 
cents,  and  is  not  unsightly  in  appearance,  it  is 
equally  suitable  for  the  cottage  and  the  man- 
sion. A piece  of  wood  an  inch  or  more  in 
thickness,  three  inches  wide,  and  exactly  as 
long  as  the  breadth  of  the  window  through 
which  ventilation  is  to  be  established,  is  to  be 
prepared.  Raise  the  sash  and  place  the  slip 
of  wood  upon  the  sill  of  the  window ; then 
draw  the  sash  closely  down  upon  the  slip  of 
wood.  If  the  slip  has  been  well  fitted — and 
the  fitting  may  be  made  more  complete  by 
adapting  it  to  the  grooves  in  the  sash  and  its 
frame,  if  there  are  any — no  draught  will  be  ex- 
perienced in  consequence  of  the  displacement 
of  the  sash  at  this  part.  The  effect  of  such 
an  arrangement,  however,  is  to  cause  a separa- 
tion between  the  bars  of  the  upper  and  lower 
sashes.  By  this  means,  perpendicular  currents 
of  air  will  be  projected  into  the  room  between 


Cheap  Ventilator. 

the  glass  in  the  upper  and  lower  sashes  and 
their  respective  bars,  in  an  upward  direction  , 
and  other  currents  will  pass  outward  in  the  re- 
verse direction,  in  a manner  by  which  all  in- 
inconvenience from  draught  will  be  avoided. 
If  two  windows  at  opposite  sides  of  a room  be 
fitted  in  this  manner,  a very  satisfactory  venti- 
lation will  be  provided ; owing  to  a difference  in 
its  equilibrium,  the  air  will  rush  in  on  one  side 
and  rush  out  on  the  other  side  of  the  apart- 
ment. By  painting  the  slips  of  wood  the  same 
color  as  the  windows  themselves,  they  will  at- 
tract little  notice.  It  is  well  too,  to  have  their 
edges  well  covered  with  “ listing"  or  felt,  so  as 
to  secure  tight  joints. 

It  is  very  desirable  to  have  in  the  ceiling  of 
the  main  hall,  at  the  top  of  the  house,  a pipe  of 
from  8 to  12  inches  in  diameter,  closable  with 
a register  in  very  cold  weather,  and  extending 
far  above  the  roof.  It  should,  of  course,  be 
covered  with  a cap  to  shut  out  the  rain.  The 
top  of  the  hall  is  the  reservior  for  half  the  bad 
air  in  the  house,  which  rises  through  the  open- 
ing of  the  stairway  from  all  the  floors. 

Another  arrangement  essential  to  a perfect 
house,  and  not  very  expensive  if  built  at  the 


502 


VERBENA 


proper  time,  is  a ventilating  shaft,  of  which  a 
horizontal  section  would  be  2 square  feet,  or 
even  more,  to  be  heated  either  by  running  up 
beside  the  flue  of  some  fire  in  constant  use,  or 
by  registers  or  steam  pipes  at  intervals,  and  es- 
pecially near  the  bottom.  Into  this  all  water 
closets  and  other  reservoirs  of  bad  air  should 
open  by  orifices  of  not  less  than  75  square 
inches.  It  may  be  large  enough  to  use  for 
light,  in  which  case  the  covering  should  be  of 


Ventilating  Shaft,  Sectional  View. 

glass.  In  the  sectional  diagram  S S represent 
the  supports  of  the  cover,  one  at  each  corner. 
They  should  be  high  enough  to  allow  the  air  to 
escape  without  obstruction  from  the  edges  of 
the  cover.  R R represents  the  line  of  the 
roof.  The  opening  of  the  shaft  should  project 
far  enough  above  the  roof  (say  18  inches)  to 
prevent  snow  getting  down.  The  curved  form 
of  the  under  side  of  the  cap  acts  as  a deflector, 
so  that  no  matter  in  which  direction  the  wind 
blows,  it  is  deflected  outwards  and  draws  the  air 
out  of  the  shaft.  If  the  flue  has  a horizontal 
area  of  over  three  or  four  square  feet,  or  is  not 
very  thoroughly  warmed,  it  will  be  desirable,  in 
cold  weather,  to  close  it  on  the  windward  side. 
For  this  purpose  wings  (W  W' ) should  be 
hinged  on  the  edges  of  the  shaft  and  raised,  as 
at  W,  or  lowered  as  at  W',  by  cords  passing  over 
the  pulleys  (P  P)  and  hanging  down  to  some 
opening  in  the  shaft  where  they  can  be  con- 
trolled. The  cords  can  be  distinguished  below 
by  knots.  This  arrangement  has  satisfactorily 
supplied  light  and  ventilation  to  a bathroom 
and  water-closet  which,  before  its  introduc- 
tion, rendered  a house  almost  uninhabitable. 

The  shaft  just  described  and  all  such  shafts 
should  be  free  from  all  combustible  material 
and  connections,  as,  being  draft  holes,  they 
would  be  especially  dangerous  if  fire  in  them 
were  possible. 

A gutter  with  a rain-spout  at  G is  desirable 


on  very  large  ventilators,  widely  opened,  to  pre- 
vent rain  being  blown  down. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  ventilation  is 
even  of  greater  importance  at  night  than  during 
the  day.  More  time  is  passed  in  the  same  at- 
mosphere during  sleep  than  in  our  waking 
hours,  and  the  system  is  more  susceptible  to 
noxious  influences  when  we  are  sleeping.  On 
these  accounts  the  ventilation  of  bedrooms 
should  be  carefully  attended  to.  Unfortunately 
an  absurd  belief  prevails  that  night  air  is  dan- 
gerous, but  it  is  certain  that  no  air  admitted 
from  without  is  likely  to  prove  half  so  peril- 
ous as  that  which  is  breathed  and  re-breathed 
by  the  occupant  of  a small  and  tightly-closed  bed- 
room. {See  Curtains.) 

VERBENA. — Among  all  the  “bedding-out” 
plants  which  contribute  so  much  to  the  gay  and 
brilliant  appearance  of  a flower  garden,  the  Ver- 
bena is  entitled  to  the  first  rank  ; and  as  anyone 
can  raise  them,  no  garden  can  be  considered 
complete  which  does  not  contain  some  of.tbe 
hundreds  of  varieties  offered  by  florists.  1 A few 
of  the  varieties  are  sweet-scented,  but  most  of 
them  depend  for  their  attractiveness  upon  their 
showy,  gorgeous  coloring  and  their  wonderful 
profusion  of  blossoms.  Some  splendid  new 
varieties  have  been  introduced  within  the  past 
few  years,  whose  wondrous  stripes  and  eyes 
are  not  approached  by  any  of  the  older  sorts  ; 
these  are  selected  from  many  thousand  seedlings 
and  are  both  rich  and  rare.  But  any  one  can 
raise  new  varieties  from  seed,  and  good  cul- 
ture will  produce  fine  blooms.  Seedlings 
will  seed  much  more  plentifully  than  flowers 
from  cuttings,  and  the  older  the  cutting  the 
less  seed  it  will  give. 

The  seed  should  first  be  soaked  for  twenty- 
four  hours  in  warm  water,  and  then  planted  in 
a light  sandy  loam  with  a good  bottom  heat. 
Thus  treated  they  will  germinate,  and  when 
the  fourth  leaf  is  formed  should  be  potted  into 
thumb  pots  in  sandy  loam.  The  bed  in  which 
they  are  planted  for  final  growth  and  blooming 
should  be  exposed  fully  to  the  sun,  and  be 
covered  two  or  three  inches  deep  with  common 
sand.  As  the  plant  sends  out  its  first  shoots, 
they  should  be  pegged  down  with  hair  pins,  and 
thus  coaxed  to  grow.  Verbenas  should  be 
watered  often  and  copiously.  The  soap-suds 
from  washing-day  are  very  beneficial  to  them, 
and  a spoonful  of  guano  dug  around  each  plant, 
not  touching  the  stems,  will  increase  their  vigor 
and  beauty.  The  green  lice,  or  aphis,  is  their 
scourge  in  pot-culture,  but  these  can  be  destroyed 
by  smoking  them  with  tobacco.  Put  the  plants 
together,  and  throw  some  tobacco  on  hot  coals 
in  a pot-saucer,  cover  the  whole  with  a wash-tub, 
and  let  them  smoke  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes; 
the  lice  can  then  be  swept  up  and  burned. 
Place  the  coals  as  far  as  possible  from  the 
plants  under  the  tubs,  so  that  the  heat  will  not 
injure  them.  If  plants  are  well  showered,  no 
lice  will  appear — they  cannot  endure  moisture. 

If  cuttings  are  desired  for  winter  bloom, 
they  should  be  taken  off  in  August,  so  as  to 
become  well  rooted.  It  is  not  worth  while  to 


VERMICELLI 


VINEGAR 


563 


take  up  old  plants  for  winter  blooming,  as  they 
never  do  well. 

The  varieties  of  verbenas  are  so  very  numer- 
ous that  it  would  be  useless  to  attempt  to  in- 
dicate which  are  most  desirable.  Great  num- 
bers of  new  ones  are  produced  every  year,  and 
the  best  way  is  to  send  to  one  of  the  leading 
florists  for  a catalogue,  and  select  from  it  such 
as  strike  the  fancy.  The  qualities  of  a first-class 
verbena,  as  laid  down  by  florists,  are  : round- 
ness of  flower,  without  indenture,  notch,  or  ser- 
rature ; petals  thick,  flat,  bright,  and  smooth ; 
the  plant  should  be  compact,  with  short  strong 
joints,  either  distinctly  of  a shrubby  habit,  or 
a close  ground  creeper  or  climber ; the  foliage 
should  be  short,  broad,  bright,  and  enough  to 
hide  the  stalk  ; in  the  eyed  and  striped  varieties 
the  colors  should  be  well  defined  and  lasting, 
never  running  into  each  other  or  changing  in 
the  sun. 

VERMICELLI. — A preparation  of  wheat 
flour  very  similar  to  Macaroni,  being  made  in 
the  same  way,  only  to  the  paste  are  added 
cheese,  yolk  of  eggs,  sugar,  and  saffron.  It  is 
of  Italian  origin,  and  the  name  means  little 
Worms,  from  its  form.  Vermicelli  should  be  of 
a slightly  yellowish  color;  those  which  are  white 
are  of  inferior  quality.  It  should  also  be  fresh, 
as  it  becomes  musty  when  long  kept.  The 
Italian  is  best.  (See  Puddings  and  Soups). 

VERMIN. — For  directions  how  to  destroy 
the  various  kinds  of  vermin  that  infest  the 
house,  See  Ants,  Bugs,  Cockroaches, 
Flies,  Mice,  Rats,  and  Roaches. 

VERONICA. — This  is  a well-known  hardy 
herbaceous  plant,  which  is  found  in  most  gar- 
dens. Cultivate  as  directed  for  Phlox.  Ver- 
onica Verginica  is  the  common  tall-growing 
species,  producing  white  flowers  in  August.  V. 
speciosa  and  spicata  are  of  dwarf  habit ; they 
produce  fine  blue  flowers  in  June. 

VERTIGO. — Vertigo,  or  Giddiness,  is  that 
peculiar  sensation  wherein  we  seem  to  be 
standing  still  and  all  adjacent  objects  running 
round  us.  This  commonly  causes  loss  of  bal- 
ance, and  the  individual  may  fall  down ; in  a 
good  many  cases,  however,  he  is  able  to  recov- 
er himself  without  falling,  especially  if  he  can 
lay  hold  of  something  to  steady  himself  by  for 
a moment.  In  most  cases  giddiness  depends 
on  an  insufficient  or  improper  supply  of  blood 
to  the  brain.  Thus  in  giddiness  after  severe  ill- 
ness, in  attempting  to  stand  upright  we  see  the 
result  of  an  insufficient  supply ; in  other  in- 
stances the  blood  supply  is  impure  from  con- 
taining too  much  alcohol  or  the  products  of 
imperfect  digestion  of  food.  In  old  people, 
when  the  vessels  become  hardened  and  un- 
yielding, giddiness  is  often  a permanent  symp- 
tom. From  these  facts  it  is  evident  that  ver- 
tigo is  rather  a symptom  than  a malady,  and  a 
symptom,  too,  of  varying  significance  ; for  some- 
times apparently  overfullness  of  the  blood- 
vessels gives  rise  to  a kind  of  giddiness.  If, 
for  instance,  the  face  is  flushed  and  the  head 
hot,  it  may  be  desirable  to  give  some  purgative 
medicine,  whereas  if  the  vertigo  comes  during 


convalescence*  it  is  best  remedied  by  a glass 
of  wine.  The  subsequent  treatment  depends 
upon  the  same  principle.  Where  there  is 
weakness,  good  food  and  exercise  are  the  best 
remedies  ; when  overfullness  seems  to  be  the 
cause,  saline  purgatives  and  some  diuretic  may 
be  given. 

VINEGAR. — This  well-known  condiment  is 
a weak  acetic  acid,  of  different  degrees  of 
strength,  and  either  brown  or  colorless,  accord- 
ing to  the  source  from  which  it  is  produced. 
The  simplest  way  of  obtaining  it  is  to  set  up  a 
second  or  acetous  fermentation  in  wine  or  cider, 
by  leaving  the  vessel  unstopped  in  a warm 
place,  oxygen  is  absorbed,  carbonic  acid  evolved 
and  the  alcohol  of  the  wine  passes  into  acetic 
acid.  The  best  vinegar  is  wine  vinegar , but  it 
is  expensive.  Cider  vinegar  is  excellent,  and 
for  ordinary  use  superior  to  any  other.  Beer 
makes  good  vinegar,  but  it  is  inferior  to  that 
made  with  cider.  Pyroligneous  vinegar,  made 
by  the  distillation  of  wood,  is  apt  to  be  impure, 
and,  if  used,  should  be  used  only  in  pickles 
for  preserving  meats,  etc.  For  this  purpose  it 
is  said  to  be  superior  to  any  other.  Vinegar 
of  excellent  quality  and  cf  a moderate  price 
may  now  be  obtained  at  the  stores  in  every 
part  of  the  country,  so  that  it  is  no  longer  nec- 
essary to  make  it  at  home ; but  the  following 
receipt  will  produce  it  at  small  cost  and  with 
little  trouble:  To  one  gallon  of  water  add  one 
pound  and  a quarter  of  raw  sugar  and  a quar- 
ter of  a pint  of  yeast.  At  a temperature  of  8o° 
it  will  be  sufficiently  acid  in  three  or  four  days 
to  be  drawn  off,  when  an  ounce  of  cut  raisins 
and  an  equal  weight  of  cream  tartar  should  be 
added  ; in  a few  weeks  the  sweet  taste  will  have 
disappeared  entirely,  and  the  vinegar  may  be 
bottled. 

Flavored  Vinegars  are  growing  in  favor 
as  condiments  ; those  for  which  receipts  are  giv- 
en below  are  easily  made  and  very  choice. 

Cayenne  Vinegar. — Put  from  a quarter  to 
half  an  ounce  of  the  best  cayenne  pepper  into 
a bottle,  and  pour  on  it  a pint  of  strong  vinegar, 
cork  it  closely  and  shake  it  well  every  two  or 
three  days.  It  may  remain  any  length  of  time 
before  it  is  poured  off,  but  will  be  ready  for  use 
in  two  weeks. 

Celery  Vinegar. — Throw  into  a pint  of  boil- 
ing vinegar  a few  grains  of  cayenne,  or  half  an 
ounce  of  peppercorns,  a large  saltspoonful  of 
salt,  and  a pint  of  the  white  part  of  the  roots  and 
stems  of  some  fine  fresh  celery,  sliced  thin ; let 
it  boil  for  two  or  three  minutes,  turn  it  into  a 
stone  jar,  and  secure  it  well  from  the  air  as 
soon  as  it  is  cold.  It  may  be  strained  off  and 
bottled  in  three  or  four  weeks,  but  may  remain 
as  many  months  in  the  jar  without  injury. 

Chili  or  Capsicum  Vinegar. — Put  an  ounce 
of  chilies  or  capsicums  into  a pint  of  vinegar, 
cover  closely,  and  let  them  stand  a fortnight; 
after  straining,  it  will  then  be  ready  for  use. 
If  a strong  flavor  is  liked,  let  them  infuse  for  a 
fortnight  longer. 

Cucumber  Vinegar. — First  wipe,  and  then, 
without  paring,  slice  into  a stone  jar  some  young 


564 


VOLS-AU-VENT 


cucumbers, pour  on  them  as  much  boiling  vinegar 
as  will  cover  them  well,  with  a teaspoonful  of  salt 
and  two-thirds  as  much  peppercorns  to  a pint  and 
a half  of  vinegar.  It  may  remain  on  them  for  a 
month,  or  even  for  two,  if  well  protected  from 
the  air  ; it  should  then  be  strained,  allowed  to 
settle,  and  poured  quite  clear  into  small  dry 
bottles,  which  should  be  tightly  corked.  A 
mild  onion  may  be  mixed  with  the  cucumbers 
when  its  flavor  is  liked. 

Horseradish  Vinegar. — On  four  ounces  of 
young  and  freshly  scraped  horseradish  pour  a 
quart  of  boiling  vinegar,  and  cover  it  down 
closely.  It  will  be  ready  for  use  in  three  or 
four  days,  but  may  remain  for  weeks  or  months 
before  the  vinegar  is  poured  off.  An  ounce  of 
minced  shallot  may  be  substituted  for  one  of 
the  horse  radish,  if  the  flavor  is  liked. 

Mint  Vinegar. — Slightly  chop  or  bruise  the 
young  leaves  of  freshly  gathered  mint,  and  put 
them  into  bottles,  filling  them  nearly  to  the 
neck ; pour  in  vinegar  enough  to  cover  the 
mint ; in  fifty  days  strain  it  off  and  bottle  for  use. 

Onion  Vinegar. — Make  as  directed  for 
shallot  vinegar. 

Raspberry  Vinegar.  ( See  Raspberry.) 

Strawberry  Vinegar. — Take  the  stalks  from 
the  fruit,  which  should  be  quite  ripe  and  freshly 
gathered  in  dry  weather ; weigh  it  and  put  it 
into  large  glass  jars  or  wide-necked  bottles,  and 
to  each  pound  pour  about  a pint  and  a half 
of  white  wine  vinegar ; tie  a thick  paper  over 
them,  and  let  the  strawberries  remain  from 
three  to  four  days ; then  pour  off  the  vinegar 
and  empty  them  into  a jelly-bag,  or  suspend 
them  in  a cloth,  that  all  the  liquid  may  drop 
from  them  without  pressure;  replace  them  with 
an  equal  weight  of  fresh  fruit,  pour  the  vinegar 
upon  it,  and  three  days  afterwards  repeat  the 
same  process,  diminishing  a little  the  propor- 
tion of  strawberries,  of  which  the  flavor  ought 
ultimately  to  overpower  that  of  the  vinegar.  In 
from  two  to  four  days  drain  off  the  liquid  very 
closely,  and  after  having  strained  it  through  a 
linen  or  flannel  bag,  weigh  it  and  mix  with  it 
an  equal  quantity  of  highly-refined  sugar  rough- 
ly powdered  ; when  this  is  nearly  dissolved,  stir 
the  syrup  over  a clear  fire  until  it  has  boiled  for 
five  minutes,  and  skim  it  thoroughly  ; pour  it 
into  a clean  stone  pitcher,  or  into  large  china 
jugs,  throw  a thick  folded  cloth  over  and  let  it 
remain  until  next  day.  Put  it  into  pint  or  half- 
pint bottles,  and  cork  them  lightly  with  new 
velvet  corks  ; for  if  these  be  pressed  in  tightly 
at  first  the  bottles  will  sometimes  burst;  in 
four  or  five  days  they  may  be  closely  corked 
and  stored  in  a dry  and  cool  place.  Damp  de- 
stroys the  color  and  injures  the  flavor  of  these 
fine  fruit-vinegars,  of  which  a spoonful  or  two 
in  a glass  of  water  affords  so  agreeable  a sum- 
mer beverage,  and  one  which  in  many  cases  of 
illness  is  so  acceptable  to  invalids.  They  also 
make  excellent  sauces  for  common  custard, 
batter,  and  various  other  light  sweet  puddings. 

Raspberries  and  strawberries  mixed  will  make 
a vinegar  of  very  pleasant  flavor.  Black  cur- 
rants also  make  an  agreeable  one. 


Shallot  Vinegar.— On  from  four  to  six 
ounces  of  shallots,  peeled  and  bruised,  pour  a 
quart  of  good  vinegar  ; stop  the  jar  or  bottle 
close,  and  in  a fortnight  or  three  weeks  the 
vinegar  may  be  strained  off  for  use.  A few 
drops  will  give  a sufficient  flavor  to  a sauce 
or  to  a tureen  of  gravy.  Garlic  vinegar  may 
be  made  in  the  same  way,  using  only  half  as 
much  garlic  as  of  shallot. 

Tarragon  Vinegar. — Gather  the  tarragon 
just  before  it  blossoms ; strip  it  from  the  larger 
stalks,  and  put  it  into  small  stone  jars  or  wide- 
necked bottles,  and  in  doing  this  twist  some  of 
the  branches  so  as  to  bruise  the  leaves  and 
wring  them  asunder;  then  pour  in  enough  very 
pale  vinegar  to  cover  the  tarragon  ; let  it  infuse 
two  months  or  more,  then  pour  it  off,  strain  it, 
put  it  into  small  dry  bottles,  and  cork  them 
well.  This  is  an  excellent  sauce. 

VIOLET  POWDER. —A  lady’s  toilet  is  not 
considered  complete  without  this  or  some  other 
absorbent  powder.  It  not  only  dries  the  skin, 
but  also  tends  to  give  a smooth  surface  and 
conceals  pimples.  The  following  is  its  compo- 
sition, and  any  lady  can,  if  she  please,  make  it 
for  herself  : Wheat  starch,  six  parts  by  weight, 

orris  root  powder,  twc.  Having  reduced  the 
starch  to  an  impalpable  powder,  mix  thoroughly 
with  the  orris  root,  and  then  perfume  with  otto 
of  lemon,  otto  of  bergamot,  and  otto  of  cloves, 
using  twice  as  much  of  the  lemon  as  of  either  of 
the  other  ottos. 

VIRGINIA  CREEPER.— This  rapid  grow- 
ing vine,  is  very  useful  in  covering  walls  and 
fences  or  any  unsightly  spots  in  the  garden.  It  is 
beautiful  in  the  autumn  time  when  in  full  foli- 
age and  flower,  and  as  it  is  hardy,  except  very 
far  north,  and  requires  very  little  attention,  it 
should  find  a place  in  every  garden.  The  cul- 
tivation is  the  same  as  that  of  the  honey- 
suckle, consisting  of  putting  the  seed  into  the 
ground  in  the  spring  and  watering  rather  freely 
during  the  hoi  dry  clays  of  summer. 

VOMITING. — The  causes  of  vomiting  are 
very  various — irritation  of  the  stomach  itself, 
whatever  be  its  origin,  will  give  rise  to  ejection 
of  its  contents ; but  vomiting  occurs  in  many 
other  maladies.  When  gall  stones  or  small 
urinary  calculi  are  passing  there  is  usually  sick- 
ness and  vomiting:  in  Bright’s  Disease  there  is 
vomiting  also,  and  in  brain  affections  among 
children  vomiting  is  an  invariable  symptom. 

To  arrest  vomiting,  ice,  swallowed  in  lumps 
a little  larger  than  peas,  is  an  excellent  remedy. 
Bismuth  is  good,  especially  with  small  doses 
of  opium.  So,  too,  are  all  effervescing  drinks. 
In  all  cases,  the  quantity  of  the  remedy  used 
should  be  small ; bulky  preparations  will  most 
probably  be  rejected. 

VOLS-AU-VENT. — These  are  raised  pies, 
made  with  very  light  and  rich  puff  paste  instead 
of  that  used  for  the  raised  pies,  or  it  may  be 
considered  as  an  enlarged  and  highly  ornament- 
ed patty.  There  is  considerable  art  in  making 
and  baking  these  cases,  as  they  are  put  into 
the  oven  without  their  contents,  and  then  filled 
with  them  afterwards.  The  paste  is  made  to 


WAFFLES 


565 


line  a fluted  dish  or  tin,  and  baked  till  it  is  of 
a fine  light  brown ; but  few  cooks  can  under- 
stand how  to  make  it  without  actual  demon- 
stration. 

Roll  out  some  of  the  lightest  puff -paste  to  a half- 
inch of  thickness,  and  with  the  larger  of  the  tins 


Small  Vols-au-Vent. 

cut  the  number  of  patties  required  ; then  dip 
the  edge  of  the  small  shape  into  hot  water,  and 
press  it  about  half  through  them.  Bake  them 
in  a moderately  quick  oven  from  ten  to  twelve 
minutes,  and  when  they  are  done,  with  the  point 
of  a sharp  knife,  take  out  the  small  rounds  of 
crust  from  the  tops,  and  scoop  all  the  crumb 
from  the  inside  of  the  patties,  which  may  then 
be  filled  with  shrimps,  oysters,  lobster,  chicken, 
pheasant,  or  any  other  of  the  ordinary  varie- 
ties of  patty  meat,  prepared  with  white  sauce. 
Fried  crumbs  may  be  laid  over  them  instead  of 
the  cover,  or  these  last  can  be  replaced. 

For  sweet  dishes,  glaze  the  pastry  and  fill  it 
with  rich  whipped  cream,  preserve,  or  boiled  cus- 
tard ; if  with  the  last  of  these,  put  it  back  into 
a very  gentle  oven  until  the  custards  are  set. 


A la  Cream  Vol-au-Vent. — After  having 
raised  the  cover  and  emptied  the  vol-au-vent , 
lay  it  on  a sheet  of  paper  and  let  it  become 
cold.  Fill  it  just  before  it  is  sent  to  table 
with  fruit,  either  boiled  down  to  a rich  marma- 
lade or  stewed  as  for  the  next  receipt,  and  heap 
well  flavored,  but  not  too  highly  sweetened, 
whipped  cream  over  it.  The  edge  of  the  crust 
may  be  glazed  by  sifting  sugar  over  it,  when  it 
is  drawn  from  the  oven,  and  holding  a salaman- 
der or  red-hot  shovel  above  it ; or  it  may  be  left 
unglazed  and  ornamented  with  bright-colored 
fruit  jelly. 

Fruit  Vol-au-Vent. — After  the  crust  has 
been  made  and  baked  as  above,  fill  it  at  the 
moment  of  serving  with  peaches,  apricots, 
mogul,  or  any  other  richly-flavored  plums  which 
have  been  stewed  tender  in  syrup ; lift  them 
from  this,  and  keep  them  hot  while  it  is  boiled 
rapidly  almost  to  jelly  ; then  arrange  the  fruit 
in  the  vol-au-ve7it  and  pour  the  syrup  over  it. 


Moulds  for  large  Vols-au-Vent. 

Skin  and  divide  the  apricots  and  quarter  the 
peaches,  unless  they  should  be  ver'y  small. 
{See  treatment  under  Entrees.) 


W. 


WAFERS. — Take  a pound  of  flour,  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  butter,  and  a little  salt,  and 
mix  them  with  milk  into  a stiff  dough ; work 
well,  roll  out  thin,  and  cut  into  round  cakes, 
and  then  roll  these  as  thin  as  they  can  be 
handled ; lay  them  very  carefully  into  a floured 
baking-pan,  and  bake  in  a quick  oven. 

Rice  Wafers. — Melt  a quarter  of  a pound 
of  butter  and  mix  it  with  a pound  of  rice-flour, 
a teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  a wineglassful  of 
wine  ; beat  four  eggs  and  stir  in,  together  with 
just  enough  cold  milk  to  make  the  dough  roll 
out  easily ; it  must  be  rolled  out  as  thin  as  pos- 
sible, cut  with  a wineglass  into  cakes,  and 
baked  in  a moderate  oven  on  buttered  flat  tins. 

WAFFLES. — The  circular  waffle-iron,  that 
bakes  four  waffles  at  once,  that  turns  with  the 
mere  touch  of  a fork  and  that  is  used  on  the 
stove  or  range,  has  taken  the  place  of  the  cum- 
brous utensil  of  former  days. 

Scald  one  quart  of  milk ; add  to  it  ten  ounces 
of  butter,  and,  when  lukewarm,  mix  in  a pound 
and  a quarter  of  flour  and  one  gill  of  home- 
made yeast;  allow  six  hours  for  rising.  Just 
before  baking,  beat  the  yolks  and  whites,  sepa- 


rately, of  four  eggs — the  whites  to  a stiff  froth 
— and  stir  them  in  the  batter.  Grease  the  irons 
well  each  time. 

Heat  the  iron,  grease  and  fill  it  about  two- 
thirds  (leaving  room  for  the  batter  to  rise)  ; 
when  the  waffles  are  brown  on  the  lower  side, 
turn  the  iron;  when  done,  butter  and  leave 
them  in  the  mouth  of  the  oven  until  another 
layer  is  ready,  when  they  should  be  served 
immediately.  They  are  eaten  with  powdered 
sugar  and  cinnamon  sifted  together. 

Quick  Waffles. — Sift  together  one  pound 
and  four  ounces  of  flour,  and  five  even  tea- 
spoonfuls of  baking  powder ; add  a pint  of  milk, 
half  a teaspoonful  of  sa.lt,  two  ounces  of  sof- 
tened butter,  and  four  eggs  ; beat  until  light ; 
then  add  gradually  a pint  of  milk,  and  bake  as 
in  the  above  receipt. 

Rice  Waffles.— Take  a teacupful  and  a halt 
of  boiled  rice,  set  it  over  the  fire  with  a pint  of 
milk,  and  mix  it  smooth;  then  take  it  from  the 
fire ; and  add  a pint  of  cold  milk  and  a tea- 
spoonful of  salt ; beat  four  eggs  and  stir  them 
in,  together  with  enough  wheat  flour  to  make 
a thin  batter. 


5GG 


WAIST 


Rice  and  Corn-meal  Waffles. — To  a pint 
of  cold  boiled  rice  and  half  a pint  each  of 
flour  and  corn-meal  add  three  beaten  eggs,  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  melted  butter  and  enough 
milk  to  make  a soft  batter ; add  also  a teaspoop- 
ful  of  soda,  dissolved  in  a little  hot  water,  and 
a heaping  teaspoonful  of  salt.  Beat  the  batter 
very  smooth. 

WAIST  (Dress). — That  the  reader  may 
clearly  understand  the  method  of  cutting  this 
pattern,  we  shall  give  the  drawing  in  separate 
portions  at  first,  following  the  order  of  the 
measurements  (See  Cutting  and  Fitting), 
and  afterwards  the  whole  pattern. 

To  commence  with  the  fronts  : Upon  a square 
of  strong  paper  of  suitable  size  draw  the  ver- 
tical line  a b ( Fig.  i ) ; this  represents  the  line 


Fig.  i. 

on  which  the  buttons  are  placed.  Also  draw 
the  horizontal  line  gb,  intersecting  the  former 
at  the  point  b ; this  represents  the  waist  line. 

Having  drawn  these  preliminary  lines,  we 
mark  the  different  measurements  in  the  follow- 
ing order : — * 

Length  of  the  Front  of  the  Waist  (III.). — 
Place  one  end  of  the  tape  measure  in  the  angle 
b,  and  carry  the  tape  up  straight  and  mark  the 
length  at  a point  we  will  indicate  by  c. 

Breadth  of  the  Chest  (IV.). — Place  the 
measure  against  the  line  of  the  front  a b at  a 
point  about  two-thirds  up  from  the  horizontal 
line  representing  the  waist,  and  carry  it  to  the 
left,  marking  the  half  length  at  the  point  d (and 
it  is  to  be  understood  that  in  speaking  of  the 
chest  measure  we  refer  to  the  half). 

Length  Under  the  Arm  (V.). — Placing  the 
measure  under  the  waist  at  the  point  i,  directly 
under  the  point  d,  carry  it  up  straight  to  ascer- 
tain if  the  breadth  of  chest  was  marked  at  the 
proper  height ; its  true  place  should  be  a seam’s 
distance,  a scant  half-inch,  that  is,  above  the 
top  of  this  line.  Then  we  remove  the  under- 
arm measure  to  the  left  to  a distance  indicated 
by  the  fourth  of  the  chest-measure,  and  mark 
the  point  e. 

First  Height  of  Shoulder  (VII.). — We 
take  the  half  of  this  measure,  place  one  end  in 
the  angle  b,  and  carry  it  up  obliquely  to  the  left 

* For  explanation  of  Homan  numerals,  See  Cutting  and 
Fitting. 


in  such  a manner  that  from  its  extremity,  / one- 
sixth  of  the  neck-measure  (XV.),  carried  in  a 
straight  line  to  the  right,  will  touch  the  line  a 
c.  The  point  f is,  however,  to  be  marked  half 
an  inch  further  to  the  left,  to  make  the  dress 
easy  in  the  neck. 

Second  Height  of  Shoulder  (VIII.). — 

Take  half  of  this  measure,  place  it  on  the  waist 
line  at  the  pointy,  above  the  under-arm  meas- 
ure, and  carry  it  straight  to  the  shoulder,  mark- 
ing the  point  e. 

Length  of  Shoulder  (XIV.). — This  measure 
is  placed  obliquely  between  the  points  /and  h, 
that  is,  the  first  and  second  heights  of  shoul- 
der; it  serves  also  to  verify  the  proper  distance 
at  which  should  be  marked  the  second  height 
of  shoulder.  Between  these  points  the  out- 


lines of  the  waist  are  drawn  thus  (Fig.  2)  : A 
curved  line  between  the  points  f g indicates 
the  neck ; an  oblique  line  between  the  points  f 
e,  the  length  of  the  shoulder;  an  oblique  line 
from  e to  d,  thence  curving  to  c,  gives  the  arm- 
size  ; a straight  line  from  c to  the  waist,  gives 
the  line  under  the  arm. 

The  pattern  being  thus  outlined,  we  verify 
the  arm  size  by  applying  half  the  measure  (IX.), 
and  the  neck  by  a third  of  the  measure  (XV.). 

In  cutting  out  the  paper  pattern  we  go  exact- 
ly by  the  lines  drawn,  leaving  no  margins  ; but 
in  cutting  the  material  for  the  dress  we  leave 
on  the  shoulder  two  inches  margin  ; in  front, 
under  the  arms,  and  at  the  waist,  an  inch  : 
while  the  neck  and  arm-size  we  cut  exactly  by 
the  pattern.  See  Fig.  2. 

In  cutting,  lay  the  pattern  the  straight  way  of 
the  cloth,  unless  specially  directed  otherwise. 
The  lining  is  to  be  folded  double,  the  selvages 
coming  in  front,  and  the  two  fronts  thus  cut 
out  at  once.  After  laying  the  pattern  upon  the 
lining,  trace  the  outline  with  chalk  or  a pencil 
accurately,  then,  in  cutting,  make  the  allowances 
enumerated  above.  After  a little  practice,  a 
person  will  dispense  with  the  paper  pattern  and 
draw  from  the  measurements  directly  upon  the 
lining.  After  cutting  out  the  two  fronts,  they 
should  be  creased  in  the  lines  of  the  pattern 
that  the  half  lying  beneath  may  have  the  out- 
lines marked,  and  they  should  be  at  once  drawn 
with  pencil  or  indicated  with  a basting  thread. 


WAIST 


567 


The  waist  here  described  is  round,  but  a 
pointed  waist  requires  only  that  the  material 
necessary  to  form  the  point  be  folded  under,  and 
afterwards  cut  to  whatever  length  is  desired. 

In  Fig.  2 are  represented  two  little  plaits, 
a and  6,  at  the  top  of  the  waist,  which  are 
made  in  the  lining,  but  not  in  the  outside  of 
the  waist,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  it  a neater 
and  more  clinging  fit  at  a point  where,  without 
this  precaution,  awkward  creases  are  apt  to  be 
found.  The  horizontal  fold  a will  take  up  per- 
haps a third  of  an  inch.  This  must  be  made 
first.  The  vertical  plait  is  smaller  (as  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  2,  these  plaits  appear  much 
larger  in  proportion  than  they  really  are).  The 
stouter  the  person  the  larger  these  plaits  require 
to1  be,  as  will  be  readily  seen  by  experiment, 
but  no  one  can  dispense  with  them  entirely. 

The  lining  being  now  entirely  ready,  we  ap- 
ply the  outside  by  a basting  thread,  following 
the  outlines  of  the  pattern,  and  then  cut  to 
match  the  size  of  the  lining. 

The  Darts. — (Fig  3.)  * To  make  the  darts 
where  they  should  be,  we  take  a third  of  the 
chest-measure,  apply  one  end  to  the  angle 
where  the  front  and  waist  line  meet  (exclusive 


of  margins),  and  mark  the  point  (the  dot  to 
the  left  of  a ) as  the  base  of  the  first  dart.  The 
height  of  the  dart  falls  two  inches  below  the 
arm-size.  Now  take  up  the  plait,  as  shown  in 
the  figure,  straight  down  from  the  point  b on 
the  side  towards  the  back,  and  obliquely  to  a , 
on  the  front.  Measure  again  a third  of  the 
chest-measure  from  this  dart  to  the  outer  side 
of  the  second,  and  take  up  the  second  dart. 
These  darts  should  be  nearly  of  the  same 
length ; the  one  nearer  the  arm  may  be  a little 
longer ; if  the  figure  to  be  fitted  is  very  short, 
they  must  both  be  somewhat  shorter  than  we 
have  here  represented  them.  (See  Fig.  7.) 

After  the  darts  are  taken  up,  we  verify  the 
size  of  the  waist  by  comparing  with  the  waist 

* The  straight  lines  in  this  figure  are  all  that  we  are  concerned 
with  at  present.  The  dotted  lines  represent  the  outlines  of  a 
basque,  which  is  explained  elsewhere. 


measure  (VI.),  of  which  it  should  be  one  fourth ; 
that  is  to  say,  the  two  fronts  and  the  two 
halves  of  the  back  evenly  divide  the  waist 
measure,  giving  a fourth  to  each.  If,  on  meas- 
urement, the  fronts  prove  too  narrow  around 
the  waist,  we  diminish  the  size  of  the  darts, 
still  observing  the  same  proportions. 

In  round  waists,  the  darts  are  made  straight, 
as  we  have  shown,  but  in  pointed  waists  they 
are  carried  down  into  the  point. 

We  now  come  to  the  preparation  of  the  back, 
concerning  which  a preliminary  caution  should 
be  given.  Whether  we  draw  the  pattern  upon 
the  lining  folded  double,  or  cut  by  a paper  pat- 
tern laid  upon  it,  care  must  be  taken  to  have 
the  fold,  and  not  the  selvages,  come  in  the  mid- 
dle, so  that  we  shall  cut  the  back  out  in  one 
piece,  and  not  in  two. 

In  designing  the  pattern  of  the  back,  the 
first  step  is  to  draw  a vertical  line  representing 
the  middle,  and  a horizontal  line  representing 
the  waist,  as  was  done  in  designing  the  fronts. 

Length  of  the  Back  (XII.). — This  measure 
is  to  be  marked  from  a point,  c,  an  inch  above 


Fig.  4. 

the  waist  line,  and  we  will  represent  its  upper 
extremity  by  the  point  d. 

Breadth  of  Back  (XIII.). — Place  one  end  of 
the  measure  about  the  middle  of  the  back,  c d, 
and  mark  the  point  e.  (This  measure  should 
be,  of  course,  half  the  entire  breadth.) 

Size  of  Waist  (VI.). — Take  one  fourth  the 
waist-measure,  apply  one  end  at  the  point  c, 
and  carry  it  obliquely  to  the  horizontal  line, 
making  its  extremity  f. 

Length  under  the  Arm  (V.). — Place  one  end 
of  the  measure  at  the  point  f,  and  carry  it 
straight  up  to  ascertain  if  the  measure  of  the 
breadth  of  the  back  has  been  placed  at  the 
proper  height.  It  should  be  a half  inch  above 
the  point  /.  Then,  keeping  the  lower  end  of 
the  measure  in  its  place,/)  move  the  other  end 
to  the  left  obliquely  as  far  as  the  point  g,  which 
should  be  distant  from  / a space  equal  to  one- 
fourth  the  breadth  of  the  half  back. 

First  Height  of  Shoulder  (VII.).— Take 
half  the  measure,  place  one  end  at  the  point  c, 
and  carry  it  up  a little  obliquely  to  a point,  h , 


508 


WAIST 


which  is  fixed  by  taking  one-sixth  of  the  neck 
measure,  placing  it  against  the  vertical  line  a 6, 
a little  above  the  point  d,  and  directing  it 
towards  the  left.  The  point  h,  however,  will  be 
removed  a scant  half-inch  farther  to  the  left, 
as  was  done  in  the  corresponding  measure  of 
the  front. 

Second  Height  of  Shoulder  (VIII.). — Take 
half  the  measure,  place  one  end  at  a point,  k , 
on  the  horizontal  line,  carry  it  straight  up  to  i, 
verifying  the  position  of  this  point,  and  conse- 
quently of  k,  by  applying  the  measure  for  the 
length  of  shoulder  (XIV.)  between  h and  i. 

These  measures  being  indicated,  we  draw 
the  outlines  from  point  to  point,  and  we  have 
thus  the  pattern  as  represented,  Fig.  5. 

A pattern  may  be  reduced  in  size  by  taking 
each  of  these  measures  shorter,  the  relative 
lengths  being  unchanged,  and  the  line  of  the 
middle  remaining  in  the  proper  place. 

In  cutting  out  the  lining  for  the  back,  we 
leave  an  inch  margin  at  the  waist  and  under  the 
arms  ; the  shoulder,  as  well  as  the  neck  and  arm 
size,  are  to  be  cut  on  the  pattern  exactly.  The 


line  of  the  middle  of  the  back  is  to  be  laid  on 
the  fold  of  the  material.  It  is  necessary  also 
to  take  uo  a little  plait  on  the  edge  of  the  arm 


size,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5,  to  avoid  the  extra 
fullness  which  otherwise  will  be  observable. 
We  then  baste  the  lining  upon  the  material  and 
cut  the  pattern  out  to  match. 

Forms. — The  outside  and  lining  being  basted 


together,  we  draw  a line,  a b ( Fig.  6 ),  from 
the  middle  of  the  arm  size  to  the  waist,  curved, 
as  shown  in  the  figure ; to  match  the  sides 
exactly,  after  drawing  this  line  for  one  side, 
we  double  the  waist  together  down  the  back, 
and  baste  with  small  stitches  one-half  the 
back  down  upon  the  other,  following  the  line 
of  the  form  already  drawn.  Then  cutting 
the  thread  between  the  sides,  the  stitches  will 
remain  on  the  other  half,  enough  to  guide  in 
drawing  the  second  form.  We  then  fold  over 
a little  seam,  as  small  as  possible,  on  these 
lines,  and  stitch  it.  If  desired,  the  forms  can 
be  cut  out  separately  from  the  outside  merely, 
and  stitched  down,  and  in  making  a pointed 
waist  this  method  must  be  employed. 

The  fronts  and  back  being  thus  prepared, 
they  are  put  together  in  the  following  way : 
under  the  arms  the  seams  are  made  as  tbe  pat- 
tern indicates ; on  the  shoulders,  the  seam 


should  fall  further  back.  (See  Fig  7.)  To 
this  end,  we  carry  the  front  over  as  far  as  the 
wide  margin  that  was  left  will  allow,  and  of 
course  reduce  correspondingly  the  back. 
This  gives  breadth  and  elegance  to  the  waist. 

The  shoulders  and  under-arm  seams  being 
basted  together,  the  waist  may  be  tried  on  and 
any  needful  alterations  made.  But  where  the 
cutter  has  even  a little  experience,  it  becomes 
almost  needless  to  try  on,  as,  the  measures  be- 
ing accurately  taken,  and  the  seams  made  on 
the  exact  lines  of  the  pattern,  it  is  almost  im- 
possible to  fail. 

We  have  now  to  mark  the  places  for  the  but- 
tons and  button-holes.  We  fold  back  on  the 
inside  the  extra  inch  left  on  the  right  front  and 
cut  the  button-holes  through  the  doubled  outside 
and  lining,  sometimes  cutting  away  one  thick- 
ness of  the  lining  if  the  material  is  heavy.  The 
buttons  are  to  be  put  on  the  left  front,  just  at 
the  middle  line  of  the  waist,  and  the  inch  mar- 
gin will  cross  under  the  button-holes,  so  that 
the  white  clothing  underneath  may  not  be  seen 
through  them. 

Where  hooks  and  eyes  arc  used  instead  of 
buttons,  the  inch  margin  on  the  left  side  is  to 
be  folded  back,  then  the  eyes  sewed  on  at  reg- 
ular intervals  and  a strip  of  the  same  material 
as  the  waist  stitched  on  behind  them.  I he 


WAIST 


569 


hooks  are  put  on  to  a strip  of  strong  linen, 
which  is  secured  along  the  inside  of  the  right 
edge,  the  extra  inch  having  been  folded  back 
and  the  holes  so  far  set  in  that  when  the  dress 
is  fastened  they  will  be  concealed  from  sight. 

The  waist,  being  firmly  sewed  together, should 
be  faced,  or  have  a piping  cord  sewed  around 
the  neck,  arms,  and  waist,  and,  if  desired,  places 
are  stitched  under  the  arms,  in  the  darts,  and  in 
front  for  whalebones,  which  should  be  secured 
at  top  and  bottom. 

Waists  with  revers  (Fig.  8)  are  cut  by  leav- 
ing a sufficient  quantity  of  material,  a,  to  fold 
back  when  the  waist  is  fastened.  This  is  more 


Fig.  8- 

or  less,  according  to  the  size  desired  for  the 
revers.  They  may  fold  back  a little  distance 
or  all  the  way  from  the  bottom  of  the  waist, 
which  then  requires  a vest  or  chemisette  under- 
neath ; also  they  may  be  continued  around  the 
neck,  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  line  in  the  fig- 
ure, like  a man’s  coat  collar.  The  revers  should 
be  lined,  and  usually  with  silk,  either  black  or 
some  color  suitable  to  the  color  of  the  dress. 
The  revers  may  be  cut  on  one  side  only  and  be 
folded  across  and  button  down  on  the  other 
side,  usually  narrowing  to  the  waist.  In  this 
case  a corresponding  row  of  buttons  is  usually 
added  on  the  other  side. 

Low-necked  waists  may  be  cut  from  the  di- 
rections given  in  this  section  by  making  the 
following  variations  : the  length  of  the  middle 
of  the  waist  is  decreased,  and  instead  of  being 
taken  from  the  base  of  the  neck,  is  measured 
from  whatever  point  is  desired  as  the  height  of 
the  waist  in  front ; there  is  no  need  of  taking 
the  first  height  of  the  shoulder,  nor  the  meas- 
ure of  the  neck,  nor  the  length  of  the  shoulder ; 
and  there  must  be  more  or  less  curve  from  the 
shoulder  to  the  middle  of  the  front.  In  all 
other  respects  the  pattern  is  the  same. 

The  sleeve  of  a plain  waist  is  usually  the 
PLAIN  coat  sleeve,  Fig.  9.  To  draw  this 
pattern,  we  begin  with  a horizontal  line,  a b,  near 
the  top  of  the  paper.  On  this  line  we  indicate 
half  the  measure  of  arm-size,  c d.  Then  place 
the  measure  of  the  length  of  the  arm  between 
the  points  d and  e , the  latter  being  somewhat 
to  the  right  and  requiring  the  line  to  be  slightly 
curved  in  its  lower  third.  Draw  this  line,  and 


for  the  outside  draw  a line  commencing  two 
inches  above  the  horizontal  line  ab  at  the  point 
f,  which  shall  be  straight  as  far  as  the  point  g, 
which  indicates  the  middle  of  the  inner  line,  de; 
then  curving  to  correspond  with  the  inner  line, 
and  being  prolonged  about  an  inch  beyond  it 
to  the  point  k.  An  oblique  line  from  h to  e 
indicates  the  bottom  of  the  sleeve  measured  by 
the  size  of  the  wrist  (XI.).  For  the  top  there 


are  two  outlines,  as  shown  in  the  figure,  the 
upper  side  of  the  sleeve  being  longer  than  the 
under.  Frequently  the  under  side  of  the 
sleeve  is  also  cut  narrower  from  the  top  of  the 
sleeve  as  far  down  as  the  elbow,  as  shown  by 
the  line  i in  the  figure.  The  sleeves,  being 
stitched  up  and  finished  by  a hem  or  a facing 
at  the  wrist,  are  stitched  into  the  dress,  bring- 
ing the  inner  seam  of  the  sleeve  at  that  point 
of  the  arm-size  where  the  measure  of  the 
breadth  of  the  chest  was  placed  when  the 
waist  was  cut. 

For  the  gathered  or  bishop’s  sleeve,  see  the 
Blouse  Waist  below. 

Waist  (Basque  and  Basquine). — In  pre- 
paring the  pattern  of  a basque  waist,  we  fold 
under  a length  sufficient  for  the  basque  and 
then  design  a plain  waist  according  to  the 
directions  given  above.  This  being  done,  we 
lay  the  paper  open  and  design  the  basque 
as  follows  (See  Fig.  5,  above).  We  prolong 
the  line  under  the  arm  obliquely  to  the  left, 
allowing  an  inch  of  width  for  every  three 
inches  of  length.  Also  prolong  the  line  of  the 
front  to  the  length  desired  for  the  basque.  The 
lining  and  outside  being  basted  together,  the 
dart  will  be  taken  up  as  for  the  plain  waist,  but 
they  will  be  carried  below  the  waist  line,  nar- 
rowingto  a point,  the  first  dart  being  prolonged 
i]/z  or  3 in.  below  the  waist,  and  the  second  an 
inch  less.  Also  the  buttons  should  go  a little 
below  the  waist. 

The  back  is  represented  by  Figs.10-11,  which, 
it  must  be  remembered,  are  the  guides  for  pre- 
paring the  paper  patterns,  and  the  piecing  re- 


570 


WAIST 


quired  :n  Fig.  u exists  only  in  the  paper.  The 
forms,  however,  must  be  cut  separate,  as  will 
readily  be  seen. 

The  back  is  designed  as  for  a plain  waist, 
the  line  a b,  Fig.  ro,  coresponding  to  the  Yme/e, 
Fig.  5,  the  paper  having  been  folded  under  as 
in  preparing  the  front.  The  waist  being  out- 
lined, we  unfold  the  paper,  and  draw  an  oblique 
line  from  a , Fig.  io,  to  correspond  with  the 


Fig.  10 

front  in  length  but  a little  more  Sloped.  We  then 
draw  the  line  for  the  form  which  is  prolonged  a 
scant  inch  below  the  waist  line  a b,  and  then 
carried  on  to  the  bottom  of  the  basque  with  a 
slope  of  an  inch  width  to  every  three  inches  of 
length.  Thus  we  give  suitable  fullness  to  the 
basque  in  the  back;  thus,  however,  in  the  pat- 
tern, we  cut  away  the  middle  of  the  back  below 
the  waist,  and  thus  require  the  piecing  shown 
in  Fig.  n,  which  being  made  we  finish  out  the 
back  as  represented. 
The  basque  waist, when 
cut  in  the  material,  is 
then  in  five  pieces,  two 
fronts,  two  forms,  and 
the  middle  of  the  back, 
and  is  put  together, first 
the  forms  being  basted 
to  the  back,  and  then 
the  fronts  being  added, 
beginning  all  the  seams 
fit  the  arm  hole,  and  if 
seams  do  not  come  out 
even,  pare  off  as  need- 
ed at  the  neck  and  the 
lower  edge.  It  must, 
however,  be  noticed 
that  a little  plait  is 
taken  up  around  the 
waist  on  each  side,  be- 
ginning at  the  seams 
which  unite  the  forms 
to  the  back,  and  carried  to  the  second  dart ; 
this  prevents  wrinkles  about  the  waist. 

The  shape  of  the  basque  may  be  varied  in 
countless  ways.  It  may  be  cut  of  unequal 


j lengths  in  its  different  parts ; it  may  be  cut  very 
full  in  the  back  and  laid  in  plaits  larger  or 
smaller;  the  seams  below  the  waist  may  be 
left  open  and  faced  and  turned  over  in  revers. 

The  basqume  is  an  outside  garment  made  on 
the  same  pattern  as  the  basque,  only  prolonging 
the  part  below  the  waist  to  the  desired  length, 
observing  the  same  proportions.  There  is  also 
a loosely  fitting  basquine,  of  which  we  repre- 


sent the  front  in  Fig.  12,  the  back  being  still 
made  exactly  after  the  pattern  represented  by 
Figs.  10-12.  This  front  has  no  darts,  but  is 
hollowed  out  a little  in  the  side  line  a\  and  both 
front  and  back  are  made  from  half  an  inch  to 
an  inch  shorter  waisted  than  the  dress-waist. 

The  sleeve  of  the  basquine  is  often  the  plain 
coat-sleeve  (Fig.  9,  above);  but  a more  open 
sleeve  is  at  times  in  fashion,  the  flowing  or 
pagoda  sleeve,  as  it  has  been  called.  This 
is  made  by  a very  simple  variation  on  the 
coat-sleeve  pattern  as  follows : the  sleeve  has 
no  seam  in  the  back,  but  the  outer  edge  of  the 
pattern  comes  on  the  fold  of  the  material,  (fre- 
quently the  bias  fold);  at  the  top  the  flowing 
sleeve  is  exactly  the  same  as  the  coat-sleeve, 
but  from  g down  it  falls  straight.  This  of 
course  gives  a wide  opening  to  the  sleeve  which 
is  wider  in  proportion  to  the  length  to  which  the 
outside  is  prolonged.  Also  the  inside  seam 
may  be  made  more  oblique,  thus  widening  at 
both  sides. 

The  loosely  fitting  basquine  is  a favorite  out- 
side garment  for  children,  who  are  measured 
for  it  precisely  in  the  same  way  as  grown  per- 
sons are. 

WAIST  (Blouse). — These  waists  are  gath- 
ered or  plaited  in  front  or  back,  or  both,  and 
for  this  reason  require  to  be  cut  larger.  They 
are  tflso  known  as  French  waists,  and  arc  par- 


WAIST 


571 


ticularly  suitable  for  children  and  persons  of 
slender  figure. 

In  designing  the  fronts  we  draw  first  the  pat- 
tern of  the  plain  waist.  We  then  take  the 
second  height  of  shoulder  (viii.)*and  remove  it, 
on  the  front,  to  a position  about  5 in.  further  to 
the  left  than  in  the  plain  waist,  and  make  it  top 


and  bottom,  (Fig.  13.)  This  increases  the 
shoulder-length  and  makes  room  for  gathers  or 
plaits  (Fig.  14.)  The  back  is  designed  after 


Fig.  14. 

the  pattern  of  the  plain  waist,  only  removing  the 
line  under  the  arm  further  to  the  left  at  and 
above  the  waist,  retaining  it  in  its  place  where 
it  meets  the  arm-size.  (Fig.  15.)  The  back,  of 
course,  requires  no  forms. 

The  lining  of  this  waist  follows  exactly  the 
pattern  of  the  plain  waist,  the  plaits  or  gathers 
being  made  only  on  the  outside. 

A second  variety  of  plaited  waist  is  made  by 
laying  plaits  in  the  material,  three  large  ones 
or  five  smaller,  for  front  and  for  back,  and  then 
cutting  it  out  by  the  pattern  of  the  plain  waist, 
having  of  course,  neither  forms  nor  darts,  but 
narrowing  it  suitably  at  the  waist,  according  to 
the  waist-measure  (vi.)  taken  loosely,  by  slant- 
ing inwards  the  seams  under  the  arms. 

* For  explanation  of  Roman  numerals,  see  Cutting  and  Fitting. 


Still  another  waist  is  made  with  a yoke  (Fig. 
16-17.)  This  is  designed  from  the  pattern  of  a 


plain  waist  as  follows : We  draw  the  shoulder 
and  neck  and  arm  size,  and  the  line  of  the  fronl, 


Fig.  16. 

the  extra  width  of  paper  or  material  being  at 
the  left ; we  then  draw  the  horizontal  line  a b 


across  the  pattern,  crossing  the  arm-size  at 
about  the  middle,  we  cut  away  what  is  above 
this  line  for  the  yoke  ; the  outline  of  the  rest 
of  the  arm-size  and  the  under-arm  seam  re- 
moved as  far  as  desired  to  the  left  completes  the 
lower  part  of  the  waist.  We  should  allow  twice 
or  thrice  the  width  suitable  for  a plain  waist  in 
making  these  gathered  waists. 


572 


WAIST 


WARMING 


The  yoke  and  its  lining  being  put  together, 
the  lower  parts  are  gathered  and  sewed  in  be- 


tween them,  and  a row  of  trimming  frequently 
conceals  the  edge  of  the  yoke.  All  these  waists 
are  made  with  a belt,  and,  especially  for  children, 
it  is  suitable  to  attach  the  waist  to  the  skirt  by 
buttons  and  button-holes. 

Wrappers  are  made  by  a modification  of  this 
pattern,  and  also  infants’  dresses  : that  is  to 
say,  the  yoke  is  cut  by  the  plain  waist  pattern, 
and  then  the  material  is  gathered  on  and  falls 
to  the  required  length,  the  waist  and  skirt  being 
one.  A drawing-string  may  be  put  in  to  indicate 
the  waist,  or  the  garment  may  be  left  entirely 
loose,  or  else  confined  by  a ribbon  or  a belt. 

The  sleeve  suited  to  these  waists  is  the 
gathered  sleeve  (Figs.  18-19.) 
It  is  cut  from  a piece  of  the 
material  folded  double,  the 
straight  way  of  the  cloth  in 
all  materials  that  are  to  be 
washed,  although  in  woollens 
or  silk  it  may  be  taken  bias. 
The  upper  edge  a b is  drawn 
as  is  that  of  the  plain  coat- 
sleeve  (Fig.  9,  above)  ; but 
taking  in  the  whole  width  of 
the  sleeve,  which  should  be 
about  twice  that  of  the  plain 
sleeve.  We  determine  the 
length  by  the  measure  of 
the  arm,  then  cut  off  corner 
d from  the  bottom  of  the 
inner  side  and  hollow  out 
that  inner  side  a little. 

These  sleeves  are  gathered 
or  plaited  at  top  and  bottom 
to  bring  them  to  the  size  of 
the  arm  and  of  the  wrist, 
leaving  at  top  and  bottom  a little  space  plain, 
about  an  inch,  perhaps.  They  are  then  set 
on  to  a cuff  of  whatever  depth  is  preferred. 

These  sleeves  may  be  varied  by  putting  on 
a binding  longer  than  the  wrist  measure,  and 
made  to  go  over  the  hand  ; or  by  making  them 
with  puffs  or  tucks  lengthwise  ; or  by  gathering 


them  at  the  top  only,  and  cutting  them  away  to 
fit  closely  at  the  wrist  like  the  plain  coat  sleeve. 

WAKEFULNESS.  {See  Sleeplessness.) 

WALNUTS. — -These  excellent  nuts,  when 
ripe  and  with  the  husk  off,  are  round,  black,  and 
very  rough  ; the  kernel  is  large,  peculiarly  sweet 
and  agreeable  in  flavor,  and  wholesome.  They 
are  found  fresh  in  the  market  during  the  fall, 
but  keep  many  months  and  improve  with  age. 
The  immature  fruit,  in  the  tender  green  out- 
side shell,  before  the  internal  shell  becomes 
hard,  makes  a good  pickle. 

WARDIAN  CASE. — A close  glass  case, 
placed  upon  a trough  or  pot  containing  earth 
and  accurately  fitted  to  it,  intended  for  the 
growth  of  plants  in  the  windows  of  apartments. 
These  cases  are  now  made  of  every  size  and 
style,  from  the  little  bell  glass  for  growing  the 
dwarf  ferns,  to  the  large  structures  filling  the 
entire  end  of  a room.  Some  of  the  larger  cas- 
es, in  fact,  are  simply  hot-houses  on  a small 
scale,  being  heated,  drained,  and  ventilated  on 
precisely  the  same  principles  as  the  latter.  Al- 
most any  kind  of  flowers  can  be  raised  in  them 
in  a perfection  unapproached  by  the  ordinary- 
methods  ; and  the  finer  species  of  ferns  can 
be  grown  satisfactorily  in  no  other  way.  As  the 
management  of  Wardian  cases  depends  upon 
the  kind  of  flowers  grown  in  them,  it  would  only 
mislead  if  we  attempted  to  laydown  any  general 
rules.  The  conditions  mentioned  under  each 
flower  as  conducive  to  its  vigor  apply  to  this  as 
well  as  to  ordinary  methods  of  flower-culture. 

WARMING-. — -The  warming  of  houses  by 
artificial  means  is  a subject  so  complicated  with 
that  of  ventilation  that  the  two  must  always  be 
studied  in  connection.  The  combustion  of  fuel 
in  a closed  or  practically  closed  place,  not  only 
generates  heat,  but  has  a very  important 
effect  upon  the  quality  of  the  air  breathed.  A 
room  so  cold  that  the  body  is  constantly 
parting  with  its  heat  is  of  course  highly  injuri- 
ous to  health  ; but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  room 
may  be  warmed  under  such  conditions  as  will 
render  its  atmosphere  even  destructive  to  life. 
The  reason  of  this  is  that  the  process  of  com- 
bustion not  only  generates  certain  noxious 
gases  which  must  be  drawn  off  as  rapidly  as 
they  are  produced,  but  consumes  the  oxy'gen 
of  the  air  in  large  quantities ; and  as  we  have 
explained  in  the  articles  on  Aik  and  Ventila- 
tion, oxygen  in  a certain  definite  proportion  is 
necessary  not  only  to  the  preservation  of  health, 
but  to  the  support  of  life  itself.  The  effect 
therefore  of  any  special  device  for  heating  up- 
on the  air  itself  is  a most  important  point  to 
be  considered  not  only  in  reference  towarming 
but  also  to  ventilation. 

Instead  of  discussing  here  in  general  terms 
the  theory  of  heat,  we  shall  consider  its  practi- 
cal applications  to  the  various  modes  of  warm- 
ing and  the  apparatus  employed  therefor. 
These  are  : 1st.  open  fires;  2nd,  grates;  3rd, 
open  stoves  ; 4th  closed  stoves  ; 5th,  hot-air  fur- 
naces ; 6th,  hot-water  pipes  ; and  7th,  gas  stoves. 

Open  or  wood  fires. — Warming  by  an 
open  fire,  whether  by  wood  or  coal,  is  near- 


WARMING 


573 


est  to  the  mode  of  Nature.  The  sun  heats  the 
earth  by  direct  radiation,  and  the  air  next  the 
earth  is  heated  by  convection  ; in  the  same 
way  an  open  fire  warms  the  person,  the  walls, 
the  floors,  the  furniture,  by  radiation,  and  these, 
together  with  the  fire,  warm  the  air  by  con- 
vection. Thus  in  a room  with  an  open  fire 
we  are  warmed  by  direct  radiation  from  the  fire 
itself,  and  it  is  important  to  note  that  under  these 
conditions  the  feeling  of  warmth  is  produced 
with  a much  lower  temperature  of  the  air  in 
the  room  than  is  necessary  where  radiant  heat 
is  not  used.  The  principal  objections  to  the 
open  fire  are  the  large  consumption  of  fuel 
in  proportion  to  the  effect  produced,  and  the 
difficulty  of  warming  a room  effectually  and 
equally.  Count  Rumford  estimated  that  in  the 
ordinary  fire-place  fourteen-fifteenths  of  all  the 
heat  generated  ascends  the  chimney  and  is  lost. 
In  this  estimate  sufficient  allowance  was  not 
made  for  direct  radiation,  but  it  is  probable 
that  even  in  the  best  constructed  modern  fire- 


place, from  a third  to  one  half  of  all  the  heat 
is  thus  wasted.  The  open  fire-place  is  greatly 
improved  in  economy  of  heating  power  by  so 
constructing  it  that  it  may  supply  a current  of 


partially  warmed  fresh  air  to  the  room.  This 
is  done  in  various  ways : as  by  setting  up  a 
soap-stone  fire-place  within  the  ordinary  one, 
leaving  a vacant  space  between  them,  into  which 
fresh  cold  air  is  admitted  from  without,  and  after 
being  warmed  is  thrown  into  the  room  through 
an  opening  or  register  above.  This  is  an  ex- 
cellent plan  for  introducing  the  needed  supply 
of  fresh  air  without  subjecting  the  occupants 
of  the  room  to  unpleasant  draughts,  but  if  a 
flue  is  made  of  some  gas  tight  material,  and 
carried  through  a chimney  duly  enlarged  to  re- 
ceive it,  the  lower  extremity  communicating 
with  the  external  air,  (and  not  with  your  neigh- 
bor’s parlor)  and  the  upper  with  the  room,  the 
result  will  prove  to  be  nearly  as  effective.  (See 
cut.)  In  reference  to  the  unequal  heating  at 
different  distances  from  the  fire,  it  is  to  be  ob- 
served that  heat  is  radiated  in  straight  lines 
and  as  it  gets  farther  from  its  source  it  is  dis- 
tributed over  a much  larger  space  and  decreases 
rapidly  in  intensity  of  heating  power;  near  the 
fire  the  heat  may  be  intense,  while  the  angles 
of  the  room  may  be  but  little  affected.  There  is 
a semicircular  line  round  the  fire-place  in  which 
persons  must  sit  in  order  to  be  comfortable, 
within  which  line  they  are  too  hot,  and  beyond 
which  they-  are  too  cold.  Of  course  the  body 
receives  the  excess  of  heat  only  upon  one  side 
at  once.  More  serious  causes  of  objection  to 
the  open  fire  are  the  cold  draughts  produced 
by  the  air  rushing  in  through  the  crevices  of 
the  doors  and  windows,  and  playing  upon  the 
backs  of  those  who  may  be  sitting  around  the 
fire  ; or  forming  a cold  bath  several  inches  in 
depth  on  the  floor,  in  which  their  feet  are  con- 
stantly immersed.  None  of  these  circumstan- 
ces, however,  prevent  the  open  fire  from  being 
the  healthiest  and  best  mode  of  warming  a 
house  where  fuel  is  cheap  or  expense  is  not 
an  obstacle. 

In  carrying  up  the  flue  of  a chimney  designed 
for  open  fires,  all  sharp  angles  are  to  be  avoid- 
ed ; but  it  is  on  the  other  hand  undesirable  to 
have  a perfectly  straight  tube,  which  allows  the 
rain  to  fall  directly  upon  the  fire,  and  permits 
the  wind  to  pass  downwards  without  obstruction. 

Franklin  Stove. — This  is  a heating  appara- 
tus, invented  by  Dr.  Franklin,  which  offers 
one  of  the  best  methods  of  managing  an  open 
fire.  It  is  made  of  cast  iron,  is  set  up  within 
the  room,  and  the  hot  air  and  smoke  from  the 
fuel,  instead  of  escaping  from  the  fire  directly 
up  the  chimney,  are  made  to  traverse  a small 
and  circuitous  smoke-flue  which  gives  out  its 
heat  like  a -stove-pipe.  At  the  same  time  air 
from  out  of  doors  is  introduced  through  air- 
passages  which  surround  and  intersect  the 
smoke-flue,  and,  after  being  warmed,  is  dis- 
charged into  the  room  through  proper  open- 
ings. This  apparatus  warms  not  only  by  radia- 
tion from  the  burning  fuel  like  an  open  fire, 
but  also  by  radiation  from  the  hot  iron;  more- 
over, the  air  of  the  room  is  heated  by  contact 
with  the  metallic  plates,  and  there  is  still  an- 
other source  of  warmth  in  the  heated  air  intro- 
duced as  above  described.  The  Franklin  stove 


574 


WARMING 


is  not  a stove  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the 
word,  and  was  called  by  Franklin  himself  the 
Pennsylvania  fire-place. 

Grates. — The  grate,  being  simply  an  open 
fire  in  which  coal  is  burned  instead  of  wood, 
has  all  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  that 
we  have  mentioned  as  pertaining  to  this  method 
of  warming.  Coal,  however,  contains  more 
combustible  matter  in  the  same  space  than 
wood,  and  produces  a more  intense  heat,  and 
consequently  a much  smaller  fire-place  answers 
for  it,  and  a very  narrow  throat  in  the  chimney 
serves  to  carry  off  the  smoke.  The  coal-grate 
is  a more  economical  apparatus  for  warming 
than  the  wood  fire-place,  chiefly  because  the 
current  of  air  which  enters  the  flue  is  much 
smaller.  In  the  wood  fire-place  a copious 
stream  of  warm  air  passes  up  the  chimney, 
which  takes  no  part  in  combustion  but  carries 
off  much  heat,  the  place  of  the  escaping  warm 
air  being  supplied  by  cold  air  from  without. 
For  information  as  to  the  selection,  construc- 
tion, and  management  of  grates,  see  Grate. 

Arnott’s  Smokeless  Grate — is  a new  in- 
vention which  claims  to  possess  the  following 
advantages:  1st.  There  is  entire  absence  of 
smoke  ; 2nd.  From  the  carbon  being  all  united 
with  the  oxygen,  a great  saving  of  fuel  is  effec- 
ted ; 3rd.  It  will  burn  twelve  hours  by  merely 
applying  the  poker;  and  4th.  It  is  never  ob- 
scured, like  the  ordinary  grate,  by  throwing  on 
fresh  coals.  The  bottom  of  the  grate  is  a 
movable  piston  which  may  be  made  to  fall  a 
considerable  distance  below  the  lower  bar.  In 
using,  a large  charge  of  coals  is  introduced, 
which  rests  upon  the  piston  and  fills  the  grate. 
The  coal  is  lighted  at  the  top,  so  that  the  heat 
passes  downward  and  consumes  the  smoke  as 
it  is  formed  below.  As  the  coal  wastes  away 
at  the  top,  the  piston  may  be  raised  by  the 
poker  used  as  a bar,  and  thus  fresh  coal  is 
supplied  to  the  fire  froin  benea/Ji.  When  the 
first  charge  is  consumed  and  the  piston  is 
raised  to  the  bottom  of  the  grate,  a broad  flat 
shovel  is  pushed  in  upon  the  piston  to  support 
the  burning  coals  temporarily ; the  piston  is 
then  let  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  box  and  a 
new  charge  of  coal  shot  in.  This  arrangement 
is  valuable  for  abating  the  smoke  nuisance 
when  bituminous  coal  is  used  ; but  it  is  difficult 
to  make  anthracite  burn  in  it. 

Open  Stoves. — These  are  intended  to  radi- 
ate heat  without  any  loss  either  by  contact  with 
the  walls  or  by  draught  up  the  chimney.  They 
consist  of  an  iron  chamber,  having  bars  below 
and  in  front  for  admitting  the  air  necessary  for 
combustion;  the  smoke  and  gases  are  allowed 
to  escape  by  means  of  a small  flue  issuing  from 
the  back  and  passing  horizontally  into  the 
chimney.  This  flue  is  the  only  point  of  contact 
with  any  part  but  the  floor,  and  as  the  heat 
does  not  descend  to  any  appreciable  extent,  it 
is  the  sole  conductor,  and  is,  therefore,  made 
so  small  as  to  prevent  the  escape  of  more  heat 
than  is  of  necessity  carried  off  in  the  smoke. 
A stove  is  now  constructed  on  this  principle, 
in  which  the  flue  is  made  to  ascend  and  then 


descend  by  the  back  of  the  stove,  until  it  passes 
out  either  below  the  floor  or  a very  little  above 
it,  and  in  the  transit  allows  a still  greater 
amount  of  the  heat  carried  into  the  flue  to 
escape  into  the  apartment.  This  stove  may 
be  made  if  preferred  with  earthern  or  soap 
stone  sides  dividing  it  from  the  lateral  chambers, 
and  is  excellently  adapted  for  churches,  public 
halls,  large  shops,  etc.  Even  for  ordinary 
sitting-rooms  it  is  better  adapted  than  any  of 
the  closed  stoves.  It  presents  a moderately 
cheerful  fire,  especially  if  wood  be  burned  in  it. 
It  is  exceedingly  economical,  and  it  may  be 
made  as  ornamental  as  any  other  kind  of  warm- 
ing apparatus. 

Closed  Stoves. — Closed  stoves  are  intended 
to  afford  heat  by  warming  the  air  in  contact 
with  them  but  without  any  direct  radiation  of 
heat  from  the  fuel  itself.  In  all  of  them  wood, 
coal,  or  coke  is  used  in  an  iron  or  earthern 
chamber  with  a closed  door,  and  the  results  of 
their  combustion  are  led  into  the  chimney  after 
being  so  obstructed  in  the  flue  as  to  allow  time 
for  most  of  the  heat  to  be  imparted  to  the 
surrounding  air.  Great  numbers  of  these  stoves 
have  been  invented,  with  all  sorts  of  forms,  all 
however  being  modifications  of  the  same  prin- 
ciple. Dr.  Arnott  attempted  to  improve  upon 
it  by  inserting  a chamber  of  fire-brick  within 
the  outer  iron  case,  and  carrying  off  the  heated 
gases  by  means  of  a flue  in  the  ordinary  way. 
At  the  same  time  he  attempted  to  modify 
the  introduction  of  air  by  means  of  the  expans- 
ion and  contraction  of  a metal  bar  which  opens 
and  shuts  an  air-valve  (thus  rendering  the  stove 
self-regulating) ; but  in  practice  his  stove  has 
not  answered  the  expectations  which  were 
formed  of  it.  It  is  much  more  difficult  than 
the  ordinary  stove  to  light  and  keep  in,  and  is 
constantly  requiring  attention. 

The  most  important  points  to  be  arrived  at 
in  the  construction  and  management  of  stoves 
ar e,  first,  ready  contrivances  for  regulating  the 
draught  ; second,  accurate  fittings  in  the  join- 
ings, doors,  dampers,  and  valves,  to  prevent 
the  leakage  of  foul  gases  into  the  room ; third, 
enclosure  of  the  fire-box  with  slow  conductors, 
as  fire-brick  or  soap-stone  ; fourth , a high  tem- 
perature produced  by  the  rapid  and  perfect 
combustion  of  fuel ; and  fifth,  to  bring  all  the 
heated  products  of  the  combustion  in  contact 
with  the  largest  possible  absorbing  and  radiat- 
ing metallic  surface,  so  that  the  iron  in  contact 
with  the  air  may  not  be  overheated,  but  give  out 
its  warmth  at  a low  temperature.  The  cooler  the 
surface  of  the  stove,  or  the  nearer  it  is  to  the 
temperature  of  the  room,  the  more  agreeable 
and  salubrious  will  be  its  influence  ; and,  there- 
fore, large  stoves,  moderately  heated,  are  most 
desirable.  When  the  stove  is  very  hot,  the  air 
of  the  room  is  parched  and  rendered  unfit  for 
breathing. 

Elbow  Joints  in  a stove-pipe  make  the 
same  length  of  pipe  much  more  efficacious  in 
warming  a room  than  it  would  be  if  straight. 
The  cause  of  this  is  that  the  heated  air,  in 
making  abrupt  turns,  strikes  against  the  sides 


WARMING 


575 


of  the  pipe  with  sufficient  force  to  break  up  its 
previous  arrangement  and  so  mingle  it  that  the 
hotter  air  from  the  interior  of  the  current  is 
brought  more  into  contact  with  the  sides  of 
the  pipe,  and  thus  more  heat  is  thrown  off.  It 
also  checks  the  rapidity  of  the  current.  As 
radiation  is  much  slower  at  low  temperatures 
than  at  high  ones,  the  pipe,  as  it  recedes  from 
the  stove,  becomes  rapidly  less  and  less  useful 
as  a means  of  diffusing  heat  into  the  apartment. 
On  this  account  little  is  gained  by  greatly 
lengthening  the  pipe. 

Hot  Air  Apparatus. — Warming  by  hot  air 
has  lately  come  into  very  general  use,  especially 
in  cities.  In  this  case,  the  heater  is  not  located 
in  the  rooms  to  be  warmed  ; the  hot  air  being 
conveyed  to  them  through  flues.  The  most 
common  apparatus  for  this  purpose  is  a hot  air 
furnace,  located  in  the  cellar  or  basement, 
the  air  being  introduced  into  a chamber  that 
surmounts  the  heater  and  after  being  heated 
to  the  required  temperature  by  contact  with 
the  hot  iron  escaping  upwards  through  tin  tubes 
which  distribute  it  and  entering  the  rooms 
through  registers.  This  method  of  warming 
has  undoubtedly  commended  itself  to  public 
attention  mainly  by  its  economy  of  space  and 
by  its  superior  cleanliness,  the  heating  appara- 
tus being  excluded  from  the  occupied  apart- 
ments ; the  fuel  is  also  consumed  more  com- 
pletely and  with  greater  economy  in  a single 
furnace  than  in  several  stoves  or  grates.  It 
has  the  advantage  of  being  capable  of  supplying 
a great  variation  of  temperature.  I n mild  weather 
the  fire  may  be  barely  kept  alight  and  the 
change  in  the  temperature  of  the  inflowing  air 
may  be  very  slight.  In  severe  cold  weather 
on  the  other  hand  the  fire  may  be  driven  so 
that  the  iron  can  be  heated  to  a very  high  tem- 
perature the  influence  on  the  air  being  corres- 
pondingly great. 

A serious  disadvantage  lies  in  the  fact  that 
when  the  air  is  introduced  into  the  room  at  a 
very  high  temperature,  it  streams  at  once  to 
the  ceiling,  without  imparting  its  heat  to  sur- 
rounding objects,  and  only  descends  when 
displaced  by  the  fresh  accessions  of  still  hotter 
air.  The  result  of  this  is  that  the  air  of  the 
room  is  arranged  in  longitudinal  layers  the 
temperatures  of  which  decrease  from  above 
downwards,  so  that  the  feet,  which  ought  to 
be  warmest,  are  in  the  coldest  layer,  while  the 
head,  which  should  be  cool,  is  in  an  atmosphere 
several  degrees  warmer.  Anything  more  un- 
healthy than  this  could  scarcely  be  devised.  It 
may  be  partially  obviated  by  setting  the  register 
as  low  down  as  possible  in  the  wall,  and  cover- 
ing it  with  a hood  which  will  shoot  the  hot  air 
out  horizontally.  A register  should  never  be 
set  in  the  floor,  as  it  not  only  collects  dirt,  but 
shoots  the  hot  air  directly  towards  the  ceiling. 

But  the  greatest  objection  to  hot  air  furnaces 
and  indeed  all  air-heating  devices  is,  the  exces- 
sive dryness  of  heat  which  they  generate. 
Being  used  only  in  winter,  they  receive  outside 
air  at  a low  temperature  holding  little  moisture  ; 
and,  by  heating  it,  greatly  increase  its  demand 


for  moisture.  This  it  sucks  up  like  a sponge 
from  the  walls  and  furniture  of  the  house.  If 
it  be  taken  into  the  human  lungs,  it  draws  much 
of  its  required  moisture  from  the  body,  often 
causing  dryness  of  lips  and  throat,  and  affect- 
ing the  lungs  themselves  most  injuriously.  Pro- 
fessor Brewer,  of  the  Yale  Scientific  School, 
who  has  experimented  extensively  on  this  subject 
states  that,  while  forty  per  cent  of  moisture  is 
needed  in  air  to  make  it  healthful,  the  greater 
number  of  furnaces  do  not,  by  any  contriv- 
ances, supply  one  half  of  this.  He  says  that 
most  furnace-heated  air  is  dryer  than  is  ever 
breathed  in  the  hottest  deserts  of  Sahara. 
How,  then,  may  the  furnace  be  used  most  bene- 
ficially and  economically  ? The  bad  effect  of 
the  furnace — its  dry  irritating  heat — is  the 
result  almost  invariably  of  highly  concentrated 
heat.  The  desire  for  economy  has  tended  to 
the  introduction  of  a comparatively  small  fire- 
box into  the  air-chamber,  and  consequently  this 
fire-box  must  be  kept  at  a very  high  tempera- 
ture, if  it  is  to  be  depended  on  to  warm  the 
house  in  severe  weather.  Now,  as  we  have 
already  explained,  health  and  comfort  are 
secured  by  heat  of  a low  temperature  given 
out  from  a large  surface.  It  is  better  to  heat 
air  by  fifty  feet  of  surface  at  one  hundred  and 
twenty  degrees  than  by  twenty-five  feet  of  sur- 
face at  two  hundred  and  forty  degrees.  This 
desirable  end  may  be  attained  by  greatly  en- 
larging the  fire-chamber,  and  still  further  by 
suspending  in  the  air-chamber  a quantity  of 
sheet  iron  so  as  to  divide  the  space  between 
the  heater  and  outer  wall  into  a number  of 
separate  columns.  These  sheets  of  metal 
absorb  the  radiant  heat  and  then  part  by  con- 
vection with  the  heat  thus  obtained  to  the  in- 
flowing current  of  air.  It  will  be  observed  that 
both  sides  of  the  metal  sheets  above  described 
become  air  heaters.  , Double  the  surface  of  the 
fire  drum  may  be  advantageously  used  in  this 
way  and  then  four  times  the  quantity  of  heat- 
ing surface  is  added.  Great  advantages  may 
be  gained  by  suspending  near  the  top  of  the 
fire  chamber  and  directly  over  the  fire  a large 
mass  of  non-conducting  material  such  as  fire- 
brick, which  becomes  highly  heated  and  radi- 
ates back  on  to  the  fire  forming  one  of  the  best 
of  gas  consumers.  This  also  retains  its  heat 
and  gives  it  out  gently  after  the  coal  is  con- 
sumed. The  heat  from  this  mass  also  assists 
greatly  in  the  rapid  kindling  of  the  fire  when 
fresh  coal  is  put  on. 

The  advantage  of  any  such  improvement  as 
that  above  described  is  that  greater  heating 
surface  is  secured  at  a lower  temperature,  and 
a pleasanter,  healthier  heat  is  produced  ; and  a 
smaller  quantity  of  fuel  will  be  consumed  in 
the  production  of  the  desired  effect.  To  pro- 
vide the  needed  moisture  for  the  heated  air  it 
is  desirable  that  the  evaporation  should  be 
from  a large  surface  at  a low  temperature  rather 
than  from  a small  surface  at  a high  tempera- 
ture. This  may  be  obtained  by  placing  a 
broad,  shallow  iron  tank,  such  as  is  used  in 
kitchen  sinks,  near  the  top  of  the  hot  air  cham- 


57  G 


WARMING 


ber.  From  this  no  steam  will  rise,  but  there 
will  go  up  a constant,  almost  imperceptible 
vapor,  which  will  diffuse  itself  insensibly 
through  the  house,  and  render  the  air  soft  and 
pleasant.  Gentle  as  the  evaporation  is  from 
this  broad  surface,  it  will  be  found  to  consume, 
in  a medium  sized  furnace,  six  gallons  of  water 
daily.  By  the  use  of  these  simple  contrivances 
the  most  objectionable  qualities  of  furnace-heat 
may  be  almost  entirely  removed.  It  follows  too, 
other  things  being  even,  that  the  furnaces  with 
the  greatest  radiating  surface  connected  with 
the  fire-box  and  making  a passage  for  the 
smoke  etc.,  are  the  best.  The  trouble  is  to 
get  them  without  obstructing  the  draft. 

Hot-Water  Pipes. — These  are  now  exten- 
sively employed  in  heating  public  buildings  and 
the  halls,  corridors,  etc.,  of  large  houses ; but 
they  are  scarcely  suited  to  smaller  establish- 
ments, partly  on  account  of  the  prime  cost, 
which  is  considerable,  and  partly  from  the 
trouble  and  expense  attending  their  use.  The 
principle  on  which  they  act  is  the  tendency  hot 
water  has  to  rise  and  displace  that  which  is  of 
a lower  temperature.  Carrying  out  this  well 
known  law,  the  designer  of  any  hot  water  ap- 
paratus constructs  a boiler  of  the  proper  shape 
and  size,  and  connects  with  it  two  pipes  vary- 
ing from  \'/2  inches  to  4 inches  in  diameter, 
taking  care  that  one  (the  flow-pipe)  is  attached 
to  the  highest  point  of  the  boiler  and  the- 
other  (the  return-pipe)  to  the  lowest.  These 
pipes  are  then  carried  wherever  heat  is 
desired,  or  to  air-heating  chambers  in  the  cellar, 
always  keeping  the  flow  above  the  return-pipe, 
and  connecting  them  together  at  the  extreme 
end  of  their  course.  Here  an  air-pipe  should 
be  introduced,  which  need  not  be  more  than 
half  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  which  is  simply 
to  allow  air  bubbles  to  pass  out  so  that  water 
may  always  completely  fill  the  pipe.  The  boiler 
is  supplied  by  connecting  a cistern  or  reservoir 
somewhat  above  the  level  of  the  highest  pipe 
with  any  part  of  the  return-pipe  by  means  of  a 
half  inch  pipe.  This  connection  should  be  made 
at  a distance  from  the  boiler,  or  there  will  be 
a waste  of  heat,  which  in  a badly-constructed 
apparatus  is  very  considerable. 

It  is  necessary  that,  as  far  as  possible,  the 
pipes  should  be  isolated  from  the  walls,  to  pre- 
vent loss  of  heat  by  conduction ; but  there 
must,  of  course,  be  supports  and  attachments 
for  them  to  some  slight  extent,  and  these 
should  be  non-conductors. 

More  detailed  hints  regarding  various  kinds 
of  furnaces  and  hot-water  apparatus  can  better 
be  obtained  from  those  who  put  them  up.  The 
general  principles  laid  down  in  this  article 
will  enable  the  reader  to  judge  the  facts  present- 
ed by  dealers. 

Gas  Stoves. — These  have  lately  been  in- 
troduced as  a means  of  warming,  and  great 
claims  are  made  for  them  on  the  score  of  econ- 
omy. A great  variety  of  forms  are  offered,  but 
all  of  them  are  essentially  the  same  in  principle, 
the  gas  being  simply  burnt  in  an  iron  chamber, 
and  the  results  being  either  suffered  to  escape 


into  the  room,  or  else  carried  off  in  the  ordinary 
way  by  a flue.  To  the  former  mode  there  are 
great  objections,  inasmuch  as  the  products  of 
combustion  are  injurious  if  respired.  They 
may  be  carried  off  by  a small  tube  arranged  for 
the  purpose,  if  care  is  taken  to  protect  it  in 
passing  near  combustible  material  from  danger 
by  fire.  Under  ordinary  conditions,  however, 
the  gas  stove,  as  a means  of  heating  a room, 
is  both  dangerous  and  unhealthy  ; and  its 
economy  is  doubtful,  as  gas  costs  at  least 
ten  times  as  much  as  coal  to  produce  the 
same  amount  of  heat,  and  the  positions  are 
therefore  rare  in  which  the  additional  con- 
venience in  the  use  of  gas  will  overcome  this 
great  difference  in  cost.  (See  Air  and  Venti- 
lation.) 

Heat  Governor. — (The  editor  inserts  this  arti- 
cle on  his  own  responsibility.  He  has  tried  the 
invention  on  two  furnaces — a large  one  and  a 
small  portable  one — in  his  own  house,  with  en- 
tire satisfaction  as  regards  the  large  one,  and 
only  such  difficulties  with  the  small  one,  on 
which  the  governor  has  just  been  placed,  as  he 
thinks  experience  will  surmount.  He  has 
brought  it  to  Mr.  Leeds’  attention,  but  not  long 
enough  before  the  book  goes  to  press  to  enable 
Mr.  Leeds  to  endorse  it  from  a personal  trial.) 
Probably  everybody  using  a furnace  in  our  vari- 
able climate  has  been  more  than  once  tempted 
to  turn  it  out  of  doors  on  account  of  its  keeping 
the  house  too  hot  in  warm  weather  and  not 
warm  enough  in  cool  weather.  This  trouble  is 
especially  great  when  a change  of  weather 
occurs  at  night,  when  it  is  impracticable  to  reg- 
ulate the  fire. 

To  obviate  these  difficulties,  many  self-regu- 
lating apparatuses  have  been  devised.  The 
editor  knows  of  four.  One  of  them  closes  the 
smoke-pipe  when  it  gets  hot,  thus  driving  back 
smoke  and  gas  into  the  house,  and,  perhaps, 
lessening  the  heat  at  the  very  time  it  is  needed 
on  a cold  day.  Another  opens  a hole  on  the 
side  of  the  smoke-pipe,  being  a sort  of  auto- 
matic “ Boston  damper  this  it  may  do  at  the 
very  time  great  heat  is  needed.  The  third  is 
open  to  the  same  objection,  as  it  closes  the  draft 
at  the  ash-pan  whenever  the  hot-air  chamber 
is  very  warm.  The  fourth  is  Tingley's  Auto- 
matic Heat  Governor,  which  has  the  merits  of 
all  the  others  without  any  of  their  faults.  We 
append  a description.  (See  Figures  on  next 
two  pages.) 

The  cylinder  A,  in  the  hot-air  chamber  over 
the  fire-pot,  and  the  cylinder  B,  in  the  cold-air 
flue  , communicate  by  an  air-pipe,  D,  with  an 
air-chamber  M,  the  bottom  of  which  is  an  india- 
rubber  diaphragm  (C).  Now  these  two  cylin- 
ders A and  B,  the  pipes  D,  and  the  portion  of 
the  chamber  over  the  diaphragm  C are  virtu- 
ally one  close  reservoir  filled  with  air.  When 
this  air  expands,  its  only  way  of  getting  room 
is  by  pushing  down  the  diaphragm  C.  When 
it  contracts,  the  outer  air  will  push  up  the 
diaphragm;  i is  a rod  connecting  this  dia- 
phragm with  the  lever  I.  J is  a rod  connecting 
the  lever  with  the  damper  F,  which  opens  and 


WARMING 


577 


shuts  the  draft-pipe  H,  through  which  passes 
all  the  draft  that  causes  the  fire  to  burn,  enter- 
ing the  ash-pit  back  of  the  draft  door.  Now 
when  fire  is  kindled  in  the  furnace,  and  heat 
raised  to  excess  in  the  hbt-air  chamber,  it 
will  expand  the  air  in  cylinder  A,  forcing  it 
through  pipe  D,  enlarging  the  bulk  of  air  in 
chamber  M,  depressing  the  diaphragm  C,  and 
causing  the  rod  i to  tip  the  lever  I,  throwing  up 
the  end  N,  causing  the  rod  J to  close  the  draft 
damper  F. 

The  cold-air  cylinder  B operates  to  cool  the 
air  passing  through  D,  so  that  on  a cool  day  the 
heat  in  the  cylinder  A will  not  close  the  damper 
as  readily  as  on  a warm  day,  and  vice  versa. 

So  much  for  regulation  of  the 
supply  of  air  to  the  fire.  In  addi- 
tion to  this  there  is  the  equivalent  T \_ 
of  the  so-called  “ Boston  damper  ” p 

in  the  smoke-pipe.  The  “ Boston 
damper”  is  an  old-fashioned  ar- 
rangement regulated  by  hand  for 
opening  a hole  in  the  smoke-pipe, 
thus  causing  it  to  draw  through 
the  outer  air  instead  of  through 
the  fire-pot,  and  so  lessening  com- 
bustion— a vast  improvement  on 
the  old  plan  of  lessening  combus- 
tion By  shutting  off  the  smoke-pipe 
with  a choke  damper  and  so  re- 
taining smoke  and  gases.  Now, 

Tingley’s  governor  has  an  addi- 
tional pipe,  W,  going  right  into  the 
smoke-pipe.  When  the  damper 
F is  closed,  so  as  to  lessen  com- 
bustion, the  damper  R in  this  ad- 
ditional pipe  is  opened,  which  is 
an  additional  agency  in  lessening 
combustion,  and  when  F is  opened 
R is  shut. 

K is  a weight  sliding  on  the 
lever  N,  making  it  harder  to  close 
the  drafts  if  it  is  slid  toward  N, 
and  easier  if  slid  in  the  opposite 
direction. 

The  proprietors  claim  for  this 
invention  that : 

1 . The  smoke-pipe  is  left  open, 
unobstructed  by  dampers,  giving 
free  passage  at  all  times  to  all  smoke  and  pois- 
onous gases. 

2.  The  atmosphere  is  itself  the  agent  to 
open  and  close  the  draft  valve  to  the  fire, 
Thus  when  the  fire  becomes  low  the  air- 
vessel  (A)  in  the  hot-air  chamber,  cools  and 
causes  the  draft-valve  (F)  to  open,  and  the 
fire  then  kindles,  and  the  heat  increases  in 
the  hot-air  chamber,  causing  the  valve  to 
close  as  before.  So,  too,  the  temperature  of 
the  atmosphere  outside  of  the  building  acts 
upon  the  air-vessel  (B)  in  the  cold-air  box, 
making  the  draft-valve  less  sensitive  to  the 
heat  in  cold  weather,  and  more  sensitive  in 
warm  weather. 

3.  The  amount  of  heat  produced  will  be  in 
exact  proportion  to  the  demand  for  hot  air  in 
the  rooms  above.  Thus,  if  the  registers  are 

37 


partially  closed,  the  hot  air  is  kept  back  in  the 
hot-air  chamber,  it  acts  upon  the  hot-air  ves- 
sel (A),  causing  the  draft-valve  (F)  to  close, 
thus  checking  the  fire  and  reducing  the  amount 
of  heat  obtained.  The  fire  in  the  furnace  is 
regulated  without  going  into  the  cellar.  An 
even  temperature  is  always  obtained  in  the 
rooms  warmed,  irrespective  of  the  state  of  the 
external  atmosphere,  and  it  is  impossible  to 
get  an  intense  heat  in  the  hot-air  chamber 
when  the  registers  are  all  closed. 

4.  The  consumption  of  fuel  will  always  be 
governed  by  the  amount  of  heat  required.  If 
the  weather  is  warm,  the  self-acting  “gover- 
nor” closes  the  draft,  checks  the  combustion, 


< 

N 

/ 1 

1 LJ  '■ 

1 

/j 

T r 

LIBRAR 


Fig.  1. — Sectional  View  of  Governor. 


and  saves  the  fuel.  Without  the  “governor’’ 
it  is  very  difficult  and  practically  impossible  to 
regulate  the  draft  so  as  to  prevent  a great  waste 
of  fuel,  and  an  overheating  of  the  house  when 
the  weather  is  mild. 

5.  Though  the  “ governor  ” is  self-acting 
and  regulated  by  the  temperature  of  the 
atmosphere,  the  draft  valve  can  be  closed  or 
opened  by  the  weight  (K).  By  moving  the 
weight  to  the  right  or  left,  as  the  case  may  be, 
more  or  less  heat  will  be  obtained. 

6.  By  the  use  of  the  self-acting  "governor” 
there  will  always  be  a strong  atmospheric 
pressure  inwards  into  the  fire-pot.  Thus, 
the  smoke-pipe  being  always  open,  the  escape 
of  smoke  and  gases  into  the  hot-air  chamber 
is  impossible,  however  loose  the  joints  of  the 
fire-pot  may  be,  and  however  defective  may  be 


578 


WARMING-PAN 


WASHING 


the  castings.  The  combustion  is  regulated 
upon  the  air-tight  principle,  the  lower  door  of 
the  furnace  being  air-tight,  and  just  air  enough 
being  admitted  through  the  draft-pipe  (H)  for 
the  purposes  of  combustion,  while  perforations 
in  the  upper  door  admit  sufficient  oxygen  to 
consume  the  gases  and  carry  them  off  through 
the  smoke-pipe. 

7.  The  amount  of  heat  being  always  regu- 
lated by  the  atmosphere  or  by  the  weight 
(K),  the  heat  can  never  exceed  the  point 


•Fig.  2. — Section  of  Furnace,  with  Governor  attached,  showing  the  atmospheric 
pressure  inwards  to  the  Fire-pot  when  the  Heat  Governor  is  applied. 


A Hot-Air  Vessel. 

B Cold- Air  vessel. 

C Diaphragm. 


F ...  Draft  Valve. 

G ..  Joints  of  the  Fire-box. 
H.... Draft  Pipe. 


fixed  upon,  no  superfluous  heat  can  be  gener- 
ated, no  fuel  can  be  wasted,  and  no  danger  of 
fire  from  an  overheated furnace  is  possible. 

These  claims  all  appear  reasonable.  The 
editor’s  experience  does  not  contradict  any  of 
them  ; though  it  is  possible  that  longer  ex- 
perience may. 

WARMING-PAN.— The  common  warming- 
pan  for  beds  is  filled  with  live  coals,  and  in- 
dependently of  the  danger  of  scorching  the 
sheets,  or  even  setting  fire  to  the  bed,  it  re- 
quires care  not  to  leave  some  smoke  and  suf- 


focating fumes.  A superior  warming-pan  is 
filled  with  boiling  water,  which  is  equally  effec- 
tive and  perfectly  safe  from  all  these  accidents. 
Better  than  either  is  the  Hot- Water  Bag, 
which  See. 

WARTS.— The  most  common  warts  are  those 
on  the  hands  and  fingers,  or  sometimes  on  the 
face,  and  more  rarely  on  other  parts  of  the  body; 
they  chiefly  affect  young  persons.  A somewhat 
scarce  variety  occurs  upon  the  scalp  occasion- 
ally, and  almost  invariably  in  women  after  adult 
age,  though  it  has  been  met  with 
in  males ; from  its  location  and 
form,  it  gives  great  pain  and  in- 
convenience in  brushing  the  hair. 
A third  variety  is  occasionally  met 
with  beneath  or  at  the  side  of  the 
finger  or  toe-nails  ; these  originate 
beneath  the  skin  and  protrude  be- 
yond the  free  margin  of  the  nail, 
and  are  generally  very  painful  and 
troublesome. 

Treatment. — The  best  method 
of  destroying  the  common  warts, 
such  as  occur  on  the  hands  and 
scalp,  is  to  apply  the  glacial  acetic 
acid,  which  may  be  either  dropped 
upon  them  or  painted  thickly  over 
them  with  a brush,  care  being 
taken  to  apply  a little  oil  or  gly- 
cerine to  the  skin  surrounding  the 
wart  so  as  to  avoid  blistering  it. 
Lunar  caustic,  tincture  of  the  per- 
chloride  of  iron,  a drop  of  pure 
nitric  acid,  or  the  acid  nitrate  of 
mercury,  are  all  good  and  fre- 
quently efficient  remedies.  The 
scalp  warts  may  generally  be  re- 
moved by  tying  a piece  of  silk  or 
thin  silver  wire  tightly  around 
their  bases,  and  allowing  them  to 
drop  off.  In  the  case  of  rapidly- 
growing  warts,  and  of  those  which 
are  evidently  degenerating  in  their 
appearance,  excision  of  the  wart 
and  of  the  integument  from  which 
it  grows  is  the  best  treatment. 

WASHING.  — A wash-board 
and  wringer  are  indispensable.  A 
“ pounding-barrel  " is  necessary 
only  where  the  clothes  are  very 
badly  soiled.  It  is  a strong  cask, 
three  feet  high,  with  a diameter 
of  about  twenty-six  inches  at 
the  bottom  and  eighteen  inches 
at  the  top.  With  this  should  go  the 
“ pounder  ” or  mallet  of  hard  wood,  ten  inches 
long  and  six  and  a half  inches  in  diameter, 
with  a stout  ash  or  hickory  handle.  Assort 
the  clothes  the  night  before  washing,  taking 
out  the  colored  clothes  and  flannels,  neither 
of  which  are  to  be  boiled  ; put  the  collars 
by  themselves,  also  the  handkerchiefs  and 
the  stockings,  napkins,  and  tablecloths.  Put 
all  the  cotton  and  linen  cloths  in  warm  suds 
and  leave  them  to  soak  over  night.  In  the 
morning  begin  the  washing  in  a tub  one-third 


WASHING 


WATCH 


579 


full  of  hot  suds ; as  the  water  requires  changing, 
pour  it  off  and  add  clean  hot  suds.  Wash  the 
finest  articles  first,  rubbing  the  most  delicate 
with  the  hands  only ; as  they  are  washed,  wrung 
and  shaken  out,  put  them  in  an  old  pillow  case 
to  be  boiled.  Rub  the  other  clothes  on  the 
board,  paying  special  attention  to  the  hems 
and  seams,  and  if,  after  wringing,  there  are  still 
any  streaks,  rub  a little  soap  on  them.  Pour 
a pailful  or  two  of  clear  cold  suds  in  the  boiler 
(of  soft  soap,  a large  spoonful  is  enough  for  a 
small  boiler),  lay  in  the  clothes  and  cover  them 
with  cold  water  ; keep  them  pressed  down  with 
a stick  ; they  must  not  be  crowded  nor  must 
the  boiler  be  so  full  as  to  boil  over.  Instead 
of  boiling,  some  prefer  soaping  the  clothes  after 
washing,  then  pouring  boiling  water  over  them 
and  allowing  them  to  stand  until  cool.  When 
they  have  boiled  from  two  to  ten  minutes  (as 
they  are  more  or  less  soiled)  slightly  wring 
them,  or  take  them  out  to  drain  into  a coarse 
basket  placed  on  sticks  across  a tub  ; then  rinse 
them  in  clean,  cold  water,  looking  carefully  for 
streaks,  none  of  which  should  be  allowed  to 
remain ; then  wring  the  clothes,  open  and  throw 
them  into  another  clean,  cold  water  in  which 
the  “blue-bag”  has  been  squeezed  two  or  three 
times,  and  the  blueing  equally  diffused;  rinse 
at  once,  wring  very  dry,  shake  out,  and  hang 
them  in  the  open  air.  Should  the  weather  be 
rainy,  leave  them  in  the  rinsing  water,  without 
the  blueing,  until  a fair  day.  Do  not  put  them 
out  in  severe  frost  and  wind.  A still  frosty 
night  whitens,  and  does  not  injure  them. 

Blankets.  ( See  Woollen  Goods,  below.) 

Blueing. — The  “ultramarine  wash-blue” 
which  comes  in  little  balls,  is  greatly  prized. 
Use  it  in  a bag  of  strong  cotton  five  inches  deep 
and  three  wide.  Tie  a string  very  tight  around 
the  neck  of  the  bag.  Always  use  bad  blue  for 
fine  goods.  Bottle  blue  is  just  as  good,  though, 
for  sheets,  ordinary  underclothes,  etc. 

Chemicals  of  any  strength,  used  to  remove 
stains,  have  some  effect  in  weakening  the  tex- 
ture. 

Counterpane.  (See  Counterpane.) 

Doubtful  Colors. — Dissolve  a pint  of  salt  in 
two  quarts  of  boiling  water,  put  the  dress  in  it 
while  hot  and  let  it  lie  several  hours,  then  wring 
it  dry  and  wash  as  usual  in  clean  warm  suds, 
of  hard  soap  ; rinse  in  two  clean  waters,  wring 
dry,  starch  and  hang  in  the  shade,  so  arranged 
that  it  will  dry  quickly.  In  case  of  rain,  leave  it 
in  second  rinsing  water  with  half  a pint  of  salt 
to  a gallon.  It  should  not  be  sprinkled  until  the 
day  it  is  ironed. 

Flannel.  (See  Woollen  Goods  below,  and 
article  on  Flannel.) 

Ironing.— For  shirts,  use  a board  eight  inches 
wide  and  eighteen  long.  It  should  have  enough 
thicknesses  of  flannel  on  one  side  neatly 
tacked  on  the  edge,  to  give  it  a soft  surface,  and 
over  both  sides  a thickness  of  cotton  sewed  on 
firm  and  smooth.  After  ironing  the  entire  shirt, 
pass  a cloth  wrung  from  clean  cold  water  over 
the  bosom,  and  use  the  “ polishing  iron,”  ex- 
pending as  much  force  as  possible  to  produce  a 


beautiful  surface.  In  ironing  sheets,  pillow- 
cases, towels, tablecloths  and  napkins,  fold  them 
twice  lengthwise,  then  twice  across.  Iron  every- 
thing until  perfectly  dry,  to  give  it  a gloss,  and 
to  prevent  its  becoming  rough  \yhile  airing. 

For  pressing  small  articles  not  sent  to  the 
wash,  there  is  a small  gas  iron,  which  can  be 
used  as  well  over  a lamp-burner,  useful  for  sum- 
mer or  boarding  houses.  The  flame  burns  inside. 

Lace. — Fine  lace  should  not  be  ironed,  but 
when  damp,  pressed  by  the  hand  and  shaped 
by  the  nails  into  the  smoothness  required,  over 
the  knee  on  a towel.  Coffee  is  used  to  give  laces 
the  prized  creamy  tint.  (See  Lace.) 

Quilt.  (See  article  on  Counterpane.) 

Soap.  (See  Soap.)  A cold  water  soap  has 
of  late  years  been  found  very  useful  for  ladies’ 
use,  when  hot  water  is  not  handy.  Ribbons, 
laces,  ruffles  and  any  slightly  soiled  article  can 
be  washed  with  it. 

Starching. — Mix  three  tablespoonfuls  of 
dry  starch  to  a cream  with  cold  water,  and 
stir  it  fast  into  a quart  of  boiling  water ; boil 
five  minutes  ; when  the  hand  can  be  borne  in 
it,  dip  the  collars,  shirt  bosoms  and  cuffs,  rub- 
bing the  starch  thoroughly  in ; fold  the  collars, 
if  separate,  in  a clean  towel  ; fold  a shirt 
lengthwise,  bringing  the  two  sides  of  the 
bosom  together,  with  the  wristbands  placed 
between  ; this  keeps  the  starch  from  the  rest 
of  the  shirt;  then  roll  it  very  tight ; sprinkling 
a little  water  on  the  flaps.  Petticoats  require 
much  thinner  starch.  Sprinkle  and  fold  all  the 
linen  and  cotton  clothes  at  night,  to  be  ironed 
the  next  day ; pack  them  closely  in  the  basket, 
cover  with  a damp  cloth  next  them  and  a dry 
one  outside.  Clothes  sprinkled  with  hot  water 
may  be  ironed  in  from  one  to  two  hours  after 
the  sprinkling.  (See  Starch.) 

Woollen  Goods. — For  blankets,  make  suds 
of  very  hot  water  and  brown  laundry  soap.  First 
put  blankets  in  and  stir  with  a pole  until  the 
water  is  cool  enough  to  put  the  hands  in.  Wash 
thoroughly  with  the  hands.  Then  rinse  in  hot 
water,  wring  well,  shake  thoroughly,  and  hang 
to  dry  in  a sunshiny,  warm,  open  air  or  a laun- 
dry. When  not  quite  dry,  iron.  Heavy  fine 
blankets,  it  is  really  cheaper  to  send  to  a pro- 
fessional cleaner,  especially  as,  with  careful  use, 
blankets  need  not  be  cleaned  more  than  once 
in  two  years.  Never  rub  soap  on  woollen  goods 
of  any  sort.  Sudden  chills  shrink  and  harden 
the  materials.  A little  blueing  may  be  added. 
Shawls,  knit  and  worsted  materials,  may  be 
washed  in  the  same  way.  Do  not  stretch  too 
much  by  wringing  or  pulling. 

(See  Cleaning,  Soap,  Stains,  Starch.) 

WATCH,  (Care  of).  — Wind  your  watch 
as  nearly  as  possible  at  the  same  hour  every 
day.  Be  careful  that  the  key  is  in  good  condi- 
tion, as  there  is  much  danger  of  injuring  the 
machinery  when  the  key  is  worn  or  cracked ; 
there  are  more  main-springs  and  chains  broken 
through  a jerk  in  winding  than  from  any  other 
cause.  As  all  metals  contract  by  cold  and  ex- 
pand by  heat,  it  is  desirable  to  keep  the 
watch  as  nearly  as  possible  at  one  temperature. 


580 


WATER 


Never  lay  it  on  marble.  Keep  the  watch  as 
nearly  as  possible  in  one  position — that  is  if 
it  hangs  by  day,  let  it  hang  by  night,  against 
something  soft.  The  hands  of  a chro- 
nometer or  duplex  watch  should  never  be  set 
backwards — in  other  watches  this  is  of  no  con- 
sequence. The  glass  should  never  be  opened 
in  watches  that  set  and  regulate  at  the  back. 
You  cannot  move  the  regulator  too  slightly  or 
too  gently.  Be  careful  to  keep  the  watch- 
pocket  free  from  dust. 

WATER. — The  innumerable  uses  to  which 
water  is  put  in  the  household,  and  the  profound 
influence  which  it  has  upon  health  and  comfort, 
render  it  of  such  importance  that,  as  we  have 
said  in  the  article  on  Houses,  the  condition  of 
the  water  supply  and  the  character  of  the  water 
itself  should  be  the  first  thing  to  engage  the 
attention  in  selecting  or  locating  a home. 
Water  is  the  most  important  of  all  foods, 
whether  liquid  or  solid,  and  is  taken  into  the 
body  to  the  amount  of  several  pints  daily.  It 
constitutes  almost  87  per  cent,  of  the  entire 
bulk  of  the  body.  The  quality  of  the  water  of 
which  so  large  a quantity  is  required  is  a matter 
of  the  first  importance  to  every  household. 

Absolutely  pure  water  consists  only  of  oxy- 
gen and  hydrogen,  but  such  an  article  does  not 
exist  in  nature.  The  nearest  approach  to  pure 
water  is  the  distilled  water  produced  by  chem- 
ists, but  even  this  is  not  absolutely  pure,  and 
it  begins  to  absorb  gases  the  moment  it  is 
exposed  to  the  air.  The  best  natural  waters 
contain  salts  of  lime,  ammonia,  magnesia, 
carbonic  acid,  and  other  substances ; and 
many  contain  in  solution  organic  and  inorgan- 
ic matter  enough  to  render  their  use  highly 
objectionable.  Water  containing  organic  mat- 
ter dissolved  from  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances, or  poisonous  gases  absorbed  from  the 
air,  is  a very  dangerous  drink,  and  should  be 
avoided.  Water  contaminated  with  miasma 
causes  fever  and  ague,  and  it  is  probable  that 
this  disease  is  caused  more  frequently  by 
drinking  such  water  than  by  breathing  the  air 
of  malarious  districts.  Water  contaminated  by 
effluvia  from  cesspools,  privies,  and  barnyards 
is  a fruitful  source  of  typhoid  fever.  Many  of 
the  pleasanter  drinking  waters  are  very  dan- 
gerous from  the  contamination  of  cesspool  mat- 
ter. The  organic  impurities  are  often  resolved 
and  converted  into  pleasant  tasting  saline  mat- 
ters, the  disease  germs  being  still  active. 

Melted  ice  and  snow  are  perhaps  the  purest 
forms  of  water  that  can  be  obtained  naturally  ; 
rain-water  is  never  really  pure,  as  it  contains 
gases  which  it  absorbs  in  passing  through  the 
air.  The  water  of  our  lakes  contains  various 
inorganic  and  organic  impurities  from  the  rivers 
which  flow  into  them  or  the  springs  which  sup- 
ply them.  Spring  or  well  water,  although  it 
may  look  transparent,  always  contains  saline 
matters,  and  chiefly  the  lime  salts  ; hence  such 
water,  although  very  agreeable  to  drink  and 
quite  wholesome,  is  known  as  hard  water , and 
soap  curdles  in  it  and  does  not  produce  good 
lather.  Pure  water  is  very  insipid  to  the  taste, 


and  it  is  to  the  gases  and  saline  impurities  of 
ordinary  spring  water  that  its  refreshing  proper- 
ties are  mostly  due.  The  danger  from  impure 
water  arises,  as  we  have  already  said,  from  the 
decaying  organic  matters  and  those  derived  from 
cesspools,  etc.,  with  which  it  may  be  contam- 
inated. River  water  contains  less  saline  mat- 
ter than  spring  water,  but  it  is  more  likely  to 
contain  organic  impurities.  Near  large  towns 
it  may  contain  a good  deal  of  sewage,  or  refuse 
from  manufactories  ; it  contains  also  fishspawn, 
leaves,  and  silt  or  mud,  according  to  the  rapidity 
of  the  current.  Before,  therefore,  it  can  be 
used  for  drinking  purposes,  it  must  be  filtered 
through  beds  of  sand,  gravel,  etc.,  so  as  to 
remove  impurities.  Any  running  stream  has 
a self-purifying  power,  because  it  continually 
exposes  fresh  portions  of  the  water  to  the  air, 
and  so  the  organic  matters  get  oxidized ; on 
this  account  it  is  very  important  that  in  streams 
supplying  large  towns  there  should  be  a rapid 
current,  absence  of  sewage  from  the  towns 
above,  and  proper  filtration.  River  and  rain 
water  are  commonly  known  as  soft  waters,  be- 
cause they  contain  little  or  no  lime  ; hence  they 
are  more  useful  for  washing  and  other  domestic 
purposes. 

In  selecting  water,  when  selection  is  possi- 
ble, it  is  desirable  that  it  should  be  clear  and 
bright,  without  smell  or  disagreeable  taste, 
cool  and  soft,  and  of  smooth  and  soft  flavor, 
but  the  latter  quality  will  necessarily  vary  with 
the  soil  or  rock  from  which  the  water  is  ob- 
tained. As  a rule,  there  is  an  unpleasant  smell 
and  not  unfrequently  an  unpleasant  taste  from 
water  contaminated  with  animal  matter,  either 
when  first  drawn  from  the  well  or  after  having 
been  set  aside  for  a time,  and  such  water 
should  never  be  drunk.  It  is,  moreover,  not 
infrequently  turbid,  or  leaves  a deposit  more  or 
less  slight  after  having  been  left  at  rest ; but 
sometimes  water  sufficiently  impure  to  produce 
disease  may  have  none  of  these  characteristics. 
Turbid  water,  if  from  a brook,  may  be  harm- 
less, since  the  turbidity  may  be  due  only  to  the 
soil  or  sand  with  which  it  is  mixed,  and  which 
may  entirely  subside ; but  all  turbid  water 
should  be  regarded  with  suspicion,  either  in 
reference  to  healthfulness  or  hardness.  Turbid 
water  from  wells  almost  always  implies  con- 
tamination. Unfiltered  water  may  also  contain 
animalcules  or  the  lower  forms  of  vegetable 
life,  and  particularly  if  it  have  been  derived 
from  a watershed  or  allowed  to  remain  without 
much  motion  in  uncovered  tanks.  Such  ad- 
ditions are  extremely  rare  in  deep  well-water, 
and  very  frequent  in  pools.  It  is  desirable  of 
course  that  all  such  impurities  should  be  ex- 
tracted by  filtration  or  rendered  harmless  by 
boiling  ; and  it  may  be  laid  down  as  a general 
rule  that  while  no  kind  of  water  is  injured  by 
filtration,  nearly  all  may  possess  substances 
which  might  advantageously  be  removed  by 
that  process.  Wherever  there  is  reasonable 
ground  to  believe  that  the  water  is  impure 
from  animal  matter,  and  where  the  water  has 
a disagreeable  smell  or  taste,  it  is  desirable 


WATER 


581 


that  it  should  be  boiled,  and  if  possible  filtered, 
before  being  used  as  drinking  water. 

Cooling  Water  without  Ice. — Put  it  into 
an  earthen  jar  or  pitcher,  which  surround  with 
two  or  three  folds  of  cotton  or  linen  cloth,  to 
be  kept  constantly  wet.  The  evaporation  from 
the  cloth,  especially  if  the  jar  be  placed  in  a 
draught  of  air,  will  carry  off  the  heat  from  the 
inside,  and  reduce  the  water  to  a very  low  tem- 
perature. 

Distilled  Water. — In  many  cases  of  sick- 
ness, distilled  water  is  an  important  aid  to  re- 
covery. It  can  only  be  made  by  the  use  of 
apparatus  which  is  very  troublesome  and  in- 
convenient. Druggists  usually  keep  it  for  pre- 
paring medicines.  Water  which  is  almost  as 
good  for  all  ordinary  purposes  can  be  easily 
prepared  by  boiling  common  water  briskly  for 
a few  minutes,  and  when  it  is  cool,  straining  it 
through  a pan  of  charcoal,  and  keeping  it  in  a 
well-corked  bottle  in  a cool,  dark  place. 

Filters. — There  are  two  objects  to  be  at- 
tained in  filtering  water,  viz.,  to  remove  any 
gases  upon  which  a disagreeable  smell  may 
depend,  and  to  arrest  any  particles  of  matter 
that  may  be  suspended  in  the  water  ; in  other 
words,  to  deodorize  and  clarify  the  water.  Fil- 
ters of  sand  were  formerly  in  common  use,  and 
such  may  aerate  or  clarify  water  and  remove 
all  organisms.  Sand  is  not,  however,  a deodor- 
izer, since  it  does  not  absorb  gases,  and  there- 
fore charcoal  is  greatly  to  be  preferred.  Char- 
coal, indeed,  is  the  most  valuable  of  all  agents 
for  the  purpose  of  filtering.  The  foulest  ditch 
water  made  to  pass  through  it  comes  out  sweet, 
clear,  and  bright.  Animal  charcoal,  derived 
from  burnt  bones,  is  to  be  preferred  to  wood 
charcoal,  since  it  will  absorb  a very  much 
larger  volume  of  gas  and  destroy  animal  matter. 

There  are  many  forms  of 
filters,  nearly  any  of  which 
are  good,  and  some  of 
which  should  find  a place 
in  every  household.  They 
naturally  divide  into  those 
used  where  water  runs  from 
faucets  in  the  house,  and 
where  it  does  not. 

Of  the  later  and  simpler 
class,  one  which  can  be 
made  in  every  household, 
and  which  has  been  repeat- 
edly used  by  the  writer,  is 
represented  in  Fig.  i.  Pro- 
cure a wooden  box  (a) 
three  feet  high  and  a foot 
square,  open  on  one  side, 
with  a shelf  (///);  on  this 
shelf  place  a common  stone 
jar  ( c ),  and  let  a flower-pot 
(d)  rest  in  the  mouth  of  the 
jar.  If  you  cannot  get  a 
jar  or  tank  with  a faucet 
fitted,  in  a hole  neatly  made 
in  the  bottom  of  the  jar,  in- 
sert the  cork  (e)  from  beneath,  and  place  a 
sponge  (&)  in  the  hole  at  the  bottom  of  the  flow- 


er-pot. Put  a large  sponge  ( f)  over  the  open- 
ing in  the  jar,  and  a piece  oi  thin  muslin  (g) 
over  this  sponge  ; then  put  into  the  jar,  first  a 
layer  of  three  or  four  quarts  of  clean  white,  or 
river  sand  (Ji),  then  the  same  quantity  of  pulver- 
ized charcoal  (*),  and  above  that  a quart  of 
small  pebble  stones  (j).  The  pitcher  ( b ) stands 
below  the  shelf  (m).  In  order  to  have  pure 
water,  the  filter  should  be  kept  constantly  at 
work.  During  the  greater  part  of  the  year  it 
should  be  placed  near  the  hydrant,  or  pump, 
so  that  the  waste  water  may  flow  off. 

The  flower-pot  ( d ) whose  sponge  prevents 
coarse  materials  passing  into  the  jar,  should  be 
cleaned  once  or  twice  a week ; but  the  jar 
requires  no  attention  whatever,  more  than  once 
or  twice  a year.  Care  must  be  taken  to  have 
the  hole  into  which  the  cork  (e)  is  fitted,  close 
to  the  bottom  of  the  jar,  so  that  when  the  fil- 
ter is  not  at  work,  no  water  will  remain  to  be- 
come impure. 

The  whole  cost  of  this  filter  need  not  exceed 
two  dollars. 

Another  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  water  is 
forced  through  the  charcoal  from  beneath,  and 


Fig.  2.  Tank  Filter. 


the  filtration  is  thus  rendered  more  complete. 

In  both  the  foregoing,  the  charcoal  should 
be  frequently  renewed. 

A very  simple  filter  has  recently  been  de- 
vised for  use  on  faucets  (Fig.  3).  It  contains 
a little  cup  (a)  filled 
with  coarse  charcoal 
and  sand,  and  provi- 
ded with  a network 
of  wire  gauze — this 
is  reversible.  Above 
that  is  placed  a com- 
mon sponge  pressed 
firmly  into  its  place 
so  that  it  entirely  fills 
the  space.  This  is 
» encased  in  a little 
perforated  cap  (b),  and  is  placed  over  the 
charcoal  vessel.  The  water  which  passes 
through  this  is,  therefore,  obliged  to  pass 
through  the  sponge,  and  then  through  the 
charcoal.  Although  it  acts  as  a perfect  filter, 
it  does  not  seriously  interrupt  the  flow.  The 


Fig.  3.  The  Triple  Filter. 


582 


WATER 


turbid,  sewage  contamination  may  be  suspect- 
ed. 

For  the  discovery  of  Sulphate  or  Carbonate 
of  Lime  or  Magnesia,  add  a few  drops  of  a 
solution  of  nitrate  of  barytes,  when  the  fluid 
will  become  turbid,  which  turbidity  again  will 
be  removed  by  the  addition  of  a drop  or  two  of 
pure  nitric  acid. 

For  the  Chlorides,  add  a solution  of 
nitrate  of  silver  to  the  previously  tested 
solution,  which  gives  a precipitate. 

The  Sulphates  or  Carbonates  are  also 
indicated  by  the  turbid  appearance  on 
the  addition  of  a solution  of  acetate  of 
lead. 

Sulphate  of  Lime  is  also  detected  by 
what  is  called  the  soap  test , which  is 
applied  by  means  of  a solution  of  soap 
in  alcohol ; when  the  sulphate  exists  in 
an  undue  degree,  causing  the  water  to 
be  hard,  it  throws  down  a curdy  precip- 
itate, which  is  in  proportion  to  the  quan- 
tity of  lime. 

Magnesia  is  indicated  when  a milkiness  is 
the  consequence  of  adding  a solution  of  phos- 
phate of  soda  to  water  which  has  previously 
been  treated  with  carbonate  of  ammonia. 

Free  Carbonic  Acid  is  detected  by  a milki- 
ness being  produced  by  the  addition  of  an 
equal  proportion  of  lime-water,  or  by  adding  a 
small  quantity  of  the  acetate  of  lead. 

The  tests  for  the  more  rare  salts,  &c.,  are 
too  delicate  for  ordinary  use,  and  they  are 
of  little  interest  to  the  house- 
holder for  ordinary  domestic 
purposes. 

The  hardness  of  water  is  caus- 
ed by  the  presence  of  lime, 
or  magnesia  salts.  When  hard- 
ness is  due  to  the  presence  of 
carbonates  of  those  substances 
held  in  solution  by  carbonic  acid, 
it  is  “ temporary,”  and  simply 
boiling  the  water  for  a short 
time  will  remove  it.  The  lime 
and  magnesia  carbonates  set- 
tling to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel 
in  flocks.  It  is  “ permanent  ” 
when  sulphate  of  lime  is  present, 
which  is  not  removed  by  boiling 
in  this  manner.  The  use  of  hard  water  for 
washing  purposes  is  to  be  avoided,  if  possible, 
as  lime  or  magnesia  forms  insoluble  com- 
pounds with  soap,  thereby  rendering  much 
of  it  useless. 

WATER-BACK. — An  iron  chamber  at  the 
back  of  the  range  through  which  the  cold  water 
enters  by  one  pipe,  and  out  of  which  it  passes 
by  another  into  the  boiler.  Coal  and  ashes  some- 
time accumulate  between  it  and  the  grate,  and 
prevent  it  from  becoming  properly  heated.  If 
hot  water  cannot  be  readily  had,  this  should  be 
looked  to.  If  the  fire  becomes  extinguished 
early  on  a very  cold  night,  and  the  draft  is  left 
open,  the  current  of  cold  air  which  passes  up 
the  chimney  will  strike  directly  upon  the  “ water 
back  ” and  perhaps  freeze  the  water  which 


advantage  of  this  filter  is,  that  when  it  becomes 
clogged  and  the  flow  of  the  water  is  impeded 
by  the  impurities  separated,  it  is  merely  neces- 
sary to  open  it  and  take  out  the  sponge,  wash 
it  and  return  it  to  its  place,  and  reverse  (a) 
when  the  first  pint  of  water  passing  through 
cleanses  it. 


Fig.  4.  Hose  and  Basin  Cock  Filters. 

Fig.  4,  is  a house  filter  without  the  sand  and 
charcoal  cups,  containing  the  sponge  only. 

Porous  stone  is  sometimes  used  for  filtering ; 
the  difficulty  with  it  often  is  that  it  soon  clogs, 
and  cannot  easily  be  cleaned. 

Filters  are  constructed  on  the  same  princi- 
ple for  use  in  manufacturing  establishments. 
Figure  5 represents  one  suitable  for  a large 
factory  or  hotel. 

As  there  are  really  two  filters,  either  one 


Fig.  5.  Constant  Stream  Filter. 

may  be  cleansed  without  interfering  with  the 
flow  of  water  through  the  other,  as  indicated 
by  the  arrangement  of  the  cocks. 

Tests  for  Impurities. — The  presence  of 
organic  matter  in  water  may  generally  be  de- 
tected by  putting  two  or  three  chops  of  Condy’s 
fluid,  or  permanganate  of  potash,  into  half  a 
gallon  of  the  water;  if  pure,  there  will  be  a 
pink  tinge  ; if  impure,  it  will  soon  become  col- 
orless, or  a faintly  brown  precipitate  is  pro- 
duced. A still  more^simple  test  is  given  in  the 
Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute.  A half- 
pint of  the  water  should  be  placed  in  a perfect- 
ly clean  colorless  glass  bottle  ; a few  grains  of 
the  best  white  sugar  should  be  added  to  it, 
and  the  bottle  exposed  to  daylight  in  the  win- 
dow of  a warm  room.  If  the  water  becomes 


WATER-CLOSETS 


WATER-MELON 


583 


stands  in  it.  Of  course  this  might  be  avoided, 
if  the  faucet  through  which  the  water  from  the 
boiler  passes  were  turned  so  as  to  permit  a 
trickling  stream  to  flow  out,  as  that  would  be 
sufficient  to  keep  the  water  moving  the  entire 
length  of  pipe. 

The  water-backs  in  houses  where  the  ranges 
have  had  no  fires  lighted,  and  where  the  water 
has  been  allowed  to  collect,  will  cause  a great 
deal  of  trouble  to  owners  by  flooding  the  pre- 
mises if  they  are  not  cared  for.  A good  rule 
to  adopt  in  all  houses  is  for  the  servant  to  test 
the  faucet  through  which  the  hot  water  passes, 
the  first  thing  in  the  morning,  if  the  fire  is  suf- 
fered to  go  out  over  night.  If  it  is  found  that 
it  will  not  flow,  while  it  will  come  through  the 
cold  water  pipe,  there  is  good  reason  for  be- 
lieving that  the  frost  has  sealed  it  up.  No 
fire  should  be  made,  but  the  plumber  sent 
for,  who  will  disconnect  the  water  pipes  and 
remove  the  water-back,  after  which  there  may 
be  fires  until  the  water-back  is  replaced,  but  no 
hot  water.  The  ice  is  then  thawed  out  by  steam, 
the  water-back  tested  in  order  to  discover 
whether  any  flaws  have  been  made  by  the  ac- 
tion of  the  frost,  after  which  it  is  replaced  or  a 
new  one  substituted.  All  troubles  of  this  kind 
may  be  entirely  escaped  if  a low  fire  is  main- 
tained all  night.  It  is  unusual  for  a water-back 
to  freeze  up  in  one  night,  even  if  the  fire  is 
dropped  early  in  the  evening,  the  brick-work 
retaining  some  warmth  for  twenty-four  hours, 
except  during  excessively  cold  weather.  If 
the  water  is  kept  running  through  the  boiler  all 
the  hot  water  will  be  wasted,  but  the  sacrifice 
of  a little  convenience  in  this  regard  will  save 
many  hours  of  delay  and  the  litter  and  expense 
of  the  plumber’s  work. 

Plumbers  say  that  there  is  very  little  com- 
plaint of  bursting  boilers,  and  that  most  of  the 
so-called  explosions  are  really  the  results  only 
of  burst  water-backs.  By  carelessness,  after  a 
water-back  has  frozen,  much  inconvenience  may 
be  caused  in  a kitchen.  If  a fire  is  made  in  a 
range  which  has  a frozen  water-back,  the  almost 
inevitable  result  will  be  an  explosion,  for  the 
heat  converts  the  water  in  the  water-back  into 
steam,  which  is  held  in  the  chamber  by  the  ice 
which  stops  the  pipes.  There  is  a loud  report, 
followed  by  a rush  of  steam,  a sudden  quench- 
ing of  the  fire,  and  then  a flood  of  water.  If 
the  faucet  connecting  with  the  boiler  is  tested 
before  the  fire  is  made,  and  there  is  found  to 
be  no  pressure,  fire  should  not  be  lighted  until 
the  plumber  has  blown  out  the  pipe.  It  may 
be  that  the  back  will  burst,  as  it  frequently  is 
known  to  do,  while  the  freezing  is  going  on. 
The  water-backs  will  stand  great  pressure,  but 
in  a majority  of  cases  where  they  are  exposed 
to  the  frost  the  sudden  contraction  of  the  cast- 
iron  chamber  and  the  simultaneous  expansion 
of  the  contents  of  the  water-back  result  in  a 
split. 

WATER  BATH.  (See  Bain-Marie.) 

WATER-CLOSETS. — Though  unquestion- 
ably a great  convenience,  water-closets,  as  now 
usually  placed  in  houses,  are  an  invention  of 


which  no  one  has  any  special  reason  to  be 
proud.  With  a show  of  cleanliness  they  com- 
bine essential  nastiness  and  a good  deal  of  real 
danger.  In  cities,  perhaps,  their  use  cannot  at 
present  be  dispensed  with  ; in  the  country,  with 
imperfect  drainage  and  water-supply,  they  are 
simply  a nuisance.  Earth  should  always  be 
used  instead  of  water  in  country-places ; it  is 
preferable  in  every  way.  (See  Earth-closet). 
To  keep  water-closets  reasonably  safe,  the  first 
thing  is  ventilation  of  the  sewers  and  especial- 
ly of  the  soil-pipe  in  the  house ; if  not  they 
ventilate  themselves  into  the  house  by  means 
of  the  water-closets.  Disinfectants  may  be 
used  (such  as  carbolic  acid,  either  in  powder 
or  solution)  but  are  not  of  so  much  value  as  is 
the  free  ventilation  of  drains  and  soil-pipes. 
This  is  the  only  condition  of  safety. 

Fixed  wash-basins  in  bed  rooms,  however, 
kill  ten  to  the  water-closet’s  one.  The  water 
trap  is  a very  indifferent  barrier  to  sewer-gas, 
and  the  overflow  of  the  basin  is  a perfect  gate- 
way for  contagion — especially  in  bed-rooms 
having  no  fire-place  and  with  closed  windows. 
(See  Drainage.) 

WATER  CRESS.  This  is  the  most  com- 
mon and  the  best  of  the  family  of  cresses.  It 
has  a warm  pleasant  taste,  which  renders  it  a 
favorite  salad ; and  the  neatness  of  its  form 
makes  it  useful  for  decorating  meats  and  other 
dishes.  It  grows  on  the  banks  of  running 
streams,  preferring  clean  water  to  muddy.  It 
should  be  carefully  distinguished  from  the 
water-parsnip  which  is  poisonous,  and  which  is 
frequently  found  growing  with  it.  Water 
cress  is  found  in  abundance  in  the  markets 
from  March  until  May,  and  again  from  Sep- 
tember until  November.  (See  Salads.) 

WATER-CURE.  (See  Hydropathy.) 

WATER-MELON. — This  favorite  summer 
fruit  is  cultivated  throughout  the  country, 
though  it  arrives  at  a perfection  in  the  Southern 
States  which  is  perhaps  hardly  equalled  further 
north.  Among  the  best  varieties  are  the  Spanish 
mountain  sweet , orange , Carolina , citron , etc. 
The  Spanish  variety  is  one  of  the  choicest, being 
very  sweet  and  rich,  and  of  good  size.  The 
skin  is  dark  green  in  color,  the  rind  is  moder- 
ately thick,  and  the  flesh  red,  and  solid.  The 
orange  water-melon  is  smaller,  of  a round 
shape,  and  very  sweet ; in  eating,  the  rind 
should  be  cut  through  and  taken  off  without 
breaking  the  inner  pulp.  The  Carolina  water- 
melon is  a good  variety,  much  cultivated  at  the 
South,  and  is  the  first  to  make  its  appearence 
in  the  market ; it  ripens  in  July  and  is  shipped 
north  in  large  numbers.  The  citron  water- 
melon ripens  later,  and  is  quite  small  and 
round,  with  a very  thick  skin  or  rind;  it  is 
generally  used  for  preserves.  The  common 
test  in  selecting  water-melons  is  to  press  them 
between  the  hands  and  knees ; when  ripe  they 
make  a sort  of  cracking  noise.  A simpler  test 
is  to  thump  them,  or  rap  them  with  the  knuck- 
les ; they  will  then,  if  ripe,  give  back  a sort  of 
muffled  hollow  sound.  It  requires  practice, 
however,  to  judge  them  properly.  One  rule 


584 


WATER-PROOF 


WEiGELA  * 


should  always  be  observed  in  regard  to  water- 
melons, and  that  is  never  to  eat  one  which  has 
been  plucked  for  more  than  four  or  five  days. 
Water-melons  are  in  season  from  about  the 
middle  of  July  to  the  middle  of  September. 

WATER-PROOF. — The  cloth  commonly 
called  “ water-proof”  and  sold  in  the  stores  as 
such  is  not  really  water-proof  though  it  will 
keep  out  the  dampness  for  a much  longer  time 
than  ordinary  cloth.  The  only  fabric  yet  pro- 
duced which  is  wholly  impervious  to  water  is 
Macintosh , a cloth  covered  with  India-rubber 
in  solution.  A very  good  quality  of  this  may 
be  made  as  follows  : Dissolve  one  pint  by  weight 
of  India-rubber,  and  one  of  paraffin  or  stearin, 
in  two  of  benzole  ; dilute  as  much  as  necessary, 
and  either  saturate  the  fabric  with  it  or  lay  it  on 
with  a brush.  A good  water-proof  for  common 
use  can  be  made  of  unbleached  muslin  ; hang 
it  up  in  a dry  place,  and,  with  a brush,  give  it 
two  coats  of  boiled  linseed  oil.  The  oil  may 
be  bought  ready  boiled.  Canvas  may  be  pre- 
pared in  the  same  way.  Or,  get  some  weak 
size,  such  as  is  used  by  paper-makers ; heat  it, 
and  stir  in  a small  lump  of  alum  and  a small 
quantity  of  soap-lather.  Then  with  a brush 
apply  it  to  the  cloth  as  directed  above  for  the 
oil.  Water-proof  clothing  is  not  healthy,  because 
it  excludes  air  from  the  body  and  confines  the 
perspiration  which  is  constantly  thrown  off 
from  the  skin  and  which  is  essential  to  health. 
When  worn  at  all,  it  should  only  be  in  cases  of 
necessity,  and  should  be  taken  off  as  soon  as 
the  need  for  it  is  past. 

WAX. — This  useful  substance  is  obtained 
from  the  comb  of  the  honey-bee,  and  in  its 
original  state  is  known  as  bees-wax,  which  has 
a considerably  quantity  of  honey  still  united 
with  it,  and  is  of  a dirty  yellowish  color,  before 
wax  is  employed  for  the  ordinary  purposes,  it  is 
purified  and  bleached,  by  first  soaking  it  in 
cold  water,  and  then  boiling  it  in  hot  water, 
after  which  the  wax  is  allowed  to  collect  at  the 
top  by  cooling,  when  it  is  still  to  be  bleached. 
The  bleaching  process  consists  in  cutting  the 
wax  into  very  thin  ribands  and  exposing  it  to 
the  action  of  light  and  air.  Chlorine  bleaches 
wax  very  readily,  but  it  renders  it  extremely 
brittle,  and  unfit  for  use  in  candles.  When 
thoroughly  bleached,  the  wax  is  cut  into  the 
thin  round  cakes  in  which  form  white  wax  is 
sold.  White  wax  is  sometimes  adulterated  with 
white-lead  to  increase  its  weight ; this  may  be 
detected  by  melting  the  wax  in  water,  when  the 
lead  will  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  Adul- 
teration by  mixing  tallow  or  suet  with  it  may  be 
detected  by  its  greasiness,  and  by  its  wanting 
that  transparency  which  pure  white  wax  pos- 
sesses ; also  by  its  disagreeable  odor  when 
melted.  Spermaceti  is  also  employed  for  the 
adulteration  of  wax;  this  mixture  is  less  trans- 
parent than  pure  wax,  and  it  melts  more  easily  ; 
the  surface  of  the  cake  has  also  a mottled  ap- 
pearence.  Wax  is  also  adulterated  with  resin, 
which  renders  it  brittle  ; the  presence  of  resin 
may  be  suspected  when  the  fracture  appears 
smooth  and  shining  instead  of  granular,  and  it 


may  be  detected  by  putting  small  pieces  into 
cold  alcohol,  which  will  dissolve  the  resin  and 
leave  the  wax  untouched.  In  busing  wax, 
break  each  cake,  for  the  centre  is  often  impure, 
the  outside  only  being  good.  Paraffine  is  the 
most  common  adulterant,  and  is  difficult  to  de- 
tect, except  by  chemists.  Wax  is  an  ingredi- 
ent of  many  plasters,  ointments,  and  cerates. 
(See  Candles.) 

WEAK-FISH. — This  is  an  excellent  fish 
when  fresh,  but  it  is  not  firm-fleshed,  and  after 
being  kept  a few  days  its  flesh  becomes  soft 
and  spongy  and  loses  its  flavor.  In  color,  the 
weak-fish  is  of  a bluish  gray,  with  speckled 
back  and  sides,  belly  white,  fins  yellow,  and 
the  under  jaw  quite  red.  It  is  in  season  from 
May  to  October,  but  is  best  in  September  and 
October,  when  it  is  also  very  abundant.  It 
weighs  from  half  a pound  to  eight  pounds,  but 
the  average  weight  is  about  one  pound.  Boil- 
ing is  the  best  way  of  cooking  it.  Prepare,  cook 
and  serve  as  directed  for  Bass. 

WEBBING. — A strong  hempen  fabric,  from 
one  to  three  inches  wide,  used  for  holding  up 
the  seats  of  stuffed  chairs,  sofas,  etc. 

WEDGWOOD  MORTAR.— Many  of  the 
receipts  in  this  book  require  for  their  proper 
preparation  the  use  of  a pestle  and  mortar. 
Those  made  for  druggists  of  marble  or  ironstone 


Pestle  and  Mortar- 


are  expensive,  but  an  excellent  article  which 
will  answer  all  household  purposes  is  made  of 
the  wedgwood  earthenware,  and.may  be  procur- 
ed at  any  house-furnishing  store.  In  selecting 
see  that  both  mortar  and  pestle  are  perfectly 
smooth  and  free  from  all  bubbles  and  other 
imperfections. 

WEIGELA.— The  Weigelas,  though  intro- 
duced within  a comparatively  recent  period, 
have  already  become  favorite  garden  shrubs; 
and  deservedly  so,  for  their  brightly  colored 
flowers,  intermixed  with  the  glossy  green  fol- 
iage, produce  a fine  effect  either  in  a flower-bed 
or  on  the  lawn.  Their  culture  is  very  simple, 
for  they  will  thrive  in  any  good  garden  soil. 
Plant  either  in  autumn  or  spring,  and  in  setting 
it  out,  dig  a hole  three  feet  in  diameter,  unless 
the  shrub  is  very  small,  when  two  feet  will  do. 
No  further  care  will  be  required,  though  if  a 
good  compost  of  manure  be  dug  in  around  the 
roots  every  spring,  the  trouble  will  be  repaid 
in  a greater  profusion  of  bloom. 

Of  the  several  varieties,  Weigela  alba  has 
white  flowers,  which  change  to  a pale  rose  tint ; 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


585 


Weigela  nivea  produces  pure  white  flowers, 
verv  beautiful  for  large  bouquets  or  vases ; 
Weigela  rosea  bears  apple-blossom  colored 
flowers,  blending  pink  and  white  in  a lovely 
intermingling. 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 

I. 


Apothecaries  reckon  one  pint  (O)  equal 
to  1 6 fluid  ounces  (f.  3 ) ; 1 fluid  ounce  equal 
to  8 fluid  drams  (f.  3 ). 

The  standard  liquid  gallon  of  the  United 
States  contains  231  cubic  inches,  and  the  Im- 
perial gallon  of  Great  Britain , 277.274  cubic 
inches. 

III. 


CONVERTIBLE  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


DRY  MEASURE. 


Sufficiently  near  correctness  for  all  practical 
purposes.  (For  convenience  in  consultation, 
the  following  table  is  also  given  on  the  inside 
of  the  front  cover). 

Wheat  flour,  1 pound  is  one  quart. 

Indian  meal,  1 pound  2 ounces  are  1 quart. 

Butter,  when  soft,  1 pound  is  1 pint. 

Loaf  sugar,  broken,  1 pound  is  1 quart. 

White  sugar,  powdered,  1 pound  12  oz.are  1 
quart. 

Best  brown  sugar,  1 pound  2 ounces  are  1 
quart. 

Ten  eggs  are  1 pound. 

Sixty  drops  are  1 teaspoonful. 

Four  teaspoonfuls  are  1 tablespoonful. 

Two  dessert  spoonfuls  are  1 tablespoonful. 

A tablespoonful  is  yz  ounce. 

Eight  tablespoonfuls  are  1 gill. 

Thirty-two  tablespoonfuls  are  r pint. 

A common-sized  sherry  glass  holds  '/z  a gill. 

A common-sized  claret-glass  holds  1 gill. 

A teacup  holds  from  a gill  to  half  a pint. 

A common-sized  tumbler  holds  '/z  a pint. 

When  “ wineglass”  is  used  in  this  book 
without  specification,  it  means  sherry  glass. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the 
foregoing  are  only  approximations,  and  that  in 
those  receipts  which  evidently  call  for  a deli- 
cate adjustment  of  proportions,  they  will  not 
answer.  The  truth  is.  that  every  kitchen 
should  be  supplied  with  a good  scale,  as  one 
of  the  most  important  items  in  its  furniture  ; 
and  it  should  be  kept,  moreover,  in  constant 
use.  The  neglect  of  this,  and  the  habit  of 
resting  satisfied  with  “about  the  right  propor- 
tion,” when  exactness  is  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance, is  one  of  the  most  serious  vices  of 
American  cookery. 

II. 

LIQUID  MEASURE.* 

Used  in  measuring  all  kinds  of  liquids. 

Ale,  beer,  porter,  and  milk,  were  formerly 
sold  by  what  was  called  Beer  Measure , of  which 
the  gallon  contained  282  cubic  inches. 


4 gills  (gi.J 

are  i pint, 

pt. 

2 pints, 

1 quart, 

qt. 

4 quarts, 

1 gallon, 

gal. 

A hogshead  (hhd.),  when  regarded  as  a 
measure,  is  63  gallons  equal  252  quarts,  504 
pints,  or  2016  gills  ; but  the  term  is  often  ap- 
plied to  large  casks  of  varying  capacity. 

A barrel  (bbl.),  in  some  States  is  31  £ gal- 
lons, and  in  others  28  to  32  gallons. 


The  tables  from  here  on  are  principally  condensed  from  Green- 
leaf’s  Practical  Arithmetic,  Robert  S.  Davis  & Co.,  Boston. 


U sed  in  measuring  such  dry  articles  as  grain, 
fruit,  roots,  coal,  etc. 


2 pints  (pt.) 

are  i quart, 

qt. 

8 quarts, 

1 peck, 

Pk. 

4 pecks, 

1 bushel, 

bu. 

The  chaldron , a measure  of  36  bushels, 
formerly  employed  with  some  kinds  of  coal,  is 
now  seldom  used. 

The  standard  bushel  of  the  United  States 
contains  2150.42  cubic  inches;  and  the  Im- 
perial bushel  of  Great  Britain , 2218. 192  cubic 
inches. 


IV. 


TROY  WEIGHT. 

Used  for  weighing  gold,  silver,  jewels,  and 
drugs  in  prescriptions. 

24  grains  (gr.)  are  i pennyweight,  dwt. 

20  pennyweights,  i ounce,  oz. 

12  ounces,  i pound,  lb. 

A pound  Troy  contains  240  pennyweights, 
or  5760  grains. 

Apothecaries,  in  mixing  medicines,  use 
the  pound,  ounce  ( 5 ),  and  gram,  of  this 
weight;  but  divide  the  ounce  into  8 drachms 
(3),  each  equal  to  three  scruples  (3),  each 
scruple  being  equal  to  20  grains. 

A carat,  for  gold-weight,  is  4 grains ; for 
diamond-weight,  is  3.2 grains. 

v. 


AVOIRDUPOIS  WEIGHT. 


Used  for  nearly  all  articles  estimated  by 
weight,  except  gold,  silver,  jewels,  and  drugs 
in  prescriptions. 


16  drams  (dr.) 

16  ounces, 

25  pounds, 

4 quarters,  or  ioo  lb., 
20  hundred-weight, 


are  i ounce,  oz. 

1 pound,  lb. 

1 quarter,  qr. 

1 hundred-weight,  cwt. 
1 ton,  T. 


Formerly,  112  pounds,  or  4 quarters  of  28 
pounds  each,  were  reckoned  a hundred-weight, 
and  2240  pounds  a ton,  now  called  the  long  ton. 
This  is  now  seldom  employed  in  this  country, 
except  at  the  mines  for  coal,  or  at  the  United 
States  Custom-houses  for  goods  imported 
from  Great  Britain,  in  which  country  such 
weights  continue  to  be  used. 

A pound  Avoirdupois  is  equivalent  to  7000 
grains  Troy,  so  that  144  pounds  Avoirdupois 
are  equal  to  175  pounds  Troy. 


VI. 


LINEAR  MEASURE. 


12  inches  (in.) 
3 feet, 

SlA  yards, 

40  rods, 

8 furlongs, 


are  i foot,  . ft. 

1 yard,  yd. 

1 rod,  rd. 

1 furlong,  fur. 

1 common  mile,  m. 


G8G 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


A mile  is  320  rods  = 1760  yards  = 5280 
feet  = 63360  inches. 

In  measuring  cloth  and  other  woven  fabrics, 
the  linear  yard  is  divided  into  halves , quarters , 
eighths,  and  sixteenths.  Formerly  a sixteenth 
of  a yard,  or  2%  inches,  was  called  a nail. 

An  engineer's  chain , or  measuring  tape,  is 
usually  100  feet  in  length,  with  each  foot 
divided  into  tenths.  Surveyors,  however, 
make  frequent  use  of  Gutiter's  chain,  which  is 
4 rods,  or  66  feet,  in  length,  and  divided  into 
100  links  of  7.92  inches  each.  Links  are 
usually  expressed  as  hundredths  of  a chain. 

Six  feet  equal  1 fathom,  in  measuring 
depths  at  sea ; and  3 common  miles  equal  1 
league  on  the  land. 

A geographic  or  nautical  mile  is  f of  the 
length  of  a degree  of  latitude. 

The  United  States  coast  survey  employ 
6086.34  feet,  or  1.15  4-  common  miles,  as  the 
average  length  of  a nautical  mile,  and  69.16 
common  miles  as  the  length  of  a degree  of 
longitude  on  the  equator. 

VII. 

SURFACE  MEASURE. 


144  square  inches  (sq.  in.)  are  i square  foot.  sq.  ft. 

9 square  feet,  i square  yard,  sq.  yd. 

30%  square  yards,  i square  rod  or  perch,  P. 

160  square  rods  or  perches,  i acre,  A. 

640  acres,  1 square  mile,  M. 

An  acre  is  4840  square  yards  =43560 


square  feet  = 6272640  square  inches. 

In  surveying  by  Gunter’s  chain,  1 square 
chain  is  16  square  rods,  and  10  square  chains 
are  1 acre. 

In  measurement  of  government  lands,  640 
acres,  or  1 square  mile,  make  1 section  of 
land. 

A rood  equals  40  square  rods  or  perches, 
but  this  denomination  is  not  now  much  used. 

VIII. 

SOLID  MEASURE. 

1728  cubic  inches  (cu.  in.)  are  i cubic  foot,  cu.  ft. 

27  cubic  feet,  i cubic  yard,  cu.  yd. 

128  cubic  feet,  i cord,  C. 

A solid  yard,  or  27  solid  feet,  is  equal  to 
46656  solid  inches. 

IX. 

TIME  MEASURE. 


The 

Calendar  Months,  their  names, 

order, 

and  number  of  days,  are  as  follows  : 

January, 

1st  mo. 

31  days. 

July,  7th  mo. 

31  days. 
31  d 

February, 

2(1  “ 

28  or  29. 

August,  8th  “ 

March, 

3d  “ 

3 1 days. 

30  11 

September,  9th  “ 

30  “ 

April, 

4th  “ 

October,  10th  “ 

3-  “ 

May, 

5th  “ 

3i 

November,  nth  “ 

3°  “ 

June, 

6th  “ 

30  “ 

December,  12th  “ 

3i  “ 

makes  a revolution  around  the  sun,  or  365  d. 
5 h.  48  m.  49.7  sec. 

The  common  year  of  365  days  comes  short 
of  the  true  year  5 h.  48  m.  49.7  sec.,  or  1 day 
(lacking  only  44  m.  41.2  sec.),  in  4 years,  so 
that  an  approximate  correction  of  the  calendar 
can  be  made  by  having  every  fourth  year  of 
366  days. 

But,  by  making  every  fourth  year  a leap- 
year,  there  will  be  a gain  in  the  calendar  of 
13  h.  37  m.  10  sec.  in  100  years,  or  a little  over 
8 days  in  400  yeans  ; hence,  a second  approx- 
imate correction  can  be  made  by  having  only 
every  fourth  of  the  centennial  years  a leap 
year.  Hence, 

Every  year  whose  number  can  be  divided  by 
4 wit  hold  a remainder , except  centennial 
years,  and  every  cezitezinial  year  whose  7iU7/iber 
ca7i  be  divided  by  400  without  a rez/iaizider,  is 
a leap  year  a/id  the  others  are  co//i//io7i  years. 

x 


MISCELLANEOUS  MEASURES. 


Counting. 


Paper. 


1 dozen, 

1 gross, 

1 score, 

1 hundred, 


is 


12  units. 
12  dozen. 
20  units. 
5 scores. 


1 quire, 

1 ream, 

1 bundle, 
1 bale, 


Capacity. 


is  24  sheets. 
20  quires. 

2 reams. 

5 bundles. 


56  pounds  of  butter, 

64  pounds  of  soap, 

56  pounds  of  rye, 

56  pounds  of  corn, 

60  pounds  of  wheat, 

60  pounds  of  beans, 

60  pounds  of  potatoes, 

60  pounds  of  clover  seed, 
100  pounds  of  fish. 

100  pounds  of  grain, 

1 12  pounds  of  vegetables, 
196  pounds  of  flour, 

200  pounds  of  beef  or  pork, 
256  pounds  of  water, 


are  i firkin. 

1 firkin. 

1 bushel. 
1 bushel. 
1 bushel. 
1 bushel. 
1 bushel. 
1 bushel. 
1 quintal. 
1 cental. 

1 barrel. 

1 barrel. 

1 barrel. 

1 barrel. 


Meal,  either  of  India 71  cor/i  or  rye,  is  usu- 
ally estimated  at  50  pounds  to  a bushel,  and 
wheat bra/i  at  20  pounds  to  a bushel. 

A quarter  of  gram,  in  England,  is  equal  to  8 
Imperial  bushels,  or  to  560  pounds. 

A perch  of  masonry,  or  of  building  stone,  is 
245*4  cubic  feet. 

A ton  of  timber  is  commonly  estimated  at 
40  solid  feet,  but  as  usually  measured  is  50 
solid  feet. 


With  transportation  companies  a ton  of 
freight  is  quite  variable,  being  for  many 
articles  estimated  by  the  space  occupied,  and 
for  others  by  weight. 

Four  inches  equal  1 hand  in  measuring  the 
height  of  horses  directly  over  the  fore  feet. 

A pile  of  wood  8 feet  long,  4 feet  wide,  and 
4 feet  high,  is  a cord.  A cord  foot  (c.  f.)  is 
1 foot  in  length  of  this  pile,  or  16  cubic  feet. 


A common  year  has  8760  hours,  equal 
525600  minutes,  or  31536000  seconds. 

The  number  of  days  contained  in  each 
month  may  be  remembered  by  recollecting 
that  the  7/10/iths  are  long  and  short  alternate- 
ly, with  the  exception  of  August,  which,  as 
well  as  July,  is  long. 

A true  year,  also  called  a solar  or  tropical 
year,  is  the  exact  time  in  which  the  earth 


METRIC  OR  DECIMAL  SYSTEM. 

The  Metric  System  of  weights  and  measures, 
authorized  by  Congress,  in  1866,  to  be  used  in 
the  United  States,  was  devised  in  France,  ac- 
cording to  the  decimal  scale. 

The  Higher  Denominations  of  a weight 
or  measure  are  expressed  by  prefixing  to  the 
name  of  its  principal  unit. 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


587 


Dbka, 


Hecto, 

ioo, 


Kilo, 

I (XX), 


Myria, 

ioooo: 


and  the  Lower  Denominations  by  prefixing 


Deci, 

10th, 


Centi, 

iootli, 

I. 


Milli, 

1000th. 


METRIC  MEASURES  OF  LENGTH. 


The  Meter,  the  principal  unit  for  the 
measure  of  length,  is  very  nearly  one  ten- 
millionth  of  the  distance  on  the  earth’s  sur- 


face from  the  equator  to  the  pole. 

io  millimeters  (mm.)  are  i centimeter  (cm.),=to  .3937  inch- 
10  centimeters,  1 decimeter,  3-937  inches. 

10  decimeters,  1 meter  (me.),  39-37  inches, 

xo  meters,  1 dekameter,  393-7  inches. 

10  dekameters,  1 hectometer,  328  feet  1 in. 

10  hectometers,  1 kilometer  (km.),  3280  ft.  10  in. 

10  kilometers,  1 myriameter,  6.2137  miles. 

The  meter  is  used  as  the  unit  of  measure 


for  all  common  lengths  and  distances.  It  is 
about  3 feet  3 inches  and  3 eighths  of  an  inch 
in  length. 

The  kilometer  is  taken  as  the  unit  in 
measuring  long  distances,  as  the  length  of 
roads,  distances  between  cities,  etc.  It  is 
about  200  rods,  or  % of  a mile. 

25  millimeters  nearly  replace  the  inch , 3 
decimeters  the  foot , 5 meters  the  rod,  and 
1600  meters,  the  mile. 

II. 


METRIC  MEASURES  OF  SURFACE. 

The  Square  Meter,  the  principal  unit  for 
the  measure  of  surface,  is  the  square  whose 
side  is  one  meter. 

100  sq.  millimeters  (mm.  *),  are  1 sq.  centimeter  (cm.®  ), =.00155  sq.  in . 
700  sq.  centimeters,  1 sq.  decimeter.  .1076  eq.  ft. 

100  sq.  decimeters,  1 sq.  meter  (m.  a),  1.196  sq.  yd. 

Since  the  side  of  a square  meter  is  i meter, 
or  io  decimeters,  a square  meter  is  equal  to 
io  X 10  = ioo  square  decimeters ; since  the 
side  of  a square  decimeter  is  i decimeter,  or 
io  centimeters,  a square  decimeter  is  equal  to 
io  X io  = ioo  square  centimeters,  etc.  Hence, 
The  scale  is  ioo,  and  two  orders  of  figures 
must  be  allowed  to  each  denomination. 

The  Are,  the  principal  unit  in  measuring 
land,  is  a square  whose  side  is  ten  meters. 

ioo  centiares  are  i are  (ar.),  equal  to  119.6  sq.  yd. 

100  ares,  1 hectare  (ha.),  2.471  acres- 

A centiare , or  square  meter,  is  about  i^ 
square  yards,  and  a hectare  about  z]/2  acres. 

40  ares  nearly  replace  an  acre  of  common 
surface  measure. 

in. 

METRIC  MEASURES  OF  VOLUME. 

The  Cubic  Meter,  the  principal  unit  for 
the  measure  of  volume,  is  the  cube  whose  edge 
is  one  meter. 

1000  nt.  millimeters  (mm3),  are  1 cu.  centimeter  (cm.®  )>=.001  cu.  in. 
1000  cu.  centimeters,  1 cu.  decimeter,  60.012  cu.  in. 

1000  cu.  decimeters,  1 cu.  meter  (m.®  ),  1.303  cu.  yd. 

Since  the  edge  of  a cubic  meter  is  i meter, 
or  10  decimeters,  a cubic  meter  is  equal  to  io 
X 10  X 10  = 1000  cubic  decimeters;  since 
the  edge  of  a cubic  decimeter  is  one  decimeter, 
or  10  centimeters,  a cubic  decimeter  is  equal 
to  10  x 10  X 10=  1000  cubic  centimeters, 
etc.  Hence, — 


The  scale  is  1000,  and  three  orders  of 
figures  must  be  allowed  to  each  denomination. 

The  Liter,  the  principal  unit  for  liquid  or 
dry  measure,  is  a cubic  decimeter. 


10  milliliters  are  1 centiliter  (cl.),  equal  to  .338  fluid  oz* 

10  centiliters,  1 deciliter,  .845  gill. 

10  deciliters,  1 liter  (It.),  1.0567  quarts. 

10  liters,  1 dekaliter,  2.6417  gallons. 

1 o dekaliters,  1 hectoliter  (hi.)  26.417  gallons. 

10  hectoliters,  1 kiloliter,  264.17  gallons. 

The  liter  is  used  in  measuring  liquids,  and 
is  about  1 liquid  quart. 

The  hectoliter  is  used  in  measuring  grain 
and  like  articles,  and  is  2.837  bushels,  or  about 
2§  bushels,  or  | of  a barrel ; a liter  is  very  nearly 
.908  of  a dry  quart. 

4 liters  a little  more  than  replace  the  liquid 
gallon , and  35  liters  very  nearly  the  common 
bushel. 

A milliter  is  equal  to  1 cubic  centimeter ; 
a centiliter  is  equal  to  10  cubic  centimeters. 

The  Stere,  the  principal  unit  for  measuring 
wood,  is  a cubic  meter,  or  1000  liters. 

10  decisteres  are  1 stere  (st.),  equal  to  1.308  cubic  yards. 

10  steres,  1 dekastere,  13.08  cubic  yards. 

36  decisteres,  or  3.6  steres,  very  nearly  re- 
place the  common  cord. 

IV. 

METRIC  WEIGHTS. 

The  Gram,  the  principal  unit  of  weights,  is 
the  weight,  in  a vacuum,  of  a cubic  centimeter 
of  distilled  water,  at  its  greatest  density. 


10  milligrams 
10  centigrams, 
10  decigrams, 
10  grams, 

10  dekagrams, 
10  hectograms, 
10  kilograms, 

10  myriagrams, 
10  quintals, 


are  i centigram,  equal  to  .1543  grains. 


1 decigram, 

1 gram  (gm.), 

1 dekagram, 

1 hectogram, 

1 kilogram,  (k.), 

1 myriagram, 

1 quintal, 

x millier,  or  tonneau 


*•543 

*5-432 

.3527  av.  oz. 
35274  “ 

2.2046  av.  lb. 

22.046  “ 

220.46  “ 

t.),  2204.6  “ 


The  kilogram,  or,  for  brevity,  kilo,  is  the 
ordinary  weight  of  commerce.  1 1 is  about  2.\  lbs. 

The  tonneau  (pronounced  ton  no),  or  metric 
ton,  is  used  in  weighing  heavy  articles,  and  is 
about  2200  pounds. 

The  gram  is  used  in  mixing  medicines, 
weighing  letters,  gold,  jewels,  etc.  28  grams 
nearly  replace  an  avoirdupois  ounce  ; and  % 
kilo,  a little  more  than  a pound. 

In  expressing  Metric  Weights  and  Measures, 
by  figures,  the  decimal  point,  as  in  United 
States  money,  is  placed  between  the  unit  and 
its  subdivisions  written  as  decimal  orders. 

One,  two,  or  three  orders  of  figures  must  be 
allowed  to  each  denomination  lower  than  the 


unit,  according  as  the  scale  is  10,  100,  or  1000. 
Thus  : — 

3 kiloliters,  7 hectoliters,  2 dekaliters,  5 li- 
ters, 6 centiliters,  is  written,  as  liters,  3725.06  It. 

4 cubic  meters,  630  cubic  centimeters,  as 
cubic  meters,  4.00063  m.3 

The  integer  of  a metrical  expression  may  be 
read  as  a number  of  its  primary  unit;  and  the 
decimal  part,  if  any,  as  a number  of  the  lowest 
denomination  denoted.  Thus  : — 

360.075  kilos  may  be  read  as  three  hundred 
and  sixty  kilos,  and  seventy-five  grams. 

36.15  meters,  as  thirty-six  meters,  and  fifteen 
centimeters. 


588 


WELSH  RAREBIT 


WET  NURSE 


v. 

COMPARATIVE  METRIC  AND  ENGLISH  TABLE 


of  equivalents  determined  only  approximately; 
but  sufficiently  exact  for  all  ordinary  business. 


A meter  = 39.37  inches. 

A meter  = 3.28  feet. 

A meter  = 1.0936  yards. 

A kilometer  = .62137  mile. 

A sq.  meter  3=  1550  sq.  ins. 

A sq.  meter  = 10.76  sq.  feet. 
A sq.  meter  = 1.196  sq.  yds. 
An  are  = 3-953  sq.  rods. 
A hectare  = 2.471  acres. 

A hectare  = .00386  sq.  mile. 
A liter  =3  33.81  fluid  oz. 
A liter  ~ 1-0567  quarts. 

A liter  = .26417  gallon. 

A hectoliters  2.837  bushels. 
A liter  =61.022  cu.  ins. 
A hectoliter  = 3.531  cu.  feet. 
A stere  = 1.308  cu.  yds. 
A stere  = -2759  cord. 

A gram  = *5*432  grains. 

A kilogram  = 35.27  av.  ozs. 

A kilogram  = 2.68  Tr.  lbs. 

A kilogram  = 2.2046  av.  lbs. 
A tonneau  = 1.1023  tons. 


An  inch  = 

.0254  meter. 

A foot  = 

.3048  meter. 

A yard  = 

.9144  meter. 

A mile  = 

1.6093  kilometers. 

A sq. in. = 

.0006452  sq.  meter. 

A sq.  ft.= 

.0929  sq.  meter. 

A sq.  yd.= 

.8361  sq.  meter* 

A sq.  rd.  = 

.2529  are. 

An  acre  === 

.4047  hectare. 

A sq.  m.= 

259  hectares. 

A fld.oz.3= 

.02958  liter. 

A quart  3= 

.9465  liter. 

A gallon3= 

3.786  liters. 

A bush.  = 

.3524  hectoliter. 

A cu.  in.= 

.01639  liter. 

A cu.  ft.= 

.2832  hectoliter. 

A cu.  yd. = 

•7646  stere. 

A cord  =r 

3.625  steres. 

A grain  = 

.0648  gram. 

An  av.oz=3 

.0283  kilogram. 

ATr.  lb.= 

.373  kilogram. 

An  av.  lb= 

• 4536  kilogram. 

A ton  = 

.9071  tonneau. 

WELSH  RAREBIT.— The  English  method 
of  preparing  this  savory  dish  is  as  follows  : Grate 
some  Gloucester  or  Gruyere  cheese  and  sea- 
son it  with  cayenne  pepper.  Fry  some  slices 
of  bread  with  a little  butter,  but  on  one  side 
only,  until  perfectly  yellow,  then  spread  a thick 
coat  of  the  grated  cheese  on  the  fried  side  of 
the  bread,  place  the  slices  in  a baking-pan,  put 
it  in  a moderate  oven,  take  it  out  when  the 
cheese  begins  to  melt,  and  serve  warm.  Any 
good,  dry  cheese  will  answer  for  this,  probably. 

The  American  method  is  different  : Cut  a 
pound  of  cheese  in  slices  a quarter  of  an  inch 
thick  ; put  a heaping  table-spoonful  of  butter 
in  a frying-pan,  and  when  it  has  melted,  lay  in 
the  cheese,  and  cook  about  five  minutes  ; then 
add  two  eggs  well  beaten,  a dessert-spoonful 
of  mixed  mustard,  and  a little  pepper;  stir  it 
up ; have  ready  some  slices  of  buttered  toast, 
turn  the  cheese  over  it,  and  serve  as  hot  as 
possible.  The  eggs  may  be  omitted  if  the  flavor 
of  the  cheese  is  liked  without  disguise. 

WEN. — Wens  are  encysted  tumors,  most 
frequently  met  with  on  the  scalp  or  eyebrows. 
The  treatment  of  such  tumors  consists  in  their 
removal : if  very  small,  simply  pressing  their 
contents  out  may  prove  sufficient ; but,  if  large 
and  unattached,  an  incision  through  the  skin 
and  down  upon  the  cyst  wall,  with  the  subse- 
quent laying  bare  of  the  entire  cyst  with  its 
contents,  is  necessary.  If  the  tumor  is  very 
large,  and  its  cyst-wall  thin  and  adherent,  re- 
moval must  be  effected  by  regular  dissection. 
It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  that  unless  the  cyst 
or  bag  is  removed  there  is  every  probability  of 
the  tumor  returning.  These  tumors  may  oc- 
cur in  the  neck,  and  a somewhat  favorite  locale 
is  just  under  the  angle  of  the  lower  jaw.  It  is 
well  to  remark  that  wens  should  be  removed 


by  a surgeon  as  soon  as  they  are  noticed,  as 
the  scars  increase  in  size,  and  are  horribly 
unsightly  if  situated  in  any  prominent  place ; 
their  removal  is  safe,  and  generally  unattended 
with  any  great  pain. 


WET  NURSE.— When  it  is  impossible  for  a 
mother  to  nurse  her  infant  herself,  it  remains 
either  to  get  another  woman  to  nurse  it,  that  is 
a wet  nurse — or  to  feed  it  in  some  other  way. 
To  the  latter  is  applied  the  term  “artificial 
feeding,”  and  it  is  treated  of  in  the  article  on 
Infants.  The  wet  nurse  is  to  be  preferred,  for 
the  child’s  good,  to  feeding,  though  a choice  is 
not  always  practicable.  In  selecting  a wet 
nurse,  it  is  always  advisable  to  cause  her  to 
be  examined  by  a physician.  There  are  so 
many  particulars  which  are  of  importance,  but 
which  do  not  attract  the  notice  of  outside 
persons,  that  this  is  the  safest  course.  She 
should  be  perfectly  healthy  and  free  from  the 
taint  of  hereditary  or  other  constitutional 
disease,  that  the  child’s  constitution  may  not  be 
contaminated.  The  mother  may  be  aided, 
however,  in  making  her  selection  by  bearing  in 
mind  the  following  points,  the  substance  of 
which  is  taken  from  Dr.  Edward  H.  Parker’s 
Hand  Book  for  Mothers  : — 

1.  The  nurse’s  milk  should  be  of  about  the 
same  age  with  the  mother’s;  that  is,  her  child 
should  have  been  born  at  about  the  same  time 
with  the  one  she  would  nurse.  The  milk  fur- 
nished by  a woman  varies  at  different  times, 
changing  from  the  first  that  is  drawn,  to  the 
last.  A woman  with  a new  breast  of  milk — 
that  is,  who  has  just  been  confined — is  not 
fitted  to  nurse  a child  who  is  six  months  old ; 
neither  is  a woman  with  a six  months’  breast  of 
milk,  the  best  fitted  to  nurse  one  just  born. 
This  is,  however,  a consideration  of  less  im- 
portance after  the  infant  is  six  months  old. 
After  that  time  it  is  safer  to  choose  a woman 
who  has  not  nursed  more  than  six  months. 

2.  If  there  are  two  women,  in  other  respects 
of  equal  qualifications,  one  of  whom  has  a 
child  still  living  which  she  has  put  out  to  nurse, 
while  the  other  has  lost  her  infant,  — without 
hesitation  select  the  latter. 

3.  The  age  of  the  nurse  should  not  usually 
be  under  twenty  years,  or  over  twenty-eight, 
this  being  about  the  period  at  which  they  are 
most  apt  to  yield  a rich,  healthy  milk. 

4.  A woman  with  brown  or  black  hair,  should 
be  selected  in  preference  to  one  with  light  or 
red  hair ; and  of  the  last  two,  the  former  should 
have  the  preference.  The  reason  is  simply 
this,  that  light  haired  women,  although  they 
often  have  more  milk  than  those  who  are  of  a 
darker  complexion,  do  not  furnish  in  it  so 
much  nourishment;  their  milk  is  more  watery, 
though  it  may  be  more  abundant.  Red  haired 
women  are  apt  to  be  quicker  to  become  angry, 
and  to  have  tempers  not  so  well  regulated  as 
others. 

5.  The  nurse  should  be  of  good  form  and 
plump,  with  a white,  hard  breast,  marbled  with 
bluish  veins,  aud  a nipple  of  good  size,  per- 
fectly free  from  cracks  and  eruptions,  with 
gums  firm  and  red,  and  with  good  teeth.  I he 
general  appearance  of  the  face  should  be  that 
of  health. 

6.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  add  that  it  is 
desirable  to  select  for  a nurse  a woman  of 


WHALEBONE 

gentle  disposition  and  of  a good  degree  of  in- 
telligence, rather  than  a stupid  or  irascible  one. 

1 1 may  be  of  use  to  some  readers  to  say  that 
wet  nurses  very  rarely  need  beer,  ale,  or  other 
malt  liquor,  to  enable  them  to  perform  their 
duties.  These  drinks  are  often  necessary  to  a 
feeble  mother,  to  enable  her  to  bear  the  drain 
upon  her;  but  a woman  who  requires  them 
ought  not  to  become  a wet  nurse.  The  habit 
of  taking  stronger  liquors,  as  brandy,  gin,  or 
whiskey,  is  a good  and  sufficient  reason  for 
rejecting  a nurse.  Their  influence  on  the  child 
is  injurious. 

WHALEBONE. — A hard  substance  found 
in  the  mouth  of  the  whale.  This  animal  has 
no  teeth,  but  instead  of  them,  a number  of  long 
strips  of  whalebone,  having  fringes  on  their 
edges,  through  which  it  strains  the  sea  water, 
retaining  the  food  Contained  in  it,  consisting  of 
abundance  of  small  creatures.  The  number  of 
strips  of  whalebone  amounts  to  about  300 ; and 
they  are  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  long,  ten  to 
twelve  inches  broad,  and  about  half  an  inch 
thick.  They  consist  only  of  parallel  fibres, 
consequently  are  easily  rent  or  split.  From  its 
elasticity,  strength,  and  lightness,  whalebone  is 
employed  for  many  purposes  : for  stiffening  cor- 
sets and  dress-waists ; for  ribs  to  umbrellas  and 
parasols ; for  the  framework  of  hats,  etc. 
When  heated  by  steam,  it  is  softened,  and  may 
be  easily  moulded,  like  horn. 

WHEAT. — Wheat  is  preferable  to  any  of 
the  other  great  vegetable  products  on  which 
men  chiefly  live,  since  it  is  a far  more  agreeable 
food  than  maize  or  Indian  corn,  and  a more 
nutritious  food  than  rice.  It  contains  within  it- 
self nearly  all  the  essential  elements  of  nutrition  ; 
and  it  is  probable  that  the  health  and  mental 
and  bodily  vigor  of  the  inhabitants  of  temperate 
climes  are  more  attributable  to  this  food  than 
to  any  other  single  cause.  Wheat  is  of  two 
principal  kinds,  known  as  white  and  red  wheat ; 
but  there  are  numerous  varieties  which  do  not 
affect  the  color  of  the  grain.  The  red  is  the 
stronger  food,  and  the  grain  is  usually  small 
and  hard ; while  the  white  is  a large  grain, 
particularly  adapted  to  the  production  of  fine 
white  flour,  and  to  mix  with  red  wheat  for  the 
same  purpose.  The  red  variety  is  the  most 
widely  grown,  and  possesses  greater  nutritive 
properties.  Wheat  is  commonly  used  in  the 
form  of  flour.  ( See  Flour.)  Cracked  wheat 
and  crushed  wheat  contain  the  entire  substance 
of  the  grain,  which  is  crushed  or  broken  so  that 
the  gastric  juices  may  act  upon  it  more  easily. 
When  boiled  to  the  consistency  of  mush  it 
makes  a wholesome  and  nutritious  food,  which 
is  believed  to  be  especially  serviceable  in  the 
treatment  of  dyspepsia  and  kindred  diseases. 
It  should  be  very  thoroughly  cooked,  and  eaten 
with  milk. 

WHEY. — This  pleasant,  slightly  acid  bever- 
age is  found  naturally  on  buttermilk  or  clabber 
when  it  has  stood  for  some  little  time.  It  may 
be  produced  in  a few  minutes  at  any  time  by 
putting  into  boiling  milk  as  much  alum,  cider, 
lemon-juice,  or  vinegar,  as  will  turn  it  and  make 


WHITE-FISH  589 

it  clear ; then  pour  it  off,  add  some  hot  water, 
and  sweeten. 

Tamarind  Whey. — Mix  an  ounce  of  tama- 
rind pulp  with  a pint  of  milk,  strain  it,  and  add 
a little  white  sugar  to  the  whey. 

Wine  Whey. — Set  on  the  fire  in  a saucepan 
a pint  of  milk  ; when  it  boils  pour  in  as  much 
white  wine  as  will  turn  it  and  make  it  clear ; 
boil  it  up  and  set  it  aside  till  the  curd  has 
settled,  then  pour  off  the  whey,  add  half  as 
much  boiling  water  and  sweeten  it. 

WHIPS. — Take  a pint  of  rich  cream,  sweet- 
en it  slightly,  and  flavor  it  with  any  extract 
that  may  be  preferred ; put  it  in  a deep  dish, 
and  «set  it  in  the  ice  for  half  an  hour ; whip  it 
gently  with  the  whip-churn  and  as  the  froth 
rises  place  it  on  a reversed  sieve  to  drain.  It 
may  be  served  plain  heaped  on  the  dish  ; or, 
put  jelly  or  jam  in  the  bottom  of  jelly-glasses, 
a spoonful  to  each,  and  fii'i  the  glasses  with  the 
whip. 

Colored  Whips  may  be  made  by  adding  to 
the  cream  a few  spoonfuls  of  jelly,  or  juice  of 
any  kind  of  fruit,  of  the  color  preferred. 

WHISKEY, — An  ardent  spirit  distilled  from 
barley,  rye,  Indian  corn,  wheat,  etc.  It  is 
the  cheapest  and  the  most  common  form  of 
intoxicating  liquor  made  in  the  United  States, 
where  its  production  is  very  large.  The  whiskey 
of  Pennsylvania  and  Kentucky,  and  the  better 
qualities  of  that  manufactured  in  New  York,  are 
distilled  chiefly  from  rye  ; most  of  that  produced 
in  the  Western  States  is  from  Indian  corn, 
which  contains  a large  quantity  of  fusel-oil. 
The  peach  whiskey,  the  Monongahela  of  Penn- 
sylvania and  the  Bourbon  from  Kentucky  are 
accounted  the  best.  The  peculiar  and  much- 
liked  flavor  of  Scotch  and  Irish  whiskey  is  said 
to  be  due  to  the  peaty  water  which  is  obtained 
in  the  mountains  for  the  use  of  the  stills,  or  to 
the  smoke  of  the  fuel  which  is  used.  New  whis- 
key is  rough  and  fiery,  quickly  intoxicates,  and 
produces  disease  of  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  stomach,  ot  the  liver,  spleen,  and  kidneys. 
It  is  desirable,  therefore,  that  it  should  be  kept 
some  years,  that  it  may  generate  volatile  oils, 
and  obtain  mellowness.  The  most  approved 
course  is  to  fill  a sherry  cask  with  it  and  leave 
it  quiet ; it  will  thus  acquire  color  and  flavor. 

Cocktail  (Whiskey,  Brandy,  Gin,  or  Sherry). 
—Put  about  half  a teaspoonful  of  Boker’s  bit- 
ters, or  any  bitters,  in  a tumbler,  a teaspoon- 
ful of  sugar,  or  sugar  to  taste,  fill  the  glass 
with  coarsely-pounded  ice,  and  put  in  a wine- 
glass of  the  liquor.  Stir  well,  and  then  drain 
into  a claret  glass.  Put  in  finally  a small  piece 
of  lemon-peel,  which  first  twist  with  the  fingers 
over  the  glass  to  express  the  oil. 

Sling  (Whiskey). — Fill  a tumbler  with 
coarsely-pounded  ice.  Then  fill  the  inter- 
stices quarter  or  third  full  of  whiskey,  add  one 
or  two  teaspoonfuls  of  sugar,  or  to  taste,  fill  with 
water,  and  stir  or  shake  until  thoroughly  cold. 

WHITE-FISH.— An  excellent  fish  of  the 
salmon  family,  abundant  in  the  Northern 
lakes.  Being  difficult  to  keep  fresh  they 
are  scarce  except  near  where  caught.  The 


590 


WHITE-LEAD 


WHOOPING-COUGH 


usual  size  and  form  of  this  fish  are  about  the 
same  as  those  of  the  shad,  but  the  head  is 
sharper,  and  the  color  of  the  back  is  bluish  , 
black,  while  the  belly  is  white.  Another  variety 
is  known  as  the  Otsego  shad  salmon , and  is  very 
abundant  in  Otsego  Lake.  This  fish  is  of  a 
dusky  gray  on  the  back,  and  striped  like  the 
striped  bass.  Whitefish  weigh  from  one  and  a 
half  to  five  or  six  pounds.  Bake  and  boil  as 
directed  for  Salmon;  broil  and  fry  as  di- 
rected for  Mackerel.  The  small  ones,  of 
course,  are  best  for  the  latter  purpose. 

WHITE-LEAD. — This  pigment  forms  the 
basis  of  all  oil  paints,  the  different  tints  and 
shades  being  made  by  adding  colored  pigments 
to  it.  As  much  of  the  beauty  and  durability  of 
the  paint  depend  upon  the  goodness  of  the  white 
employed  as  the  basis,  especial  care  should  be 
taken  to  have  this  genuine.  When  a large 
quantity  is  wanted,  it  is  safest  to  purchase  it  at 
the  white-lead  works  where  it  is  made ; but 
even  there  it  is  not  always  free  from  adultera- 
tion. When  sold  at  retail,  white-lead  is  frequent- 
ly adulterated  with  chalk,  barytes,  or  other  white 
mineral  substances,  which  very  much  injure  its 
quality,  causing  it  to  have  less  body,  and  also 
to  turn  yellow  when  made  into  paint.  Adul- 
teration with  chalk  may  be  detected  by  dis- 
solving a little  diluted  nitric  acid,  filtering  it, 
and  adding  a little  oxalate  of  ammonia;  if 
chalk  be  in  the  white-lead,  a cloudy  white 
precipitate  of  oxalate  of  lime  will  appear  when 
a little  of  the  white-lead  is  dropped  into  it.  An 
easy  and  tolerably  effective  test  is  to  lift  some 
of  the  white-lead  on  a knife  and  let  it  fall  back 
into  the  can.  If  perfectly  pure  it  will  be  found 
“ ropy ; ” while  adulterated  lead  is  generally  short 
and  crumbling.  It  is  cheapest  in  the  end  to 
buy  the  best  white-lead  procurable.  It  is  im- 
proved by  keeping. 

WHITES.  (See  Menstruation.) 

WHITEWASH.— A good  whitewash  for 
walls  is  made  by  adding  to  fresh  slaked  lime 
and  water  a solution  of  starch,  a little  salt,  and 
a few  drops  of  dissolved  indigo  or  blueing. 
Boil  the  starch  to  a thin  gruel,  adding  the  salt 
while  it  is  boiling,  and  pour  the  whole  into  the 
lime  and  water  while  the  latter  is  warm  from  the 
heat  engendered  in  slaking;  then  add  the  blue- 
ing to  remove  the  yellow  tint  of  the  mixture, 
and  use.  Colors  may  be  added  if  desired,  but 
the  use  of  poisonous  colors,  such  as  Paris  Green, 
should  be  avoided. 

The  whitewash  must  be  laid  on  with  a large 
flat  brush,  as  directed  for  Kalsomining.  When 
old  ceilings  are  whitewashed,  it  is  difficult  some- 
times to  hide  the  stains ; the  best  way  is  firs 
to  wash  and  scrape  off  with  a trowel  the  old 
whiting  and  dirt,  the  surface  being  first  wetted 
with  a flat  brush,  and  to  stop  up  all  the  cracks 
and  defective  places.  In  cornices,  a good  deal 
of  care  must  be  taken  in  scraping  out  the  leaves 
and  ornaments.  The  ceiling  must  dry  thoroughly 
after  this  operation  before  the  whitewash  is 
laid  on. 

WHITING. — This  fish  is  also  called  King- 
fish.  It  is  small,  the  color  on  the  back  and 


sides  is  a dark  bluish  gray,  and  the  belly  is 
white  and  silvery.  The  flesh  is  solid  and  sweet. 
In  the  Southern  fish-markets,  Whiting  is 
abundant,  but  above  Chesapeake  Bay  it  is  by 
no  means  regular  in  its  appearance,  several 
seasons  sometimes  elapsing  without  any  being 
seen.  It  is  in  season  from  May  to  September. 
The  usual  weight  is  about  three  quarters  of  a 
pound,  and  few  are  found  weighing  as  much  as 
two  pounds. 

Broiled  Wliiting. — Clean,  wash,  and  dry  the 
fish ; sprinkle  them  with  salt  and  spread  butter 
over  them,  and  broil  them  on  both  sides  over  a 
clear  fire. 

Fried  Whiting. — Clean,  wash,  and  dry  the 
fish ; lay  them  in  a flat  dish,  salt,  and  dredge 
them  with  flour ; have  ready  a frying-pan  with 
plenty  of  hot  lard,  butter,  or  dripping;  put  in 
as  many  fish  as  the  pan  will  hold  without  crowd- 
ing, and  fry  to  a light  brown  on  both  sides. 

WHITING.  (See  Chalk.) 

WHITLOW.  (See  Bone-felon.) 

WHOOPING-COUGH.— The  popular  idea 
that  whooping-cough  is  a disease  of  slight  im- 
portance, to  be  ranked  among  the  lightly-re- 
garded “ children’s  affections,”  such  as  rash 
or  thrush,  is  an  utterly  mistaken  one,  and  has 
doubtless  cost  many  an  infant  its  life.  The 
fact  is  that  whooping-cough  is  dangerous  in  the 
highest  degree,  especially  in  children  under 
three  years  of  age.  Even  in  tolerably  mild 
cases  the  brain  may  be  affected  and  the  bowels 
deranged ; and  in  cases  of  great  severity  a 
strain  is  put  upon  the  entire  system  which 
taxes  its  powers  to  the  utmost.  The  earliest 
symptom  of  whooping-cough  is  a common  cold, 
accompanied  by  a cough  which  at  first  has 
nothing  distinctive  about  it;  there  is  also  a 
slight  amount  of  fever,  restlessness,  and  some- 
times running  at  the  eyes  and  nose.  In  a 
few  days  the  cough  becomes  more  troublesome, 
and  some  glairy  fluid  may  be  brought  up  from 
the  chest ; in  a week  or  ten  days,  but  oftener 
later,  the  child  will  begin  to  have  the  character- 
istic “ whoop.”  The  cough  comes  on  in  parox- 
ysms, and  is  more  frequent  by  night  than 
by  day  ; each  paroxysm  begins  with  a deep 
and  loud  inspiration,  followed  by  a succession 
of  short  and  sharp  expirations,  again  followed 
by  a deep  and  loud  inspiration,  and  the  re- 
peated expiration  ; this  may  go  on  several  times, 
and  last  one  or  two  minutes  according  to  the 
severity  of  the  case.  Just  before  each  attack 
comes  on.  the  child  clings  to  its  nurse  or 
mother  ; it  sits  in  an  erect  position  ; during  the 
paroxysm  the  face  is  flushed,  the  veins  in  the 
head  and  face  are  prominent,  the  eyes  suffused 
and  watery,  and  generally  there  is  some  glairy 
fluid  expelled  from  the  mouth  or  vomiting  may 
come  on.  After  a paroxysm  the  child  will  rest 
for  a time,  and  appear  pretty  well  until  the  next 
attack  comes  on.  In  bad  cases  there  may  be 
twenty  or  thirty  paroxysms  a day,  and  several 
fits  of  coughing  besides  in  which  the  whoop  is 
not  heard;  in  ordinary  cases  there  are  from 
four  to  ten  spasmodic  attacks  in  the  twenty- 
four  hours.  These  symptoms  last  for  three  or 


WHORTLEBERRY 


WINDOW  GARDENING  591 


four  up  to  ten  weeks,  and  then  the  cough 
abates  in  severity  and  frequency,  and  finally 
ceases  altogether  ; but  after  the  whooping  has 
ceased  the  child  may  continue  to  have  a 
troublesome  cough  for  some  time.  In  most 
cases  there  is  some  bronchitis  attending  this 
complaint,  and  this  is  shown  by  the  hurried 
breathing,  rise  of  temperature,  and  rattling 
noises  over  the  chest.  Convulsions  are  a bad 
sign,  and  this  is  generally  the  way  in  which 
such  cases  die.  Whooping-cough  cannot  be 
made  out  until  the  characteristic  whoop  ap- 
pears. As  it  is  highly  contagious,  however, 
its  onset  may  be  expected  if  a common  cough 
follows  exposure  to  it. 

Treatment. — In  all  cases  it  is  best  for  the 
child  to  be  kept  in  the  house  in  bad  or 
doubtful  weather,  as  soon  as  the  malady  has 
declared  itself,  as  the  danger  is  greatly  in- 
creased if  it  takes  cold.  In  a mild  case  it 
need  not  be  put  to  bed,  but  it  should  be  in  a 
warm  and  even  temperature,  and  protected 
from  draughts.  If  there  is  any  lung  affection, 
the  child  must  be  put  to  bed.  If  the  breathing 
be  very  bad,  put  a hot  mustard  and  oatmeal 
poultice  on  the  chest,  and  if  the  chest  is  a good 
deal  stuffed  and  the  child  does  not  offer  to  vomit 
after  the  coughing  paroxysm,  a teaspoonful  of 
syrup  of  ipecac  may  be  given  with  advantage. 
The  child  must  be  fed  in  the  usual  way,  but 
solid  food  should  be  given  sparingly.  When 
the  infant  has  some  other  disease,  as  rickets, 
etc.,  the  treatment  proper  for  that  disease  may 
be  continued.  Steel  wine  is  very  valuable  in 
cases  of  whooping-cough,  more  especially 
when  there  is  no  fever,  and  during  convales- 
cence : it  may  also  stop  the  diarrhoea  which 
is  often  present.  If  there  is  any  protrusion  of 
the  bowel,  the  part  should  be  sponged  lightly 
with  a solution  of  sulphate  of  iron,  and  at  once 
returned.  This  is  often  due  to  the  excessive 
diarrhoea,  and  steel  wine  must  be  given  in- 
ternally. Numberless  remedies  have  been 
tried  for  the  cure  of  whooping-cough,  but  none 
have  succeeded.  Iron,  alum,  zinc,  sulphuric 
acid,  etc.,  have  all  failed  to  do  much.  The 
most  hopeful  remedy  is  belladonna,  if  given  in 
large  doses,  and  the  symptoms  watched  ; child- 
ren can  bear  proportionably  more  of  this  drug 
the  younger  they  are,  but  it  is  a dangerous 
remedy,  and  must  never  be  ventured  upon 
except  under  the  direction  of  a physician.  In 
cities  a daily  visit  to  the  gas-works  has  been 
said  often  to  abate  the  violence  of  the  disease. 
When  the  cough  has  gone  on  for  some  weeks, 
complete  change  of  air  is  desirable.  During 
convalescence,  warm  clothing  should  be  worn, 
and  the  diet  should  be  light  and  nourishing. 

WHORTLEBERRY.  {See  Huckleberry.) 

WINDOW  GARDENING.— This  term  is 
commonly  so  used  as  to  include  all  in-door  cul- 
ture of  plants,  and  as  there  is  scarcely  a shrub, 
flower,  or  vine  that  cannot  be  so  cultivated,  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  subject  is  too  comprehen- 
sive to  be  treated  satisfactorily  in  a single  ar- 
ticle. All  such  general  directions  as  apply  to 
the  culture  of  plants,  in  either  house  or  garden, 


are  given  in  the  article  on  Floriculture, 
while  the  special  directions  for  each  particular 
plant  are  given  under  the  name  of  the  plant  it- 
self. As  a supplement  to  these,  we  add  here  a 
few  comprehensive  rules,  applicable  to  all  in- 
door floriculture,  the  substance  of  which  is 
taken  chiefly  from  Mr.  E.  S.  Rand’s  excellent 
little  book  entitled,  “ Flowers  for  Parlor  and 
Garden.” 

Pots.  The  common  baked-clay  flower-pots 
are  the  best,  and  of  these  the  light-colored 
are  better  than  the  brick-red.  Plants  seldom 
thrive  in  fancy  pots.  If  something  ornamental 
is  desired,  have  the  fancy  pots  large  enough  to 
set  the  common  pots  inside,  or  ornamental 
frames  over  the  common  ones. 

Potting.  Always  fill  the  lower  end  of  the 
pot  with  broken  potsherds,  to  secure  drainage. 
In  filling  the  soil  around  the  plants,  press  it  in 
firmly  ; there  is  no  advantage  in  loose  potting. 
In  re-potting  cut  away  as  much  of  the  old  soil  as 
possible  (being  careful  not  to  injure  the  roots  ot 
the  plant),  and  place  the  ball  of  the  plant  in  the 
centre  of  the  new  pot,  filling  in  all  around  with 
fresh  soil.  As  a general  rule,  plants  require  re- 
potting whenever  the  roots  begin  to  curl  around 
the  inside  of  the  pot.  This  can  be  ascertained 
by  placing  the  palm  of  the  hand  over  the  top  of 
the  pot,  turning  the  latter  upside  down,  and 
tapping  its  rim  sharply  against  some  hard  ob- 
ject ; the  plant  and  soil  will  generally  come  out 
into  the  hand,  and  can  then  be  examined  and 
returned.  Stirring  the  surface  of  the  soil  is 
generally  beneficial ; or  the  top  soil,  as  far 
down  as  the  upper  roots,  may  be  removed,  and 
the  ptit  refilled  with  fresh  soil. 

Soil.  The  different  kinds  of  soil  used  in  flow- 
er-culture are  : peat,  which  is  the  black  earth 
usually  taken  from  meadows  or  damp  woods  ; 
loam,  or  common  garden  soil  ; sand,  common 
or  “ silver,”  such  as  is  used  by  glass-makers  ; 
leaf -mould,  consisting  of  decomposed  leaves 
found  in  the  top-soil  of  old  woods  ; and  manure, 
taken  from  the  barn-yard,  and  well  rotted. 
These  are  used  in  varying  proportions  with  dif- 
ferent plants,  but  a good  general  soil  for  potting 
plants  may  be  made  as  follows:  four  parts 
leaf-mould,  two  parts  sand,  two  parts  manure, 
one  part  loam,  and  one  part  peat. 

Manuring  is  seldom  needed  with  pot  plants, 
and  should  be  done  very  sparingly.  A tea- 
spoonful of  guano  dissolved  in  a quart  of  water 
and  applied  once  a week  will  probably  do  no 
harm  ; or  liquid  stable  manure  may  be  used  in 
the  same  proportion,  and  as  seldom. 

Exposure.  Very  few  plants  will  flourish 
without  sunlight,  and  consequently  they  must 
be  placed  near  a window.  Select  the  window 
which  has  most  sun  and  has  it  longest. 

Temperature.  The  temperature  of  a room 
in  which  flowers  are  cultivated  should  never  be 
allowed  to  fall  (even  at  night)  below  40°  or  450 
Fahrenheit.  This  heat  should  be  maintained 
by  an  open  fire,  or,  if  by  an  air-tight  stove,  a 
large  pan  of  water  should  be  constantly  evapo- 
rating on  it.  Furnace  heat  is  injurious.  {See 
Heat  Governor,  under  Warming.) 


592 


WINDOW  GARDENING 


WINE 


Ventilation  is  not  less  important  than  tem- 
perature. The  best  way  is  to  open  the  top  of 
the  window,  when  the  sun’s  rays  are  hottest  on 
the  plants.  The  quantity  of  air  admitted  must 
be  proportioned  to  the  outside  temperature  ; 
in  cold,  cloudy  days,  but  little,  and  often  none, 
should  be  given.  Never  allow  a direct  stream 
of  cold  air  to  blow  upon  any  plant. 

Watering.  The  only  positive  rules  that  can 
be  laid  down  are  these  : (i)  Water  regularly , 
once  a day — the  morning  is  the  best  time  ; (2) 
always  use  a watering-pot  with  a fine  rose  ; 
(3)  have  the  water  neither  cold  nor  warm,  but 
just  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  of  the 
room.  A good  rule,  as  far  as  it  goes,  is  never 
to  allow  the  soil  to  become  either  perfectly  dry 
or  sodden  with  moisture.  Never  allow  water 
to  stand  in  the  saucers  of  the  pots  unless  the 
plants  are  semi-aquatic. 

Washing.  The  leaves  of  plants  are  filled 
with  “ stomata,”  or  breathing  pores,  which  al- 
low exhalation  when  the  leaves  are  clean.  This 
process  is  very  essential  to  the  health  of  plants, 
and  as  the  pores  are  easily  stopped  up  by  an 
accumulation  of  dust,  the  leaves,  both  upper 
and  under  sides,  should  be  washed  at  least 
once  a week.  Use  water  moderately  warm, 
and  if  the  plants  are  very  dirty,  add  a little 
soap-suds.  This  washing  should  be  carefully 
done  with  a soft  sponge  in  the  case  of  plants 
with  thick  polished  leaves,  such  as  camellias  or 
oranges  ; where  the  leaves  are  hairy  or  the 
substance  is  soft,  use  a small  syringe  fitted 
with  a very  fine  "rose.”  Never  wet  flowers, 
nor  allow  drops  of  water  to  stand  on  any  leaves, 
in  the  sunshine  ; the  rays  of  the  sun  are 
brought  to  a focus  in  the  drop  of  water,  and 
scorch  the  leaf.  Once  a month  the  stem  and 
branches  of  all  hard-wood  plants  should  be 
wiped  off  with  a sponge  dipped  in  lukewarm 
water. 

Pruning.  Not  much  of  this  is  necessary. 
Should  a branch  grow  out  of  place  or  die,  cut 
it  off  neatly  with  a sharp  knife  ; and,  of  course, 
remove  all  dead  leaves  and  old  blossoms. 

Insects.  The  only  insects  that  trouble  house 
plants  are  the  green  fly,  the  mealy  bug,  the 
scale,  and  the  red  spider.  The  green  fly  may 
be  killed  by  smoking  with  tobacco  ; put  the  plant 
under  a barrel  with  smoking  tobacco,  let  it  re- 
main fifteen  minutes,  and  then  give  it  a syring- 
ing. Mealy  bug  and  scale  must  be  searched 
for  and  destroyed  ; frequent  spongings  do 
much  to  keep  down  these  pests.  Frequent 
syringing  of  the  foliage  will  keep  away  the  red 
spider. 

Window  Boxes.  An  economical  substi- 
tute for  the  elaborate  Wardian  and  Wal- 
tonian  cases  may  be  secured  by  fitting  a box 
into  the  window,  and  planting  in  it  small  vines, 
creepers,  bulbs,  etc.,  in  such  a manner  as  to 
produce  a variety  of  green  foliage.  Of  course 
the  field  of  choice  for  this  purpose  is  practi- 
cally unlimited,  but  the  following  list  includes, 
perhaps,  the  most  desirable  and  popular  plants: 

Climbing  Vines.  Maurandya,  Cobea,  Cal- 
empelis,  Pilogyne  suavis,  Physianthus  albeus. 


Trailing  Plants.  Var.  Sweet  Alyssum,  Con- 
volvulus Mauritanicus,  Vinca  Major  Variegata, 
Moneywort,  Ground  Ivy,  Geranium  l’elegante, 
Thunbergia. 

Foliage  Plafits.  Begonia  Weltoniensis,  Dra- 
cena,  Farfugium  grande  ; Geraniums — Bronze, 
Tricolor,  and  Silver-leaf ; Abutilon,  variegated  ; 
Veronica  variegata. 

WINDOWS.  ( See  Cleaning,  Putty,  and 
Ventilation.) 

WILL.  {See  Law.) 

WINE — This  term  is  usually  applied  only 
to  the  fermented  juice  of  the  grape  ; when 
other  fruits,  as  currants,  blackberries,  goose- 
berries, elderberries,  etc.,  are  used  instead  of 
grapes  in  making  it,  the  product  is  generally 
distinguished  as  domestic  or  home-made  wine. 
Directions  for  making  all  the  different  kinds  of 
home-made  wines  are  given  under  the  special 
] fruit  from  which  each  is  made  ; and  informa- 
tion as  to  the  choice  and  serving  of  the  various 
wines  commonly  used  in  this  country  is  given 
under  the  name  of  each.  We  shall  confine 
ourselves  here,  therefore,  to  a few  general 
observations  which  will  apply  equally  to  all 
wines. 

The  quantity  of  alcohol  is  the  first  element 
which  determines  their  price.  A duty  is  levied 
on  all  wines  coming  into  this  country,  and 
those  containing  less  than  a certain  percentage 
of  alcohol  pay  less  than  those  containing  more. 
The  proportion  of  alcohol  in  the  stronger  wines 
has  been  determined  by  Brande  as  follows: 


Wine. 


Wine. 


Alcohol, 
per  cent. 

Roussillon 15 .96 

Hermitage,  White.  16. 14 

Lisbon 17.45 

Sherry 17.63 

Constantia 18.29 

Madeira 20.31 

Port 21.75 


Alcohol, 
per  cent. 

Tokay 9. 15 

Hermitage,  Red.  ..11.40 

Champagne 11.65 

Vin  de  Grave 11.84 

Burgundy 12.20 

Hock 13.31 

Bordeaux  Claret. . .13.53 
Marsala 15 -!4 

Wines,  however,  are  not  consumed  for  their 
alcohol  alone;  they  contain  other  ingredients 
which  they  derive  from  the  grape-juice,  which 
give  them  taste  and  flavor.  Thus,  when  fer- 
mentation of  the  grape-juice  is  not  complete,  a 
certain  quantity  of  sugar  is  left,  and  according 
to  the  quantity  of  sugar  left  wines  are  said  to 
be  “sweet”  or  "dry.”  While  hocks,  clarets, 
and  other  light  wines  contain  little  or  no  sugar, 
port,  sherry,  and  champagne  always  contain  a 
large  amount.  In  the  case  ot  port  and  sheiry 
this  sugar  is  added  during  the  manufacture,  in 
order  to  enable  them  to  bear  exportation. 

There  are  three  other  qualities  in  wines 
which  demand  some  consideration.  I he  first 
is  what  is  called  the  bouquet  and  th z flavor. 
These  things  are  sometimes  confounded,  but 
they  are  really  different.  The  vinous  flavor  is 
common  to  all  wines,  but  the  bouquet  is  pecu- 
liar to  certain  wines.  The  substance  which 
gives  flavor  to  all  wines  is  cenanthic  ether,  and 
is  formed  during  the  fermentation  of  the  grape- 
juice.  The  bouquet  of  wines  is  formed  in  the 


WINE 


593 


same  way  by  some  of  the  acids  found  in  the 
grape-juice  after  fermentation  combining  with 
the  ethyl  of  the  alcohol,  and  forming  ethers. 
These  are  the  things  which  make  one  wine 
more  pleasant  to  drink  than  another,  and  which 
give  their  high  prices  to  the  best  wines.  They 
are  not  detectable  by  any  chemical  agency; 
but  it  is  the  taste  of  these  bouquets,  and  noth- 
ing else,  which  gives  to  one  wine  the  value  of 
five  dollars  a bottle,  and  to  another  fifty  cents, 
when  all  other  qualities  are  precisely  the 
same. 

The  second  point  in  the  nature  of  wines  is 
their  color.  Some  wines  are  what  is  called 
“ red  ” and  others  are  “ white.”  Ports,  clarets, 
burgundies  are  all  red  ; also  many  other  wines. 
The  red  colors  of  these  wines  have  been  an- 
alysed with  some  care,  but  they  do  not  seem  to 
exert  any  influence  upon  the  system.  The 
most  important  agent  in  them  is  tannic  acid,  or 
tannin,  which  exists  in  some  wines  to  a very 
large  extent,  and  which  is  produced  by  the 
skins  of  the  grapes  used  in  making  the  wine. 
It  gives  an  astringency  to  red  wines  which  is 
not  found  in  white.  The  other  coloring  matters 
described  by  chemists  are  blue  and  a brown. 
These  also  come  from  the  skins  of  the  grapes, 
and  the  latter  is  found  in  dark  white  wines  as 
well  as  in  red. 

The  other  matters  which  give  a character  to 
wines  are  the  saline  compounds.  These  sub- 
stances, which  constitute  the  ashes  of  all  vege- 
table tissues,  exist  in  a varying  quantity  in  all 
fruits,  and  are  found  dissolved  in  the  juices  of 
fruit ; hence  we  find  them  remaining  in  wine 
after  fermentation  of  the  juice.  The  most 
abundant  of  these  salts  is  bitartrate  of  potash 
(cream  of  tartar).  Besides  this,  wines  contain 
tartrate  of  lime,  tartrate  of  alumina,  tartrate  of 
iron,  chloride  of  sodium,  chloride  of  potassium, 
sulphate  of  potash,  and  phosphate  of  alumina. 
These  salts  occur  in  the  proportion  of  from 
one  to  four  parts  in  the  one  thousand  of  wine. 
They  do  not  make  much  difference  in  the 
flavor  or  action  of  wines  ; but  their  presence 
or  absence  is  one  of  the  surest  indications  of 
the  genuineness  of  a wine.  Those  who  manu- 
facture wines  with  alcohol  and  water,  and  add 
a certain  quantity  of  good  wine  to  give  a flavor, 
do  not  usually  add  these  mineral  constituents, 
which  are  always  the  best  test  of  a pure 
wine. 

Selection  of  Wines. — The  various  wines 
of  Spain,  Portugal,  France,  Germany,  &c.,  are 
imported  into  this  country  chiefly  in  wood  ; but 
some  of  them,  as  the  best  qualities  of  the  Ger- 
man and  French  wines,  in  bottle  only,  being 
packed  in  cases  containing  generally  three 
dozen  bottles  each.  The  bottled  wines  are  in 
most  cases  fit  for  consumption  after  two  or 
three  months’  rest  to  recover  the  agitation 
caused  by  travelling,  in  which  state  they  are 
said  to  be  “ sick.”  Wines  in  wood  must  fre- 
quently be  kept  for  a considerable  time,  in 
order  to  deposit  all  the  woody  and  mucilagin- 
ous matter,  which  is  never  afterwards  com- 
petely  thrown  down  if  the  wine  is  bottled  too 


soon.  The  pipe  or  butt  is  therefore  removed 
to  a good  cellar,  which  should  be  free  from  the 
jar  of  heavy  traffic,  and  also  of  an  even  tem- 
perature, as  near  as  possible  to  50  degrees 
Fahrenheit.  Here  it  may  rest  for  three  or  four 
months,  when  a spile  is  to  be  inserted,  and  a 
sample  tasted,  by  the  state  of  which  the  pur- 
chaser is  guided  as  to  the  propriety  of  bottling 
it  at  once,  or  of  waiting  for  a further  deposit  of 
the  objectionable  matters.  Wine  should  al- 
ways be  bottled  before  it  has  lost  all  the  sweet- 
ness which  it  possesses,  and  the  owner  should 
not  wait  for  it  to  acquire  the  exact  amount  of  dry- 
ness which  he  expects  it  to  have  when  bottled 
and  fit  for  use.  If  he  waits  thus  long  he  will 
find  that  instead  of  having  a wine  dry  enough 
for  his  palate,  it  will  be  too  thin,  and  perhaps 
acid,  and  will,  in  fact,  be  ruined  forever.  The 
exact  degree  of  richness  and  fruitiness  there- 
fore required  are  only  to  be  judged  of  by  those 
who  have  had  some  little  experience,  and  con- 
sequently the  young  housekeeper  will  do  well 
to  consult  some  friend  upon  this  very  important 
point.  The  particular  vintage  influences  a 
good  judge  very  materially  in  deciding,  as  he 
is  aware  that  wine  of  a vintage  known  to  pro- 
duce a rich  quality  will  always  require  a longer 
time  to  mature  than  that  of  an  inferior  year. 
Many  other  circumstances  must  always  be 
taken  into  the  account,  as  the  kind  of  wine, 
and  the  taste  of  the  party  for  or  by  whom  it  is 
chiefly  to  be  used.  Thus,  many  people  like  a 
thin  and  pale  port,  and  for  them  it  should  be 
kept  long  in  the  wood,  so  as  to  discharge  its 
color  and  fruitiness  as  quickly  as  possible  ; 
others,  again,  like  quite  the  reverse,  and  for 
them  the  opposite  plan  must  be  adopted. 
Moreover  many  tricks  are  played  with  port 
wine,  in  order  to  hasten  its  arrival  at  maturity, 
such  as  destroying  the  color  by  charcoal,  mix- 
ing with  perry  or  cider,  &c.,  &c. ; but  as  these 
are  never  worthy  the  attention  of  those  who 
intend  to  drink  the  contents  of  their  cellars, 
the  less  said  on  the  subject  the  better.  The 
only  sound  advice  to  be  given  to  a young 
housekeeper  is,  either  to  purchase  his  wine  of 
a respectable  retail  wine  merchant,  or,  if  he 
choose  to  economise,  and  can  trust  to  his  own 
judgment  or  that  of  a friend,  to  buy  it  in  the 
docks  as  imported.  ( See  also  the  different 
wines.) 

Adulteration  of  Wines. — To  detect  adul- 
terations requires  chemical  analysis  of  so  deli- 
cate an  order  that  they  cannot  be  applied  by 
non-professional  persons.  M.  de  Cherville, 
the  French  chemist,  however,  gives  the  follow- 
ing simple  test  for  deciding  whether  red  wines 
are,  or  are  not,  artificially  colored.  Pour  into 
a glass  a small  quantity  of  the  liquid  which 
you  wish  to  test,  and  dissolve  a bit  of  potash 
in  it.  If  no  sediment  forms,  and  if  the  wine 
assumes  a greenish  hue,  it  has  not  been  artifi- 
cially colored  ; if  a violet  sediment  forms,  the 
wine  has  been  colored  with  elder  or  mulberries  ; 
if  the  sediment  is  red,  it  has  been  colored 
with  beet-root  or  Pernambuco  wood;  if  violet- 
red,  with  logwood;  if  yellow,  with  poke  ber- 


594 


WINE 


ries  ; if  violet-blue,  with  privet  berries;  and  if 
pale  violet,  with  sun-flower. 

Bottling  Wine. — Cold  weather  is  the  best 
for  bottling  wine.  At  all  times  of  the  year  it 
is  desirable  to  avoid  stormy  weather,  and  winds 
blowing  from  the  south  or  west.  The  bottles 
should  have  been  most  carefully  cleaned,  for 
the  slightest  negligence  in  this  particular  may 
cause  vexatious  consequences.  Shot  or  small 
nails  are  usually  employed  for  this  purpose, 
but  are  far  from  suitable.  A shot  or  nail  often 
remains  fixed  between  the  side  of  the  bottle 
and  the  interior  swelling;  and  the  lead  which 
thus  remains  in  contact  with  the  wine  may,  in 
certain  cases,  become  a source  of  real  poisoning. 
The  iron  is  not  injurious  to  health,  but  it  spoils 
the  color  of  red  wines  and  blackens  white  ones. 
It  is  therefore  much  better  to  employ  coarse 
gravel,  which  cleans  the  bottles  perfectly,  and 
a few  grains  of  which,  if  left  in  the  bottle, 
cause  no  inconvenience.  The  choice  of  corks 
is  highly  important.  Some  corks  are  very 
porous,  and,  although  they  stop  the  bottle  well 
in  appearance,  they  allow  the  wine  to  evapor- 
ate. Hard  and  dry  corks  have  this  effect. 
The  best  corks  are  those  which  are  fine-grained, 
soft,  yielding  to  the  fingers,  and  showing  few 
pores. 

To  insert  the  cock,  you  tap  the  cask  about 
an  inch  and  a half  above  the  rim.  As  soon  as 
a few  drops  of  the  liquid  begin  to  issue,  you 
withdraw  the  augur,  and  drive  in  the  cock  by 
hand,  avoiding  any  shock  which  might  disturb 
the  lees.  As  you  cannot  always  manage  that, 
it  is  a good  plan  to  put  the  tap  in  its  place  the 
day  before  bottling  the  wine.  Beneath  it,  you 
set  a salad-bowl  or  basin,  to  catch  the  wine 
which  escapes  when  the  cock  is  not  turned 
back  in  time,  and  which  runs  over  when  a 
bottle  is  filled  too  full.  The  bottle  applied  to 
the  tap  to  be  filled  ought  to  be  held  in  a slant- 
ing position,  to  prevent  the  wine  from  forming 
a froth,  which  would  hinder  its  being  properly 
filled.  The  bottles  should  be  perfectly  corked 
as  fast  as  they  are  filled.  The  cork  is  driven 
in  with  the  bat  till  it  projects  only  a quarter  of 
an  inch,  or  less.  When  the  wine  nearly  ceases 
to  flow  by  the  tap,  the  cask  is  tilted  behind, 
and  kept  in  a position  sloping  forwards  by 
means  of  a wooden  wedge.  The  operation 
must  be  done  steadily,  and  without  shaking,  to 
avoid  disturbing  the  lees.  But  after  the  cask 
is  once  tilted,  the  wine  left  in  it  must  be  drawn 
immediately,  whether  it  be  clear  or  thick.  The 
bottles  of  thick  wine  should  be  set  on  one  side, 
upright,  to  settle,  when  they  may  be  decanted 
into  other  bottles,  and  definitely  corked.  The 
corks  should  be  covered  with  rosin,  to  prevent 
them  from  moulding  and  from  being  eaten  by 
the  insects  with  which  many  cellars  abound. 
An  excellent  preparation  for  sealing  bottles  is, 
two  pounds  of  rosin  mixed  with  a quarter  of  a 
pound  of  yellow  bees’-wax,  or  a couple  of 
ounces  of  tallow,  to  prevent  its  being  too  brittle. 
It  may  be  colored  with  red  lead,  red  ochre, 
ivory  black,  or  any  other  ingredient.  Melt 
and  mix  it  well  in  an  earthen  vessel  over  a 


gentle  fire ; then  let  it  coo]  so  as  to  be  only 
just  liquid,  when  you  may  dip  necks  of  the 
bottles  in  it  up  to  the  rim  round  the  neck.  If 
the  wax  is  too  hot  it  may  cause  the  necks  of 
the  bottles  to  split  or  burst.  When  the  wine 
is  all  bottled  it  should  be  stored  in  a cool 
cellar,  and  on  no  account  on  the  bottles’  bot- 
toms, or  in  damp  straw,  but  on  their  sides,  in 
sand. 

Fining  Wine.— White  wines  are  usually 
fined  by  isinglass,  in  the  proportion  of  about 
one  ounce  and  a half  (dissolved  in  a pint  and 
a half  of  water,  and  thinned  with  some  of  the 
wine)  to  the  hogshead.  Red  wines  are  gener- 
ally fined  with  the  whites  of  eggs,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  twelve  or  eighteen  to  the  pipe  ; they 
must  be  well  beaten  to  a froth  with  about  a 
pint  of  water,  and  afterwards  with  a little  of 
the  wine,  before  adding  them  to  the  liquor. 
Gypsum  is  frequently  used  to  clear  muddy 
white  wines.  Finings  are  made  by  wine- 
coopers,  of  whom  it  is  better  to  buy  them  than 
to  make  them  yourself.  A quart  of  finings 
should  be  allowed  for  a hogshead,  and  a pint 
for  a quarter  cask.  After  being  fined,  in  about 
a month,  wine  will  have  settled  so  as  to  be  fit 
to  bottle.  When  wine  does  not  clear  the  first 
time,  rack  it  into  a clean  cask,  to  separate  it 
from  the  lees,  and  fine  again : or  add  to  the 
second  lot  of  finings  a handful  of  silver  sand. 
New  red  wines  may  have  a handful  of  salt 
added  to  the  finings  for  a pipe.  When  wine  is 
chilled  with  frost,  it  should  be  covered  with 
sacks,  and  the  cellar  warmed  to  about  6o°. 

Keeping  Wine. — Wine  is  generally  spoiled 
by  contact  with  the  air — the  weaker  kinds  in- 
variably. This  fact  answers  the  question  fre- 
quently put  by  tyros  : “ What  weak  wine  is 
there  that  I can  keep  uncorked  several  days  ? ” 
There  is  none.  It  needs  alcohol  to  keep  it. 

Air  in  the  cask  or  bottle,  taking  the  place 
of  alcohol  and  water  lost  by  evaporation,  is 
fatal.  Hence  casks  must  be  filled  from  other 
casks  as  rapidly  as  evaporation  or  leakage 
leaves  any  unfilled  space.  The  leakage  of  a 
voyage  is  often  fatal. 

The  temperature  of  the  place  where  wine  is 
stored  should  be  as  even  and  as  near  an  aver- 
age of  50  degrees  Fahrenheit  as  possible.  The 
upper  rooms  of  average  dwelling  houses  are 
safer  than  ordinary  cellars.  Frost  is  fatal,  ex- 
cept to  strong  wines,  so  is  excessive  heat,  even 
that  of  exposed  positions  in  summer.  Bottles 
should  always  be  laid  flat  with  their  labels  up, 
so  that  in  handling  them  one  may  know  where 
the  deposit  is  and  disturb  it  as  little  as  possible. 

The  length  of  time  which  wines  may  be  ad- 
vantageously kept,  depends  mainly  upon  their 
strength.  Considering  this  in  each  instance, 
it  may  be  roughly  stated  for  clarets  and  the 
light  white  wines,  from  three  to  ten  years  ; for 
Burgundies  and  the  heavier  wines,  from  five  to 
thirty  years;  for  port,  Madeira,  and  sherry, an 
almost  indefinite  period. 

Serving  Wine. — No  wine  should  ever  be 
iced  by  putting  ice  in  it,  but  always  by  ice  out- 
side of  it  in  another  vessel.  Wines  to  be 


WINE-CELLAR 


WOODCOCK 


595 


drunk  of  the  temperature  of  the  room  may  be 
gently  warmed  if  necessary,  but  the  better  way 
is  to  let  them  stand  in  the  room  long  enough  to 
acquire  the  temperature  naturally.  ( See  Cra- 
dle, Cobbler,  Decanting,  Dinner,  Punch, 
Sangaree,  American  Wines,  Hungarian 
Wines,  and  others  under  their  specific  names.) 

WINE-CELLAR. — The  wine-cellar  in  cities 
should  be  at  the  back  of  the  house,  so  that  the 
wine  may  not  be  jarred  by  passing  vehicles. 
The  temperature  should  be  uniform,  as  near  50 
degrees  Fahrenheit  as  possible,  and  the  cellar 
should  be  well  ventilated.  Sherry,  port,  and 
especially  Madeira,  ripen  best  in  a room  at  the 
top  of  the  house.  No  sink  or  sewer  should  be 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  wine-cellar.  Champagne 
should  be  carefully  laid  on  the  side  or  imbed- 
ded in  sand,  the  bottles  never  being  placed  on 
end.  Bottles  of  sherry,  port,  or  Madeira,  may 
be  placed  on  end. 

WINE-WHEY.  {See  Whey.) 

WINKLES.  {See  Periwinkles.) 

WINTERGREEN. — An  aromatic  creeping 
wild  plant,  bearing  bright  red  berries,  which 
grows  in  dry  woods.  The  fresh  leaves  have  a 
hot,  tart  taste,  and  are  often  used  in  flavoring 
soups,  stews,  and  other  dishes.  As  they  are 
only  good  when  fresh,  they  are  not  usually 
procurable  in  market.  The  plant  has  medici- 
nal qualities  as  a tonic  and  diuretic. 

WISTARIA.— There  are  several  varieties 
of  this  beautiful  vine.  The  Wistaria  Sinensis, 
if  trained  properly,  will  cover  the  entire  front 
of  a house  in  two  or  three  years.  It  bears  long, 
pendulous  clusters  of  pale  blue  flowers  both  in 


the  Spring  and  Autumn.  W.  Sinensis  Alba  is 
a white  variety,  not  so  robust  as  the  blue.  The 
W.  Frutescens  (or  American  Glycine),  is  more 
of  a dwarf  habit  than  either  of  the  above-men- 
tioned. Simply  put  the  seed  into  the  ground 
or  set  out  a cutting,  and  provide  the  vine  with 
supports  as  it  grows.  It  will  thrive  in  any  soil, 
and  is  perfectly  hardy. 

WOOD  makes  a more  cheerful  and  healthy 
fire  than  any  other  fuel,  but  it  consumes  quickly, 
is  expensive,  and  bulky  to  store,  and  must  be 
kept  very  dry,  as  otherwise  much  heat  is  lost 
in  converting  its  water  into  steam.  The  utility 
is  in  proportion  to  the  weight,  hence  heavy 
woods  are  best.  The  lighter  woods  burn  away 
very  rapidly.  Roughly  speaking,  coal  will  give 
out  as  much  heat  and  last  as  long  as  twice  its 
weight  of  wood.  {See  Warming.  For  des- 
cription of  ornamental  woods,  see  Furniture.) 

WOODBINE.^ — A vigorous,  hardy  vine,  of 
large,  dark,  glossy  leaves,  climbing  fifty  feet. 
The  flowers  are  inconspicuous  and  greenish. 
It  bears  small,  dark  blue  berries.  It  is  culti- 
vated like  the  Honeysuckle,  thrives  in  any 
good  garden  soil,  requires  plenty  of  water,  and 
to  look  well  should  be  carefully  trained. 

WOODCHUCK— Also  called  ground-hog. 
— A small,  stout,  brown  animal,  weight  from 
eight  to  twelve  pounds.  In  the  Fall  it  is  very 
fat,  when  the  flesh  of  the  young  is  said  to  be 
quite  palatable,  tasting  like  pig.  The  old  ones 
are  tolerably  good,  but  are  much  better  after 
having  been  frozen  for  some  time.  Cook  the 
young  as  directed  for  Pig,  and  the  old  ones 
like  Opossum. 


WOODCOCK. — A fine  bird  will  weigh  half 
a pound.  The  English  bird  is  larger.  Is  in 
season  from  the  1st  of  July  to  the  1st  of  No- 
vember, and  is  considered  best  in  the  month 
of  October. 

Broiled  Woodcock. — Clean  carefully,  split 
down  the  back,  and  broil  over  a clear  fire. 
Butter,  pepper  and  salt  when  done,  and  let 
them  lie  for  five  minutes  between  two  hot 
dishes  before  sending  to  table. 


Roast  Woodcock. — Do  not  draw  them , . 
but  after  having  wiped  them  with  clean  soft 
cloths,  truss  them  with  the  head  under  the 
wing  and  the  bill  laid  close  along  the  breast ; 
pass  a small  skewer  through  the  thighs,  catch 
the  ends  with  a bit  of  twine,  and  tie  it  across 
to  keep  the  legs  straight.  Suspend  the  birds, 
with  feet  downwards,  to  a bird-spit,  flour  them 
well,  and  baste  them  with  butter,  which  should 
be  ready  melted  in  the  pan  or  ladle.  Before 


596 


WOOL 


WRITING-INK 


the  trail  begins  to  drop,  which  it  will  do  as 
soon  as  the  birds  are  well  heated,  lay  a piece 
of  buttered  toast  into  the  pan  under  them  to 
catch  it,  as  this  is  considered  finer  eating  than 
even  the  flesh  of  the  birds ; continue  the 
basting,  letting  the  butter  fall  from  them  into 
the  spoon  or  ladle,  as  it  cannot  be  collected 
again  from  the  dripping-pan  should  it  drop 
there,  in  consequence  of  the  toast  being  in  it. 
There  should  be  a piece  of  toast  for  each 
woodcock,  and  the  trail  should  be  spread 
equally  over  it.  When  the  birds  are  done, 
which  they  will  be,  at  a brisk  fire,  in  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  minutes,  lay  the  toasts  into  a 
very  hot  dish,  place  the  birds  upon  them,  pour 
a little  gravy  round  the  head,  and  send  more  to 
table  in  a tureen. 

The  above  is  the  orthodox  English  way  of 
roasting  woodcock.  If  it  is  not  liked,  fill  the 
birds  with  a rich  forcemeat  or  stuffing,  sew 
them  up,  and  roast  from  twenty  minutes  to 
half  an  hour,  basting  with  butter  and  water. 
When  half  done,  put  slices  of  buttered  toast 
beneath,  and  serve  the  birds  upon  these. 

WOOL. — Though  less  costly  than  silk,  wool 
has  far  more  value  as  a textile  material.  Gen- 
erally the  fabrics  made  of  it  are  thick  and 
coarse ; but  even  in  respect  of  textile  beauty 
really  good  wool  stands  very  high,  while  as 
regards  the  power  of  imperfect  heat  conduction 
or  warmth,  wool  is  far  superior  to  any  other 
material  used  as  clothing.  {See  Clothing.) 

WORMS. — The  following  are  some  of  the 
chief  symptoms  of  the  presence  of  worms  in 
children  : irregular  appetite,  which  is  sometimes 
voracious  and  at  others  languid  ; there  is  often 
a craving  for  food  after  a full  meal ; the  bowels 
are  sometimes  costive,  but  more  generally 
loose ; the  motions  are  slimy  and  pale ; often 
there  is  a bitter  colic,  and  sometimes  feverish- 
ness ; the  breath  becomes  fetid ; and  there  is 
often  a livid  circle  around  and  under  the  eyes. 
After  a time  the  child  becomes  emaciated,  while 
the  abdomen  is  enlarged ; the  upper  lip  often 
becomes  thickened,  and  sometimes  the  nose 
also ; the  child  often  picks  its  nose,  and  during 
the  night  grinds  its  teeth.  It  is  seldom  that 
all  these  symptoms  occur  at  the  same  time,  and 
no  one  of  them  is  peculiar  to  and  distinctive  of 
worms.  The  most  unequivocal  are  the  irregular 
appetite,  the  craving  for  food  after  a full  meal, 
the  bowels  at  one  time  costive  at  another  re- 
laxed, and  the  slimy  character  of  the  motions. 
When  these  symptoms  are  present,  worms  may 
be  suspected,  but  the  only  proof  of  their  exist- 
ence is  seeing  them  in  the  stools. 

Treatment — The  most  necessary  thing  to 
do  is  to  regulate  the  child’s  digestion  ; but  in 
the  meantime,  to  obtain  immediate  relief,  dis- 
solve a lump  of  bitter  aloes  of  the  size  of  a 


large  hazel-nut  in  half  a pint  of  hot  milk,  and 
give  it  as  an  injection ; occasionally,  allow  the 
child  to  inhale  spirits  of  turpentine,  by  holding 
a cloth  having  a very  little  upon  it  to  the  nose, 
for  an  instant  only.  Or,  make  a tea  as  follows  : 
Get  half  an  ounce  of  pinkroot  and  a quarter  of 
an  ounce  each  of  senna  and  of  fennel;  put  a 
pint  of  boiling  water  on  them,  and  give  a table- 
spoonful  three  times  a day.  Nothing  more  in 
the  way  of  medicine  should  be  given  except 
under  medical  advice,  the  common  worm-cakes, 
vermifuge,  and  similar  remedies,  nearly  all 
contain  calomel. 

Thread-worms. — The  above  symptoms  and 
treatment  apply  to  the  common  round  worms 
which  infest  the  bowels.  The  thread-worm  is 
a slender  worm,  from  a quarter  to  half  an  inch 
long,  which  makes  its  abode  in  the  lowest  por- 
tion of  the  intestinal  canal,  where  it  causes  an 
almost  intolerable  itching.  At  night,  the  worms 
frequently  wander  outside,  and  then  the  itching 
sensation  becomes  more  acute.  These^ worms 
are  easily  removed  for  a time  by  injections  of 
warm  water,  and  their  reproduction  may  gen- 
erally be  checked  by  injections  of  an  infusion 
of  the  seeds  of  the  santonica,  or  a solution  of 
salt  and  water  ; a solution  of  aloes  in  water  is 
also  a good  and  popular  remedy.  The  best 
way  to  remove  them  permanently  is  to  strength- 
en the  system  by  tonics  and  a generous  diet, 
with  plenty  of  exercise.  {See  Tape-worm.) 

WORSTED. — Yarn  spun  from  combed  wool, 
which,  in  the  spinning,  is  twisted  harder  than 
ordinary  ; it  is  used  for  carpets,  hosiery,  gloves, 
etc.  The  term  is  often  used  erroneously  as  if 
it  were  synonymous  with  woollen. 

WOUNDS.  {See  Bruises  and  Cuts.) 

WRINGERS. — The  success  of  Washing 
Machines  for  clothes  is  as  yet  doubtful,  none 
having  as  yet  been  found  to  furnish  a perfectly 
satisfactory  substitute  for  washing  by  hand ; 
but  clothes-wringers  perform  their  work  far 
more  perfectly  than  it  can  be  done  even  by  the 
strongest  laundress.  There  are  several  differ- 
ent kinds  of  Wringers,  varying  from  each  other 
sufficiently  to  secure  separate  patents  ; but  all 
of  them  consist  essentially  of  two  India-rubber 
rollers,  kept  at  a tight  pressure  by  means  of 
screws ; on  turning  a handle,  the  clothes,  when 
washed,  are  drawn  between  the  rollers,  and 
pressed  dry  without  injury  to  the  fabric.  In 
the  best  wringers,  so  equal  is  the  pressure  that 
the  same  machine  will  press  dry  a thick  woollen 
carpet  lifted  directly  from  a tub  of  water,  or  a 
thin  sheet  of  writing-paper  that  has  been  im- 
mersed for  hours.  Most  of  the  wringers  are 
so  made  that  they  can  be  fastened  to  any  kind 
of  tub,  and  their  use  may  be  confidently  rec- 
ommended. 

WRITING-INK.  {See  Ink.) 


YAM 


YELLOW-FEVER 


597 


Y 


TAM. — The  common  Yam  is  an  excellent 
vegetable,  closely  resembling  the  sweet  potato. 
It  is  extensively  grown  in  the  Southern  States, 
whence  it  is  sent  to  the  Northern  markets,  where 
in  favorable  seasons  it  is  both  plentiful  and 
cheap.  The  yam  is  much  larger  than  the 
sweet  potato,  is  more  irregularly  formed,  and  is 
quite  darkly  colored.  By  some  it  is  preferred 
to  the  potato,  and  any  one  who  likes  the  potato 
will  like  it.  Yams  weigh  usually  from  one  to 
three  pounds  each,  but  occasionally  they  weigh 
as  much  as  twenty  pounds.  They  are  in  season 
from  September  to  January.  Cook  and  serve 
them  as  directed  for  sweet  potatoes.  (See 
Potato.) 

TEAST. — Yeast  consists  of  a number  of 
fungi,  called  the  yeast-plant,  floating  in  the 
liquor  in  which  they  are  developed.  These 
fungi  are  in  the  shape  of  minute  oval  or  circu- 
lar bodies,  or  sporules,  which,  under  circum- 
stances adapted  to  their  development,  grow 
and  multiply  to  an  incredible  extent  in  a very 
short  time.  They  are  easily  destroyed  by  heat, 
cold,  or  mechanical  injury,  or  by  chemical 
agents.  In  dried  yeast,  great  care  is  required 
in  handling  it  for  the  purpose  of  making  it  into 
parcels,  or  it  will  be  rendered  useless  by  the 
destruction  of  its  vital  principle. 

Brewer's  or  Distillery  Teast. — This  is  the 
frothy  substance  that  rises  to  the  surface  dur- 
ing the  fermenting  of  malt  liquors.  It  is  sup- 
erior to  any  other  yeast,  and  may  generally  be 
procured  from  the  brewer.  One  eighth  as  much 
of  brewer’s  yeast  as  of  ordinary  yeast  is  re- 
quired in  making  bread,  etc. 

Compressed  Teast. — Sold  in  small  squares, 
wrapped  in  tinfoil,  and  has  but  recently  come 
into  use.  It  acts  very  quickly  and  is  much 
liked.  It  must  be  bought  fresh  every  week. 

Hard  Teast,  or  Teast  Cakes. — L Take 
some  of  the  best  yeast  you  can  make,  and 
thicken  it  with  Indian  meal  till  it  becomes  a 
very  stiff  batter;  add  a little  rye,  if  any  is  at 
hand,  to  make  it  adhere  better.  Make  the 
mixture  into  cakes  an  inch  thick,  and  three 
inches  by  two  in  size,  and  dry  them  in  the 
wind  but  not  in  the  sun.  Keep  them  tied  in  a 
bag  in  a dry  cool  place,  where  they  will  not 
freeze.  One  of  these  cakes  is  enough  for 
four  quarts  of  flour ; when  it  is  to  be  used,  soak 
it  in  milk  or  water  for  several  hours,  and  then 
use  it  like  other  yeast. 

n. — Stir  into  a pint  of  good  lively  yeast  a 
tablespoonful  of  salt  and  enough  wheat  flour  to 
make  a thick  batter ; when  it  has  risen,  stir  in 
Indian  meal  till  ot  the  right  consistency  to 
roll ; when  risen  again,  roll  them  out  thin,  cut 


them  into  cakes  with  a tumbler,  and  dry  them 
in  the  shade  in  clear  windy  weather.  When 
perfectly  dry,  tie  them  up  in  a bag,  and  keep 
them  in  a cool  dry  place.  Use  one  of  these 
cakes  to  four  quarts  of  flour,  dissolving  it  in  a 
little  lukewarm  water  or  milk.  These  cakes 
will  keep  good  tor  five  or  six  months. 

Hop  Teast. — Take  yi  oz.  (one 

handful) ; pared  potatoes,  4 lbs  ; salt,  % Pt'» 
sugar,  ]/2  pt ; ginger,  1 tablespoonful ; water,  4 
qts  ; yeast  (home-brewed),  y&  pt. 

Boil  the  potatoes  in  three  quarts  of  water, 
and  pass  them  (with  the  water)  through  the 
colander ; boil  the  hops  ten  minutes  in  one 
quart  of  water ; strain  the  water  on  the  potatoes; 
add  the  sugar,  salt  and  ginger.  The  whole 
should  measure  five  quarts  : if  it  lacks,  add  tep- 
id water.  When  lukewarm,  add  the  yeast,  mix 
well  and  leave  in  a warm  place  till  light ; this 
will  be  indicated  by  bubbles  on  the  surface  ; it 
does  not  increase  in  bulk  like  thicker  yeasts. 
Keep  it  in  a covered  crock,  and  in  using  stir  it 
up  from  the  bottom.  A gill  is  sufficient  for  one 
quart  of  milk  or  water,  and  the  bread  will  re- 
quire little,  if  any,  additional  salt.  In  a dry, 
cool  place  this  yeast  will  keep  for  months.  This 
receipt,  has  been  in  use  for  a long  time,  both  in 
the  country  and  city  and  is  very  highly  prized. 

Patent  Teast. — Boil  two  ounces  of  the 
best  hops  in  four  quarts  of  water  for  half  an 
hour;  strain  and  cool  till  lukewarm,  then  add  a 
small  handful  of  salt,  and  half  a pound  of  sugar ; 
beat  up  a pound  of  flour  with  some  of  the 
liquor,  and  mix  all  well  together.  Let  it  stand 
48  hours,  and  then  add  three  pounds  of  pota- 
toes, boiled  and  mashed  ; let  it  stand  again  24 
hours,  stirring  it  very  often ; then  strain  and 
bottle,  and  it  is  fit  for  use.  It  will  keep  in  a 
cool  place  two  months. 

Potato  Teast. — Pare  and  boil  six  potatoes, 
and  mash  them  through  a cullender ; mix  with 
them  six  tablespoonfuls  of  flour  ; pour  on  this 
a quart  of  boiling  water  (the  water  the  potatoes 
were  boiled  in  is  best),  and  add  half  a teacupful 
of  sugar,  and  a tablespoonful  of  salt;  when 
cool  mix  in  a teacupful  of  home-made  yeast  or 
half  as  much  brewer’s  yeast. 

TELLOW  FEVER.— This  is  an  infectious, 
continued  fever  beginning  with  languor,  chilli- 
ness, headache  and  pain  in  the  back;  the  counten- 
ance is  flushed  and  the  eye  moist  and  suffused; 
the  skin  gradually  acquires  a lemon  or  greenish- 
yellow  color ; there  is  generally  wandering  of 
the  mind,  and  often  delirium;  the  patient  is 
restless  and  watchful,  or  he  may  pass  into  a 
state  of  drowsiness  and  then  coma;  there  is 
an  uneasy  feeling  at  the  pit  of  the  stomach,  and 


598 


YELLOW-GUM 


ZINNIA 


vomiting,  at  first  of  a clear,  glairy  fluid,  which 
afterwards  becomes  of  a coffee-ground  appea- 
rance ; there  may  also  be  irrepressible  hic- 
cough, and  shrieking  or  melancholy  wailing. 
Sometimes  the  disease  progresses  with  fear- 
ful rapidity,  passing  through  all  the  stages, 
and  putting  an  end  to  the  patient’s  life  within 
twenty-four  hours.  The  vomiting  of  the  dark- 
colored  fluid  is  indication  of  a fatal  termination. 
The  cause  of  yellow  fever  is  obscure.  It 
seems  to  be  endemic  in  certain  localities,  and  is 
always  highly  contagious.  It  appears  to  affect 
those  who  live  in  the  low  country  more  than 
those  on  the  hills  ; it  does  not  extend,  as  a rule, 
to  parts  more  than  2500  feet  above  the  sea. 
A certain  amount  of  heat  is  also  essential  to 
its  development ; few  cases  are  observed  where 
the  temperature  is  less  than  72°  Fahr.,  and 
the  first  frost  puts  an  end  to  its  spread.  Second 
attacks  of  yellow  fever  are  very  rare. 

Treatment. — The  patient  should  have  a hot 
bath  as  soon  as  the  symptoms  appear,  and 
then,  going  to  bed,  he  should  have  warms  drinks 
so  as  to  encourage  sweating  ; this  may  be 
followed  by  a purgative  so  as  to  keep  the 
bowels  well  open,  Mercury  need  not  be 


given ; nor  is  quinine  of  any  use.  The  sick- 
ness is  very  distressing,  but  may  be  relieved 
by  lime-water,  or  a few  drops  of  chlorodyne  or 
chloroform;  creasote  and  hydrocyanic  acid, 
though  sometimes  recommended,  do  not  seem 
to  be  of  any  use  for  this  purpose.  Stimulants 
must  be  given  according  to  the  needs  of  each 
case.  The  great  objects  in  treatment  are  to 
sustain  the  vital  powers,  to  moderate  the  febrile 
excitement,  and  to  check  any  distressing  symp- 
toms that  may  arise.  Competent  medical 
advice  should  be  obtained  at  the  earliest  possi- 
ble moment. 

YELLOW  GUM. — This  is  the  jaundice  of 
new-born  infants.  It  comes  on  two  or  three 
days  after  birth,  and  the  child’s  skin  is  of  a 
yellow  color,  the  urine  very  dark  and  staining 
the  cloths  a deep  yellow,  while  the  motions  are 
light.  It  is  a simple  disorder  which  will  soon 
pass  away.  It  is  due  to  the  liver  not  acting 
properly  at  first.  The  child  should  be  put  to 
the  breast,  and  the  mother’s  milk  is  generally 
sufficiently  aperient  at  first  to  open  the  bowels  ; 
if  not,  a little  grey  powder  may  be  given  at  bed- 
time. It  may  be  some  days  before  the  yellow 
tinge  is  quite  gone  from  the  skin. 


z 


ZINC. — This  metal  has  lately  been  introduced 
into  domestic  economy  for  vessels  of  various 
kinds,  and  for  other  purposes.  The  salts  of 
zinc  are  not  so  poisonous  as  those  of  lead  ; 
but  they  are  so  to  a great  degree,  and  therefore 
this  metal  should  not  be  used  in  the  construc- 
tion of  vessels  in  which  food  is  cooked  or  kept. 
Zinc  is  very  little  liable  to  rust  on  exposure  to 
air,  and  therefore  is  a useful  material  for  many 
utensils  formerly  made  of  iron  or  copper.  Coal 
scuttles  are  now  made  of  zinc  alone,  or  of  sheet 
iron  coated  with  zinc,  which  are  more  durable 
than  those  of  iron,  and  cheaper  than  those  of 
copper.  Zinc  is  also  employed  instead  of  lead 
for  baths,  as  being  cheaper,  and  for  pails,  and 
rain-water  and  other  pipes. 

Several  of  the  salts  of  zinc  are  used  in  medi- 
cine. The  oxide  of  sine  is  made  by  heating  the 
carbonate;  it  is  a white  powder,  without  taste 
or  smell,  and  turns  yellow  by  heating.  Its  only 
preparation  is  an  ointment,  which  is  very  useful 
as  an  application  to  raw  and  weeping  surfaces. 
If  given  internally  in  large  doses  it  causes 
vomiting,  but  it  is  never  used  with  that  inten- 
tion. Given  as  a nervine  tonic  and  stimulant; 
used  in  chorea,  epilepsy,  hysteria,  and  neural- 
gia. Dose  3 to  5 grains,  best  in  pill  form,  3 
times  a day.  Chloride  of  sine  is  made  by  dis- 
solving zinc  in  hydrochloric  acid.  Chloride  of 
zinc  paste  has  powerful  caustic  properties,  and 
is  used  to  destroy  cancerous  masses  and  malig- 
nant ulcers,  so  as  to  obtain  a healthy  fresh 


surface.  In  weaker  solutions  it  is  useful  as  an 
astringent.  Sulphate  of  si?ic  is  the  most  impor- 
tant salt  of  the  metal;  it  is  got  by  dissolving 
zinc  in  sulphuric  acid.  The  salt  occurs  in 
crystals,  very  similar  to  those  of  Epsom  salts, 
but  gives  off  water  instead  of  absorbing  it  from 
the  atmosphere.  Given  internally,  sulphate  of 
zinc  causes  vomiting  speedily  and  surely;  it  is 
thus  one  of  the  best  emetics  in  suitable  cases, 
but  must  not  be  administered  where  there  is 
already  irritation.  It  is  given  in  smaller  doses 
like  the  oxide,  as  a tonic  in  nervous  complaints. 
Applied  externally,  in  various  forms  of  dis- 
charge, sulphate  of  zinc  is  a most  valuable 
astringent.  The  dose  as  an  emetic  is  from  fif- 
teen to  twenty  grains;  as  a tonic  from  three  to 
five,  three  times  a day;  as  a lotion  three  grains 
may  be  dissolved  in  an  ounce  of  water. 

ZINC-WHITE. — This  is  similar  to  white- 
lead  in  appearance,  but  has  less  body  or  cover- 
ing qualities.  It  is  frequently  used  over  white- 
lead  paint,  when  an  extra  finish  is  desired.  It 
is  of  a beautiful  white  color,  and  when  mixed 
with  white  varnish,  it  forms  the  “ china  gloss  ” 
of  commerce. 

ZINNIA. — The  Zinnias  are  hardy  annuals, 
and  among  the  most  desirable  of  this  popular 
family  of  plants.  The  single  Zinnia  was  an  old 
favorite  in  the  garden,  but  is  now  completely 
eclipsed  by  the  fine  double  varieties.  The 
latter  grow  to  a large  size,  and  produce  a pro- 
fusion of  red,  yellow,  and  purple  flowers,  as 


ZINNIA 


599 


large  as  a rose,  all  summer.  They  are  among 
the  most  ornamental  plants  in  the  garden.  The 
seeds  should  be  started  in  a frame  in  April 
and  transplanted  to  the  garden  in  May,  or  the 
young  plants  may  be  procured  of  the  florist 
already  started.  They  will  thrive  in  any  good 


garden  soil,  but  this  should  be  well  pulverized 
and  raked  smooth.  Water  must  be  given  fre- 
quently in  the  hot  days  of  summer.  In  the 
autumn,  when  the  frost  has  killed  down  the 
plants,  pull  up  the  old  stalks,  and  in  the  spring 
sow  new  seed. 


. 


APPENDIX 

Additional  Recipes 

WRITTEN  IN  BY  THE  OWNER. 


[ggr3  Whenever  a new  recipe  is  written  in , a reference  to  it  should  be 
entered  on  the  margin  opposite  the  proper  title  in  the  book , and  in  the  Index. 


ADDITIONAL  RECIPES. 


ADDITIONAL  RECIPES. 


ADDITIONAL  RECIPES. 


ADDITIONAL  RECIPES. 


ADDITIONAL  RECIPES. 


ADDITIONAL  RECIPES. 


ADDITIONAL  RECIPES. 


ADDITIONAL  RECIPES. 


ADDITIONAL  RECIPES. 


ADDITIONAL  RECIPES. 


ADDITIONAL  RECIPES. 


ADDITIONAL  RECIPES. 


ADDITIONAL  RECIPES. 


ADDITIONAL  RECIPES. 


ADDITIONAL  RECIPES. 


ADDITIONAL  RECIPES. 


ADDITIONAL  RECIPES. 


ADDITIONAL  RECIPES. 


ADDITIONAL  RECIPES. 


ADDITIONAL  RECIPES. 


ADDITIONAL  RECIPES. 


ADDITIONAL  RECIPES. 


ADDITIONAL  RECIPES. 


G25 


620 


ADDITIONAL  RECIPES. 


ADDITIONAL  RECIPES. 


ADDITIONAL  RECIPES. 


INDEX. 


A 

Abrasion,  I. 

Abscess,  r. 

in  the  Ear,  186. 
after  Scarlet  Fever,  469. 
Absinthe,  1. 

Acacia,  1. 

Accidents,  1. 

Account  ( See  Bill). 

Acetic  Acid,  1. 

Acids,  1. 

Stain,  509. 

Aerated  Bread,  1. 

Agave,  2. 

Ague,  2. 

Air,  2. 

A la  mode  Beef,  23. 

A la  Reine  Artichoke,  10. 
Alabaster,  3. 

Cement,  90. 

Albumen,  3. 

Alcohol,  3. 

Ale,  4. 

Caudle,  89. 

Mulled,  356. 

Posset,  413. 

Sangaree,  461. 

Alkalies,  4. 

Allopathy,  4. 

Allsopp’s  Ale,  4. 

Allspice,  4. 

Essence  of,  195. 

Almond,  4. 

Blanc  mange,  36. 

NCake,  60. 

Custard,  136. 

Essence  of,  195. 

Icing,  303. 

Jumbles,  317. 
Macaroons,  341. 
Pudding,  429. 

Sauce,  5. 

Syrup,  5. 

Aloes,  173. 

in  piles,  402. 

Alpaca,  5. 

Alum,  173. 

Amaranth,  5. 

Ambergris,  5. 

Ambushed  Asparagus,  11. 
American  Ales,  4. 

American  Cheese,  95. 
American  Wines,  5. 
Ammonia,  6,  179. 

Liniment  of,  177. 

Liquor  of,  173. 
Anaesthetics,  6. 

Anchovy,  7. 

Butter,  7. 

Essence  of,  7. 


1 Anchovy  (continued),  Paste,  7. 
Sauce,  7. 

Toast,  7. 

I Anemone,  7. 

Angelica  Wine,  6. 

! Angularity  in  Decoration,  143. 
Aniline  Colors,  185. 

Animal  Food  ( See  Food). 

Anise  Seed,  7. 

Cordial,  124. 

Anisette,  335. 

Ankle,  Broken,  214. 

Ankle,  Dislocation  of,  162. 
Anthracite  Coal,  7. 

Antidotes  (See  Poisons). 
Antimony,  173. 

Ants,  7. 

Apiary  (See  Bee-keeping). 
Apoplexy,  7,  r. 

Apple,  7. 

Baked,  8. 

Beurre,  8. 

Butter,  8. 

Compote,  1 17. 

Custard,  136. 

Dried,  8. 

Dumpling,  181. 

Fried,  8. 

Fritters,  217. 

Ice,  8. 

Jelly,  315- 
Marmalade,  346. 

Omelette,  369. 

Pancakes,  377. 

Preserves,  420. 

Pudding,  429. 

Soup,  499. 

Steamed,  8. 

Stewed,  8. 

Syrup,  521. 

Tarts,  524. 

Tea,  8. 

Trifle,  537. 

Water,  8. 

Apricot,  8. 

Compote,  1 1 7. 

Ice,  8. 

Jam,  9. 

Jelly,  9- 

Marmalade,  346. 

Preserves,  420. 

Tarts,  524. 

Arbutus,  Trailing,  9. 

Argand  Lamp,  9. 

Burner,  9. 

Arm,  Broken,  213. 

Arnica,  9. 

Lotion,  338. 

Amott’s  Valve,  561. 

Arrack,  9. 

Arrowroot,  10. 


| Arrowroot  (con.),  Blanc-mange,  36. 
Custard,  10,  136. 

Gruel,  10. 

Infants  (for),  10. 

Jelly,  315. 

Pudding,  429. 

Arsenic,  10. 

Artery-bleeding,  to  stop,  1. 
j Artichoke,  10. 

A la  Reine,  10. 

Soup,  499. 

Artificial  Breathing,  169. 

| Ash,  231. 

Ashes,  11. 

! Asparagus,  11. 

Ambushed,  11. 

Eggs  and,  11. 

Fried,  II. 

Soup,  499. 

Stewed,  11. 

Asphaltum,  11. 

Asphodel,  11. 

Aspic  Jelly,  315. 

Assafoetida,  174. 

Aster,  12. 

Asthma,  12,  514. 

Astral  Oil,  12. 

Astringents,  12. 

Atmosphere  (See  Air). 

Attorney,  Power  of,  419. 

Autumn  Bill  of  Fare,  32. 

Aviary  (See  Bird  Cage). 

Awnings,  294. 

Axminster  Carpets,  81. 

Azalea,  12. 

B 

Baby  (See  Infant). 

Bacon,  13. 

Bain-marie,  13. 

Baize,  13. 

Baking,  Rationale  of,  13. 

Baking  Powders,  14. 

Balm,  14. 

Balsam,  14. 

Balsams,  14. 

Baltazeker  Wine,  297. 

Banana,  14. 

Bandages,  14. 

for  Axilla  or  Shoulder,  16. 

“ Finger,  15. 

“ Foot,  15. 

“ Forearm,  15. 

“ Groin,  16. 

“ Hand,  15. 

“ Head,  16. 

“ Knee,  16. 

“ Leg,  16. 

Bank,  17. 

Bannock  Cake,  60. 


630 


INDEX. 


Banting’s  Cure,  17. 
Barberry,  17. 

Jelly,  315- 
Marmalade,  346. 
Pickle,  391. 
Preserves,  421. 
Bar-fish  ( See  Bass). 
Barley,  17. 

Bread,  43.’ 

Broth,  50. 

Gruel,  255. 

Infants  (for),  17. 
Negus,  363. 

Patent,  17. 

Pearl,  17. 

Sugar,  17. 

Water,  17. 

Basil,  17. 

Basque,  560. 

Bass,  18. 

Bass’s  Ale,  4. 

Basting,  18. 

Bath,  18. 

Cold,  IS. 

Hot,  18. 

Russian,  453. 
Sea-bathing,  20. 
Shower,  19. 

Sitz,  487. 

Sponge,  19. 

Turkish,  542. 

Vapor,  553. 

Warm,  19. 

Bath  Brick,  20. 

Bath  Buns,  54. 

Batter  Pudding,  429. 

Bay  Windows,  283,  285. 
Beans,  20. 

to  Dry,  20. 

Kidney,  20. 

Lima,  or  Butter,  20. 
Pickles,  391. 

Pork  and,  20. 

Salad  of,  20. 

Soup,  499. 

String,  20. 

Bear- meat,  20. 

Hams,  21. 

Skin,  21. 

Beaune  Wine,  55. 
Bechamel  Sauce,  462. 
Bed-bugs  (See  Bugs). 
Bedrooms,  21,  148. 

Furniture  of,  228. 
Beds  and  Bedding,  21. 
Blankets,  22,  37. 
Pillows,  21. 
Pillow-cases,  22. 
Sheets,  21. 
Sickroom,  485. 
Springs,  21. 
Bedstead,  22. 

Bureau,  22. 

Iron,  22. 

Sofa,  22. 

Beech,  231. 

Beef,  22. 

to  Corn,  23. 

“ Smoke,  23. 

A la  Mode,  23. 
Bouilli,  24. 

Cakes,  192. 


Beef  (continued),  Corned,  24. 
Dried,  24. 

Hash,  24. 

Heart,  24. 

Kidneys,  24. 

Liver,  24. 

Olives,  193. 

Patties,  384. 

Pie,  24. 

“ with  Oysters,  25. 

“ “ Potato  Crust,  25. 

Soup,  499. 

Steak,  25. 

“ with  Eggs,  25. 

“ “ Onions,  25. 

‘‘  “ Oyste*  Sauce,  26. 

Shin  of,  26. 

Tea,  26,  333. 

Tongue,  26. 

Tripe,  26. 

Bee-keeping,  27. 

Beer,  28. 

Dandelion,  28. 

Ginger,  29. 

Lager,  321. 

Quick,  29. 

Sassafras,  29. 

Spruce,  29. 

Sugar,  29. 

Beets,  29. 

Pickled  or  Canned,  30. 
Pickles,  391. 

Salad  of,  30. 

Stewed,  30. 

Begonia,  30. 

Belladonna,  30. 

Benedictine  Liqueur,  335. 
Benzine,  30. 

Benzoic  Acid,  172. 

Berncastle  Wine,  355. 

Berwick  Cake,  60. 

Beverages,  30. 

Cream  of  Tartar,  13 1. 

Eau  Sucre,  30. 

Lait  Sucre,  30. 

Summer,  30. 

Whey  (Acidulous),  30. 
for  the  Sick,  30. 

Big  Shrimps  (See  Prawns). 
Billberries,  31. 

Bilious  Fever,  31. 

Bill,  31. 

Bill  of  Exchange,  31. 

Bills  of  Fare,  32. 
for  Autumn,  32. 

“ Breakfast,  45. 

“ Dinner,  158. 

“ Lunch,  339. 

“ Spring,  32. 

“ Summer,  32. 

“ Supper  and  Tea,  518. 

“ Winter,  32. 

Birch-wood,  231.  , 

Bird-cage,  32. 

Birds  as  P’ood,  32. 

Bird’s-nest  Pudding,  430. 

Biscuits,  33. 

Flavored,  33. 

French,  33. 

Graham,  33. 

Hard  or  Plain,  34. 

Potato,  34. 


Biscuits  (continued),  Risen,  34. 
Short,  34. 

Soda,  34. 

Sour-milk,  34. 

Yorkshire  Risen,  34. 
Bismuth,  174. 

Bison  (See  Buffalo). 

Bitters,  34. 

Bituminous  Coal,  34. 
Blackberry,  34. 

Compote,  1 17. 

Cordial,  35,  124. 

Jam,  35,  313. 

Jelly.  35,315- 

Pie,  397. 

Pudding,  430. 

Stew,  35. 

Syrup,  35. 

Tarts,  524. 

Vinegar,  35. 

Black  Cake,  Co. 

Black-fish,  35. 

Blacking,  36. 

for  Harness,  36. 

“ Shoes,  36.- 
“ Stoves,  36. 

Black  Lead,  36. 

Black  Pudding,  36. 

Blanching,  36. 

Blanc  mange,  36. 

Almond,  36. 

Arrowroot,  36. 

Chocolate,  36. 

Cornstarch,  36. 

Moss,  37. 

Rice-flour,  37. 
Wheat-flour,  37. 

Blankets,  37. 

Bleaching,  37. 

Bleeding,  37. 

Artery,  1. 

in  Consumption,  121. 
Lungs,  3S. 

Nose,  38,  545. 

Stomach,  38,  545. 

Veins,  1. 

Blind  Staggers,  2G8. 

Blinds  and  Shutters,  294. 
Blisters,  38. 

to  Dress,  38. 
in  Chicken-pox,  97. 

Blood  as  food,  38. 

Bloodroot,  38. 

Blouse  (See  Sacquc). 

Blouse  Waist,  570. 

Blue-bass  (See  Bass). 

Bluefish,  39. 

Blue  Glass  (See  Glass). 
Blueing,  579. 
i Bohea  Tea,  525. 

Boiling,  Rationale  of,  39. 

Boils  ( See  Abscess). 

Bologna  Sausage,  40,  467. 
Bombazct,  40. 

Bombazine,  40. 

Bone,  40,  21 1. 

Boned  Fowl,  40. 

Shoulder  of  Veal,  556. 
Bone-felon,  40. 

Bonny  Clabber  (See  Clabber). 
Book-case  (See  Furniture). 
Books  (See  Library). 


INDEX. 


631 


Boots  and  Shoes,  40. 

to  make  Waterproof,  41. 
Borax,  174. 

Bordeaux  Wines  (See  Claret). 
Borecole  (See  Kale). 

Boston  Brown  Bread,  44. 
Bots,  268. 

Bottle  Cement,  go. 

Bottle  Jack  (.Sir  Roasting). 
Bouillabaisse,  500. 

Bouilli  of  Beef,  24. 

Bouillon,  500. 

Bounce,  Cherry,  95. 

Bourbon  Roses,  451. 

Box,  41. 

Brain  Fever,  41. 
Brain-workers,  Diet  for,  153. 
Braising,  42. 

Brandied  Peaches,  385. 

Pears,  386. 

Brandy,  42. 

Cherry,  96. 

Pudding,  430. 
Raspberry,  443. 

Sauce,  428. 

Trifle,  537. 

Brant,  42. 

Brasier  {See  Warming-pan). 
Brass-ware,  42. 

to  Clean,  42. 

Brawn,  42. 

Brazil-nut,  43. 

Bread,  43. 

Aerated,  1. 

Barley,  43. 

Boston  Brown,  43. 
Brown,  44. 

Corn,  44. 

Fritters,  217. 

Graham,  44. 

Indian  Pone,  44. 
Oatmeal,  44. 

Plain,  43. 

Potato,  44. 

Pumpkin,  44. 

Rice,  44. 

Rye,  44. 

Sauce,  463. 

Stale  (to  improve),  44. 
Unleavened,  44. 
Bread-crumbing,  45. 
Breakfast,  45. 

Family,  45. 

Parties,  46. 

Bream,  46. 

Brewer’s  Yeast,  597. 

Brewing,  46. 

Brick,  47. 

Bath,  20. 

Bristol,  48. 

Brie  Cheese,  95. 

Bright’s  Disease,  47. 

after  Scarlet  Fever,  469. 
Brine,  48. 

Brisket,  48. 

Bristol-board,  48. 
Bristol-brick,  48. 
Britannia-ware,  48. 
Broadcloth,  48. 

Brocade,  48. 

Brocatel,  48. 

Broccoli,  48. 


Broccoli,  with  Eggs,  48. 
Broche  Shawls  (See  Shawls). 
Broiling,  Rationale  of,  49. 
Broken  Bones  (See  Fractures). 
| Broma  (See  Chocolate). 
Bronchitis,  49. 

in  Typhoid  Fever,  545. 
Bronze,  49. 

Broom,  50. 

Broth,  50.  , 

Barley,  50. 

Beef,  500. 

Chicken,  96. 

Clam,  107. 

Mutton  or  Veal,  50. 
Brotherhood  Wines,  6. 

Brown  Bread.  44. 

Brown  Stout,  413. 

Bruises,  50. 

Brushes,  50. 

to  Clean,  109. 

Brussels  Carpet,  81. 

Brussels  Sprouts,  51. 

Buccaned  Meat,  51. 

Buckram,  51. 

Buckskin,  51. 

Buckwheat,  51. 

Cakes,  51. 

Budai  Wine,  297. 

| Budding,  Method  of,  52. 
Buffalo,  53. 

! Buffalo-robe,  53. 

1 Bugs,  to  Destroy,  53. 
i Bulbs,  53. 
j Bullock  (See  Beef). 

Bull-trout,  54. 

Bunions,  54. 

Buns,  54. 

Bath,  54. 

Bureau  (See  Furniture). 
Bureau-bedstead,  22. 
Burgundy,  54. 

Burning  Fluid,  55. 

Burnous,  56. 

; Burns,  55,  1. 

in  the  Eye,  198. 

Burton  Ale,  4. 
j Bush-bean,  56. 

Butcher-meat,  58. 

Butter,  56. 

to  Make,  57. 

“ Restore,  57. 

Anchovy,  7. 

Apple,  8. 

Drawn,  463. 

Sauce,  463. 
j Buttermilk,  57. 

Fleetings,  57. 

Thickened,  57. 

Whey,  57. 

Butter-nuts,  58. 

Pickles,  394. 

Button-holes,  58. 

c 

Cabbage,  58. 

Fried,  59. 

Pickled,  59,  391. 

Salad,  59. 

Cabbage  Rose,  59. 

Cabinet  Pudding,  430. 


Cactus,  59. 

Cafe  & la  Militaire,  115. 

Cafe  au  Lait,  59. 

Cafe  Noir,  115. 

Cake,  59. 

Almond,  60. 

Almond  Cheese,  60. 

Bannock  or  Indian-meal,  60. 
Berwick  Sponge,  60. 

Black,  60. 

Caraway,  60. 

Children’s,  61. 

Chocolate,  61. 

Cider,  61. 

Cocoanut,  6r. 

“ Sponge,  61. 
Coffee,  61. 

Composition,  62. 
Confederate,  62. 

Cornstarch,  62. 

Cream,  62. 

“ without  Eggs,  62. 
Cream-tartar,  62. 

Cup,  62. 

Currant,  63. 

Delicate,  63. 

Diet,  63. 

Dover,  63. 

Fancy,  63. 

French,  63. 

Fruit,  63. 

Gingerbread,  63. 

Fleming,  63. 
Hard,  64. 

Soft,  64. 
Spiced,  64. 
Sponge,  64. 
Sugar,  64. 
Ghiger-snaps,  64. 

Golden,  64. 

Honey,  64. 

Huckleberry,  64. 

Jelly,  64. 

Lady,  65. 

Lemon,  65. 

Loaf,  65. 

“ Raised,  65. 

Marbled,  65. 

Measure,  65. 

Molasses,  65. 

Mountain,  66. 

Nut,  66. 

Orange  Jelly,  66. 

Plum,  66. 

Portugal,  66. 

Pound,  66. 

Queen’s,  66. 

Quick,  66. 

Raised  (without  Eggs),  66 
Republican,  67. 

Rice,  67. 

Royal,  67. 

Savory,  67. 

Scotch,  67. 

Shrewsbury,  67. 

Silver,  67. 

Spice,  67. 

Sponge,  67. 

“ white,  67. 
Strawberry  Short,  68. 

Sugar,  68. 

Sugar  Drops,  68. 


INDEX. 


632 

Cake  (continued),  Tea  Cakes,  68. 
Washington,  68. 

Webster,  68. 

Wedding,  68. 

White,  68. 

White  Mountain,  69. 

Wine,  69. 

Yardley,  69. 

Caked  Bag,  in  Cows,  128. 
Calcellaria,  69. 

Calf  (See  Veal). 

Calf’s  Head  and  Feet,  69. 
to  Carve,  83. 

Calf’s-foot  Jelly,  69,  315. 
Calf’s-head  Soup,  501. 
Calico,  69. 

California  Wines,  6. 

Calla  Lily,  69. 

Callipash,  70. 

Callipee,  70. 

Calomel,  70. 

Cambric,  70. 

Camellia,  70. 

Camomile,  70. 

Camomile  Tea,  70. 
Camphor,  70,  174. 

Liniment  of,  177. 

Tincture  of,  180. 
Camphorated  Chalk,  536. 

Canary  Bird,  71. 

Cancer,  71. 

Candles,  72. 

Dipped,  72. 

Mould,  72. 

Rush  Lights,  72. 

Wax,  72. 

Candy,  72. 

directions  for  Making,  73. 
Cheap,  75. 

Chocolate  Caramels,  78. 
Cough  Candy,  73. 

Fig  Paste,  201. 

Ginger  Candy,  73. 

Gum  Drops,  73. 

Hoarhound  Candy,  74. 
Jujube  Paste,  74. 

Lemon  Candy,  74. 

Molasses,  74. 

Nut,  74. 

Taffy,  74. 

Walnut,  75. 

Candying  Fruits,  75. 

Candy-tuft,  75. 

Canker,  268. 

Cannel  Coal,  75. 

Cannelons,  75. 

Canning  Fruits,  75. 

Cantaloupe  ( See  Musk-melon). 
Cantharides  Plaster,  174. 

Canvas,  76. 

Canvas-back  Duck,  76. 
Caoutchouc  (See  India-rubber). 
Cape  Bulbs  (See  Bulbs). 

Caper,  76. 

Sauce,  463. 

Capes,  76. 

Capillaire,  77. 

Capon,  77. 

Caps,  77. 

Capsicum,  174. 

Pickles,  392. 

Caramels,  78. 


Caramels  (con.),  Chocolate,  78. 
Caraway,  7S. 

Cake,  60. 

Cordial,  124. 

Essence  of,  195. 

Carbolic  Acid,  78,  172. 
Carbuncle,  78. 

Carcel  Lamp,  79. 

Cardoon,  79. 

Carmine,  79. 

Carnations,  79. 

Carp,  80. 

Carpets,  80,  146. 

Axminster,  81. 

Brussels,  81. 

Cleaning,  80. 

Cutting,  80. 

Dutch,  81. 

Ingrain,  81. 

Kidderminster,  81. 
Moquette,  81. 

Persian,  81. 

Printed  P'elt,  81. 

Rag,  81. 

Sewing,  80. 

Tapestry,  8r. 

Three-ply,  82. 

Turkish,  81. 

Velvet,  82. 

; . Wilton,  82. 

Wood,  82. 

Carriage,  to  Clean,  109. 

Carrots,  82. 

Jam,  313. 

Soup,  501. 

Stewed  with  Sugar,  82. 
Carving,  82. 

Beef  tongue,  83. 

Breast  of  Veal,  83. 

Brisket  of  Beef,  83 
Calf s head,  83. 

Chicken,  83. 

Cod’s  head  and  shoulders,  84. 
Duck,  84. 

Eels,  84. 

Fillet  of  Veal,  84. 

Goose,  84. 

Ham,  84. 

Haunch  of  Mutton,  84. 
Knuckle  of  Veal,  84. 

Leg  of  Mutton,  84. 

Loin  of  Veal,  85. 

Mackerel,  85. 

Partridge,  85. 

Pigeons,  Quails,  Woodcock, 
etc.,  85. 

Ribs  of  Beef,  85. 

Round  of  Beef,  85. 

Saddle  of  Mutton,  85. 
Salmon,  85. 

Shad,  85. 

Shoulder  of  Mutton  or 
Lamb,  85. 

Shoulder  of  Veal,  86. 

Sirloin  of  Beef,  86. 
Sucking-pig,  86. 

Turbot,  86. 

Turkey,  86. 

Casein,  86. 

Cashew  Nut,  86. 

Cashmere  (See  Shawl). 

1 Cassava  (See  Tapioca). 


! Cassimere,  86. 

Cast  (See  Plaster). 

Castile  Soap.  494. 

Castor  Oil,  86. 

Cat,  87. 

Catalepsy,  87. 

Catamenia  (See  Menstruation). 
Catarrh  (See  Colds). 
Cataplasm.  87. 

Catarrhal  Ophthalmia,  371. 
Catawba  Wine,  87,  5. 
Catawissa  Wine,  6. 

Caterpillar,  88. 

Catfish,  88. 

Cathartics,  88. 

Catnip  01  Catmint,  88. 

Tea,  88. 

Catsup,  88. 

Mushroom,  89. 

Oyster,  374. 

Tomato,  89. 

Walnut,  89. 

Caudle,  89. 

Ale,  89. 

Flour,  89. 

Rice,  89. 

Cauliflower,  89. 

Pickled,  8g,  392. 
Scalloped,  90. 

Stewed,  90. 

Caustic  (See  Lunar  Caustic). 
Caveat  Emptor,  325. 

Caviare,  go. 

Cayenne  Pepper,  go. 

Vinegar,  563. 

Cedar  Birds,  449. 

Cedar- wood,  231. 

Ceilings,  147,  293. 

Celery,  90. 

Essence  of,  195. 

Pickle,  392. 

Salad,  90. 

Sauce,  90,  463. 

Vinegar,  563. 

Cements,  90. 

Alabaster,  90. 

Bottle,  90. 

Cheese,  91. 

China,  91. 

Diamond,  91. 

Ironware,  91. 

Japanese,  91. 

Wax,  91. 

Century  Plant  (See  Agave). 
Cerate,  174. 

of  Acetate  of  Lead,  174. 
of  Resin,  174. 
of  Spermaceti,  174. 
Cesspool  (See  Drainage). 
Chablis  Wine,  55,  91. 

Chalk,  91. 

Camphorated,  536. 
Mixture,  179. 

Chambertin  Wine,  55. 
Chamois-skin,  91. 

Chamomile  (See  Camomile). 
Champagne,  91. 

at  Dinner,  157,  158. 

Cup,  437. 

Frappee,  92. 

Chantilly  Basket,  514. 

Chapped  Hands,  92. 


INDEX. 


633 


Chapped  Heels,  268. 

Charcoal,  92. 

Charlotte  de  Russe,  92. 
Chocolate,  92. 

Gelatine,  92. 

Chartreuse,  336. 

Chateau  Margaux  Wine,  108. 
Check,  Bank,  93. 

Checkerberry,  93. 

Cheddar  Cheese,  95. 

Cheese,  93. 

to  make,  93. 

American,  95. 

Cottage,  94. 

Cream,  94. 

Damson,  142. 

Dutch,  95. 

English,  95. 

French,  95. 

German,  95. 

Italian,  95. 

Sandwiches,  461. 

Scotch,  95. 

Swiss,  95. 

Chemise,  548. 

Cherry,  95. 

Bounce,  95. 

Brandy,  96. 

Compote,  1 18. 

Jelly,  316. 

Pickles,  392. 

Pies,  397. 

Preserves,  421. 

Pudding,  431. 

Water-ice,  302. 

Chestnuts,  96. 

Sauce,  464. 
soup,  501. 

Stuffing  of,  515. 

Chestnut  wood,  231. 
Chest-protector,  96. 

Chicken,  96. 

Broth,  96. 

Carving,  83. 

Croquettes,  132. 

Curry,  192. 

Fricassee,  97. 

Keeping,  416. 

Panada,  377. 

Pot-pie,  97. 

Salad,  97. 

Soup,  501. 

Stewed,  97. 

“ with  Celery,  97. 
Chicken  Pox,  97. 

Chicory,  98. 

Chilblains,  98. 

Children,  98 
Diet,  98. 

Disease,  Signs  of,  100. 

Dress,  99. 

Children’s  Cake,  61. 

Children’s  Clothing,  101. 

Chili  Sauce,  464. 

Chills  and  Fever  ( See  Ague). 
Chimneys,  101. 

Smoking,  to  cure,  101. 

China  ( See  Earthenware). 

China  Cement,  91. 

China  Roses,  451. 

Chinese  Primrose  (See  Primrose). 
Chinese  Sugar-cane  (See  Sorghum). 


Chintz,  102. 

to  Clean,  ro2. 

Chitterlings,  102. 

Chloral,  102. 

Chloride  of  Lime  (See  Disinfect- 
ants). 

Chlorodyne,  102. 

Chloroform,  102. 

Chocolate,  103. 

Blanc-mange,  36. 

Cake,  61. 

Caramels,  78. 

Charlotte  de  Russe,  92. 
Custard,  136. 

Ice-cream,  302. 

Iced,  103. 

Choca,  103. 

Choking,  103,  1. 

in  Cows,  128. 

Cholera,  103. 

Cholera  Infantum,  104. 
Cholera-morbus,  104. 

Chops  (See  Mutton). 

Chow  Chow,  104. 

Chowder,  104. 

Clam,  104. 

Codfish,  1 1 3. 

Fish,  105. 

Christopher  North’s  Sauce,  464. 
Chromos,  105. 

Chrysanthemum,  105. 

Chub,  105. 

Churning  (See  Butter). 

Chyme  (See  Digestion). 

Cider,  105. 

Cake,  61. 

Jelly,  316. 

Mulberry,  356. 

Mulled,  356. 

Toast,  534. 

Cinchona  Bark,  175. 

Decoction  of,  175. 
Cinchonism  (See  Quinine). 
Cinnamon,  106,  175. 

Cordial,  124. 

Circulars,  106. 

Cistern,  107. 

Citrate  of  Magnesia,  343. 

Citric  Acid,  1. 

Citron,  107. 

Cordial,  124. 

Essence  of,  195. 

Civet,  107. 

Clabber,  107. 

Clams,  107. 

Boiled,  107. 

Broiled,  107. 

Broth,  107. 

Chowder,  104. 

Fritters,  108. 

Pickled,  108. 

Roast,  108. 

Claret,  108. 

Claret  Cup,  108. 

Cooling  Cup,  108. 

Mulled,  356. 

Punch,  108. 

Clay  (See  Bricks). 

Cleaning,  108. 

Alabaster,  108. 

Bottles,  108. 

Brassware,  42. 


Cleaning  (con.).  Bronze,  50. 
Brushes,  109. 

Carpets,  80. 

Carriages,  109. 

Chintz,  102. 

Combs,  109. 

Crape,  130. 

Earthenware,  109. 

Ermine,  195. 

Feathers,  199. 

Floors,  205. 

Gilding,  109. 

Glassware,  246. 

Gloves  (Kid),  109,  246. 

Gold  lace,  248. 

Harness,  109. 

Hearths,  109. 

House,  109. 

Knives,  101,  320. 

Lace,  320. 

Marble,  345. 

“ Steps,  109. 

Mirrors,  109. 

Oil-cloth,  367. 

Paint,  no. 

Paper-hangings,  no. 
Papier-mache,  no. 

Pots  and  Kettles,  no. 
Shawls,  no. 

Silk,  486. 

Silverware,  487. 

Tinware,  533. 

Veils,  557. 

Windows,  no. 

Clock,  no. 

Clos  Vougeot  Wine,  55. 

Clothing,  no. 

Children’s,  101. 
to  render  Non-inflammable, 
112. 

to  render  Waterproof,  113. 
Clothes- wringer  (T<f^  Wringer). 
Cloves,  112. 

Essence  of,  195. 

Infusion  of,  176. 

Coagulation,  112. 

Coal,  112. 

Anthracite,  7. 

Bituminous,  34. 

Cannel,  75. 

Charcoal,  92. 

Cobbler,  Fruit,  112. 

Sherry,  112, 

Cochineal,  112. 

Tincture  of,  195. 

Cockatoo,  381. 

Cockle,  112. 

Cockroaches,  112. 

Cocktails,  see  under  Whiskey,  589. 
Cocoa,  1 1 2. 

Cocoanut,  112. 

Cake,  61. 

Jumbles,  317. 

Macaroons,  341. 

Pie,  397. 

Pudding,  431. 

Soup,  501. 

Codeia,  114. 

Codfish,  113. 

Balls,  113. 

Chowder,  113. 

Picked  up,  113. 


INDEX. 


G34 


Codfish  (con.),  with  Eggs,  113. 

Tongues  and  Sounds,  113. 
Codling,  1x4. 

Cod-liver  Oil,  114,  175. 

in  Consumption,  120. 

Coffee,  1 14. 

a la  Militaire,  115. 

Boiled,  115. 

Cake,  61. 

Custard,  136. 

Filtered,  115. 

Grinding,  115. 

Ice-cream,  302. 

Iced,  1 1 5. 

Noir,  115. 

Roasting,  115. 

Coffee-pots,  1 1 5. 

Coke,  1 16. 

Colander,  116. 

Cold  Cream,  116. 

Colds,  1 16. 

in  Horses,  268. 

Cold  Slaw  (See  Slaw). 

Colic,  1 16. 

in  Horses,  268. 

Collar-bone,  fractured,  213. 
Colocynth,  175. 

Colors,  to  Restore,  117. 

Cologne,  1 1 7. 

to  Make,  117. 

Combs,  1 1 7. 

to  Clean,  117. 

Commode,  117. 

Composition  Cake,  62. 

Compost,  117. 

Compotes,  117. 

Apple,  1 1 7. 

Apricot,  117. 

Berry,  1 1 7. 

Cherry,  118. 

Currant,  118. 

Fig,  118. 

Orange,  118. 

Peach,  1 18. 

Plum,  1 18. 

Compound  Colors,  401. 

Concord  Wine,  5. 

Condensed  Milk,  353. 
Confederate  Cake,  62. 

Conger-eel,  118. 

Congou  Tea,  525. 

Consomme,  118. 

Constipation,  118. 

Construction  in  Furniture,  144. 

in  Houses,  288. 
Consumption,  119. 

Contusion  (See  Bruises). 
Convalescence,  121. 
Conventionalism  in  Decoration, 
145- 

Convolvulus,  121. 

Cooker,  Warren’s  Patent,  121. 
Cookery,  Principles  of,  122. 
Cookies,  123. 

Sugar,  123. 

Coolers,  123. 

Copaiba  Balsam,  14,  175. 

Copal  Varnish,  554. 

Copper-ware,  123. 

Cordials,  124. 

Anise-seed,  114. 

Blackberry,  35,  124. 


Cordials  (con.),  Caraway,  124. 
Cinnamon,  124. 

Citron,  124. 

Gin,  124. 

Ginger,  124. 

Quince,  124. 

Peach,  124. 

Corduroy,  125. 

Coriander,  125. 

Corn,  125. 

Bread,  44. 

Dried,  125. 

Fritters,  125. 

Muffins,  125. 

Roasted,  125. 

Stewed,  125. 

“ with  Tomatoes,  125. 
Corned  Beef,  24. 

Cornices,  294. 

Corns,  126. 

in  Horses,  268. 

Corn-starch  Blanc-mange,  36. 
Cake,  62. 

Pudding,  431. 

Corpulence  (See  Banting’s  Cure 
and  Diet). 

Corrosive  Sublimate,  126. 

Corsets,  126. 

Cosmetics,  126. 

Costiveness  (See  Constipation). 
Cottage  Cheese,  94. 

Cotton  (See  Clothing). 

Cough,  126. 

Candy  for,  73. 

Counterpane,  to  Clean,  127. 

Cow,  127. 

Diseases  of : 

Caked  Bag,  128. 

Choking,  128. 

Garget,  128. 

Hoof-ail,  128. 

Hoven,  128. 

Mange  or  Scab,  128. 

Milk  Fever,  128. 

Scour,  128. 

Sore  Teats,  128. 

Warts,  128. 

Wounds,  128. 

Food,  128. 

Milking,  129. 

Cow-pox,  129. 

Cowslip  (See  Marigold). 

Crab,  129. 

Boiled,  129. 

Deviled,  129. 

Salad,  129. 

Sauce,  464. 

Soft-shell,  129. 

Crab-apple  Preserves,  421. 
Crackers,  129. 

Panada,  377. 

Pudding,  431. 

Cracknels,  129. 

Cradles,  130. 

Cradle,  Wine,  130. 

Cramp,  130. 

Crane,  130. 

Cranberry,  130. 

Pie,  397. 

Sauce,  130. 

Tart,  524. 

Tea,  130. 


I Crape,  130. 

to  Clean,  130. 

Crash,  131. 

Craziness  (See  Insanity). 
Cream,  131. 

Artificial,  131. 

Cake,  62. 

Coffee,  131. 

Cheese,  94. 

Cold,  1 16. 

Ice,  301. 

Lemon,  131. 

Orange,  13 1. 

Sauce,  428,  464. 
Sherbet,  481. 

Tarts,  522. 

Tea,  131. 

Toast,  534. 
Whipped,  131. 
Cream  Cheese,  94. 
Cream  of  Tartar,  131. 
Beverage,  13 1. 

Cake,  62. 

Creasote,  175. 

Ointment  of,  178. 
Creme  de  Girojle,  336. 
Creme  de  The , 336. 

Creme  de  Vanille,  336. 
Cress,  131. 

Garden,  131. 

Indian,  132. 

Salad,  457. 

Water,  131,  583. 
Winter,  131. 

Crewel,  132. 

Crimping,  132. 

Crockery,  132. 

Crocus,  132. 

Croquettes,  132. 

Chicken,  132. 
Lobster,  337. 

Rice,  132. 
Sweetbread,  132. 
Croup,  132. 

Crumpets,  133. 
Cucumbers,  133. 

Fried,  133. 

Pickles,  392. 
Preserves,  421. 
Sauce,  464. 

Soup,  501. 

Stewed,  133. 

Stuffed,  133. 

Vinegar,  563. 
Cullender  (See  Colander). 
Cummin  Seed,  134. 

Cup  Cake,  62. 

Cuphca,  134. 

Cupola,  286. 

Curacoa,  134. 

Curd  (See  Cheese). 
Currant,  134. 

Cake,  63. 

Compote,  1 18. 
Custard,  136. 

Dried,  134. 
Dumpling,  182. 

Jam,  313. 

Jelly,  316. 

Pie,  397. 

Syrup,  521. 

Tart,  524. 


INDEX. 


635 


Currant  (con.),  Water-ice,  302. 

Wine,  134. 

Curry.  135. 

Dry,  135. 

Egg,  135- 
Lobster,  337. 

Oyster,  374. 

Curry  Powder,  135. 

Curtains,  135. 

Bed,  136. 

Window,  135,  147,  230. 
Custards,  136. 

Almond,  136. 

Apple,  136. 

Arrowroot,  136. 

Baked,  136. 

Chocolate,  136. 

Coffee,  136. 

Cold,  136. 

Currant,  136. 

French,  137. 

Fruit,  137. 

Moulded,  137. 

Pudding,  431. 

Quince,  137. 

Rice,  137. 

Tapioca,  137. 

Wine  Cream,  137. 

Custard  Apple  ( See  Paw-paw). 
Cuts,  treatment  of,  137. 

Cutlery  ( See  Knives,  Forks,  Ra- 
zors, and  Scissors). 

Cutlet  (See  Veal). 

Cutting  and  Fitting,  Rules  for,  138. 
Cyclamen,  139. 

Cypress  Vine,  139. 

D 

Dace,  140. 

Dado,  147. 

Daffodil  ( See  Narcissus). 

Dahlia,  14. 

Dairy,  140. 

Dandelion  Beer,  29. 

Damask,  142. 

Damson,  142. 

Cheese,  142. 

Preserves,  419. 

Tarts,  524. 

Wine,  142. 

Dandelion  Beer,  28. 

Dandruff,  142. 

Daphne,  142. 

Date,  143. 

Deafness,  after  Scarlet  Fever,  469. 
Deal  (See  Pine). 

Decanting,  143. 

Decay  (See  Decomposition). 
Decoction,  143. 

Decomposition,  143. 

Decoration,  Principles  of,  with 
special  reference  to  Walls, 
Floors,  and  Furniture,  143. 
Deed  of  Sale,  325. 

Deer  (See  Venison). 

Delaware  Wine,  5. 

Delicate  Cake,  63. 

Delmonico  Pudding,  431 
Dentifrice  (See  Teeth). 
Deodorizers,  149. 

Depilatories,  149. 


I Devereaux  Wine,  6. 

Devilled  Crab,  129. 

Lobster,  338. 

Dewberry,  150. 

Diabetes,  150. 

Diamond  Cement,  91. 

Diaper  (See  Damask). 
Diaphoretics,  150. 

Diarrhoea,  151. 

in  Children,  151. 

“ Consumption,  121. 

“ Horses,  268. 

“ Typhoid  Fever,  545. 

Diet,  General  Rules  for,  152. 

of  Infants,  305. 

Diet  Cake,  63. 

Digestion,  154. 

Dill  Water,  176. 

Dimity,  155. 

Dinner,  155. 

Bills  of  Fare,  158. 
Decoration,  156. 

General  Hints,  157. 

Order  of  Dishes,  156. 

Setting  the  Table,  156. 
Wines,  156,  157. 
Dining-room,  148. 

Furniture  for,  236. 
Diphtheria,  159. 

Dipped  Candles,  72. 

Dishes  (See  Earthenware). 
Disinfectants,  160. 

Dislocations,  161. 
of  Elbow,  161. 

“ Hip,  '61. 

“ Jaw,  161. 

“ Neck,  161. 

“ Shoulder,  161. 

“ Thumb  or  Finger,  162. 

“ Wrist,  Knee,  or  Ankle, 
162. 

Distillery  Yeast,  597. 

Diuretics,  162. 

Dizziness  (See  Vertigo). 

Doeskin,  162. 

Dogs,  162. 

Distemper  in,  162. 
Hydrophobia  in,  163,  299. 
Doily,  163. 

Domestic  Animals  (See  Cat,  Cow, 
Dog,  Horse, Pigs,  and  Poul- 
try). 

Domestic  Servants  (See  Servants). 
Doors,  293. 

Dormer-windows,  286. 

Dory,  163. 

Doses  (See  Drugs). 

Douche  Bath  (See  Bath). 
Doughnuts,  163. 

Isle  of  Wight,  163. 

Raised,  163. 

Dove,  163. 

Dover  Cake,  63. 

Dover’s  Powder,  163. 

Dower,  326. 

Down,  164. 

Draft  (See  Bill  of  Exchange). 
Drainage,  164. 

Drain  Traps,  168. 

Drawers,  549. 

Drawing-room,  148. 

Drawn  Butter,  463. 


Dredging,  in  Cookery,  168. 
Dresden  China,  187. 

Dress  (See  Clothing,  Cutting  and 
Fitting,  Princesse  Dress, 
Shirt,  Skirt,  Undergar- 
ments, Waist,  etc.). 
Dressing  for  Salad,  457. 

English,  457. 

French,  457. 

Mayonnaise  457,  465. 
Dressing-gown  (See  Circular). 
Dried  Beef,  24. 

Drilling,  169. 

Drinks  ( See  Beverages). 

Drops,  Lemon,  169. 

Peppermint,  388. 

Ratafia,  169. 

Dropsy,  169. 

after  Scarlet  Fever,  469. 
Drowned,  to  Restore  the  Appa- 
* rently,  169. 

Drowning,  to  Save  a Person  from, 
171- 

Drugget,  171. 

Drugs  for  Family  Use,  172. 
Acetate  of  Lead,  177. 

Acetic  Acid,  172. 

Aloes,  173. 

Alum,  173. 

Ammonia,  Liniment  of,  177. 
Liquor  of,  1 73. 

Spirit  of,  179,  6. 
Antimony  (Tartar  Emetic), 
173. 

Wine  of,  180. 

Assafoetida,  174. 

Benzoic  Acid,  172. 

Bismuth,  174. 

Borax,  174. 

Calomel,  174,  70. 

Camomile  Flowers,  175. 

Infusion  of,  176. 
Camphor,  70,  174. 

Liniment  of,  177. 
Tincture  of,  180. 
Cantharides  Plaster,  174. 
Capsicum,  174. 

Carbolic  Acid,  78,  172. 
Castor  Oil,  86,  174. 

Cerate,  174. 

of  Acetate  of  Lead,  174. 
“ Resin,  174. 

“ Spermaceti,  174. 
Chalk  Mixture,  179. 

Chloride  of  Zinc,  175. 
Cinchona  Bark,  175. 

Decoction  of,  175. 
Cinnamon,  175. 

Citric  Acid,  172. 

Cloves,  Infusion  of,  176. 
Cod-liver  Oil,  114,  175. 
Colocynth,  175. 

Conium  (Hemlock),  175. 
Copaiba  Balsam,  175. 
Creasote,  175. 

Ointment  of,  178. 
Dandelion,  Decoction  of,  176. 
Dill  Water,  176. 

Ether,  Sulphuric,  173. 

Gallic  Acid,  172. 

Gamboge,  176. 

Gentian,  Extract  of,  176. 


636 


INDEX. 


Gentian,  Infusion  of,  176. 
Henbane,  176. 

Hop,  Extract  of,  176. 
Horseradish,  176. 
Hydrochloric  Acid,  173. 
Ipecacuanha,  179. 

Iron,  Mixture  of,  178. 

• Syrup  of,  180. 

Jalap,  177. 

Laudanum,  177. 

Liniment,  177. 

of  Ammonia,  177. 

“ Camphor,  177 
“ Turpentine,  177. 
Linseed,  Infusion  of,  177. 

Poultice  of,  179. 
Magnesia,  177. 
Marsh-mallows,  178. 
Mercury,  178. 

Ointment  of,  178. 

Pill  of,  178. 

Mint-water,  178. 

Ointment,  17S. 

of  Creasote,  178. 

“ Galls,  178. 

“ Mercury,  178. 

“ Zinc,  178. 

Olive  Oil,  178. 

Opium,  180. 

Peruvian  Balsam,  178. 

Pitch,  Burgundy,  179. 
Poultices,  179. 

of  Charcoal,  179. 

“ Hemlock,  179. 

“ Linseed,  179. 

“ Mustard,  179. 

“ Yeast,  179. 

Quassia,  177. 

Quinine,  119,  180. 

Rhubarb,  179. 

Infusion  of,  177. 

Pill  of,  179. 

Senna,  179. 

Soda,  179. 

Squill,  180. 

Sulphuric  Acid,  173. 

Tartaric  Acid,  173. 
Turpentine,  1S0. 

Tincture  of  Ginger,  180. 

“ Iodine,  180. 

“ “ Myrrh,  180. 

“ “ Opium,  180. 

“ “ Quinine,  180. 

“ “ Rhubarb,  180. 

“ “ Valerian,  180. 

Tolu,  Balsam  of,  1S0. 
Valerian,  180. 

Zinc,  Chloride  of,  180. 
Sulphate  of,  180. 

Duck,  181. 

Keeping,  418. 

Pie,  1 8 1. 

Stewed,  181. 

“ with  Green  Peas,  181. 
Dun  Wine,  355. 

Dumplings,  181. 

Apple,  1 8 1 . 

Currant,  182. 

Indian,  182. 

Lemon,  182. 

Norfolk,  182. 

Rice,  182. 


Dumplings  (con.),  Suet,  182. 

Yacht,  182. 

Duplex  Lamp,  323. 

Dust  in  the  Eye,  1. 

Dutch  Bulbs  ( See  Bulbs). 

Dutch  Carpet,  81. 

Dutch  Cheeses,  95. 

Dutch  Custard,  432. 

Dutch  Sauce,  464. 

Dutchman’s  Pipe,  182. 

Dyes,  182. 

Black,  184. 

Blue  (Aniline),  184. 

“ Prussian,  184. 

“ Saxony,  184. 

Brown,  184. 

Coal  Tar  Colors,  183. 
for  Feathers,  199. 

Green,  184. 

Orange,  184. 

Red,  184. 

Scarlet,  184,  185. 

Violet,  184. 

Yellow,  184. 

“ Nankeen,  185. 
Dysentery,  185. 
in  Horses,  269. 

Dysmenorrhcea  ( See  Menstrua- 
tion). 

Dyspepsia,  185. 

E 

Ear,  186. 

Insects  in,  1. 

Ear-ache,  186. 

Earth-closet,  186. 

Earthenware,  187. 

Cleaning,  log. 

Dresden  China,  187. 

English  China,  187. 

French  China,  187. 

Ironstone  China,  187. 
Oriental  China,  1S7. 

Red  Earthenware,  187. 
Sevres  China,  187. 

Stone  China,  187. 

Earth-nuts  (See  Pea-nuts). 

Earwigs  in  the  Ear,  186. 

Eau  de  Cologne,  117. 

Eau  de  Vie  de  Dantzic,  336. 

Eau  Sucre,  30. 

Ebony,  231. 

Eel,  187. 

Boiled,  188. 

Broiled,  188. 

Fried,  188. 

Soup,  501. 

Stewed,  188. 

Tartar,  188. 

Eggs,  188. 

Baked,  189. 

Balls  for  Soups,  189,  515. 
Cooked  without  Boiling,  189. 
Fricasseed,  189. 

Fried,  189. 

Fried  in  batter,  189 
Ham  and  Eggs,  189. 

Mashed,  189. 

Matelote  of,  347. 

Omelette,  369. 

Poached,  189. 


Eggs  (con.),  Sandwiches,  461. 
Sauce,  190,  464. 

Scrambled,  190. 

Stuffed,  190. 

Toast,  534. 

Egg  Flip,  190. 

Egg  Nogg,  190. 

Egg  Plant,  190. 

Fried,  190. 

Stewed,  190. 

Stuffed,  190. 

Eglantine,  191. 

Egri  Wine,  297. 

Eider  Down  (See  Down). 

Elbow,  dislocation  of,  161. 
Elbow-joint,  fractured,  214. 
Elderberry,  190. 

Wine,  191. 

Elderflower  Wine,  191. 

Elder  Pickles,  392. 

Embrocations,  191. 

Emery,  191. 

Emetics,  191. 

Emollients,  192. 

Emulsions,  132. 

Encaustic  Tiles,  533. 

Endive,  192. 

Salad,  192. 

Stewed,  192. 

English  Cheeses,  95. 

English  China,  187. 

Entrees,  192. 

Beef  Cakes,  192. 

“ Olives,  192. 

Bird’s-nest,  192. 

Bubble  and  Squeak,  192. 
Calf’s  Head,  hashed,  192. 
Chicken  or  Rabbit  Curry, 
192. 

Macaroni,  341. 

Meat  Balls,  193. 

Pillaw,  193. 

“ Turkish,  193. 
Salmagundy,  193. 

Sausage  Side  Dish,  193. 
Sweetbreads,  193. 

Veal  Balls,  193. 

“ Cakes,  193. 

“ Olives,  193. 
Vol-au-veut,  193. 

Entremets,  194. 

Epilepsy,  194. 

Epsom  Salts,  194. 

Ermine,  194. 

to  Clean.  195. 

Eruptions.  (See  Rash.) 
Erysipelas,  T95. 

Eschalot  (See  Shallot). 

Escrow,  326. 

Essences,  195. 

Allspice,  195. 

Almonds,  Bitter,  195. 
Caraway,  195. 

Celery,  195. 

Cinnamon,  195. 

Citron,  195. 

Cloves,  195. 

Cochineal,  195. 

Ginger,  195. 

Lemon-peel,  196. 

Mace,  1 95. 

Marjoram,  Iy6. 


INDEX. 


637 


Essences  (con.),  Nutmeg,  196 
Orange-peel,  196. 

Savory  Spices,  196. 

Sweet  Marjoram,  196. 

Ether,  196,  173. 

Everton  Taffy,  74. 

Exercise,  196. 

Expectorants,  197. 

Extract,  197. 

Extract  of  Meat,  Liebig’s  ( See 
Liebig’s  Extract  of  Meat). 
Eye,  197. 

Burns,  198. 

Cuts,  198. 

Dust  or  Cinders  in,  r. 

Injuries  to,  197. 

Scalds,  198. 

Sore.  ( See  Ophthalmia.) 

Stye  on,  516. 

F 

Face-ache,  198. 

Fainting-fit,  198. 

Fancy  Cake,  63. 

Farced  Meat  ( See  Forced  Meat). 
Fare,  Bills  of  ( See  Bills  of  Fare). 
Farina,  198. 

Pudding,  432. 

Fat,  as  Food,  198. 

Fatness — to  cure.  (^Banting.) 
Feathers,  199. 

Cleaning,  199. 

Curling,  199. 

Dyeing,  199. 

Febrifuges  ( See  Refrigerants). 

Feet,  200. 

Felon  ( See  Bone  Felon). 

Fennel,  200. 

Fever,  treatment  of,  201. 

Ague,  2. 

Bilious,  31. 

Brain,  41. 

Scarlet,  468. 

Typhoid,  544. 

Typhus,  546. 

Yellow,  597. 

Fichu  {See  Capes). 

Fig,  201. 

Compote,  1 1 8. 

Paste,  201. 

Preserves,  421. 
to  Freshen,  202. 

Filbert  Macaroons,  341. 

Filters,  581. 

Finger,  bandage  for,  15. 
Finger-bowls  at  Dinner,  157. 
Finger,  dislocation  of,  162. 
Finger-nails,  202. 

Finials,  286. 

Fining  Wine,  594. 

Fire-place,  202,  2S3. 

Fires,  202. 

Fish,  as  food,  202. 

Anchovy,  7. 

Bass,  18. 

Blackfish,  35. 

Bluefish,  39. 

Bream,  46. 

Bull-trout,  54. 

Carp,  80. 

Catfish,  88. 

Chub,  105. 

Clams,  107. 


Cockles,  1 12. 

Cod,  1 13. 

Codling,  114. 

Conger  Eel,  118. 

Crab,  129. 

Dace,  140. 

Dinner,  158. 

Dory,  163. 

Eel,  187. 

Flounder,  209. 

Goldfish,  247. 

Haddock,  256. 

Halibut,  258. 

Herring,  262. 

Lamprey,  322. 

Ling,  335. 

Lobster,  337. 

Mackerel,  341. 

Mussels,  359. 

Oyster,  374. 

Perch,  388. 

Pickerel,  390. 

Pike,  402. 

Porgee,  409. 

Prawn,  420. 

Quahaug,  438. 

Rockbass,  450. 

Rockfish,  450. 

Salmon,  459. 
Salmon-trout,  460. 
Sardines,  461. 

Sea-bass,  471. 

Shad,  478. 

Shrimp,  484. 

Skate,  488. 

Smelt,  493. 

Sole,  496. 

Sprat,  510. 

Sturgeon,  516. 

Sucker,  516. 

Tautog,  525. 

Tom-cod,  535. 

Trout,  537. 

Turbot,  541. 

Turtle,  546. 

Weak  fish,  584. 

Whitefish,  589. 

Whiting,  590. 

Fistula;  in  Consumption,  120. 
Fits,  203. 

Apoplexy,  7. 

Catalepsy,  87. 

Epilepsy,  194. 
Fainting-fits,  198. 
Hysterics,  300. 
in  Infants,  307. 

Flag  Onion  ( See  Leek). 
Flannel,  203. 

to  Shrink,  203. 

“ Wash,  203,  579. 
Flap-jacks  {See  Slap-jacks). 
Flat  Decoration,  145. 
Flatulence,  204. 

Flavored  Biscuits,  33. 

Flax,  204. 

Flax-seed,  204. 

Tea,  204. 

Fleas,  to  Destroy,  204. 
Fleetings  of  Buttermilk,  57. 
Fleming  Gingerbread,  63. 
Flesh  {See  Food). 

Flies,  to  Destroy,  204. 


Floating  Island,  205. 

Floors,  146,  205,  293. 

Polishing,  205. 

Scouring,  205. 

Floriculture,  205,  591. 

Insects,  207,  592. 

Planting,  206,  591. 
Preserving  Plants  in  Winter, 
207. 

Soil,  206,  591. 

Transplanting,  206. 
Weeding,  206. 

Floss,  209. 

Flounder,  209. 

Flour,  209. 

Caudle,  89. 

Flowers,  to  Cut  and  Keep,  209. 
Flue,  209. 

Fluids,  209. 

Flummery,  210. 

' Fluting  {See  Crimping). 

Flux  {See  Dysentery). 
Fomentations,  210. 

Fondu,  210. 

Food,  210. 

Foot,  bandage  for,  15. 

Foot,  Fractured,  214. 

Force-meat  {See  Stuffing). 
Forearm,  bandage  for,  15. 

Forks,  212. 

Founder,  269. 

Fountain  Syringe,  521. 

Fowl  {See  Chicken  and  Poultry). 
Foxglove,  212. 

Fractures,  212. 

Arm,  above  elbow,  213. 

“ below  “ .213. 
Collar-bone,  213. 
Elbow-joint,  214. 

Hand,  P'oot,  or  Ankle,  214. 
Head,  214. 

Hip  joint,  214. 

Jaw,  214. 

Knee-cap,  215. 

Leg,  215. 

Ribs,  215. 

Thigh,  215. 

Frames,  Gilt,  to  preserve,  216. 
Francatelli’s  Punch,  437. 
Frangipane,  216. 

de  Pommes-de-terre,  216. 
Franklin  Stove,  573. 

F rappee,  Champagne,  92. 
Freckles,  216. 

French  Biscuits,  33. 

French  Cake,  63. 

French  Chalk,  91. 

French  Cheeses,  95. 

French  China,  187. 

French  Cookery,  Terms  Used  in, 
216. 

French  Custard,  137. 

French  Pickles,  392. 

French  Puff-paste,  395. 

French  Rolls,  450. 

French  Salad-dressing,  457. 
Friar’s  Omelette,  369. 

Fricassee,  217. 

Frieze,  217. 

Fringe,  217. 

Fritters,  217. 

Apple,  217. 


INDEX. 


638 


Fritters  (continued),  Bread,  217. 
Clam,  xo8. 

Corn,  125. 

Fruit,  217. 

Indian  Meal,  218. 

Lobster,  218. 

Mincemeat,  218. 

Orange,  372. 

Pear  and  Peach,  218. 

Potato,  218,  415. 

Rice,  218. 

Spanish,  218. 

Venetian,  218. 

Frog,  218. 

Fricasseed,  218. 

Fried,  218. 

Stewed,  218. 

Frost-bites,  219 
Frost-fish  (&  Tom-cod). 

Frozen  Limbs,  219. 

Fruit  Cake,  63. 

Fruit  Cobbler,  112. 

Fruit  Custard,  137. 

Fruits,  219. 

Candying,  75. 

Canning,  75. 

Fruit,  Wax,  to  Make,  220. 
Frumety,  220. 

Frying,  rationale  of,  220. 

Fuchsias,  221. 

Double,  221. 

Golden-leaved,  221. 

Single,  221. 

Winter-flowering,  221. 

Fuel  (See  Coal,  Coke,  and  Wood). 
Fuller’s  Earth,  221. 

Fumigation,  222. 

Funnel,  222. 

Furnaces,  575. 

Furnishing,  222. 

Bedrooms,  228. 

Curtains,  230. 

Dining-room,  226. 

Gas  Fixtures,  230. 

Hall,  223. 

Kitchen,  230,  319. 

Library,  226. 

Nursery,  229. 

Parlor,  223. 

Price  Lists,  232. 
Second-hand  Furniture,  232. 
Selection  of  Furniture,  231. 
Servants’  Rooms,  230. 
Sickroom,  485. 

Woods,  231. 

Furniture  Oil,  236. 

Polish,  236. 

Furs,  236. 

Fust-ian,  236. 

G 

Gamboge,  237,  176. 

Gallic  Acid,  1 72. 

Game,  237. 

Gravy,  253. 

Garden-cress  (See  Cress). 
Gardening,  237. 

Garget,  128. 

Garlic,  238. 

Vinegar,  338. 

Gas,  238. 


Gas  (continued),  Fixtures,  230. 

Meters,  350. 

Gastric  Fever,  545. 

Gauffering,  241. 

Gauze,  241. 

Gelatine,  241. 

Charlotte  de  Russe,  92. 
Geneva  (See  Gin). 

Geneva  Rolls,  450. 

Gentian,  241. 

Extract  of,  176. 

Infusion  of,  176. 
Geraniums,  242. 

Double,  242. 
Sweet-scented,  242. 
Zonale,  242. 

German  Cheeses,  95. 

German  Pancakes,  377. 
German  Puffs,  436. 

German  Sauce,  428. 

German  Silver,  242. 

German  Student  Lamp,  243. 
Gherkin,  244. 

Pickle,  396. 

Giblets,  244. 

Fricasseed,  244. 

Soup,  502. 

Stewed,  244. 

Giddiness  (See  Vertigo). 
Gilding,  to  Clean,  109. 
Gilliflower,  244. 

Gilt  Frames  (See  Frames). 
Gimp,  244. 

Gin,  244. 

Cordial,  124. 

Julep,  244. 

Punch,  437. 

Ginger,  244. 

Beer,  29. 

Candy,  73. 

Cordial,  124. 

Essence  of,  195,  245. 
Ginger-pop,  245. 
Mock-ginger,  245. 
Preserves,  421. 

Wine,  245. 

Gingerbread,  63. 

Fleming,  63. 

Hard,  64. 

Soft,  64. 

Spiced,  64. 

Sponge,  64. 

Sugar,  64. 

Ginger-snaps,  64. 

Gingham,  245. 

Gladiolus,  245. 

Glanders  (See  Horse). 

Glass,  246. 

Blue,  246. 
to  Clean  Cut,  246. 

Glaze,  246. 

Glazing,  246. 

Gloves,  246. 

to  Clean,  109. 

Glue,  246. 

Glycerine,  247. 

Soap,  494. 

Goat-flesh,  247. 

Goitre,  247. 

Golden  Cake,  64. 

Goldfish.  247. 

Gold-lace,  to  Clean,  248. 


Goose,  248. 

Carving,  84. 

Keeping,  418. 

Roast,  248. 

Stewed,  248. 

Gooseberry,  248. 

Champagne,  249. 

Compote,  1 1 7. 

Dried,  249. 

Jam,  313. 

Jelly,  316. 

Pie,  397. 

Preserves,  421. 

Pudding,  432. 

Tart,  524. 

Trifle,  537. 

Water-ice,  302. 

Wine,  249. 

Gossamer  (See  Gauze). 

Gourd,  249. 

Gout,  249. 

Graachen  Wine,  355. 

Grace,  Law  of,  326. 

Graefenberg  Wine,  446. 

Grafting,  250. 

Graham  Bread,  44. 

Biscuit,  33. 

Muffins,  356. 

Grandison  Punch,  437. 

Grapes,  251. 

Jelly,  316. 

Pie,  397. 

Preserved  fresh,  252. 

Wine,  252. 

Grates,  252,  574. 

Gravy,  252. 

Brown,  253. 

Clear,  253. 

Fish,  253. 

Game  or  Poultry,  253. 

Hasty,  253. 

Kidney,  253. 

Poultry,  253. 

Soup,  502. 

Veal,  253. 

Grease  for  the  Hair,  257. 
Grease-spots,  to  Remove  from 
Cloth,  253. 
from  Marble,  254. 

“ Paper,  254. 

“ Silk,  486. 

Green  Gage  (See  Tlum). 

Green  Geese  (See  Goose). 
Gregory’s  Powder  (See  Rhubarb). 
Grey  Powder,  254. 

Gridiron,  254. 

Grilling  (See  Broiling). 

Groats  (See  Oatmeal). 

Groceries,  254. 

Grog,  254. 

Groin,  bandage  for,  16. 

Grooming  Horses,  268. 

Groseilles  Preserves,  422. 
Ground-hog  (See  Woodchuck). 
Ground-peas  (See  Pea-nuts). 
Grouse,  254. 

Gruel,  255. 

Barley,  255. 

Common,  255. 

Oatmeal,  255. 

Rice,  255. 

Water,  255. 


Grunhausen  Wine,  355. 
Gruyere  Cheese,  95. 

Guava,  255. 

Jelly,  255. 

Guinea-fowl,  255. 

Keeping,  418. 

Gumbo,  256. 

Soup,  502. 

Gum  boil,  256. 

Gum  Drops,  73. 

Gunpowder  Tea,  525. 

Gutta  Percha,  256. 

Gutters,  256. 

H 

Haddock,  256. 

Haggis,  256. 

Hair,  257. 

Castor-oil  Pomatum,  257. 
Hair  Grease,  257. 

Hair  Tonic,  257. 

Hair  Wash,  257. 
Hair-cloth,  257. 

Hake,  257. 

Halibut,  258. 

Steak,  258. 

Hall,  Decoration  of,  148,  281. 

Furniture  of,  223. 

Ham,  258. 

Carving,  84. 

Eggs  with,  258,  189. 
Glazed,  259. 

Grated,  259. 

Omelette,  369. 

Potted,  259. 

Roast,  259. 

Steamed,  259. 

Hand,  bandage  for,  15. 

Hands,  259. 

Chapped,  192. 

Fractured,  214. 

Hare,  259. 

Fricasseed,  259. 

Roast,  259. 

Soup,  502. 

Stewed,  260. 

Harness,  to  Clean,  109. 
Harness-blacking,  36. 
Hartshorn  ( See  Ammonia). 
Plash  of  Beef,  24. 
of  Mutton,  361. 

“ Veal,  556. 

“ Venison,  558. 

Hasty  Pudding,  432. 

Hasty  Soup,  502. 

Hazlenut,  260. 

Head,  bandage  for,  16. 
Headache,  260. 

Head-cheese,  260. 

Head,  fractured,  214. 

Health,  Conditions  of,  260. 
Heartburn  ( See  Dyspepsia). 
Hearth,  to  Clean,  109. 

Heart  of  Beef,  24. 

Heartsease  {See  Pansy). 
Pleat-governor,  576. 

Pleating  {See  Warming). 
Heliotrope,  261. 

Scent-bag,  454. 
Hemiplegia  {See  Paralysis). 
Hemlock,  175. 

Hemorrhage  {See  Bleeding). 


INDEX. 


1 Plemp,  261. 

Plenbane,  261, 176. 

Ilepatica,  261. 

Herbemont  Wine,  5. 

Herbs,  Sweet,  262. 

Balm,  14. 

Basil,  17. 

Drinks,  262. 

Fennel,  200. 

Lavender,  324. 

Marjoram,  345. 

Mint,  354. 

Mixture,  262. 

Parsley,  382. 

Powder,  262. 

Rosemary,  452. 

Sage,  456. 

Tansy,  522. 

Tarragon,  524. 

Thyme,  533. 

Hernia,  262. 

Herring,  262. 

Hiccough,  263. 

Hickory-nuts,  263. 

Higdom  Pickles,  392. 

Hip,  dislocation  of,  161. 
Hip-joint,  fractured,  214. 
Hoarhound,  263. 

Candy,  74. 

1 Hoarseness,  263. 

1 Hock,  263. 

California,  6. 

Hodge-podge,  263. 

Hoe-cake,  264. 

Hog  {See  Pork). 

Hollands  {See  Gin). 

Hollyhock,  264. 

Homeopathy,  264. 

Homeria,  264. 

Hominy,  264. 

Muffins,  356. 

Honey,  265. 

Cake,  64. 

Clarified,  265. 

Water,  265. 

Honeysuckle,  265. 

Tartarian,  265. 

Hoof-ail  (in  Cows),  12S. 
Ilooping-cough  {See  Whooping- 
cough). 

Hops,  265. 

Extract  of,  176. 

Yeast,  597. 

; Horse,  265. 

Diseases  and  Accidents,  268. 
Bots,  268. 

Blind  Staggers,  268. 
Broken  Knees,  269. 
Canker,  268. 

Catarrh,  268. 

Chapped  Heels,  26S. 

Colds,  268. 

Colic,  268. 

Corns,  268. 

Diarrhoea,  268. 

Dysentery,  269. 

Founder,  269. 

Glanders,  269. 

Grease,  269. 

Inflammation,  269. 
Lameness,  269. 

Lice,  269. 


639 

Horse  (con.),  Liver  Diseases,  269. 
Lung  Fever,  269. 

Pleurisy  269. 

Pneumonia,  269. 

Quittor,  269. 

Ring  Bones,  269. 

Sand  Crack,  269. 

Scratches,  269. 

Shoulder  Slip,  269. 

Spavin.  269. 

Splints,  269. 

Sprains,  270. 

Staggers,  270, 

Thrush,  270. 

Worms,  270. 

Food  and  Management,  267. 
Exercise,  268. 

Grooming,  268. 

Hoof,  the,  267. 

Regulating  Bowels,  267. 
Salt,  267. 

Water,  267. 

General  Remedies,  270. 
Horse-mackerel.  {See  Tunny- 
fish.) 

Horse-radish,  271,  176. 

Sauce,  465. 

Vinegar,  564. 

Hosiery,  271. 

Hot-bed,  271. 

Hot-water  Bag,  271. 

Hour-glass,  271. 

| House,  271. 

Advice  to  Persons  about  tak- 
ing a,  296. 

Construction,  288. 

Stone  and  Brick,  288. 
Wooden  Houses,  291. 
Exposure,  272. 

Exterior  Arrangement,  284. 
Interior  Arrangement,  273. 

“ P'inish,  293. 

Plans,  273  to  281. 

Situation  and  Surroundings, 
272. 

Style,  284. 

Trees,  272. 

Unhealthiness  of  a new,  296. 
House-cleaning,  109. 

Hoven,  128. 

Huckaback,  296. 

Pluckleberry,  296. 

Cake,  64. 

Pie,  398. 

Pudding,  432. 

Hungarian  Wines,  296. 
Baltazeker,  297. 

Budai,  297. 

Egri,  297. 

Karlovai,  297. 

Maggarati,  297. 

Matrai,  297. 

Menesi,  297. 

Nezmelyi,  297. 

Ruszti,  297. 

St.  Gyorgy,  297. 

Somlai,  297. 

Sopronyi,  297. 

Szamarodner,  297. 

Szegszardi,  297. 

Tetenyi,  297. 

Tokay,  297. 


INDEX. 


040 


Hungarian  Wine  (con.),  Villanyi, 
Visontai,  297.  [297. 

Hungary  Water,  297. 

Hyacinthe,  297. 

Hydrangea,  298. 

Hybrid  Perpetual  Roses,  451. 
Hydrate  of  Chloral  ( See  Chloral). 
Hydrochloric  Acid,  173. 
Hydrometer  (See  Dairy). 
Hydropathy,  298. 

Hydrophobia,  299. 

in  the  Dog,  299,  163. 
Hygiene  (See  Health). 
Hypochondria,  300. 

Hyson  Tea,  525. 

Hysteria,  300,  380,  389,  469. 
Hysterical  Fits,  300. 

I 

Ice,  301. 

Apple,  8. 

Apricot,  8. 

Ice-bag,  301. 

Ice-cream,  301!" 

Almond,  301. 

Chocolate,  302. 

Coffee,  302. 

Fruit,  302. 

Lemon,  302. 

Orange,  302. 

Orgeat,  302. 

Peach,  302. 

Philadelphia,  302. 

Pineapple,  303. 

Raspberry,  302. 

Strawberry,  302. 

Vanilla,  302. 

Ice-houses,  301. 

Iceland  Moss  (See  Lichens). 

Ices,  Water  (See  Water-ices). 

Icing  (for  Cake),  303. 

Almond,  303. 

Imperial,  303. 

Indian  Cress  (See  Nasturtium). 
Indian  Dumpling,  182. 

India  Pale  Ale,  4. 

Indian  Pone  Bread,  44. 

Indian  Pudding,  432. 

India  Rubber,  303. 

India  Shawl  (See  Shawls). 
Indigestion  (See  Dyspepsia). 
Infants,  303. 

Arrowroot  for,  10. 

Barley  for,  17. 

Birth,  303. 

Clothing,  304. 

Diet,  305. 

Diseases  of,  306. 

Sleep  of,  306. 

Teething,  307. 

Weaning,  308. 

Inflammation,  309. 

Influenza,  309. 

Infusion,  309. 

of  Camomile,  176. 

“ Cloves,  176. 

“ Gentian,  176. 

“ Linseed,  177. 

“ Orange-peel,  177. 

“ Quassia,  177. 

“ Rhubarb,  177. 


Infusion  of  Roses,  177. 

of  Senna,  177. 

Ingrafting  (See  Grafting). 

Ingrain  Carpet,  81. 

Ingrowing  Nail  (See  Toe-nail). 
Injections,  309. 

Ink,  Black,  309. 

Marking,  309. 

Ink  Stains,  309. 

Indelible,  309. 

Insanity,  309. 

Insects  (See  Ants,  Bugs,  Cock- 
roaches, Fleas,  Flies,  Mos- 
quitoes, and  Moth). 

Insects  in  the  Ear,  1. 

Insects,  to  Remove  from  Plants 
and  Flowers,  207,  592. 
Insomnia  (See  Sleeplessness). 
Inspissation,  310. 

Interest  for  Money,  326. 
Intermittent  Fever  (See  Ague). 
Iona  Wine,  5. 

Ipecacuanha,  179. 

Iris,  310. 

Irish  Poplin  (See  Poplin). 

Irish  Stew  (See  Mutton). 

Iron,  Mixture  of,  178. 

Syrup  of,  1 80. 

Iron  Bedstead,  22. 

Ironing,  579. 

Iron-mould,  355. 

Iron,  Polishing,  310. 

Ironstone  China,  187. 

Ironware,  310. 

Cement  for,  91. 

Cleaning,  no. 
to  preserve  from  Rust,  31 1. 
Isabella  Wine,  5. 

Isinglass,  31 1. 

Isle  of  Wight  Doughnuts,  163. 
Italian  Cheeses,  95. 

Italian  Meringues,  350. 

Itch,  311. 

Ivory,  31 1. 

to  Silver,  311. 

Ivy,  312. 

Poison,  408. 

Ixia,  312. 

J 

Jacket  (See  Sacque). 

Jaconet,  312. 

Jalap,  177. 

Jam,  312. 

Apricot,  9. 

Blackberry,  313,  35. 

Carrot,  313. 

Currant,  813. 

Gooseberry,  313. 

Greengage,  313. 

Raspberry,  313. 

Rhubaib,  313. 

Strawberry,  313. 

Japanese  Cement,  91. 

Japanese  Paper-ware,  377. 

Japan  Lilies  (See  Lily). 

Japonica,  313. 

Jasmine,  313. 

Jaundice,  313. 

Jaune  Mange,  314. 

Jaw,  dislocation  of,  161. 


Jaw,  fractured,  214. 

Jeans,  314. 

Jelly,  314. 

Apple,  315. 

Apricot,  9. 

Arrowroot,  315. 

Aspic  or  Savory,  315. 
Barberry,  315. 

Blackberry,  315. 

Calf’s-feet,  69,  315. 

Cake,  64. 

Cherry  and  Currant,  316. 
Cider,  316. 

Currant,  316. 

Four-fruit,  316. 

Gooseberry,  316. 

Grape,  316. 

Guava,  255. 

Lemon,  316. 

Marbled,  316. 

Orange,  316. 

Peach,  316. 

Quince,  316. 

Raspberry,  316. 

“ and  Currant,  316. 
Rhubarb,  316. 

Rice,  316. 

Sago,  317. 

Sassafras,  462. 

Strawberry,  317. 

Tapioca,  317. 

Wine,  317. 

Jenny  Lind's  Soup,  503. 
Jerusalem  Artichoke,  10. 
Jessamine  (See  Jasmine). 
Johannisberger,  446 
John  Dory  (See  Dory). 

Johnny  Cakes,  317. 

Jonquil,  317. 

Josephshoff,  355. 

Jujube  Paste,  74. 

Julep,  Gin,  244. 

Mint,  317. 

Julienne  Soup,  503. 

Jumbles,  317. 

Almond,  317. 

Cocoanut,  317. 

K 

Kalamazoo  Pickles,  392. 

Kale,  317. 

ICalsomining,  318. 

Karlovai  Wine,  297. 

Kerosene,  318. 

Kerseymere  (See  Cassimcre). 
Ketchup  (See  Catsup). 

Kettle,  318. 

Kid,  318. 

Kidderminster  Carpet,  81. 

Kidney  Beans,  20. 

Kidneys,  318. 

Beef,  24. 

Broiled,  318. 

Fried,  319. 

Stewed,  319. 

Kingfish  (See  Whiting). 
Kirschwasser,  336. 

Kitchen,  319,  283.  477. 

Knee,  Bandage  for,  16. 

Dislocation  of,  162. 

Knee-cap,  fractured,  215. 


INDEX. 


G41 


Knife,  3ig. 

Cleaning,  109,  320. 
»Kol-cannon,  320. 

Konisbach  Wine,  446. 

Kuemmel,  336. 

L 

Laburnum,  320. 

Lace,  to  Clean,  320. 

to  Wash,  579. 

Lachenalia,  320. 

Lacquering,  321. 

Lactometer  (See  Dairy). 

Lady  Cake,  65. 

Lady  Slipper  (See  Balsam). 

Lafitte  Wine,  108. 

Lager  Beer,  321. 

Lait  Sucre,  30. 

Lamb,  321. 

Chops,  321. 

Sauce  for,  322. 

Lambrequin,  135. 

Lamprey,  322. 

Lamps,  322. 

Argand,  9,  322. 

Astral,  322. 

Carcel,  79 
Chimneys,  323. 

Duplex,  323. 

German  Student,  243. 

Globes,  240. 

Moderateur,  323. 

Shades,  240. 

Spirit,  323. 

Lard,  323. 

to  Make,  323. 

Larding,  324. 

Lark,  324. 

Larkspur,  324. 

Lasting,  324. 

Latour  Wine,  108. 

Laudanum,  324,  177. 

Laurel  Leaves,  324. 

Laughing  Gas  ( See  Nitrous  Ox- 
ide). 

Laurestinus,  324. 

Lavender-water,  324. 

Law,  324. 

Bill  of  Exchange,  31. 

Caveat  Emptor,  325. 

Change,  325. 

Check,  Bank,  93. 

Deed,  325. 

Delivery  of  Personal  Prop- 
erty, 323. 

Dower,  326. 

Escrow,  326. 

Grace,  326. 

Interest  for  Money,  326. 
Legal  Tender,  326. 
Limitations,  Statute  of,  326. 
Payments,  Appropriations  of, 
326. 

Mortgage,  327. 

Outlawry  of  Claims,  327. 
Power  of  Attorney,  419. 
Promissory  Note,  425. 
Receipt,  443. 

Release,  327. 

Sale  of  Property,  327. 
Servant  and  Master,  477. 

41 


Law  (continued),  Tender,  327. 
Warranty,  328. 

Will,  328. 

Lawn,  329. 

Laxatives,  329. 

Lead,  329. 

Leak  in  Lead  Pipes,  329. 
Leather,  to  Dye,  185. 

Leaven  (See  Yeast). 

Leeches,  how  to  Use,  329. 
Leek,  329. 

Legal  Tender,  326. 

Leg,  Bandage  for,  16. 

Broken,  215. 

Lemonade,  330. 

Concentrated,  330. 

Milk,  330. 

Portable,  330. 

Lemon,  330. 

Cake,  65. 

Candy,  74. 

Cream,  131. 

Drops,  169. 

Dumpling,  182. 

Essence  of,  196. 
Ice-cream,  302. 

Jelly,  316. 

Marmalade,  346. 

Pie,  398. 

Pudding,  432. 

Sauce,  428,  464. 

Sherbet,  481. 

Syrup,  521. 

T arts,  525. 

Water-ices,  302. 

Lemons,  Salt  of,  330. 

Lemon  Verbena,  330. 

Lettuce,  330. 

Salad,  330. 

Stewed,  331. 

Leucorrhoea,  349. 

Leveret  (See  Rabbit). 

Library,  148,  331. 

Furniture,  226. 

Lice,  269. 

Lichens,  333. 

Liebig’s  Extract  of  Meat,  333. 

to  Make,  333. 

Ligature,  333. 

Lightning,  Stroke  of,  333. 
Lightning-rod,  334. 

Lilac,  334. 

Lily,  334- 
Calla,  69. 

Japan,  334. 
of  the  Valley,  334. 

Lima  Beans,  20. 

Limburger  Cheese,  95. 

Lime.  334. 

Water,  334. 

Limes,  334. 

Juice,  334,  471. 
Limitations,  Statute  of,  326. 
Linen,  335. 

Ling,  335. 

Liniment,  335. 

Ammonia,  177. 

Camphor,  177. 
Camphorated  Oil,  335. 
Turpentine,  177. 

Volatile,  335. 

White,  335. 


Linseed,  335. 

Infusion,  177. 

Poultice,  179. 

Tea,  335. 

Linsey-woolsey,  335. 

Lips,  Chapped  ( See  Chapped 
Hands). 

Liqueurs,  335. 

Anisette,  335. 

Benedictine,  335. 

Chartreuse,  336. 

Creme  de  Girofle,  336. 

“ “ Noyeau,  336. 

“ “ The,  336. 

“ “ Vanille,  336. 

Currant,  336. 

Curacoa,  134,  336. 

Eau  de  Vie,  336. 
Kirschwasser,  336. 

Kuemmel,  336. 

Maraschino,  336. 

Noyeau,  336. 

Orange,  336. 

Raspberry,  336. 

Ratafia,  336. 

Liver,  336. 

Baked,  336. 

Beef,  24. 

Fried  with  Bacon,  337. 
Roast,  337. 

Stewed,  337. 

Liverwort  (See  ilepatica). 

Loaf  Cake,  65. 

Lobster,  337. 

Croquettes,  117. 

Curry,  117. 

Devilled,  338. 

Farcie,  338. 

Forcemeat,  515 
Fried,  338. 

Patties,  338. 

Potted,  338. 

Sauce,  338,  465. 

Soup,  503. 

Lockjaw  (See  Tetanus). 

Lories,  381. 

Lotion,  338. 

Arnica,  338. 

Astringent,  338. 

Evaporating,  338. 

Raspail’s  Sedative,  338. 
Stimulating,  339. 

Louisiana  Wine,  5. 

Lumbago,  339. 

Lunacy  (See  Insanity). 

I Lunar  Caustic,  339. 

Lunch,  339. 

Lung  Fever,  in  Horses,  269. 
Lungs,  Bleeding  of  the.  38. 

Lungs,  to  Test  the  State  of  the, 
339- 
Lupin,  340. 

Lustring,  340. 

Lutestring  (See  Lustring). 

Lye,  340. 

Lyonnaise  Potatoes,  415. 

M 

Macaroni,  340. 

A la  Creme,  340. 

Baked,  340. 


INDEX. 


642 

Macaroni  (con.),  Boiled,  340. 
Pudding,  432. 

Richelieu,  340. 

Side  Dish,  341. 

Timbale,  341. 

Macaroons,  341. 

Almond,  341. 

Cocoanut,  341. 

Filbert,  341. 

Flour,  341. 

Orange-flower,  341. 

Macaws,  381. 

Mace,  341. 

Essence  of,  195. 

Maceration,  341. 

Mackerel,  341. 

Potted,  342. 

Madeira,  343. 

Magendie’s  Solution  (See  Mor- 
phine). 

Maggarati  Wine,  297. 

Maggots,  343. 

Magnesia,  343,  177. 

Citrate  of,  343. 

Magnolia,  343. 

Mahogany,  231. 

Maitre  d’Hotel  Sauce,  465. 
Maitrank,  437. 

Maize  (See  Indian  Corn). 
Majolica,  344. 

Malaria,  344. 

Malic  Acid,  1. 

Malt  (See  Brewing). 

Malt  Liquors,  345. 

Ale,  4. 

Beer,  28. 

Lager  Beer,  321. 

Porter,  413. 

Malt  Wine,  345. 

Mange,  345. 

in  Cows,  128. 

Mangel-wurzel,  29. 

Mangoes,  Pickled,  401. 
Maple-wood,  231. 

Marasmus,  use  of  Cod-liver  oil 
in,  1 14. 

Maraschino,  336. 

Marble,  to  Clean,  345. 

Steps,  to  Clean,  109. 

Marbled  Cake,  65. 

Marcobrunner,  446. 

Marigold,  345. 

Marjoram,  345. 

Essence  of,  196. 

Sweet,  345. 

Marking  Clothes,  346. 

Marmalade,  346. 

Apple,  346. 

Apricot,  346. 

Barberry,  346. 

Lemon,  346. 

Orange,  346. 

Peach,  346. 

Pineapple,  346. 

Quince,  346. 

Quince  and  Apple,  346. 
Marrow  Pudding,  433. 
Marsh-mallows,  178. 

Marsh  Marigold,  345. 

Massasoit  Wine,  5. 

Matelote,  346. 

Egg,  347- 


Matrai  Wine,  297. 

Mattress  (See  Beds  and  Bedding). 

I Maxatawney  Wine,  5. 
Mayonnaise  Dressing,  457. 

Sauce,  465. 

Mead,  347. 

Sparkling,  347. 

Measles,  347. 

Measure  Cake,  65. 

Measures  (See  Weights  and  Meas- 
ures). 

Medicines  (See  Drugs). 

Medoc  Wines  (See  Claret). 
Melons,  347. 

Musk-melon,  359. 
Watermelon,  583. 

Melt,  347. 

Menesi  Wine,  297. 

Menstruation,  348. 

Dysmenorrhoea,  349. 
Leucorrhoea,  349. 

“ Turn  of  Life,”  349. 
Mercury,  178. 

Ointment  of,  178. 

Pill  of,  178. 

Meringues,  349. 

Fruit,  350. 

Italian,  350. 

Merino,  350. 

Meters,  for  Gas,  350. 

Diy  Meters,  351. 

Water  Meters,  350. 

Metric  System,  586. 

Miasm  (See  Malaria). 

Mice,  to  Destroy,  352. 

Mignonette,  352. 

Mildew,  352. 

on  Cotton,  511. 

Milk,  352. 

Adulteration  of,  353. 
Condensed,  353. 

Punch,  437. 

Stains,  51 1. 

Tests  for,  141. 

Milk  Fever  (in  Cows),  128. 
Milking,  129. 

Milk-weed,  353. 

Milled  Drugget,  172. 

Millet,  353. 

Mincemeat,  353. 

Fritters,  218. 

Mock,  353. 

Pies,  398. 

Mint,  354. 

Julep,  317. 

Vinegar,  564. 

Water,  178. 

Mirrors,  to  Clean,  109,  354. 
Mocking  Bird,  354. 

Mock-turtle  Soup,  503. 
Moderateur  Lamp,  323. 

Mohair,  354. 

Molasses,  354. 

Cake,  65. 

Candy,  74. 

Posset,  413. 

Monroel  Pickles,  393. 

Moose,  354. 

Moquette  Carpet,  81. 

Moreen,  354. 

Morphine,  355. 

Mortar  (See  Wedgewood  Mortar). 


Mortgage,  327. 

Moselle  Wines,  355. 

Mosquitoes,  355. 

Moss,  Iceland  (See  Lichens). 
Moss  Roses,  451. 

Moths,  355. 

Mould,  355. 

Iron-mould,  355. 

Mould  Candles,  72. 

Moulded  Custard,  137. 

Mountain  Cake,  66. 

Mucilage,  356. 

Muffins,  356. 

Bread,  356. 

Corn,  356. 

Graham,  356. 

Green  Corn,  125. 

Hominy,  356. 

Rice,  356. 

Mulberry,  356. 

Cider,  356. 

Mulled  Drinks,  356. 

Cider,  356. 

Claret,  356. 

Port,  356. 

Mullet,  356. 

Mulligatawney,  357. 

Soup,  504. 

Mumps,  357. 

Muscadine,  357. 

Mush,  357. 

Mushroom,  357. 

Baked,  358. 

Broiled,  358. 

Catsup,  89. 

Dried,  358. 

Pickled,  358,  393. 

Powder,  358. 

Sauce,  465. 

Stewed,  358. 

Sweetbreads  and,  35A. 

Musk,  358. 

Musk-melon,  359. 

Musk-rat,  359. 

Muslin,  359. 

Mussels,  359. 

Boiled,  359. 

Pickled,  359. 

Mustard,  359. 

Tartar,  360. 

Mutton,  360. 

Broth,  50,  361. 

Ilam  of,  361. 

Haricot,  361. 

Hash,  361. 

Irish  Stew,  361. 

Minced,  361. 

Pie,  362. 

Roast,  362. 

Soup,  504. 

Myrrh,  362. 

Tincture  of,  180. 

Myrtle,  362. 

Soup,  495. 

N 

Nails  (See  Finger-nails  and  Toe- 
nails). 

Nainsook,  362. 

Nankeen,  362. 

Napkins,  157. 


INDEX. 


G43 


Narcissus,  363. 

Narcotics,  363. 

Nasturtium,  363. 

Pickled,  363. 

Neck,  Dislocation  of,  161. 

Neck,  Stiff,  363. 

Nectar,  363. 

Nectarine,  363. 

Negus,  363. 

Barley,  363. 

Port,  363. 

Nerine,  363. 

Nettle-rash,  364. 

Neufchatel  Cheese,  95. 

Neuralgia,  364. 

Nezmelyi  Wine,  297. 

Niersteiner  Wine,  446. 

Nigella,  364. 

Night  dress,  364. 

Nightmare,  490. 

Nipped,  with  Cold,  219. 

Nitrate  of  Silver  Stain,  to  Re- 
move, 5 1 1. 

Nitre  Whey,  31. 

Nitrous  Oxide,  365. 

Noisette  Roses,  452. 

Norfolk  Dumpling,  182. 

Norfolk  Punch,  437. 

Nosebleed,  38. 

in  Brain  Fever,  41. 

Note  {See  Promissory  Note). 
Noyeau,  336. 

Nuits  Wine,  55. 

Nursery,  229. 

Nurses  and  Nursing,  365. 

Qualifications  of  a Nurse,  365. 
Nut  Cake,  66. 

Nut  Candy,  74. 

Nutmeg,  366. 

Essence  of,  366. 

Nuts,  366. 

Almonds,  4. 

Brazil-nuts,  43. 

Butternuts,  58. 

Cashew-nuts,  86. 

Chestnuts,  96. 

Cocoanuts,  112. 

Hazlenuts,  260. 

Hickory-nuts,  263. 

Oil-nuts,  367. 

Pea-nuts,  386. 

Pecan-nuts,  387. 
Pistachio-nuts,  404. 

Nux  Vomica,  366. 


o • 

Oak,  231. 

Oak,  Poison,  408. 
Oatmeal,  366. 

Bread,  44. 

Groats  (or  Grits),  367. 
Gruel,  255. 

Mush,  367. 

Porridge,  367. 
Pudding,  367. 
Oil-nuts  {See  Butternuts) 
Oil  cloth,  367. 
to  Clean,  367. 

“ Make,  367. 


Ointments,  178. 

of  Creasote,  178. 

“ Galls,  178. 

“ Mercury,  178. 

“ Zinc,  178. 

Okra,  368. 

Boiled,  368. 

Soup,  502. 

Oleander,  368. 

Olives,  368. 

Sauce,  465. 

Olive-oil,  368,  178. 
Omelette,  369. 

Apple,  369. 

Aux  Fins  Herbs,  369. 
Cheese,  369. 

Friar’s,  369. 

Ham,  369. 

Oyster,  374. 
'Sandwiches,  461. 
Savory,  369. 

Souffle,  369. 
Strawberry,  369. 
Sweet,  369. 

Onion,  369. 

Baked,  370. 

Pickled,  370,  393. 
Roast,  370. 

Sauce,  466. 

Stewed,  370. 

Stuffed,  370. 

Stuffing,  515. 

Vinegar,  564. 
Ophthalmia,  371. 
Catarrhal,  371. 
Common,  371. 
Purulent,  371. 

Opium,  370,  180. 

Opossum,  370. 

Orange,  372. 

Cake,  66. 

Compote,  1 18. 

Cream,  131. 

Essence  of  Peel,  196. 
Filled  with  Telly,  372. 
Fool,  372. 

Fritters,  372. 
Ice-cream,  302. 

Jelly,  316. 

Liqueur,  336. 
Macaroons,  341. 
Marmalade,  346. 

Pie,  398. 

Preserves,  422. 
Pudding,  433. 

Salad,  372. 

Syrup,  372,  521. 

Tarts,  525. 

Water-ice,  302. 

Wine,  372. 

Orangeade,  373. 

Organdie,  373. 

Orgeat,  373. 

Ice-cream,  302. 
Oriental  China,  187. 
Ormolu,  373. 

Ortolan,  373. 

Broiled,  373. 

Roast,  373. 

Otter,  373. 

Outlawry  of  Claims,  327. 
Overshoes,  373. 


Oxalic  Acid,  373. 

Oxalis,  373. 

Ox-cheek  Soup,  504. 

Ox-tail  Soup,  504. 

Oyster,  374. 

Broiled,  374. 

Catsup,  374. 

Curry,  374. 

Omelette,  374. 

Patties,  374. 

Pickled,  374. 

Pie,  374- 
Poulette,  375. 

Roast,  375. 

Sauce,  466. 

Scalloped,  375. 

Soup,  505. 

Steamed,  375. 

Stewed,  375. 

Stuffing,  516. 

Oyster-plant,  375. 

Boiled,  375. 

Stewed,  375. 

P 

Paeony,  376. 

Herbaceous,  376. 

Tree,  376. 

Paint,  to  Clean,  376,  no. 

to  Remove,  376. 

Painting,  376,  293. 

Measurement  of  Painter’s 
Work,  377. 

Palestine  Soup,  505. 

Palsy  {See  Paralysis). 

Panada,  377. 

Chicken,  377. 

Cracker,  377. 

Pancakes,  377. 

Apple,  377. 

Dessert,  377. 

German,  377. 

Pansy,  377. 

Paper-hangings,  378. 

Cleaning,  no. 

Hanging,  378. 

Measuring,  378. 

Paste  for,  378. 

Price  of,  378. 

Papier  Mache,  378. 

Cleaning,  no. 

Paper-ware,  377. 

Paraffine,  378. 

Oil,  379- 
Paralysis,  379. 

Paraplegia  {See  Paralysis). 
Paregoric  Elixir,  380. 

Parlor  Furniture,  223. 

Parmesan  Cheese,  95. 

Paroquets,  381. 

Parquetry,  380. 

Parrots,  380. 

Cockatoos,  381. 

Lories,  381. 

Macaws,  381. 

Paroquets,  381. 

Toucans,  381. 

True  Parrots,  381. 

Parsley,  390. 

Fried,  390. 

Sauce,  466. 


INDEX. 


G44 


Parsnip,  382. 

Buttered,  382. 

Fried,  382. 

Soup,  505. 

Wine,  382. 

Partridge,  383. 

Carving,  85. 

Roast,  387. 

“ with  Bacon,  387. 
Passion  Flower,  383. 

Paste  for  Labels,  383. 

for  Paper-hangings,  378. 
Pastiles,  383. 

Pastry,  384. 

Sandwiches,  461. 

Pate,  384. 

Patties,  384. 

Beef,  384. 

Lobster,  338,  384. 

Oyster,  374,  384. 

Turkey,  384. 

Veal,  384. 

Paw-paw,  384. 

Payments,  Appropriation  of,  326. 
Peach,  385. 

Brandied,  385. 

Candied,  385. 

Compote,  1 1 8. 

Cordial,  124. 

Dried,  385. 

Fritters,  218. 

Ice-cream,  302. 

Jelly,  316. 

Leather,  3S5. 

Marmalade,  346. 

Pickle,  401. 

Preserves,  422. 

Salad,  385. 

Stewed,  383. 

Suedoise,  386. 

Pea-fowl,  386. 

Keeping,  418. 

Pea-nuts,  386. 

Pear,  386. 

Baked,  386. 

Brandied,  386. 

Candied,  386. 

Fritters,  218. 

Preserves  422. 

Salad,  386. 

Stewed,  387. 

Syrup,  521. 

Pearlash  (See  Potash). 

Pearl  Barley,  17. 

Pearl-white  (See  Cosmetics). 

Pear- wood,  231. 

Peas,  384. 

Soup,  505. 

Pecan-nut,  387. 

Pekoe  Tea,  525. 

Pelargonium,  387. 

Pelisse,  387. 

Pennyroyal,  387. 

Peony  (See  Paony). 

Pepsine,  387. 

Pepper,  388. 

Cayenne,  go,  388. 
Peppercorns  (See  Pepper). 
Peppermint,  388. 

Drops,  388. 

Perch,  388. 

Perfumes,  388. 


Peritonitis,  388. 

Periwinkles,  389. 

Perry,  389. 

Persian  Carpets,  81. 

Peru,  Balsam  of,  14,  178. 

Petits  Pois  (Asparagus  with),  11. 
Petroleum,  389. 

Pewter-ware,  389. 

Pheasant,  389. 

Phlox,  389. 

Piano-forte,  Care  of  the,  390. 
Piccalilli,  390. 

Pickerel,  390. 

Pickles,  390. 

Barberries,  391. 

Beans,  391. 

Beetroots,  30,  391. 
Butternuts,  394. 

Cabbage,  391. 

Capsicums,  392.  • 

Cauliflower,  392. 

Celery,  392. 

Cherries,  392. 

Chow-chow,  104. 

Cucumber,  392. 

Elder,  392. 

Eschalots,  392. 

French.  392. 

Gherkins,  392. 

Higdom,  392. 

Kalamazoo,  392. 

Mangoes,  393. 

Mixed,  393. 

Monroel,  393. 

Mushrooms,  393. 
Nasturtiums,  363. 

Onions,  393. 

“ and  Cucumbers,  393. 
Peaches,  393. 

Piccalilli,  390. 

Sweet,  393. 

Tomatoes,  393. 

Walnuts,  394. 

Pickling  Meat,  394. 

Pictures,  Cleaning,  147,  394. 
Framing,  394. 

Hanging,  394. 

Protecting  from  Insects,  394. 
Pies,  394. 

Apple,  396. 

Beef,  24,  25. 

Beefsteak,  396. 

Blackberry,  397 
Carrot,  397. 

Cherry,  397. 

Chicken,  97. 

Cocoanut,  397. 

Cranberry,  397. 

Crust,  395. 

“ Cream,  395. 

“ Economical,  396. 

“ Puff-paste,  395. 

“ Short,  396. 

“ Suet,  396. 

Currant,  397. 

Custard,  Apple,  397. 

“ Cornstarch,  397. 

“ Peach,  397. 
Gooseberry,  397. 

Grape,  397. 

Huckleberry,  398. 

Lemon,  398. 


Pies  (con.),  Lemon  Cream, 
Marlborough,  398. 
Mince,  398. 

Orange,  398. 

Oyster,  374. 

Peach,  398. 

Pigeon,  401. 

Plum,  398. 

Pork,  41 1. 

Potato,  398. 

“ Sweet,  399. 
Pumpkin,  399. 

Quail,  439. 

Rabbit,  441. 

Raspberry,  399. 
Rhubarb,  399. 

Rice,  399. 

Scallop,  468. 
Strawberry,  399. 
Tomato,  399. 

Veal,  556. 

Venison,  558. 

Pig,  400. 

Baked,  400. 

Carving,  86. 

Ears,  412. 

Feet,  412. 

Head,  412. 

Liver,  412. 

Roast,  400. 

Souse,  412. 

Pigeon,  400. 

Baked,  400. 

Carving,  85, 

Keeping,  418. 

Pie,  401. 

Stewed,  401. 

Pigments,  401. 

Blacks,  401. 

Blues,  401. 

Browns,  401 
Compound  Colors,  401. 
Greens,  401. 
Orange-color,  401. 
Reds,  401. 

Whites,  401. 

Yellows,  401. 

Pike,  402. 

Piles,  402. 

Pillaw,  193. 

Pillow-cases,  22. 

Pillows,  21. 

Pills  (See  Drugs). 

Pimento  (See  Allspice). 
Pimpernel,  403. 

Pimples,  403. 

Pine,  231. 

Pine-apple,  403. 

Ice-cream,  302. 
Marmalade,  346. 
Preserves,  422. 
Pudding,  433. 

Punch,  438. 

Sauce,  428. 

Syrup;  521. 

Water,  403. 

Water-ice,  303. 

Pinks,  403. 

Pipes,  Gas  and  Water,  403. 
Leaky,  329. 

I Piquante  Sauce,  466. 
Pistachio  Nuts,  404. 


Pitch,  404. 

Burgundy,  179. 

Plaice,  404. 

Plaid,  404. 

Plantain,  404. 

Plaster  Figures,  to  Give  the  ap- 
pearance of  Marble,  or  to 
Varnish,  404. 

Plastering,  404,  293. 

Plated  Ware,  405. 

to  Clean,  487. 

Plate  Powder,  '487. 

Pleurisy,  405. 

in  Horses,  269. 

Plover,  406. 

Plumes  ( See  Feathers). 

Plums,  406. 

Cake,  66. 

Compote,  1 18. 

Pie,  39S. 

Preserves,  422. 

Pudding,  433. 

Plush,  406. 

Pneumonia,  406. 
in  Horses,  269. 

“ Typhoid  Fever,  545. 
Poisons  and  Antidotes,  407. 
Poison-plants,  408. 

Ivy,  408. 

Oak,  408. 

Sumach,  408. 

Polyuria  (See  Diabetes). 

Pomades,  409. 

Castor-oil,  257,  409. 

Hard,  409. 

Sultana,  409. 

Pompone  Dahlia  (See  Dahlia). 
Poplin,  409. 

Poppy  Capsules,  409. 

Porcelain  (See  Earthenware). 
Porgee,  409. 

Pork,  410. 

Beans  and,  20,  410. 

Brawn,  411. 

Broiled  Corned,  41 1. 

Chops  and  Steaks,  41 1. 
Italian  Cheese,  41 1. 

Pickled,  411. 

Pie,  411. 

with  Apples,  411. 
Pot-pie,  41 1. 

Pig’s  Ears,  412. 

“ Feet,  412. 

“ Head,  412. 

“ Liver,  412. 

Souse,  412. 

Stewed,  412. 

Porridge,  Indian,  413. 

Oatmeal,  367. 

Porter,  413. 

Brown  Stout.  413. 

Portugal  Cake,  66. 

Port  Wine,  413. 

California,  6. 

Mulled,  356,  413. 

Negus,  363. 

Virginia,  5. 

Posset,  413. 

Ale,  413. 

Sack,  413. 

Molasses,  413. 

Potash,  413. 


INDEX. 

Potatoes,  413. 

A la  Creme,  414. 

A la  Maitre  d'Hotel,  414. 
Baked,  414. 

“ Sweet,  414. 

Balls,  415. 

Biscuit,  34. 

Bread,  44. 

Broiled,  414. 

Chips,  415. 

Fried  Sweet,  415. 

Fritters,  218,  415. 
Lyonnaise,  415. 

Pasty,  39S. 

Pie,  399. 

Pudding,  433. 

Roast,  415. 

“ Sweet,  415. 

Salad,  457. 

Saute,  415. 

Scooped,  415. 

Stewed,  415. 

Stuffed,  415. 

Yeast,  597. 

Pot-au-feu,  415. 

Pots  (See  Ironware). 

Pots  and  Kettles,  to  Clean,  no. 
Pots  for  Plants,  591. 

Pottery  (See  Earthenware). 
Poultices,  415. 

Bran,  416. 

Charcoal,  179. 

Hemlock,  179. 

Linseed,  179,  416. 

Mustard,  179. 

Yeast,  179,  416. 
Poultry-keeping,  416. 

Chickens,  416. 

Ducks,  418. 

Geese,  418. 

Guinea-fowls,  418. 

Pea  fowls,  418. 

Pigeons,  418. 

Turkeys,  419. 

Pound  Cake,  66. 

Powders,  Baking,  14. 

Power  of  Attorney,  419. 

Prairie  Chicken,  420. 
Prairie-hen,  254. 

Fricasseed,  255. 

Salmi  of,  255. 

Stewed,  255. 

Prairie  Roses,  452. 

Prawns,  420. 

! Prepared  Chalk,  91. 

I Preserves,  420. 

Apples,  420. 

Apricots,  420. 

Barberries,  421. 

Cherries,  421. 

Crab-apples,  421. 
Cucumbers,  421. 

Damsons,  421. 

Figs,  421. 

Ginger,  421. 

Gooseberries,  421. 
Greengages,  421. 

Groseilles,  422. 

Melon  (Citron),  422. 

Mixed,  422. 

Oranges,  422. 

Orange-peel,  422. 


G45 

Preserves  (con.),  Peaches,  422. 
Pears,  422. 

Pine-apples,  422. 

Plums,  422. 

Prunes,  423. 

Quinces,  423. 

“ whole,  423. 
Strawberries,  423. 

Tomatoes,  423. 
Watermelon-rind,  423. 

I Price  Lists  of  Furniture,  232. 
j Primrose,  423. 

Chinese,  423. 

Princesse  Dress,  424. 

Printed  Felt  Carpets,  81. 

Privet,  425. 

Promissory  Note,  425. 

Protest,  of  Notes,  426. 

Proud  Flesh,  426. 

Prunes,  426. 

Preserved,  42. 

1 Prussic  Acid,  426. 

] Puddings,  427. 

Albert,  428. 

Almond,  429. 

Apple,  429. 

Arrowroot,  429. 

Batter,  Baked,  429. 

“ Boiled,  429. 

Berry,  430. 

Bird’s  Nest,  430. 

Black,  36. 

Brandy,  430. 

Bread,  Baked,  430. 

“ Boiled,  430. 

“ and  Butter,  430. 
Cabinet,  430. 

Cherry  or  Currant,  431. 
Cocoanut,  431. 

Cornstarch,  431. 

Cracker,  431. 

Custard,  Baked,  431. 

“ Boiled,  431. 
Delmonico,  431. 

Dutch  Custard,  432. 

Farina,  432. 

Fruit,  432. 

Gooseberry,  432. 

Green  Corn,  432. 

Hasty,  432. 

Huckleberry,  432. 

Indian,  Baked,  432. 

“ Boiled,  432. 

Lemon,  432. 

Lemon-suet,  432. 

Macaroni,  432. 

Marrow,  433. 

Oatmeal,  367. 

Orange,  433. 

Pineapple,  433. 

Plum,  433. 

Potato,  433. 

Quince,  433. 

Raisin,  433. 

“ Boiled,  434. 
Rice-flour,  434. 

Rhubarb,  434. 

Sago,  424. 

Salmon,  460. 

Sauces  for : 

Au  quatre  fruits. 

Brandy,  428. 


INDEX. 


646 


l’uddings  (con.),  Cream,  428. 
German,  428. 

Hard,  428. 

Lemon,  428. 

Liquid,  428. 
Pineapple,  428. 
Rexford,  428. 

Spice,  428. 

Vanilla,  428. 

Wine,  428. 

Sister  Jonathine,  435. 
Snow,  435. 

Sponge-cake,  435. 

Squash,  435. 

Suet,  435. 

Sunderland,  435. 

Sweet  Potato,  435. 
Tapioca,  435. 

“ with  Apples,  435. 
Vermicelli,  436. 

Welcome  Guest’s,  436. 
Yorkshire,  436. 

Young  Wife’s,  436. 
Puff-paste,  395. 

French,  395. 

Puffs,  436. 

German,  436. 

Raspberry,  436. 

Spanish,  436. 

Pulque  {See  Agave.) 

Pumpkin,  436. 

Bread,  44. 

Pie,  399. 

Pumps,  436. 

Punch,  437. 

Champagne  Cup,  437. 
Claret,  108. 

Francatelli’s,  437. 

Gin  Summer,  437. 
Grandison,  437. 

Maitrank,  437. 

Milk,  437. 

Norfolk,  437. 

Nuremberg,  438. 

Pineapple  Cardinal,  438. 
Regent’s,  438. 

Roman,  438. 

Purgatives  ( See  Cathartics). 
Purslane,  438. 

Purulent  Ophthalmia,  371. 
Putty,  438. 

to  Remove,  1 10. 

Q 

Quahaug  {See  Clams). 

Quail,  438. 

Carving,  85. 

Pie,  439. 

Roast,  439. 

Quassia,  439. 

Infusion  of,  177. 

Queen’s  Cake,  66. 

Quick  Beer,  29. 

Quick  Cake,  66. 

Quicklime  {See  Lime). 

Quilling,  439. 

Quince,  439. 

Cordial,  439. 

Custard,  137. 

Jelly,  316. 

Marmalade,  346. 

Preserves,  423. 


Quince  (con.),  Pudding,  433. 
Quinine,  439,  179. 

Quinsy,  440. 

Quittor,  269. 

R 

Rabbit,  440. 

Fricasseed,  441. 

Fried,  441. 

Larded,  441. 

Pie,  441. 

Soup,  506. 

Stewed,  441. 

Raccoon,  442. 

Radish,  442. 

Rag  Carpet,  81. 

Rail,  442. 

Raised  Cake,  66. 

Raisins,  442. 

Pudding,  433. 

Wine,  442. 

Rape,  442. 

Rash,  442. 

Raspail’s  Sedative  Lotion,  338. 
Raspberiy,  443. 

Brandy,  443. 

Ice-cream,  302. 

Jam,  313. 

Jelly,  316. 

Liqueur,  336. 

Pie,  401. 

Pudding,  434. 

Puffs,  436. 

Tarts,  525. 

Vinegar,  443. 

Wine,  443. 

Ratafia,  336. 

Drops,  169. 

Ratan,  231. 

Rats,  to  Destroy,  443. 

Rattlesnake  {See  Snake-bites). 
Ray,  443. 

Razor  {See  Shaving). 

Receipt,  443. 

Red  Gum,  443. 

Red  Herring,  263. 

Red  Mullet  {See  Mullet). 

Reed  Birds,  443. 

Refrigerants,  444. 

Regent’s  Punch,  438. 

Register  {See  Warming). 

Release,  in  Law,  327. 

Rennet,  444. 

Rep,  444. 

Republican  Cake,  67. 

Resin,  444. 

to  Remove  the  Taste  of  from 
New  Tin,  444. 
Respiration,  444. 

Respirator,  445. 

Rexford  Sauce,  428. 

Rheim’s  Paper,  445. 

Rheumatism,  445. 

Acute,  445. 

Chronic,  445. 

Rhine  Wines,  446. 
Rhododendron,  446. 

Rhubarb,  446. 

Infusion  of,  177. 

Tam,  313. 

Jelly,  316. 


Rhubarb  (con.),  Pie,  399. 
Pill,  179. 

Pudding,  434. 

Tart,  525. 

Tincture  of,  180. 

Ribs,  Broken,  215. 

Rice,  447. 

Blanc-mange,  36. 
Bread,  44. 

Cake,  67. 

Caudle,  89. 

Croquettes,  132. 
Custard,  137. 
Dumpling,  182. 

Fried,  447. 

Fritters,  218. 

Gruel,  255. 

Jelly,  316. 

Muffins,  356. 

Pie,  399. 

Pudding,  434. 

Soup,  506. 

Wafers,  565. 

Waffles,  565. 

Water,  447. 

Rice-bird  {See  Reed  Bird). 
Richelieu,  340. 

Rickets,  447. 

Ring-bones,  269. 
Ringworm,  448. 

Risen  Biscuits,  34. 

Roaches,  to  Destroy,  448. 
Roasting,  rationale  of,  448. 
Robin,  449. 

Rochelle  Salts,  450. 

Rock  Bass,  450. 

Rock  Fish,  450. 

Rock  Salt  {See  Salt). 

Rolls,  450. 

French,  450. 

Geneva,  450. 

Romane'e  Conti  Wine,  55. 
Roman  Punch,  438. 

Roofs,  286. 

Rosemary,  452. 

Roseola,  452. 

Roses,  450. 

Bourbon,  451. 

China,  451. 

Hybrid  Perpetuals,  451 
Moss,  451. 

Noisette,  452. 

Prairie,  452. 

Scent-bag  of,  454. 

Tea,  452. 

Rosewood,  231. 

Roth  Wine,  446. 
Rottenstone,  452. 

Rouge,  452. 

Royal  Cake,  67. 

R.  S.  V.  P.,  452. 

Rudcsheim  Wine,  446. 

Rue,  452. 

Rum,  453. 

Punch,  437. 

Rupture  ( See  Hernia). 

Rush  Lights,  72. 

Rusk,  453. 

Sweet,  453. 

Russian  Bath,  453. 

Rust,  to  Prevent,  453. 
to  Remove,  453. 


INDEX. 


G47 


Ruszti  Wine,  297. 

Kye,  454- 

Bread,  44. 

Drop-cakes,  454. 
Griddle-cakes,  454. 

s 

Sable,  454. 

Sachets,  454. 

Heliotrope,  454. 

Rose,  454. 
Santal-wood,  454. 
Sacking,  454. 

Sacque,  454. 

Saffron,  456. 

Sage,  456. 

Sago,  456. 

Jelly,  317,  456. 

Milk,  456. 

Padding,  434. 

Soup,  506. 

St.  Giorgy  Wine,  297. 
Salad,  456. 

Bean,  20. 

Beet,  30. 

Cabbage,  59. 

Celery,  90. 

Chicken,  97. 

Crab,  129. 

Dressing  for,  457. 
English,  457. 
French,  455. 
Mayonnaise,  465. 
Endive,  192. 

Orange,  372. 

Peach,  385. 

Potato,  457. 

Salmon,  460. 

Walnut,  457. 
Water-cress,  457. 

Sale  of  Property,  327. 
Saleratus,  457. 

Salivation,  458. 

Sally  Lunn,  458. 
Salmagundy,  193. 

Salmon,  459. 

Baked,  459. 

Crimped,  459. 

Fried  in  Oil,  459. 
Pickled,  459. 

Potted,  459. 

Pudding,  460. 

Salad,  460. 

Smoked,  460. 

Steaks,  460. 

Salmon  Trout,  460. 

Salsify  {See  Oyster  Plant). 
Salt,  460. 

Salves  ( See  Ointments). 
Salvia,  460. 

Samphire,  461. 

Sand  Porgee,  409. 
Sandwiches,  461. 

Cheese,  461. 

Egg,  461. 

Fried  Egg,  461. 

Gem  and  Cheese,  461. 
Omelet,  461. 

Pastry,  461. 

Sangaree,  461. 
Santal-wood  Sachet,  454. 


Sapsago  Cheese,  95. 

Sardine,  461. 

Sarsaparilla,  461. 

Sassafras,  462. 

Beer,  29. 

Jelly,  462. 

Tea,  462. 

Satin,  462. 

Satinet,  462. 

Satinwood,  231. 

Sauces,  462. 

Almond,  5. 

Anchovy,  7. 

Au  Quatre  Fruits,  428. 
Bechamel,  462. 

Brandy,  428. 

Bread,  463. 

“ with  Onion,  463. 
Butter,  Burnt,  463. 

“ Melted,  463. 

“ French,  463. 

Rich,  463. 

“ White,  463. 

Caper,  463. 

“ for  Fish,  463. 
Celery,  463,  90. 

Chestnut,  464. 

Chili,  464. 

Christopher  North’s,  464. 
Clarified  Butter,  464. 

Crab,  464. 

Cranberry,  130. 

Cream,  for  Fish.  464. 

“ “ Puddings,  428. 

Cucumber,  464. 

Duchesse,  428. 

Dutch,  464. 

Egg,  190,  464- 

Eschalot,  464. 

Fricassee,  465. 

German,  428. 

Hard,  428. 

Horse-radish,  465. 

Lemon,  426,  465. 

Liquid,  428. 

Lobster,  465,  338. 

Maitre  d’Hotel,  465. 
Mayonnaise,  465. 

Mint,  465. 

Mushroom,  465. 

Olive,  465. 

Onion,  466. 

Oyster,  466. 

Parsley,  466. 

Pineapple,  428. 

Piquante,  466. 

Port  Wine,  428. 

Rexford,  428. 

Sherry  Wine,  428. 

Shrimp,  466. 

Spice,  428. 

Soubise,  466. 

Tartar,  466. 

Tomato,  466. 

Turnip,  466. 

Vanilla,  428. 

Veloute,  467. 

White,  467. 

Sauer-kraut,  467. 

Sausages,  467. 

Bologna,  40,  467. 

Side  Dish,  193. 


Sausage  (con.),  Stuffing,  516. 

Willow  Brook,  467. 

Sauterne  Wine,  108. 

Saveloys,  468. 

Savory,  468. 

Savory  Cakes,  67. 

Savoy,  468. 

Scald-head,  468. 

Scalds,  468. 

in  the  eye,  198. 

Scallops,  468. 

Fried,  468. 

Pie,  468. 

Stewed,  468. 

Scarify,  468. 

Scarlet  P'ever,  468. 

Scent-bags  (See  Sachets). 
Scharzberger,  355. 

Sciatica,  469. 

Scollops  ( See  Scallops). 

Scoring,  470. 

Scorzonera,  470. 

Scotch  Ale,  4. 

Scotch  Cake,  67. 

Scotch  Cheeses,  95. 

Scour  (in  Cows),  128. 

Scouring  (See  Cleaning,  Grease, 
and  Stains). 

Scrapple,  470. 

Scratches,  470. 

“ Scratches,”  in  Horses,  269. 
Screens,  470,  294. 

Scrofula,  470. 

Scup  ( See  Porgee). 

Scuppernong  Wine,  6. 

Scurf,  471. 

Scurvy,  471. 

Scorbutus  ( See  Scurvy). 

Sea-bass,  471. 

Sea-bathing,  20. 

Sea-fennel  (See  Samphire). 
Sea-kale,  471. 

Sea-sickness,  471. 

Seasoning  (6iv  Cookery). 
Second-hand  Furniture,  232. 
Seconds  ( See  Flour). 

Sedatives,  474. 

Seed-bed  (See  Hot-bed). 
Seed-cake,  60. 

Seidlitz  Powders,  474. 
Seltzer-water,  Home-made,  474. 
Semolina,  474. 

Senna,  472,  179. 

Infusion  of,  177. 

Serge,  474. 

Serpent  ( See  Snake). 

Servants,  Management  of,  474. 
Law  of  Master  and,  477. 
Rooms  of,  230. 

Setons,  477. 

Sevres  China,  187. 

Sewers,  478. 

Shad,  478. 

Carving,  85. 

Roast,  478. 

Shaddock,  478. 

Shades  for  Lamps,  240. 
Shag-barks  ( See  Hickory-nuts). 
Shagreen,  478. 

Shaking  Palsy  ( See  Paralysis). 
Shalloon,  479. 

Shallot,  479. 


INDEX. 


G48 

Shallot  (con.),  Pickles,  392. 

Sauce,  464. 

Vinegar,  564. 

“ Shammy  ” (See  Chamois-skin). 
Shaving,  479. 

Soap,  480. 

Shawls,  480. 

Cleaning,  no. 

Sheep  (See  Kidneys,  Lamb,  Mut- 
ton, Suet,  and  Tongues). 
Sheets,  21. 

Shellac  Varnish,  554. 

Shellfish,  480. 

Clams,  107. 

Cockles,  1 12. 

Crabs,  129. 

Lobsters,  337. 

Mussels,  259. 

Oysters,  374. 

Periwinkles,  389. 

Prawns,  420. 

Shrimps,  484. 

Sherbet,  481. 

Cream,  481. 

Lemon,  481. 

Strawberry,  481. 

Sherry,  481. 

Cobbler,  112,  481. 

Shirts,  to  Cut  and  Make,  481. 
Shoe-blacking,  36. 

Shoes  (See  Boots). 

Shoulder,  Bandage  for,  16. 

Dislocation  of,  161. 
Shower-bath,  19. 

Shrewsbury  Cake,  67. 

Shrimps,  484. 

Potted,  485. 

Sauce,  466. 

Stewed,  485. 

Sickness  (See  Children,  Convales- 
cence, Diet,  Fever,  Infants, 
Nursing,  Sick-room,  and 
each  disease  by  its  name). 
Sick-room,  485. 

Silk,  486. 

Cleaning,  486. 

Keeping,  486. 

Renovating,  486. 

Removing  Grease-spots,  486. 
Wrinkles,  486. 

Silk  Stockings,  to  Wash,  513. 
Sillabub  (See  Syllabub). 

Silver  Cake,  67. 

Silver-plating  (See  Plated  Ware). 
Silver-ware,  486. 

Cleaning,  487. 

Plate  Powder,  487. 

Sinks,  487. 

Sirup  (See  Syrup). 

Sitz  Bath,  487. 

Skate,  4S8. 

Skeleton,  the  Human,  488. 
Skewers,  488. 

Skirts,  488. 

Skylark  (See  Lark). 

Slap-jacks,  489. 

Slaw,  Cold,  489. 

Hot,  489. 

Sleep,  489. 

of  Infants,  306. 

Sleeplessness,  491. 

Sling,  Whiskey,  589. 


Small-pox,  490,  553. 
Smelling-salts,  492. 

Smells  (See  Deodorizers). 

Smelts,  493. 

Smoked  Beef,  23. 

Smoke-tree,  493. 

Smoking  Chimneys  (See  Chim- 
ney). 

Snake-bites,  493. 

Snipe,  494. 

Snow-bunting  (See  Ortolan). 
Snow-drop,  494. 

Snow  Pudding,  435. 

Soap,  494. 

Bar  or  Yellow,  494. 

Castile,  494. 

Glycerine,  494. 

Hard,  494. 

Myrtle,  495. 

Shaving,  480. 

Soft,  495. 

White  or  Curd,  495. 
Windsor,  495. 

Soap-saver,  495. 

Soda,  495,  179. 

Acetate  of,  495. 

Bicarbonate  of,  495. 

Biscuit,  34. 

Chloride  of,  496. 

Chlorinated,  496. 
Citro-tartrate  of,  496. 
Hyposulphite  of,  495. 
Phosphate  of,  495. 

Sulphate  of,  495. 

Sulphite  of,  495. 

Soda-water,  496. 

Sofa  Bedstead,  22. 

Soft-shell  Crab,  129. 

Solanum,  496. 

Sole,  496. 

Solution,  496. 

Somlai  Wine,  297. 

Sonoma  Wines,  6. 

Sopronyi  Wine,  297. 

Sora  (See  Rail). 

Sorbet  (See  Punch  and  Sherbet). 
Sore  Eyes  (See  Ophthalmia). 

Sore  Throat,  49b. 

after  Scarlet  Fever,  469. 
Sorghum,  497. 

Sorrel,  497. 

Soup,  506. 

Soubise  Sauce,  466. 

Souchong  Tea,  525. 

Souffle,  495,  369. 

Soup,  497. 

Apple,  499.  • 

Artichoke,  499. 

Asparagus,  499. 

Bean,  499. 

Beef,  499. 

“ Brown,  499. 
Bouillabaisse,  500 
Bouillon,  500. 

Calf’s  Head,  501. 

Carrot,  501. 

Chestnut,  501. 

Chicken,  501. 

Cocoanut,  501. 

Digester,  498. 

Eel,  501. 

Fish,  501. 


Soup  (continued),  Giblet,  502. 
Gravy,  502. 

Gumbo,  502. 

Hare,  502. 

Hasty,  502. 

Jenny  Lind’s,  503. 

Julienne,  503. 

. Lobster,  503. 

Macaroni,  503. 

Mock-turtle,  503. 
Mulligatawney,  504. 

Mutton,  504. 

Ox-cheek,  504. 

Ox-tail,  504. 

Oyster,  505. 

Palestine,  505. 

Parsnip,  505. 

Peas,  505. 

Potato,  506. 

Pot-au-feu,  415. 

Rabbit,  506. 

Rice,  506. 

Sago,  506. 

Sorrel,  506. 

Stock,  513. 

Tapioca,  506. 

Tomato,  506. 

Turkey,  507. 

Turnip,  507. 

Turtle,  507. 

Veal,  507. 

Vegetables,  507. 

Venison,  507. 

Vermicelli,  507. 

White,  508. 

Sour-lcrout  (See  Sauer-kraut). 
Souse,  410,  508. 

Soy,  508. 

Spanish  Fritters,  218. 

Spanish  Mackerel  (See  Mackerel). 
Spanish  Puffs,  436. 

Sparkling  Mead,  347. 

Spasm,  508. 

Spavin,  269. 

Spectacles,  508. 

Spermaceti,  509. 

Spice-bush,  509. 

Spice  Cakes,  C7. 

Spices,  509. 

Allspice,  44. 

Cayenne,  90. 

Cinnamon,  106. 

Cloves,  112. 

Ginger,  244. 

Mace,  341. 

Mustard,  359. 

Nutmegs,  366. 

Pepper,  388. 

Spinach,  509. 

Spirea,  510. 

Spirit  Lamp,  323. 

Spirits,  510. 

Splints,  269. 

Sponge,  510. 

Bath,  19. 

Poultice,  510. 

Sponge  Cake,  67. 

Sponge-cake  Pudding,  435. 
Sponge  Gingerbread,  64. 

Sprains,  510. 

in  Horses,  270. 

Sprats,  510. 


INDEX. 


649 


Spring  Bill  of  Fare,  32. 

Springs  for  Beds,  21. 

Sprouts,  510. 

Spruce-beer,  29. 

Squash,  510. 

Pudding,  435. 

Squill,  511,  180. 

Squirrel,  51 1. 

Squirrel  Cups  (See  Hepatica). 
Staining,  511. 

Bone,  Horn,  or  Ivory,  5x1. 
Grasses,  511. 

Metals,  5 1 1. 

Wood,  511. 

Stains,  511. 

Acid,  5 1 1. 

Alkaline,  511. 

Bleaching  Powder,  51 1. 
Fruit,  511. 

Ink,  311. 

Mildew  on  Cotton,  51 1. 

Milk,  51X. 

Nitrate  of  Silver,  511. 

Paint,  51 1. 

Spots,  5 ix. 

Tar,  511. 

Wine,  5 1 1. 

Staircase,  the,  282. 

Starch,  512. 

Starching,  579. 

Steam  Cooker  (See  Cooker). 
Steaming,  512. 

Stearine,  512. 

Stewing,  rationale  of,  512. 
Steinberger  Wine,  446. 

Stiff-neck,  363. 

Stilton  Cheese,  95. 

Stimulants,  513. 

Stings,  513. 

Stinks  (See  Deodorizers). 

Stock,  513. 

Stockfish  (See  Hake). 

Stockings,  Silk,  to  Wash,  513. 
Stomach,  bleeding  at  the,  38. 
Stomach  pump,  513. 
Stove-blacking,  36. 

Stoves,  Closed,  574. 

Franklin,  573. 

Gas,  576. 

Open,  574. 

Strainers,  514. 

Stramonium,  514. 

Strangulation  (See  Choking). 
Strawberry,  514. 

Chantilly  Basket,  514. 
Compote,  1 17. 

Ice-cream,  302. 

Tam,  313. 

Jelly,  317- 

Omelette,  369. 

Pie,  399. 

Preserves,  423. 

Sherbet,  481. 

Short-cake,  68. 

Vinegar,  564. 

Water-ice,  303. 

String-beans,  20. 

Strychnine,  515. 

Stuartia,  515. 

Stucco,  515. 

Student  Lamp  (See  German  Stu- 
dent Lamp). 


Stuffings,  515. 

Bread-crumbs,  515. 

Chestnut,  515. 

Egg  Balls,  515. 

Forcemeat  Balls,  515. 
Lobster,  515. 

Onion  and  Sage,  515. 

Oyster,  516. 

Sausage,  516. 

Suet,  516. 

Sturgeon,  516. 

Steak,  516. 

Stye,  516. 

Styptics,  516. 

Succory  (See  Chicory). 

Succotash,  516. 

Sucker,  516. 

Sucking-pig  (See  Pig). 

Sudorifics,  517. 

Suedoise  of  Peaches,  386. 

Suet,  517. 

Dumpling,  182. 

Pudding,  435. 

Stuffing,  516. 

Sugar,  517. 

Beer,  29. 

Cake,  68. 

Candy,  74. 

Cookies,  123. 

Drops,  68. 

Gingerbread,  64. 

Sugar  Berry  (See  Huckleberry). 
Sugar-cane,  517. 

Sulphur,  517. 

Sulphuric  Acid,  518,  173. 
Sulphurous  Acid,  518. 

Sultana  Pomade,  409. 

Sumach,  Poison,  408. 

Summer  Bill  of  Fare,  3'2. 
Sunderland  Pudding,  435. 
Sunstroke,  518. 

Supper  and  Tea,  518. 

Swan,  518. 

Swansdown,  518. 

Sweetbreads,  519. 

Broiled,  519. 

Fricasseed,  519. 

Fried,  519. 

Roast,  519. 

Stewed,  5 19. 

Sweet  Brier  (See  Eglantine). 
Sweet  Herbs  (See  Herbs). 

Sweet  Marjoram  (See  Marjoram). 
Sweet  Potato  (See  Potato). 
Swimming,  Hints  on,  519. 

Swiss  Cheeses,  95. 

Syllabub,  520. 

Birthday,  520. 

Posset,  520. 

Solid,  520. 

Whipped,  520. 

Syringa  (See  Lilac). 

Syringes,  521. 

Syrup,  521. 

Almond,  5. 

Apple,  521. 

Blackberry,  35. 

Currant,  521. 

Lemon,  521. 

Orange,  372,  521. 

Pear,  521. 

Pineapple,  521. 


Szamarodner  Wine,  299. 
Szegszardi  Wine,  299. 

T 

Tab!e(See  Dinner  and  Furniture). 
Table-cloth,  Woolen,  to  Wash, 
521. 

Taffeta,  522. 

Taffy,  74. 

Tainted  Meat  (See  Decomposi- 
tion). 

Tallow,  522. 

Candles,  72. 

Talma,  106. 

Tamarind,  522. 

Whey,  589. 

Tannin,  522. 

Tansy,  522. 

Tapestry  Carpets,  81. 

Tape-worm,  522. 

Tapioca,  523. 

Custard,  137. 

Jelly,  319. 

Pudding,  435. 

Soup,  506. 

Tar,  523. 

Stains,  511. 

Tarlatan,  524. 

Tarragon,  524. 

Vinegar,  564. 

Tartan,  404. 

Tartar  Emetic  (See  Antimony). 
Tartarian  Honeysuckles,  265. 
Tartaric  Acid,  524,  173. 

Tartar  Mustard,  360. 

Tartar  Sauce,  466. 

Tarts,  524. 

Apple,  524. 

Apricot,  524. 

Barberry,  524. 

Blackberry,  524. 

Cranberry,  524. 

Cream,  524. 

Currant,  524. 

Damson,  524. 

Gooseberry,  524. 

Lemon,  525. 

Orange,  525. 

Raspberry,  525. 

Rhubarb,  525. 

Tartlets,  525. 

Tatting,  525. 

Tautog  (See  Blackfish). 

Tea,  the  Meal  (See  Supper). 

Tea,  525. 

Apple,  8. 

Beef,  26. 

Black,  525. 

Camomile,  70. 

Catnip,  88.' 

Cranberry,  130. 

Flaxseed,  204. 

Green,  525. 

Linseed,  335. 
to  Make,  526. 

Sassafras,  462. 

Tea  Cakes,  6S. 

Teal,  526. 

Tea-pots,  526. 

Tea  Roses,  452. 

Teats,  Sore  (in  Cow),  128. 


INDEX. 


650 


Teeth,  Structure  and  Care  of  the, 
526. 

Decay  of  the,  527. 
Toothache,  528. 
Toothbrushes,  530. 
Toothpicks,  530. 
Tooth-powders,  530,  536. 
Tooth-washes,  530,  536. 
Ulcerated  Teeth,  529. 
Teething,  307. 

Tender,  in  Law,  329. 

Terrapin  (See  Soups  and  Turtle). 
Tetanus,  530. 

Tetenyi  Wine,  299. 

Tetter,  532. 

Thermometer,  532. 

Thigh,  fractured,  215. 
Thread-worms,  596. 

Three-ply  Carpets,  82. 

Throat  ( See  Sore  Throat). 

Thrush,  532. 

in  Horses,  270. 

Thumb,  dislocation  of,  162. 
Thyme,  533. 

Tick,  533. 

Tiffany,  533. 

Tiger-flower,  533. 

Tiles,  533. 

Timbale  of  Macaroni,  341. 
Tincture,  541. 

Tinware,  541. 

to  Clean,  541. 

Toast,  533. 

Anchovy,  7. 

Buttered,  534. 

Cider,  534. 

Cream  or  Milk,  534. 

Dry,  533. 

Egg,  534- 
Water,  534. 

Toe-nails,  In-growing,  534. 

Toffy  {See  Taffy). 

Tokay  Wine,  297. 

Tolu,  Balsam  of,  14. 

Tomato,  534. 

Baked,  534. 

Broiled,  535. 

Canned,  535. 

Catsup,  89. 

Pickles,  393. 

Pie,  399. 

Preserves,  421. 

Sauce,  466. 

Scolloped,  535. 

Soup,  506. 

Stewed,  535. 

Stuffed,  535. 

Tom-cod,  535. 

Tongue,  535,  26. 

Pickled,  535. 

Smoked,  535. 

Stewed,  535. 

Tonics,  536. 

for  the  Hair,  257. 

Tonka  Bean,  534. 

Tooth  ache,  528. 

Tooth-brushes,  530. 

Tooth-picks,  530. 

Tooth-powders,  530,  536. 
Tooth-washes,  530,  536. 

Tortoise,  536. 

Toucan,  381. 


Toulon  Capers,  76. 

Tragacanth,  536. 

Trailing  Arbutus  {See  Arbutus). 
Train-oil,  536. 

Traps,  for  Drains  {See  Drainage). 
Treacle  {See  Molasses). 

Trees  about  the  House,  272. 
Trichina  Spiralis,  536. 

Trifles,  537. 

Apple,  537. 

Brandy,  537. 

Fruit,  537. 

Gooseberry,  537. 

Tripe,  26. 

Tripoli,  537. 

Trituration,  537. 

Trout,  537. 

Truffles,  537. 

Trusses,  538. 

Trussing,  538. 

Needles,  539. 

Tubercles  {See  Consumption). 
Tuberose,  540. 

Tulips,  540. 

Double,  540. 

Parrot,  541. 

Tumors,  541. 

Tunny-fish,  541. 

Turbqt.  541. 

Turkey,  541. 

Boned,  542. 

Carving,  86. 

Keeping,  419. 

Patties,  384. 

Ragout,  542. 

Soup,  507. 

Stewed,  542. 

Turkish  Bath,  542. 

Turkish  Carpets,  82. 

Turkish  Pillaw,  193. 

Turnip,  543. 

Sauce,  466. 

Soup,  507. 

Stewed  in  Butter,  543. 
Turpentine,  543,  180. 

Liniment,  177. 

Turtle,  544. 

Dried,  544. 

Green,  544. 

Soup,  507. 

Steaks,  544. 

Stewed,  544. 

Turtle-dove  {See  Dove). 
Tutti-frutti,  544. 

Twankay  Tea,  525. 

Tweed,  544. 

Twill,  544. 

Typhoid  Fever,  544. 

Typhus  Fever,  546. 

u 

Ulcers,  547. 

Chronic,  548. 

Inflammatory,  547. 

Varicose,  553. 

Unbolted  Flour,  548. 
Undergarments,  Women’s,  548. 
Chemise,  548. 

Drawers,  549. 

Unguents  {See  Ointments). 
Unleavened  Bread,  44. 


| Upholstery,  147. 

Urinals,  551. 

Urine,  Suppression  of  {See  Di 
reties). 

Usquebaugh,  551. 

V 

Vaccination,  551. 

Re-vaccination,  552. 
Valerian,  553,  180. 

Tincture  of,  180. 

Valerianic  Acid,  553. 
Valerianate  of  Soda,  553. 
Vanilla,  553. 

Ice-cream,  302. 

Sauce,  428. 

Vapor  Bath,  553. 

Varicose  Veins,  553. 

Variola  (See  Small-pox). 
Varioloid,  554. 

Varnish,  554. 

Carriage,  554. 

Copal,  554. 

Furniture,  554. 

Mastic,  554. 

Shellac,  554. 

White,  554. 

Varnishing,  554. 

Veal,  554. 

Balls,  193. 

Blanquette  of,  555. 

Breast  of,  Stuffed,  555. 
Broth,  50. 

Cakes,  193. 

Cutlets,  555. 

Fillet  of,  556. 

Fricandeau  of,  555. 
Fricasseed,  555. 

Gravy,  253. 

Hashed,  556. 

Minced,  556. 

Neck  of,  a la  Creme,  556. 
Olives,  193. 

Patties,  382. 

Pie,  556. 

Pot-pie,  556. 

Shoulder  of,  Stuffed,  556. 
Soup,  507. 

Steak,  557. 

Stewed,  557. 

Vegetables,  557. 

Artichoke,  10. 

Asparagus,  11. 

Beans,  20. 

Beets,  29. 

Broccoli,  48. 

Brussels  Sprouts,  51. 
Bushbean,  56. 

Cabbage,  58. 

Carrots,  82. 

Cauliflower,  89. 

Celery,  90. 

Corn,  125. 

Cucumber,  133. 

Egg-plant,  190. 

Endive,  192. 

Eschalots,  195. 

Garlic,  238. 

Gherkins,  244. 

Kale,  317. 

Lettuce,  330. 


INDEX. 


651 


Vegetables  (con.).  Nasturtium,  363. 
Okra,  368. 

Onions,  369. 

Oyster-plant,  375. 

Parsley,  380. 

Parsnip,  380. 

Peas,  382. 

Potatoes,  413. 

Pumpkin,  436. 

Purslane,  438. 

Radishes,  442. 

Rhubarb,  446. 

Rice,  447. 

Salsify,  460. 

Savoy,  468. 

Sea-kale,  471. 

Shallots,  479. 

Spinach,  509. 

Sprouts,  510. 

Squash,  510. 

Tomato,  534. 

Turnip,  543. 

Water-cress,  583. 

Yams,  597. 

Veils,  to  Clean,  557. 
Vein-bleeding,  to  stop,  I. 

Veloute  Sauce,  467. 

Velvet,  557. 

Velvet  Carpets,  82. 

Velveteen,  558. 

Venetian  Fritters,  218. 

Venison,  558. 

Cutlets,  558. 

Hash,  558. 

Pasty,  558. 

Pie,  558. 

Soup,  507. 

Steaks,  559. 

Stewed,  559. 

Ventilation,  Principles  and  Modes  | 
of,  559- 
Veranda,  287. 

Verbena,  562. 

Lemon,  330. 

Vermicelli,  563. 

Pudding,  436. 

Soup,  507. 

Vermin  ( See  Ants,  Bugs,  Cock- 
roaches, Flies,  Mice,  Rats, 
and  Roaches). 

Veronica,  563. 

Vertigo,  563. 

Veuve  Clicquot  ( See  Champagne). 
Villanyi  Wine,  297. 

Vinegar,  563. 

Blackberry,  35. 

Cayenne,  563. 

Celery,  563. 

Chili,  563. 

Cucumber,  563. 

Garlic,  238. 

Horse-radish,  564. 

Mint,  564. 

Onion,  564. 

Raspberry,  443. 

Shallot,  564. 

Strawberry,  564. 

Tarragon,  564. 

Violet  Powder,  564. 

Virginia  Creeper,  564. 

Virginia  Port  Wine,  5. 

Visontai  Wine,  297.  j 


Volatile  Liniment,  335. 
Vols-au-Vent,  193,  564. 
A la  Creme,  565. 
Fruit,  565. 
Vomiting,  564. 


Wafers,  565. 

Rice, ^ 565. 

Waffles.  5'65. 

Quick,  565. 

Rice,  565. 

“ and  Indian  Meal,  566. 
Waist,  Dress,  to  Cut  and  Make, 
566. 

Blouse,  570. 

Wakefulness  (See  Sleeplessness). 
Walking,  196. 

Walnuts,  572. 

Candy,  75. 

Catsup,  89. 

Pickle,  393. 

Salad,  457. 

Walnut-wood,  231. 

Wardian  Case,  572. 

Warming  of  Houses,  572. 
Furnaces,  575. 

Grates,  574. 

Heat-governor,  576. 
Hot-water  Pipes,  576. 

Open  or  Wood  Fires,  572. 
Stoves,  Closed,  574. 

“ Franklin,  573. 

“ Gas,  576. 

Open,  574. 
Warming-pan.  578. 

Warranty,  in  Law,  330. 

Warts,  578. 

on  Cows,  128. 

Washing,  578. 

Blueing,  579. 

Counterpane,  127. 

Doubtful  Colors,  579. 
Flannel,  579. 

Ironing,  579. 

Lace,  579. 

Soap,  579. 

Starching,  579. 

Table-cloth,  521. 

Woolen  Goods,  579. 
Washington  Cake,  68. 

Watch,  Care  of,  579. 

Water,  580. 

Cooling  without  Ice,  581. 
Distilled,  581. 

Filters,  581. 

Tests  for  Impurities,  582. 
Water  Back,  582. 

Water-bath,  13. 

Water-closets,  583. 

Water-cress,  583. 

Water-cure  (See  Hydropathy). 
Water  Ices,  302. 

Cherry-water,  302. 
Currant-water,  302. 
Gooseberry-water,  302. 
Lemon-water,  302. 
Orange-water,  302. 
Pineapple-water,  303. 
Raspberry-water,  303. 
Strawberry-water,  303. 


Water-melon,  583. 

Preserves,  423. 

Water-meters,  350. 

Water  proof,  584. 

Wax,  584. 

Candles,  72. 

Cement,  91. 

Weak-fish,  584. 

Weaning  Infants,  308. 

Webbing,  584. 
i Webster  Cake,  68. 
i Wedding  Cake,  68. 

Wedgewood  Mortar,  584. 
Weigela,  584. 

Weights  and  Measures,  Tables 
of,  585. 

Metric  System,  586. 

Welcome  Guest’s  Pudding,  436. 
Welsh  Rarebit,  588. 

Wen,  588. 

Wet  Nurse,  588. 

Whalebone,  589. 

Wheat,  589. 

Blanc-mange,  36. 

Whey,  589. 

Acidulous,  30. 

Buttermilk,  57. 

Nitre,  31. 

Tamarind,  589. 

Wine,  589. 

Whips,  589. 

Colored,  589. 

Whiskey,  589. 

Cocktail,  589 
Sling,  589. 

White  Cake,  68. 

White-fish,  589. 

White-lead,  590. 

Whiting,  590. 

Whiting  (Chalk),  91. 

White  Mountain  Cake,  6g. 

Whites  (See  Menstruation). 
Whitewash,  590. 

Whitlow  (See  Bone  Felon). 
Whooping-cough,  590. 
Whortleberry  (See  Huckleberry). 

I Wild  Endive  (See  Chicory). 

Wills,  Law  of,  328. 

Wilton  Carpets,  82. 

I Window-boxes,  592. 
Window-curtains,  135,  147. 
Window-gardening,  591. 

Exposure,  591. 

Insects,  592. 

Manuring,  591. 

Pots,  591. 

Potting,  591. 

Pruning,  592. 

Soil,  591. 

Temperature,  591. 
Ventilation,  592. 

Washing,  592. 

Watering,  592. 

1 Windows,  287. 

Bay,  283,  285. 

Cleaning,  no,  438. 

Curtains,  135,  147,  230. 
Windsor  Soap,  495. 

Wine,  592. 

Adulteration  of,  593. 

Alcohol  in,  592. 

American,  5. 


INDEX. 


G52 


Wine  (continued),  Bordeaux,  41. 
Bottling,  594. 

Burgundy,  54. 

Cake,  69. 

California,  6. 

Catawba,  87. 

Champagne,  91. 

Claret,  108. 

Cooling,  123. 

Cradle,  130. 

Currant,  134. 

Damson,  142. 

Decanting,  143. 

Elderberry,  191. 
Elderflower,  191. 

Fining,  594. 

Ginger,  245. 

Gooseberry,  249. 

Grape,  252. 

Hock,  263,  6. 

Hungarian,  296. 

Jelly,  317- 
Keeping,  594. 

. Madeira,  343. 

Medoc,  347. 

Moselle,  355. 

Orange,  372. 

Parsnip,  382. 

Port,  413. 

Raspberry,  443. 

Rhine,  446. 


Wine  (continued).  Sauce,  42S. 
Selecting,  593. 

Serving,  594. 

Sherry,  481. 

Stains,  511. 

Whey,  589. 

Wine-cellar,  595. 

Wineglasses  at  Dinner,  157. 
Winkles  (See  Periwinkles). 
Winter  Bill  of  Fare,  32. 

Winter  Cress  ( See  Cress). 
Wintergreen,  595. 

Wistaria,  595. 

Wood,  5 1 1. 

Fires,  572. 

Stains  for,  511. 

Varieties  of,  231. 
Woodbine,  595. 

Wood  Carpets,  82. 

Woodchuck,  595. 

Wood-cock,  595. 

Carving,  85. 

Roast,  595. 

Woodwork  in  Houses,  147. 
Wool,  596. 

Worms,  596. 

in  Horses,  270. 
Tape-worms,  522. 
Thread-worms,  596. 
Worsted,  596. 

Wounds  (See  Bruises  and  Cuts). 


Wringers,  596. 

Wrist,  dislocation  of,  162. 
Writing-ink  (See  Ink). 

Y 

Yacht  Dumpling,  182. 

Yam,  597. 

Yeast,  597. 

Brewer’s  or  Distillery,  597. 
Compressed,  597. 

Hard,  597. 

Hop,  597. 

Patent,  597. 

Potato,  597. 

Yellow  Birds,  449. 

Yellow  Fever,  597. 

Yellow  Gum,  598. 

Yorkshire  Biscuits,  34. 

Pudding,  436. 

Young  Wife’s  Pudding,  436. 

z 

Zeltigner,  355. 

Zinc,  598. 

Chloride  of.  1 80,  598. 
Sulphate  of,  1S0,  598. 
Zinc-white,  '598. 

Zinnia,  598. 

Zonale  Geraniums,  242. 


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This  Book  has  been  made  because  the 
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The  Family  Bible  does  not  always  supply  the 
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ticulars are  to  be  given  elsewhere.  The  book 
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such  would  naturally  be  the  circumstances  of 
naming  (not  forgetting  the  names  that  were 
thought  of  and  almost  decided  on),  selecting 
sponsors,  nicknames  and  their  sources,  re- 
markable sayings  and  doings  of  childhood, 
names  and  characteristics  of  nurses  ; prefer- 
ences in  toys,  sports,  occupations,  dress,  food  ; 
blunders  in  the  early  acquisition  of  knowledge  ; 
particulars  of  accidents  and  illnesses,  which 
might  subsequently  supply  the  physician  with 
valuable  knowledge,  etc.  The  biographies  of 
the  older  members  of  the  family  should  also  be 
written  for  the  benefit  of  the  others. 

The  Heirloom  Pages  are  to  keep  records 
of  interesting  things  about  the  house.  Even 
in  America,  where  change  is  so  much  the  rule, 
most  homes  contain  many  articles  that  have 
histories,  and,  to  members  of  the  family  at 
least,  some  of  the  histories  are  very  interest- 
ing. More  frequently  still,  it  is  desirable  to 
learn,  at  a glance,  the  cost  of  some  articles  or 
collection  of  articles.  The  writer  of  this,  who 
has  had  to  advise  in  the  furnishing  of  many 
homes,  knows  how  carefully  large  packets  of 
bills  from  cabinet-makers  and  upholsterers 
have  been  kept,  and  how  laboriously  the  valu- 
able information  they  contain  sometimes  had 
to  be  extracted. 

The  Domestic  Economy  Pages  are 
for  the  record  of  manner  of  living,  house 
rent,  expenditure,  income,  etc.,  from  year  to 
year. 

The  Travel  Pages  are  to  record  particu- 
lars of  sojourns  away  from  home.  Most  fam- 
ilies make  such  regularly,  especially  in  sum- 
mer, and  in  time  it  is  interesting,  and  often 
important,  to  recall  dates,  places,  and  other 
details  connected  with  them. 

The  Miscellaneous  Pages  are  for  mat- 
ters not  falling  under  any  of  the  previous  divi- 
sions— especially  of  doings  in  which  several 
participate,  such  as  entertainments,  domestic 
squabbles  (which,  of  course,  cannot  be  regis- 
tered under  the  biography  of  but  one  partici- 
pant), visits  of  guests  whose  presence  and 
sayings  are  worth  recording,  and  strokes  of 
general  luck,  good  or  bad,  such  as  fires,  the  blos- 
soming of  century  plants,  and  discoveries  of 
gold  mines  in  the  cellar. 


HENRY  HOLT  & CO.,  Publishers,  25  Bond  St.,  NEW  YORK. 


